Kaduna Polytechnic

Department of Civil Engineering

CEC 410
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Prepared for: HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA (HND)
Prepared by: Engr. M.S. Abubakar
Engr. Umar D.A.
Date: January 2018
 CONTENT

Ground Improvement

Concepts of load combinations on strip, pad, combined pads, and raft foundations

Culverts, Conduits and tunnels

Foundation repair process

Principle of use of caisson foundations

Vibratory machine foundation

Preamble
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Geotechnical Engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behaviour of
earth materials. It uses principles of soil mechanics, rock mechanics and engineering geology to
investigate subsurface conditions and materials, determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical
properties of the materials, evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits, access risks
posed by site conditions, design earthworks and structure foundations and monitor site conditions,
earthwork and foundation construction.

A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a review of project needs to define the required
material properties. Then follows a site investigation of soil, rock, fault distribution and bedrock
properties on and below an area of interest to determine their engineering properties.

Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on which the engineering will take
place. Investigations can include the assessment of the risk to humans, property and the environment from
natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, soil liquefaction, debris flows and rock falls.

A geotechnical engineer then determines and designs the type of foundations, earthworks and pavement
subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be built. Foundations are designed and
constructed for structures of various sizes such as high-rise buildings, bridges, medium to large
commercial buildings, and smaller structures where the soil conditions do not allow code-based design.

Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and deep foundations. Retaining structures
include earth-filled dams and retaining walls. Earthworks include embankments, tunnels and sanitary
landfills.

Geotechnical engineering is also related to coastal and ocean engineering. Coastal engineering can involve
the design and construction of wharves (structures on the shore of harbour where ships may dock to load
and unload cargo or passengers) and jetties (structures that projects into a body of water to influence the
current or tide or to protect a harbour or shoreline from storms or erosion).

Ground Improvement Technique: Issues, Methods and their Selection

1.1 Introduction

The early selection and application of the most appropriate ground improvement techniques can improve
considerably not only the design and performance of foundations and earth structures, including
embankments, cut slopes, roads, railways and tailings dams, but also result in their cost-effectiveness.
Ground improvement works have become increasingly challenging when more and more problematic soils
and marginal land have to be utilized for infrastructure development. Rapid urban and industrial growth

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demands more land for further development. In order to meet this demand land reclamation and utilization
of unsuitable and environmentally affected lands have been taken up. These, hitherto useless lands for
construction have been converted to be useful ones by adopting one or more ground improvement
techniques.

1.2 Need for Ground Improvement Techniques

As more engineering structures are built, it becomes increasingly difficult to find a site with suitable soil
properties. The properties at many sites must be improved by the use of some form of soil improvement
methods, such as: static or dynamic compaction, reinforcement, drainage or by the use of admixtures.
Thus, it is important for the soil engineers to know the different soil improvement methods; the degree to
which soil properties may be improved; and the costs and benefits involved. In this way, the soil engineer
can gain knowledge in order to design ground improvement projects as well as to advise the client
regarding value engineering to save cost and obtain maximum benefits for the specific project.

1.3 Some Techniques - an overview

The ground can be improved by adapting certain ground improvement techniques. Vibro- compaction
increases the density of the soil by using powerful depth vibrators. Vacuum consolidation is used for
improving soft soils by using a vacuum pump. Preloading method is used to remove pore water over time.
Heating is used to form a crystalline or glass product by electric current. Ground freezing converts pore
water to ice to increase their combined strength and make them impervious. Vibro replacement stone
columns improve the bearing capacity of soil whereas Vibro displacement method displaces the soil.
Electro osmosis makes water flow through fine-grained soils. Electro kinetic stabilization is the
application of electro osmosis. Reinforced soil steel is used for retaining structures, sloping walls, dams
etc.... seismic loading is suited for construction in seismically active regions. Mechanically stabilized earth
structures create a reinforced soil mass. Soil nailing increases the shear strength of the in-situ soil and
restrains its displacement. Micro pile gives the structural support and used for repair/replacement of
existing foundations. Grouting is injection of pumpable materials to increase its rigidity. The jet grouting
is quite advanced in speed as well as techniques when compared with the general grouting.

The current state of the practice:

1. Ground Improvement by Densification

Methods of Application :
  Vibrocompaction
 Dynamic Compaction
 Blasting
 Compaction Grouting
Key Issues affecting densification:
(a) Percent of fines in the soil,
(b) Ability of the soil to dissipate excess pore water pressure,
(c) Energy felt by the soil,
(d) Presence of boulders, utilities and adjacent structures, and
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 (e) Mysterious phenomenon of ageing.
2. Ground Improvement by Consolidation
Methods of application:
 Preloading with or without vertical drains
 Electro-osmosis
 Vacuum consolidation

Preloading or pre-compression is the process of placing additional vertical stress on a compressible soil to remove pore water
over time. The pore water dissipation reduces the total volume causing settlement. Surcharging is an economical method for
ground improvement. However, the consolidation of the soils is time dependent, delaying construction projects making it a non-
feasible alternative. The soils treated are Organic silt, Varved silts and clays, soft clay, Dredged material The design
considerations which should be made are bearing capacity, Slope stability, Degree of consolidation.

Limitations
 Surcharge fill must extend horizontally at least 10m beyond the perimeter of the planned
construction, which may not be possible at confined sites.

 Transport of large quantities of soil on and off the site may not be practical, or may have
unacceptable environmental (noise, traffic, dust) impacts on adjacent areas.
 Surcharge must remain in place for months or years thus delaying construction.

With increased thickness of the soft clay where the consolidation period is too long for full consolidation
of primary settlements, vertical drainage may be incorporated in conjunction with preloading in order to
accelerate the settlement. Vertical drains may be proposed in the areas where the thickness of soft soils is
limited to less than 10m and embankment height are low. The anticipated primary and secondary
settlements in such areas are limited.

Vertical Drains: Vertical drains are artificially created drainage paths, which are inserted into the soft clay
subsoil. Thus, the pore water squeezed out during consolidation of the clay due to the hydraulic gradients
created by the preloading can flow faster in the horizontal direction towards the vertical drains. Therefore,
the vertical drain installation reduces the length of the drainage path and, consequently, accelerates the

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consolidation process and allows the clay to gain rapid strength increase to carry the new load by its own.
Vertical Drains may include:

 Sand Drains
 Prefabricated Drains

Sand drains: Sand drains are basically boreholes filled with sand and are of two types: Displacement Sand
Drains: a closed mandrel is driven or pushed into the ground with resulting displacement in both vertical
and horizontal directions.

The installation causes therefore disturbances, especially in soft and sensitive clays, which reduces the
shear strength and horizontal permeability. Non-Displacement Sand Drains: The low- or non-displacement
installations are considered to have less disturbing effects on the soil. Drilling of the hole is done by
means of an auger or water jets.

Prefabricated Drains: The installation of prefabricated vertical drains is also done by a mandrel and it is a
displacement installation. Figures above show a typical mandrel and the typical shape of a prefabricated
drain. The dimensions of the prefabricated drains are much smaller compared to sand drains and
subsequently are the dimensions of the
mandrel. Thus, the degree of soil disturbance
caused by the size of the mandrel during
installations is lower. These may be –
Cardboard Drains, Plastic Drains and
Sandwick.

Electro-osmosis: The process of dewatering

assisted by the application of a direct electric
current is known as electro- osmosis thus
resulting in consolidation of soft clays whose

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moisture content cannot be reduced by conventional dewatering methods. In Electro-osmosis method,
Electrodes are installed in the soil and a DC current supplied, which results water movement from anode
to the cathode. A WellPoint system or ejector well system used as cathode, which collects and removes
the water from the ground.

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages Limitations
 Can be used for dewatering of silty and clayey soils,
 Practical application limited since very costly.
which are difficult to drain by gravity.
 Before actual application on site Laboratory tests
 Method is fast and instantaneous.
and site tests are imperative.
 Environment-friendly method
 Huge amount of electricity is needed
 Equipments required are few in number and easy to
 Highly skilled labour needed
carry to the site.
 Electrodes replacement needed from time to time.
 Method useful for all types of soils.
 Method becomes ineffective If the moisture
 Efficiency of this method is very high.
content of the soil is extremely low
 Less man-power required to implement this method.

Vacuum consolidation,
 Both liquid and gas (water and air) are extracted from the ground by suction

 This Suction is induced by the creation of vacuum on the ground surface and assisted by a system
of vertical and horizontal drains
 Vacuum is applied to the pore phase in a sealed membrane system
 The vacuum causes water to drain out from the soil and creates negative pore water pressure in the
soil
 This leads to an increase in effective stress to the magnitude of the induced negative pore water
pressure, without the increase of total stress

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Advantages of Vacuum preloading technique over the Surcharge preloading technique

• Ground improvement with vacuum preloading does not require any fill material and there is no need
of heavy machinery
• Construction period is generally shorter
• The increase in effective stress under vacuum preloading is isotropic. Therefore, the corresponding
lateral displacement is in the inward direction and there is no risk of shear failure
• Application of Vacuum Preloading improves Bearing capacity of soil by 100% in the case of soft
clays and eliminates 70% of the total estimated settlement of design load
• The overall cost of vacuum preloading is only about 2/3rd of that with surcharge preloading

Key Issues associated with consolidation:

 Stability during surcharge placement,

 Clogging of vertical drains, and
 Maintenance of the vacuum.

3. Ground Improvement by Chemical Treatment

Methods of Application

 Permeation grouting: Cement, lime, bentonite or chemical grouts (silicates, etc.) fill the
voids in the soil to increase and cohesion and reduce permeability, with no change in the
volume or structure of the original ground.
 Jet grouting: Uses high-pressure fluids, applied through a nozzle at the base of a drill pipe,
to erode the soil particles and mix them with cement grout as the drill bit is rotated and
withdrawn, forming hard, impervious columns.
 Deep soil mixing: consists of mixing in-place soils with cement grout or other reagent
slurries using multiple-axis augers and mixing paddles to construct overlapping stabilized-
soil columns.
 Lime columns: Lime columns method is a variation of deep soil mixing; in which unslaked
quicklime is used in lieu of, or mixed with, the cement. The lime columns are suitable at
best for stabilization of deep soft clay deposits.
 Fracture grouting: Fracture grouting, is also known as Compensation Grouting. Grout
slurry is forced into soil fractures, hence causing an expansion to take place counteracting
the settlement that occurs or producing a controlled heave of the foundation.

Key Issues involved in Chemical Treatment:

 Soil-grout compatibility and reactivity,

 Operational parameters,
 Column verticality, and
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  Weathering effects

4. Ground Improvement by Reinforcement

Methods of Application:

 Mechanical stabilization: Rollers, plate compactors, tampers etc

 Soil nailing: steel bars inserted in closely drilled holes and grouted.
 Soil anchoring: pre-stressed cement-grouted tendors for restraining and controlling
displacement of structures eg. Dams, retaining walls etc.
 Mirco piles: small diameter piles that can be installed in almost any type of soil and that
can carry loads up to 500 tones.
 Fiber reinforcement: geotextiles, geo-membrane etc
 Stone columns

STONE COLUMNS: Stone columns may be installed in granular or cohesive soils. Vibrated stone
columns are relatively stiff with respect to the surrounding ground. Stone columns may be provided in
areas where subsoil consists of more than about 5m thick soft cohesive soils and where stability and
stringent considerations cannot be satisfied with conventional removal/replacement of soft material. Stone
columns enable the embankment to be constructed to its full height continuously without requiring stage
construction.

A cylindrical vertical hole is made and gravel backfill is placed into the hole in increments and compacted
by a suitable device, which simultaneously displaces the material radially. The vibroflot is allowed to sink
into the ground due to its own weight, assisted by water or air as a flushing medium, up to the required
depth. The soil surrounding the vibroflot is disturbed or remoulded and the softened material can be
removed by jetting fluid. This process forms a borehole of larger diameter once the vibroflot is withdrawn.
The borehole is backfilled with gravel of 12 to 75mm.

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Key Issues Affecting Soil Reinforcement:

(a) Load transfer to the reinforcing elements,

(b) Failure surface of the reinforced soil mass,
(c) Strain compatibility between the soil and the reinforcement,
(d) Arrangement of the reinforcing elements,
(e) Durability and long-term behavior of the reinforcements.

Concepts of load combinations on strip, pad, combined pads, and raft foundations

The principles of foundation

The basic function of a foundation is to intercept the load exerted by a building structure and transfer this
load to the supporting soil in such a way that the building will not sink into the ground (subside).
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Structural stability is normally achieved in either of two ways, or indeed a combination of both:
 Spread the load exerted by the building over a sufficiently wide area to prevent the supporting
ground being overstressed
 Divert or transfer the load to a strata, deep in the ground, which is capable of supporting the
imposed load without failure

Loads on foundation
 Dead Load: Refers to the overall weight of the structure. Includes weight of the materials
permanently attached to the structure (such as flooring) and fixed service equipment (such as air
conditioning)
 Live load: Refers to the weight of the applied bodied that are not permanent parts of the structure.
Applied to the structure during part of its useful life (e.g. people, warehouse goods). Specified by
code.
 Wind loads: Acts on all exposed parts of the structure. Calculated using building codes.
 Earthquake Forces: Building code is consulted.
Distribution of Base Pressure
All forces and moments acting at the base of the column must be
transferred to the pedestal, if any, and then from the base of the
pedestal to the footing, (or directly from the base of the column
to the footing if there is no pedestal) by compression in concrete
and steel and tension in steel. Compression forces are transferred
through direct bearing while tension forces are transferred
through developed reinforcement.

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 Pressure Distribution in Sandy Soil Pressure Distribution in Clayey Soil

The foundation, assumed to act as a rigid body, is in equilibrium under the action of applied forces and
moments from the superstructure and the reactions from the stresses in the soil. The distribution of base
pressure is different for different types of soil. Typical distributions of pressure, for actual foundations, in
sandy and clayey soils are shown in the above Figures. However, for the sake of simplicity the footing is
assumed to be a perfectly rigid body, the soil is assumed to behave elastically and the distributions of
stress and stain are linear in the soil just below the base of the foundation. It is worth mentioning that the
soil bearing capacity is in the serviceable limit state and the foundation structure is usually designed as per
the limit state of collapse, checking for other limit states as well to ensure an adequate degree of safety
and serviceability.

A) Concentrically loaded Footings

If the resultant of the loads acting at the base of the footing coincides with the centroid of the footing area,
the footing is concentrically loaded and a uniform distribution of soil pressure is assumed in design, as
shown in the figure below; The magnitude of the pressure intensity is given by

Where A is the bearing area of the footing, and P is the applied load.

B) Eccentrically Loaded Footings

Although it is always desirable to load footings axially to ensure uniform settlement and to
minimize soil pressures, footings are often designed for both axial load and moment. Moment
may be caused by lateral forces due to wind or earthquake, and by lateral soil pressures. If the resultant of
the loads acting at the base of the footing does not coincide with the centroid of the footing area, the
footing will be eccentrically loaded and the distribution of the soil pressure will not be uniform.
Depending on the extent of the eccentricity of the load relative to the dimensions of the base area, one of
the following cases may occur:

Case (a): e≤L/6

The resultant lies within the middle third of the length of the footing. In this case the pressure distribution
on the soil is given by

qmax =PA(1+6e/L) and qmin =PA(1−6e/L)

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 Where L is the length of the footing, and e is the eccentricity of load.

In this case, compressive stresses develop over the entire base of the footing, as shown in Figure
below;

Case(b): e>L/6
Large eccentricities cause tensile stresses on part of the base area of the footing. Since soil cannot
resist tensile stresses, redistribution of stresses is necessary to maintain equilibrium. The maximum
pressure associated with this stress redistribution is established by knowing that the centroid of the
soil pressure is located directly under the vertical component of the applied load. With the
dimensions of the footing established and the eccentricity of the vertical load known, the distance
between the resultant of the applied load P and the outside edge a can be established. The length of
base on which the triangular distribution of soil pressure acts is equal to 3a.

Equating the resultant of the soil pressure to the applied forces gives

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 or Where a=L/2−e,and B is the width of footing, as shown in the
figure above.

Caisson - General Principle, Types of Caissons

A caisson is a hollow structure made of concrete, steel, or other materials that can be sunk into the earth.
The name 'caisson' is French and is to be translated as a 'large chest', which refers to the general shape of
caissons. In civil engineering a caisson could be defined as a retaining watertight case (or box), in order to
keep out water during construction, but also for more permanent purposes. Caissons are always part of a
larger structure, such as a breakwater, substructure or foundation. Therefore, caissons serve a wide variety
of purposes in bridge, quay, lock head, breakwater or many other projects. Frequently, caissons are
prefabricated and transported to their final position at a later moment in time. Caissons come in many
sizes and shapes depending on their future use. The one-shared feature is that their bottom edges are sharp
so they easily can be sunk into the ground. These sharp edges are known as the cutting edges of the
caisson.
The purpose of using a caisson in construction is to provide a temporary structure from which earth,
water, and other materials can be removed and into which concrete or some other fill material can be
placed. For example in the construction of a bridge it may be necessary to burrow into the soil at the
bottom of a river until bedrock is reached. One way of doing this is to sink a caisson filled with
compressed air into the river until it reaches the river bottom. Workers then can go into the caisson and
dig soil out of the riverbed until they come to bedrock. As they remove soil it can be transported upward
out through the caisson. During this process the caisson continues to sink more deeply into the riverbed
until it reaches bedrock. At that point concrete may be poured into the caisson to form the lowest section
of the new bridgepier.
Caissons may consist of a single unit looking like a tin can with both ends cut out. Or they may be
subdivided into a number of compartments similar to a honeycomb. One factor in determining the shape
of the caisson is the area it must cover. The larger the size of the caisson the more necessary it may be to
subdivide it into smaller compartments.
Types of Caissons
All caissons feature the shape of a tube, often with a cylindrical contour but it may also be rectangular,
elliptical, or some other form. Some caissons are open at both ends, some are open only at the top, and
some are open only at the bottom. It depends on the way each type of caisson is to be used.
A caisson open at both ends might be used to lay down a pier for a new skyscraper. The caisson would be
driven into the ground to a certain depth and the earthy material inside the caisson would be scooped out.
Depending on the depth of the pier required one long open cylindrical caisson could be used or a sequence
of shorter caissons could be laid down one on top of the other. When the caisson(s) have been inserted to
the desired depth and all the soil within them removed they might be filled with concrete. The decision as
to whether to remove the caissons themselves before adding concrete would depend on the surrounding
soil's nature. If the soils were too unstable to hold their shape the caisson would be left in place. With
stable soils the caisson could be removed.
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A caisson closed at the bottom and open at the top is a floating caisson. This type of caisson often is used
in the construction of bridge-piers. The caisson is constructed on land of concrete, steel, wood, or some
other material and floated to its intended position in a river, lake, or other body of water. The caisson then
is filled with gravel, concrete, or some other material and allowed to sink to the riverbed. The filled
caisson then becomes the lowest portion of the new bridge-pier. A floating caisson can be used only if
engineers can be assured that the soil beneath and around the filled caisson will not wash away.
One interesting application of the floating caisson is in the reclamation of land from the North Sea around
the Netherlands. In the first stage of this process a series of floating caissons are moved into the ocean
where they are arranged to form a new dike system. Ocean water trapped within the line of caissons is
pumped out to form new farmland.
A caisson closed at the top and open at the bottom is a pneumatic caisson, is constructed on ground level
and has to be subsided into the soil, which can be achieved by digging from within the caisson under
compressed air. Because of the 'diving bell principle' used for this caisson, it is called a 'pneumatic'
caisson. Below the bottom plate there is an enclosed workspace where workmen can dig and from where
excavated soil can be removed. A cutting
edge around the bottom plate facilitates
the subsidence into the soil. It can be used
only if air is pumped in, to produce a
pressure greater than water pressure
outside. Workers entering a pneumatic
caisson must first pass through an
intermediate chamber that allows their
bodies to adjust from normal atmospheric
pressure to the higher pressure within the
caisson or vice versa. Pneumatic caissons
cannot be used at a depth of more than
120ft (36.6m). Beyond that point the air
pressure needed inside the caisson to keep
out water is too great for the human body
to withstand. This limitation may
sometimes be overcome where it is
possible to lower the groundwater level by pumping. This can only be done in case of suitable surface and
subsoil conditions. Lowering of the groundwater level can even be accomplished in river or estuary beds
if the caisson is surrounded by a cofferdam and an impermeable layer separates the river bed from the
artesian water.
Construction of pneumatic caissons
Preparation: Pneumatic caissons are usually constructed above ground level. Prior to the actual
construction, sand bodies are applied upon the ground level and should then be stabilized. The sand bodies
form the counter mould of the work chambers. Formwork is put into the sand body on the place of the
future entrance to the work chamber to initiate excavation later on. A blinding with starter bars is cast on
top of the sand body. The starter bars should later on connect the fill concrete with the structural concrete

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of the caisson. They should also prevent that part of the blinding to let off during subsidence.
Construction: The cutting edges (eventually prefabricated) and the bottom plate are cast as a whole.
Together they form the 'work chamber'. After hardening of the work chamber, the walls and eventually the
roof can be cast. This can either be done in one cast. Otherwise the inner walls can be cast before the outer
walls and the roof depending on the cooling mechanism used. If freshly cast concrete has been cooled,
impermissible shrinkage cracks should not occur in structural parts that are cast onto already hardened
parts.
To prevent air leakage, joints of timber caissons, which were used in the past, were packed with oakum.
Also the joints of former steel caissons, subjected to air pressure, must be well sealed. Nowadays
reinforced concrete is commonly used for caissons because it is considered to be the best material for
caissons and also to be the most economical. Reinforced concrete caissons, however, also need
precautions because the material frequently is not proof against loss of air pressure through the concrete.
This can be accomplished by painting the inner surfaces with bituminous or other suitable paint. Special
attention should be paid to joints, the number of which should be limited as much as possible.
Subsidence: When the caisson itself is ready, soil can be dug from within this work chamber which causes
the caisson to subside into the ground. Nowadays the soil is often removed after it has been mixed with
water. In this way it can be removed by suction through a high-pressure tube. Excavation was traditionally
done by hand, but nowadays preferably by water canons or sand pumps. Sometimes the air pressure can
be used to blow out mud and wet soil through a pipe. The excavated soil is removed by a hydraulic
transport system. There should be a basin close to the site where the removed sand-water mixture can be
deposited.
The caisson is subsided under its weight. This is usually done by gradually building up, which is
especially favourable if there will be ballast on top of the caisson anyway in its final stage (like a pier, for
example) (see Figure 1). Ballast can aternatively be applied inside the caisson.
It should be given thought that a heavy dead weight can cause a caisson to subside even before excavation
starts, leading to fill of the working chamber (and possibly even the shafts) with soil. If this will happen,
bothersome delay is inevitable. It should for this reason be avoided that the caisson is too heavy.

Figure 1: Measures to improve subsidence of a pneumatic caisson

The air in the work chamber has to be kept under compression to prevent ground water from intruding.
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Compressed air, on the other hand, also functions as an air bag that lifts the caisson. By varying the air
pressure, the pressure on the cutting edges can be regulated in order to influence the subsidence and
position of the caisson. The pressure in the working chamber is adjusted to balance, or slightly exceed the
water pressure at the depth of the cutting edge. To boost sinking, the air pressure is often reduced more
considerably when worksmen are out of the working chamber. The cutting edge must be sufficiently
below the inside soil surface to prevent serious loss of air through the soil. The height of the cutting edges
can therefore measure up to two metres. If air pressure and excavation near the cutting edges do not
sufficiently regulate the subsiding process, a sliding plane of bentonite can be applied between the caisson
wall and soil. An other measure to better control the subsidence process is to project the edges of the work
chamber slightly outside the profiles of the structure (this should be considered in advance).
Excavation generally occurs aloof of the cutting edges to leave them embedded in soil and thus avoid loss
of air. If, however, the subsidence needs correction because the caisson is not kept level, excavation
should occur close to the cutting edges where greater subsidence is desired. Eventual obstacles that come
across during excavation, like remainders of old structures, can be removed through the air lock. Large
obstacles like boulders can be subsided along with the caisson by washing away the soil beneath them.
When the caisson has reached its final depth, it is generally sealed with concrete, which means that the
work chamber is completely filled up or injected completely with concrete. To prevent the caisson from
sinking lower than the desired level before the concrete seal is fulfilling function, the caisson can be
propped well from the soil up to the roof. In that case, the caisson roof has to be sufficiently strong.
Otherwise, the props will need to be placed under the ribs in the roof. In some cases the caisson is
subsided onto previously applied foundation piles to assure fixation.

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 Nowadays use of caissons - special applications
Caissons nowadays are used for a wide variety of applications. Pneumatic caissons, for example, are still
used for the construction of metro tunnels, like for the Amsterdam Noord-Zuidlijn underpass of the
Damrak (between the underpass
of Amsterdam Central Railway
Station and the bored tunnel
under the Damrak. Three
caissons for this part of the
tunnel were constructed at street
level and later subsided into the
soil by washing away the mud
below. The caissons went down
1.5m per day until they reached a
solid sand layer at 20 to 25 m
depth.
In Australia, caissons are used to
accommodate turbines to obtain
electric power from tidal currents
in sea, see Figure below. [Bernshtein, 1996]

For the port of Tangiers, Morocco, about forty-four cylindrical caissons were use to construct a
breakwater (start of the construction in 2003, see Figure below). Their final height is 35metres, weighing
7900tonnes each. The shape of the caissons is rounded to reduce wave forces. To prevent ingress of
chloride ions and to reduce cracking, a special concrete quality has been developed. The service lifetime
of the breakwater is 100 years. [Bouygues, 2005]

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In September 2008, an enormous concrete caisson for transhipment of liquid natural gas has been towed
from its construction dock in Algeciras, Spain, to the Adriatic Sea near Venice. The structure has a length
of 180 metres, width of 88 metres, height of 48 metres and a total weight of 450 000 tonnes (Figure
below). A yearly amount of about eight billion cubic metres of gas originating from Qatar has been
shipped to this transhipment station and then via a 17 km long tube pumped to the Italian main land.

Undoubtedly caissons will continue to prove their value as (part of) solutions for many structural
problems in the future.

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 Foundation for Vibrating Machines
Machine foundations require a special consideration because they transmit dynamic loads to soil in
addition to static loads due to weight of foundation, machine and accessories. The dynamic load due to
operation of the machine is generally small compared to the static weight of machine and the supporting
foundation. In a machine foundation the dynamic load is applied repetitively over a very long period of
time but its magnitude is small and therefore the soil behavior is essentially elastic, or else deformation
will increase with each cycle of loading and may become unacceptable. The amplitude of vibration of a
machine at its operating frequency is the most important parameter to be determined in designing a
machine foundation, in addition to the natural frequency of a machine foundation soil system.
There are many types of machines that generate different periodic forces. The most important categories
are:
1. Reciprocating machines: The machines that produce periodic unbalanced forces (such as steam
engines) belong to this category. The operating speeds of such machines are usually less than
600r/min. For analysis of their foundations, the unbalanced forces can be considered to vary
sinusoidally.
2. Impact machines: These machines produce impact loads, for instance, forging hammers. Their speeds
of operation usually vary from 60 to 150 blows per minute. Their dynamic loads attain a peak in a
very short interval and then practically die out.
3. Rotary machines: High-speed machines like turbo generators or rotary compressors may have speeds
of more than 3,000r/min and up to 12,000r/min.

Types of Machine Foundations

A suitable foundation is selected, depending upon the type of machine. For compressors and reciprocating
machines, a block foundation is generally provided (Fig.1a). Such a foundation consists of a pedestal
resting on a footing. If two or more machines of similar type are to be installed in a shop, these can
profitably be mounted on one continuous mat.

A block foundation has a large mass and, therefore, a smaller natural frequency. However, if a relatively
lighter foundation is desired, a box or a caisson type foundation may be provided. (Fig.1b) The mass of
the foundation is reduced and its natural frequency increases. Hammers may also be mounted on block
foundations, but their details would be quite different than those for reciprocating machines.

Steam turbines have complex foundations that may consist of a system of walls columns, beams and slabs.
(Fig.1c) Each element of such a foundation is relatively flexible as compared to a rigid block and box or a
caisson-type foundation.

20
The analysis of a block foundation is relatively simple as compared to a complex foundation. There are
several methods of analysis for both the block and the complex foundations. The criteria for designing
machine foundations shall be discussed first followed by the methods of analysis.

Criteria for Design

A machine foundation should meet the following conditions for satisfactory performance: Static loads
1. It should be safe against shear failure
2. It should not settle excessively
These requirements are similar to those for all other foundations.
Dynamic loads

1. There should be no resonance; that is, the natural frequency of the machine- foundation-soil
system should not coincide with the operating frequency of the machine. In fact, a zone of
resonance is generally defined and the natural frequency of the system must lie outside this zone.
The foundation is high tuned when its fundamental frequency is greater than the operating speed or
low tuned when its fundamental frequency is lower than the operating speed. This concept of a
high or low tuned foundation is illustrated in the figure below.

21
 2. The amplitudes of motion at operating frequencies should not exceed the limiting amplitudes,
which are generally specified by machine manufacturers. If the computed amplitude is within
tolerable limits, but the computed natural frequency is close to the operating frequency, it is
important that this situation be avoided.
3. The natural frequency of the foundation –soil system should not be whole number multiple of the
operating frequency of the machine to avoid resonance with the higher harmonics.
4. The vibrations must not be annoying to the persons working in the shops or damaging to the other
precision machines. The nature of vibrations that are perceptible, annoying, or harmful depends
upon the frequency of the vibrations and the amplitude of motion.

The geometrical layout of the foundation may also be influenced by the operational requirements of the
machine. The failure condition of a machine foundation is reached when its motion exceeds a limiting
value which may be based on acceleration , velocity or amplitude.

Information Needed for Design

The following information is required and must be obtained for design of a machine foundation:
22
 1. Static weight of the machine and accessories.
2. Magnitude and characteristics of dynamic loads imposed by the machine operation and their point
of application
3. The soil profile of the site and dynamic soil properties such as dynamic shear modulus and
damping
4. Trial dimensions of the foundation. The manufacturer generally supplies these. This will give the
total static weight.
5. An acceptable method of analysis i.e., a mathematical model to determine the response of the
foundation-soil system
6. A criteria for adequate design

The above items are briefly discussed below:

Dynamic Loads: The information on dynamic loads and moments may be available from the manufacturer
of the machine. It may be possible to determine the dynamic loads and moments for design of a machine
foundation in some simple cases such as for the case of reciprocating and rotary machines.

Soil profile and dynamic soil properties: Satisfactory design of a machine foundation needs information
on soil profile, depth of different layers, physical properties of soil and ground water level. This
information can be obtained by usual sub-surface exploration techniques. In addition, one must determine
dynamic shear modulus, material damping, poisons ratio and mass density of soil for dynamic analysis of
the machine foundation. Dynamic shear modulus of a soil is generally determined from laboratory or field
tests. Material damping can be determined from vibration tests on soil columns in the laboratory. The
values of dynamic shear modulii and damping may be estimated from empirical estimations for
preliminary design purposes. Geometrical damping is estimated from elastic half-space theory and
appropriate analogs.

Trial dimensions: The trial dimensions of the machine foundation are selected based on the requirements
of the manufacturer, the machine shop and the machine performance and experience of the designer.
These trial dimensions of the foundation are only the first step in the design and may need alteration after
the analysis.

Method of analysis: The analysis of machine foundation is usually performed by idealizing it as a simple
system as explained here. Figure ‘a’ below shows a schematic sketch of a rigid concrete block resting on
the ground surface and supporting a machine.

Let us assume that the operation of the machine produces a vertical unbalanced force, which passes
through the combined centre of gravity of the machine-foundation system. Under this condition, the
foundation will vibrate only in the vertical direction about its mean position of static equilibrium. The
vibration of the foundation results in transmission of waves through the soil. These waves carry energy
with them. This loss of energy is termed “geometrical damping”. The soil below the footing experiences
cyclic deformations and absorbs some energy, which is termed „material damping‟. The material damping
is generally small compared to the geometrical damping and may be neglected in most cases. However,
material damping may also become important in some cases of machine foundation vibrations.
23
 Figure: Vertical Vibrations of a Machine Foundation (a) Actual case, (b) Equivalent model with damping (c)
Model without damping

The problem of a rigid block foundation resting on the ground surface, (Fig. a) may therefore be
represented in a reasonable manner by a spring-mass-dashpot system shown in (Fig. b). The spring in this
figure is the equivalent soil spring, which represents the elastic resistance of the soil below the base of the
foundation. The dashpot represents the energy loss or the damping effect. The mass in Fig. b is the mass
of the foundation block and the machine. If damping is neglected, a spring-mass system shown in (Fig. c)
may be used to represent the problem defined in (Fig. a). Single degree of freedom models shown in (Fig.
b & c) may in fact be used to represent the problem of machine foundation vibration in any mode of
vibration if appropriate values of equivalent soil spring and damping constants are used. For coupled
modes of vibration, as for combined rocking and sliding, two degree-of-freedom model is used.

All foundations in practice are placed at a certain depth below the ground surface. As a result of this
embedment, the soil resistance to vibration develops not only below the base of the foundation but also
along the embedded portion of the sides of the foundation. Similarly the energy loss due to radiation
damping will occur not only below the foundation base but also along the sides of the foundation. The
type of models shown in Fig. b and c may be used to calculate the response of embedded foundations if
the equivalent soil spring and damping values are suitably modified by taking into account the behaviour
of the soil below the base and on the sides of the foundation.

Several methods are available for analysis of vibration characteristics of machine foundations. The
commonly used methods are

1. Linear elastic spring method

2. Elastic half-space analogs method, and
3. The impedance function method.

24
1. The Linear Elastic Spring method treats the problem of foundation vibrations as spring- mass model ,
neglecting damping in the soil. The soil damping can be included if desired.

2. The Elastic Half Space Analogs: The elastic half space theory can be used to determine the values of
equivalent soil springs and damping then make use of theory of vibrations to determine the response of the
foundation. These are known as the “the elastic half space analogs‟. Most commonly used for their
simplicity but observations by several investigators have shown that they generally overestimates
radiation damping. They can be used for surface as well as embedded foundations. It may be mentioned
here that the equivalent soil spring and damping values depend upon the;

I. Type of soil and its properties,

II. Geometry and layout of the foundation, and
III. Nature of the foundation vibrations occasioned by unbalanced dynamic loads.

3. The Impedance Function Method: The impedance function method is a recent addition to the
approaches available for design of machine foundations. They also provide values of soil spring and
damping for surface and embedded foundations. The dynamic impedance is a function of the foundation
soil system and the nature and the type of exciting loads and moments.

Foundation Repairs

Buildings can and often do move. This movement can be up, down, lateral or rotational. The fundamental
cause of movement in buildings can usually be related to one or more problems in the foundation soil.
Generally, when a structure starts showing signs of settlement or distress, it is of utmost importance to
establish level readings and offset readings by a professional on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis,
depending on the severity of the movements.
Causes of Movement:
 Immediate settlement occurs when a building is first placed on its foundation soil, as a result of
compaction of the soil under the weight of the structure. The cohesive quality of clay soil mitigates
against this, but granular (particularly sandy) soil is susceptible.
 Consolidation settlement is a feature of clay soil and may take place because of the expulsion of
moisture from the soil or because of the soil’s lack of resistance to local compressive or shear stresses.
This will usually take place during the first few months after construction, but has been known to take
many years in exceptional cases.
These problems are the province of the builder and should be taken into consideration as part of the
preparation of the site for construction.
Erosion: All soils are prone to erosion, but sandy soil is particularly susceptible to being washed away.
Even clay with a sand component of say 10% or more can suffer from erosion.
Saturation: This is particularly a problem in clay soils. Saturation creates a bog- like suspension of the soil
that causes it to lose virtually all of its bearing capacity. To a lesser degree, sand is affected by saturation
25
because saturated sand may undergo a reduction in volume – particularly imported sand fill for bedding and
blinding layers. However, this usually occurs as immediate settlement.
Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of soil: All clays react to the presence of water by slowly absorbing it,
making the soil increase in volume. The degree of increase varies considerably between different clays, as
does the degree of decrease during the subsequent drying out caused by fair weather periods. Because of the
low absorption and expulsion rate, this phenomenon will not usually be noticeable unless there are
prolonged rainy or dry periods, usually of weeks or months, depending on the land and soil characteristics.
The swelling of soil creates an upward force on the footings of the building, and shrinkage creates
subsidence that takes away the support needed by the footing to retain equilibrium.
Shear failure: This phenomenon occurs when the foundation soil does not have sufficient strength to
support the weight of the footing. There are two major post-construction causes: Significant load increase
and Reduction of lateral support of the soil under the footing due to erosion or excavation. In clay soil,
shear failure can be caused by saturation of the soil adjacent to or under the footing.
Shoring and Underpinning
Sometimes structure is to be temporarily supported. This is achieved by what is known as shoring. It is
essential for structures, which have become unsafe due to unequal settlement of foundation or due to
removal of adjacent building or due to any other reason.
For safe structures, shoring is required to prevent movements when certain additions & alterations are
being carried out. Circumstances under which shoring is required can be summarised as follow:
1. Adjacent structure is to be dismantled
2. Cracks developed due to unequal settlement of foundation in wall are to be repaired
3. Defective walls of building are to be dismantled & rebuilt & support is necessary to floors or
roofs connected to that wall
4. Large openings are required to be made in main walls of existing building
5. Walls of building showing sign of bulging out or leaning outwards due to poor workmanship.
Materials: Shoring can be carried out either in timber or in steel tubes or in combination. Timber
surfaces should be coated with preservative so as to give protection against wet rot.
Duration: There is no limit for duration of shoring & it ranges from weeks to years
Requirements: Loads coming on shoring vary widely in nature & hence requirements of each case of
shoring should be suited separately & designed accordingly
Approval: Shoring should be carried out as per prevailing rules & regulations of local authority &
necessary approval should be obtained.

TYPES OF SHORING
Depending upon their supporting characteristics, shores are classified into following three categories:
1. Raking or Inclined Shores
2. Flying or Horizontal Shores
26
 3. Dead or Vertical Shores
Raking Shores:
In this arrangement, inclined supports are given to external walls from ground. It consists of :
Wall Plate Needles Cleats Rakers Bracing and Sole Plates
Wall plate is placed against wall & is secured by means of needles which penetrate into wall for distance
of about 150mm. Wall plate distributes pressure
evenly. Needles in turn, are secured by cleats which
are nailed to wall plate. Rakers are stiffened by
similar braces & hoop iron & they are connected
with sole plate by means of iron dogs.
Following should be noted:
1. Centre line of raker & of wall should meet at
floor level
2. Rakers prevent outward movement of wall
& partly deflect roof & floor loads
3. Large factor of safety should be adopted in
design of inclined shores as it is difficult to
assess actual loads
4. Rakers should be preferably inclined at 450
with ground. However, in actual practice,
angle of inclination may vary from 450 to
750. Top raker should not be inclined or
steeper than 750 with horizontal.
5. Length of top racker can be reduced by
providing a rider racker.
6. Sole plate is usually embedded in ground &
legs of rackers rest on sole plate. Sole plate
should be long enough to accommodate all
rackers & cleat on outside. In case of soft
ground, sole plate is placed on timber
platform to distribute pressure on a greater
area.
7. It is not desirable to do wedging as it would
damage the building which already is in
unsafe condition.
8. Necessary permission of concerned owner
of adjacent property in which raking shores
are to be erected should be obtained.

Flying or Horizontal Shores:

27
In this arrangement, horizontal supports are given to parallel walls, which have become unsafe due to
removal or collapse of intermediate building. Single flying shore consists:
Wall Plate Needles Cleats Struts Straining Pieces and Folding Wedges

Flying shores should have depth not less than 1/3rd of clear span & width not less than 1/5th of its
length. Points to be noted:
1. Centre line of flying shore & struts & those of walls should meet at floor levels. If floor levels of
two buildings are different levels, framework may be suitably designed & made unsymmetrical.
2. Large factor of safety should be adopted in design of flying shores as it is difficult to assess
actual loads.
3. Struts are generally inclined at 450 & in no case, angle of inclination should increase 600.
4. Suitable for maximum distance of 9m between adjacent parallel walls. But when distance is 9m
to 12m, a compound or double flying shore is provided. It should be seen that both horizontal
shores are symmetrically placed with respect to floor levels.
5. Only one set of shoring strengthen two walls
6. Building operations on ground are not obstructed by this type of shoring
7. Flying shores are inserted when old building is removed & kept in position till new building is
constructed to sufficient height to provide necessary stability
8. When one building is higher than other, raking shores may be provided on horizontal shores
9. Generally erected at distance of about 3 to 5m in plan & horizontal struts are introduced, if
necessary, to act as lateral bracing between adjacent flying shores.

Dead / Vertical Shores:

In this arrangement, vertical members, known as dead shores support horizontal members, known as
needles. Needles are driven at right angles to wall through holes made in wall. Dead shore is used under
following circumstances:
Lower part of wall has become defective

28
 Foundations are to be deepened
Lower part of wall is to be rebuilt or reconstructed
Large openings are to be made in existing wall
Points to be noted:
1. Possible to calculate stresses in various members of dead shore
2. Needles are placed at distance of about 1.5 to 2m & are suitably braced.
3. Folding wedges, sole plate, dogs & braces are used
4. Floors are suitably supported inside
5. Openings above & near dead shore are suitably strutted
6. Raking shore may be provided as additional safety in case of weak walls
7. Shores should be removed at least 7 days of construction of new work. This period is necessary
for new works to obtain strength
8. Sequence of removal should be:
a) Needles followed by Strutting from opening
b) Floor strutting inside and Raking shores, if any
c) Desirable to allow interval of two days between each of these operations

29
 UNDERPINNING
Prior to the start of excavation for a new structure, it is
advisable to have a professional examine all structures in
close proximity to the construction site, to determine whether
or not underpinning is necessary. Placing of new foundation
below existing foundation or process of strengthening
existing foundation or to providing either additional depth or
an increase in bearing capacity is known as underpinning of
foundations. There are several existing conditions, which
may lead to the need for underpinning:
 Construction of a new project with a deeper
foundation adjacent to an existing building
 Settlement of an existing structure
 Change in use of a structure
 Addition of a basement below an existing
structure
Points to be noted:
1. Necessary shoring & strutting should be provided to
structure to make it safe for carrying out process of
underpinning.
2. Structure should be carefully examined before
underpinning is commenced & poor masonry work
should be suitably rectified
3. Necessary to carry out urgent repairs such as grouting
of cracks, insertion of tie rods between walls etc.
before commencing.
4. Levels may be marked on structure & movement of
structure should be checked & recorded
5. It is an art rather than science. Due to advance made
in science of soil mechanics, much guess work is
eliminated.
6. When RS Joist is used as needle, bearing plate is
provided to avoid crushing of masonry.

Methods of Underpinning
1. Pit Method
2. Pile Method
3. Miscellaneous Methods

30
Pit Method
Existing wall is divided into
suitable section of width about 1.2 to
1.5m
Holes are then made in existing
wall
Needles with bearing plates are
then inserted through these holes &
supported on jacks.
Pit is excavated & existing
foundation is taken up to required level
Following precautions are necessary:
1. One section should be excavated at a time
2. Alternate sections should be taken in
succession
3. If length of wall is more underpinning is
started from middle & then extended in both
directions
4. Proper timbering should be provided for
trench
5. It is desirable to carry out new foundation
work in concrete
6. If space to support needles on outside is not
available, cantilever needles, projecting
inside & provided with fulcrums & loading
maybe adopted. Hydraulic jack is placed
between needles & fulcrum

Pile Method
In this method piles are driven along both sides of
existing wall & then needles in form of pile caps are provided through existing wall. Thus existing
wall is relieved of loads coming on it. Useful in
Clayey soils Water logged areas & Walls carrying heavy loads
For underpinning very light structures, piles are driven along the structure & then brackets or
cantilever needles are provided to carry the structure

31
Miscellaneous Method
Following are some specialised underpinning methods, which may sometimes be successfully
adopted:
 Cement Grouting
 Chemical Consolidation
 Freezing
 Vibro flotation
1. Cement Grouting:
Used to restore slab or pavement which has settled
Operation is simple
Holes are drilled in slab & cement grout is forced under pressure through these holes
Pressure is maintained until cement grout has set
2. Chemical Consolidation: Soil under existing footing maybe consolidated using chemicals. This
method is useful when soil consists of sand or granular materials. Procedure is as below:

 Perforated pipes are driven in an inclined direction. Inclination slopes are so adjusted that
entire area under command of inclined pipes
32
  When pipes are being driven, solution of sodium silicate in water is injected through
pipes
 Pipes are then withdrawn & during withdrawal of pipes, calcium or magnesium chloride
is injected through pipes
 Chemical reaction takes place & soil is consolidated

3. Freezing: In this method freezing pipes are driven below existing footing & soil is frozen. This
method is rarely adopted, mainly because of two reasons: It is expensive and More time is required
for installation of freezing pipes.

4. Vibro floatation: Underpinning is carried out by vibrating sand & thereby increasing its density,
which ultimately results in increase of bearing capacity of soil. Useful for granular or sandy soil &
before process of underpinning starts, building or any of its structural components is shored
carefully. Vibrating equipment or soil to be compacted is to be isolated from building & its shoring.

Assignment

Write a review on Culverts, Conduits and Tunnels. Concentrate your term paper on Design
Consideration for loading (external imposed loads & internal conveyed loads) and Prepare
detailed drawings of culverts, conduits and tunnels.

Culverts Conduits and Tunnels

Introduction: Culvert versus Bridges
A culvert is a conduit for the passage of surface drainage water under a highway, railroad, canal, or other
embankment;
A bridge is a structure carrying a pathway, roadway, or railway over a waterway.
The span length is the main criteria to demarcate between a culvert & a bridge
 the span is less than 6.5m (or 20 ft), it is called a culvert
 and it is a bridge when the span is more than the specified length
A culvert usually is either circular or rectangular in cross-section, so it has an all-enveloping structure
(i.e. a roof, 2 walls and a floor) as shown below:

33
Similarly, a Bridge sits on foundations on each bank (or on wing-walls), and as it does not have a floor,
as shown below;

Culvert design
A culvert is a covered channel of relatively short length designed to pass water through an embankment
(e.g. highway, railroad, dam). The design requires a hydro- logical study of the upstream catchment to
estimate the maximum (design) discharge and the risks of exceptional (emergency) floods. The
dimensions of the culvert are based on hydraulic, structural and geotechnical considerations. Indeed, the
culvert height and width affect the size and cost of the embankment. The culvert impact on the
environment must also be taken into account, e.g. flooding of the upstream plain.
The design process is a system approach. The system must be identified as well as the design objectives
and constraints. A detailed analysis of it must be conducted and the engineers should ask if their final
design responds to the objectives.
Hydraulic design of culvert
The hydraulic performances of a culvert are the design discharge Qdes, the upstream total head and the
maximum (acceptable) head loss DH. Head losses must be minimized to reduce upstream backwater
34
effects (i.e. upstream flooding). The primary design constraints are: (1) the cost must be (always)
minimum; (2) the aflux must be small and preferably minimum; (3) eventually the embankment height
may be given or may be part of the design; and (4) a scour protection may be considered, particularly if a
hydraulic jump might take place near the culvert outlet. The hydraulic design is basically an optimum
compromise between discharge capacity and head loss. In practice, short culverts are designed for free-
surface flow with critical flow conditions in the throat. The final design may vary from a simple
geometry (i.e. standard box culvert – Fig. 1) to a hydraulically smooth shape (i.e. minimum energy loss
(MEL) culvert) (figures 2).

Figure 1: Standard Culvert

A culvert consists typically of an inlet, an outlet and between these a culvert barrel of length
L and height D, also a trash screen. The barrel is normally on a slope, So and the depths of
water above the upstream and downstream invert levels are known as the headwater depth
(HW) and tailwater depth (TW) respectively.

35
Standard culverts
A standard culvert is designed to pass water at minimum cost. The culvert construction must be simple,
e.g. circular pipes, precast concrete boxes. The culvert flow may exhibit various flow patterns, e.g. free-
surface inlet flow conditions or submerged entrance, inlet control or outlet control.
The discharge capacity of the barrel is primarily related to the flow pattern. When free-surface flow takes
place in the barrel, the discharge is fixed only by the entry conditions, and the discharge is typically
estimated as:

where B is the barrel width and D is the barrel height. CD equals 1 for rounded vertical inlet edges and
0.9 for square-edged inlets. C equals 0.6 for square-edged soffit and 0.8 for rounded soffit. For drowned
culverts (i.e. outlet control), the discharge is determined by the culvert resistance (i.e. primary and
secondary losses).

Design procedure
36
For standard culverts the design process is divided into two parts, first, a system analysis must be carried
out to determine the objectives of the culvert, the design data, the constraints including the design flow
Qdes and the design upstream total head Hdes.
In a second stage, the barrel size is selected by a test-and-trial procedure, in which both inlet control and
outlet control calculations are performed. At the end, the optimum size is the smallest barrel size
allowing for inlet control operation. Calculations of the barrel size are iterative:

o Choose the barrel dimensions.

o Assume an inlet control. Calculate the upstream total head corresponding to the design discharge
Qdes assuming inlet control for different barrel sizes until the upstream head H1(ic) satisfies the

design specifcations (i.e. H1(ic) = Hdes).

o Assume an outlet control. Use design charts to calculate the head loss DH from inlet to outlet for
the design discharge Qdes . Calculate the upstream total head H1(oc): H1(oc) = Htw + DH,
where Htw is the tailwater head at design flow.

o Compare the inlet control and outlet control results: Hdes = H1(ic) ≥ H1(oc). The larger value
controls.

When the inlet control design head Hdes (used in step 2) is larger than H1(oc), inlet control operation is

confirmed and the barrel size is correct. If H1(oc) is larger than Hdes, outlet control takes place. Step 3

must be then repeated with an increased barrel size until H1(oc) satisfies the design specification Hdes.

Minimum energy loss culverts

A MEL culvert is a streamlined structure designed with the concept of minimum head loss. The basic
design concepts are streamlining and critical flow conditions through all the waterway (inlet, barrel,
outlet). The intake is designed with a smooth contraction into the barrel while the outlet (or diffuser) is
shaped as a smooth expansion back to the natural channel. In a satisfactory design, the flow streamlines
follow very smooth curves and no separation is observed as for a Venturimeter installed in a circular
pipe. MEL structure are designed to achieve critical èow conditions in all the engineered waterway
because the maximum discharge per unit width for a given speciéc energy is achieved at critical flow
conditions. At the throat the discharge per unit width may be increased by lowering the barrel invert
below the natural ground level.

37
Simple design method

Professor C. J. Apelt (The University of Queensland) proposed a simple method to calculate the basic
characteristics of a MEL culvert. This method gives a preliminary design. Full calculations using the
backwater equations are required to predict accurately the free-surface profile.

o Decide the design discharge Qdes and the associated total head line (THL) in the flood plain.

Neglect energy losses

o Calculate the waterway characteristics in the throat (i.e. barrel) for critical flow conditions.
o Calculate the inlet width Bmax assuming critical flow conditions and natural bed level (i.e. Dzo =
0).
o Decide the shapes of the fans.
o Calculate the geometry of the fans to satisfy critical flow conditions every- where. In the above
steps, either the barrel width Bmin is selected and the barrel invert drop Dzo is calculated; or Dzo
is chosen and the barrel width is calculated.

Include the energy losses

 Adjust the bed profile of the waterway to take into account the energy losses.
 Check the ‘off-design’ performances, i.e. Q > Qdes and Q < Qdes.

38