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INTRO. TO RESEARCH
Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of any given piece of
research. More specifically, it’s about how a researcher systematically designs a study to
ensure valid and reliable results that address the research aims and objectives.

Introduction To Research
What is a research ?

Research is a systematic enquiry and objective investigation of a subject or a problem to find answers

Research is a structured, scientific project that follows a scientific evidence

Research is critical: The data are expected to be collected and analyzed critically, and the study is open to
criticism

The objective in research

The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered yet

Other objectives

Exploratory or formulative

Descriptive (characteristics=who or what)

Diagnostic (frequency and reasons)

Test a hypothesis (between 2 variables)

Steps of Research Process

Research Problem: The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question

Literature Review: The researcher must learn more about the topic under investigation. To do so, the
researcher must review the literature related to the research problem

Clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study, if the initial problem identified in the first step of
the process is too large or broad in scope

The research design: Is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering research
questions

Target the group involved in the study and the we call this group ''population''

the instrumentation plan: Is the chosen plan for the study, and it is the road map for the entire study

Data Collection: Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through
observations, or from the literature

Data Analysis: The researcher analyzes the data according to the plan, The results of this analysis are then
reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research questions

Sources of Research Ideas

Where do research ideas come from ?

Curiosity and surprise: the basis of inquiry, always accompanied with tolerance and open- mindedness
about the answers

Interest in the research topic

How to use curiosity effectively ?

Think critically about the kind of questions that could be asked in your area of interest

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 Try not to be constrained by previous work in your field, either in terms of questions or methods

Research Methodology
Research Design, Questions and Hypotheses

Developing research topics: Purposes & objectives

designing good research questions needs specific topics to inform you what kind and how much data
need to be collected and what methods of data analysis to be adopted

Research topics usually need to be narrowed before turned in resarchable questions

How to design research hypotheses ?

A research hypothesis is a specific statement of expected outcomes of an experiment

A RH is the specific testable prediction made about the independent and dependent variables in the
study

How to formulate research questions ?

Think about exactly what you want to know and how it will contribute to resolving the problem

The more specific your research questions, the easier it will be to design and plan data collection and
analysis

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve

Types of research questions to avoid

Compound questions. Ex: What are the aims of educational technology and to what
extent these aims were achieved?

Questions that contain false presumptions. Ex: To what extent female learners of English are more
fluent than male learners?

Subjective value judgement questions. Ex: Is X or Y a better policy?

Does not ask for a conclusive solution, policy, or course of action. Ex: What should the government
do about low voter turnout?

The concept of Variable

A variable is something that may vary, or differ

Dependant VS independent variable

A dependent variable is observed to determine what effect, if any, the other types of variables may
have on it. In other words, it is thetested variable

Independent variables are variables targeted by the researcher and systematically manipulated to
determine their impact on the dependant variable

Ex: Do ICT tools Independent variables) affect students’ English Achievement (dependent
variable)?

The Research Design

The design is the structure of any scientific work

Research design ensures that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the research question in an
unambiguous and convincing way

Different types of research designs

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 The Experimental Design

An experiment is used to test a theory or an idea

The purpose of experimental design is to explore the causal relationship between variables

The Experimental design enables the researcher to test his/her hypothesis by reaching valid
conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent variables.

The Quasi-Experimental Design

Looks like an experimental design but lacks the key ingredient which is random assignment

easily more frequently implemented than the randomized one

The Exploratory Research Design

It is the investigation into a problem or situation which provides insights to the researcher

Exploratory Research Design is particularly significant when researchers lack a clear idea of the
problem

It is done to determine the nature of the problem, rather than provide conclusive evidence or
answers to the research questions

Longitudinal Research

involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of time

It involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time

Data is first collected at the outset of the study, and may then be gathered repeatedly throughout
the length of the study

Cross-sectional Research

Takes place at a single point in time

It does not involve manipulating variables

Often used in developmental psychology, social science and education

Quantitative VS Qualitative Research

Quantitative research is an inquiry into an identified problem measured with numbers, and
analyzed using statistical techniques

Qualitative process of inquiry has the goal of understanding a social or human problem from
multiple perspectives

Date Collection

Data collection is a process of gathering and analyzing specific information to give answers to relevant
questions and evaluate the results

Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data: Observations / Interviews /
Surveys or questionnaires

Types of Data

Primary data: Collected a fresh and for the first time

Primary data collection

Is a process of collecting the original data by a researcher for a specific research purpose

The two segments of primary data

Qualitative: does not involve numbers or a mathematical calculation, rather it is based on

Quantitative: deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses
on numeric and unchanging data and detailed

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 Secondary Data: Have been collected by someone else and which have already been passed on to
others

Methods of Data Collection

Observation

Observation research is a qualitative technique as it is meant to evaluate, observe, and record

researchers can capture data on what participants do as opposed to what they say they do

Purposes of Observations as a Data Collection Technique?

You need to collect sensitive information

When behavior in a natural setting is vital to your research question

Types of Observations

Controlled Observations

They are typically a structured observation

The researcher has a question in mind and controls many of the variables

Variables: Participants, observation location, time of the study ...

Uncontrolled Observation

When the observation takes place in natural condition

It is done to get spontaneous picture of life and persons

Naturalistic Observations

study the behaviors of participants in a natural surrounding

There are typically no predetermined behavioral codes

the researcher will take notes and code the data later

Participant observation

a qualitative research method in which the researcher not only observes the research
participants, but also actively engages in the activities of the research participants

Non-participant observations

involves observing participants without actively participating.

covert or overt non-participant

covert: the participants observed should not be aware that they are being observed

overt: The subjects of observation are aware of being observed

Advantages

The behavior of human being is exactly observed.

The people who cannot speak Deaf & children)

The observation can be stopped or begun at any time.

Relative Inexpensive

Limitations

The smaple size is small

Cultural barriers

Researchers are needed to wait for the incident or behavior

Interviews

Interviewing is a technique on which researchers depend to obtain information about people’s

INTRO. TO RESEARCH 4
 It involves oral questioning

Interviews can be face-to-face, by telephone

Types of Interviews

Structured interview

Interviews in which the same questions are asked of all respondents in the same sequence
and wording.

The aim is that each respondent receives exactly the same predecided set of questions as
any other

Unstructured interview

Refers to an interview without any predetermined set of questions

the lack of structure enables the interviewer to ask questions which come to his/her mind
on the spot

Semi-structured Interviews

interviews combine both the structured and unstructured interview styles

Advantages

It provides flexibility to the interviewers

The interview has a better response rate

The interviewer can control the order of the questions

Disadvantages

It can be very costly as well as very time-consuming

An interview can cause biases

Questionnaires

it is a set of standardized questions in order to collect individual data about one or more specific
topics

The questionnaire is administered in a standardized fashion, that is, in the same way to all the
respondents of the survey

Types of Questionnaires

Open-ended questions

Seek qualitative data

They are questions that cannot be answered with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’

require the respondent to elaborate on their points

broad and can be answered in detail

Closed-ended questions

Are more concerned with quantitative data

They are questions that can only be answered by selecting from a limited number of
options

Closed-ended questions give limited insight, but can easily be analyzed for quantitative
data

Semi open-ended questions

a compromise between open and closed questions

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 This type of questions require the respondent to answer a set of yes/no questions, and
then to justify his/her answers through open questions

Advantages

Economical: less time effort and cost consuming

Wide coverage: it permits even international coverage

Less pressure on the respondants

Disadvantages

Lack of personal contact

Poor response

Incomplete entries

How to Write your Research Paper ?

Abstract

An abstract is a short summary of your completed research

It is intended to describe your work without going into great

Introduction

What the research is about

Make a clear formulation of the purpose of the study

Why the topic is important to choose

motivations, the main research approach

The research questions, and/or hypotheses, the context of the investigation

Literature Review

The substantive literature of scholarly sources such as books, journal articles

Findings and issues raised

Its aim is to put the researcher in context

And situate your work in relation to existing knowledge

Research Methodology

To give a description of the main aims of the study

Research Design

This design explains the type of research

Its characteristics, and the resaons behind choosing such a research design

Research participants

The person who voluntarily participates in research

Data Collection

type of research instruments involved

How the validity and reliability of the instruments gained

Data analysis

determining the coding and the scoring/rating criteria

Findings/Results

The presentation of the analysis that highlights the significant patterns that strike you as a
researcher

Was it as you expected or contrary to your expectations

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 To comment and reactions to the findings

To discuss and interpret

Conclusion

To wrap up your ideas and leave the reader with a strong final impression

Summarize your overall arguments or findings

How the findings have contributed to knowledge and understanding?

Reference Marking

A research paper should be properly documented

When you borrow material to support your arguments, you should acknowledge it, otherwise, it is
considered plagiarized.

Plagiarism: is presenting someone else's work or ideas as your own

APA vs MLA Styles

Source citation consists of

A brief parenthetical citation in the text (in-text citation/reference)

A full reference at the end of the paper

APA

APA American Psychological Association) is designed for

APA – References – Books

Author(s). Date). Title (italics) .City: Publisher

Ex : Johnson, O. 1912. Stover at Yale. New York: Frederick A. Stokes.

APA – References – Collections or any book with an editor

Author(s). Date ). Article title . In Editor(s) Eds.), Book title (pp. Pages ). City : Publisher

Ex : Akiba, D. 2002. Heredity versus environment. In N. J. Salkind Ed.), Child development

APA – References – Journal Articles

Author(s). ( Year ). Article title: Subtitle . Journal Name , Volume Issue) , Pages.

Ex : Kroner, Z. 2009. The Relationship between Alzheimer’s Disease and Diabetes: Type 3
Diabetes. Alternative Medicine Review, 144, 373379.

APA – References – Web Pages

Author(s). Date ). Website . Retrieved from URL (date when retrieved).

Ex : Corliss, R. 2007, January 20. My Fair Mother. Retrieved from

MLA

MLA Modern Language Association) is for arts and humanities. It helps you to break down citing
paintings, books, and other literature

MLA – Works Cited – Book

Author(s) . Title (italics) . City : Publisher , Date

Ex : Johnson, Owen. Stover at Yale. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1912

MLA – Works Cited – Collections

Author(s) . “Article Title: Subtitle” . Book Title Ed[s]. Editor(s) . City : Publisher , Date .Pages .

Ex :Akiba, Daisuke. “Heredity Versus Environment.” Child Development. Ed. Neil J. Salkind. New
York: Macmillan, 2002. 181186

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 MLA – Works Cited – Journal Articles

Author(s) . “Article Title: Subtitle” . Journal Name Volume . Issue ( Year ) : Pages .

Ex : Kroner, Zina. “The Relationship Between Alzheimer’s Disease and Diabetes: Type 3
Diabetes.” Alternative Medicine Review 14.4 2009 373379

MLA – Works Cited – Web Pages

Author(s) . “Website” . Organization , Creation Date . Web. Access Date .

Ex : Corliss, Richard. “Audrey Hepburn: Still the Fairest Lady.” Time, 20 Jan. 2007. Web. 5 May
2014.

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