ATTAR Eddy Current Level 2 Course Notes CONTENTS Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3 Lesson 4 Lesson 5 Lesson 6 Lesson 7 Lesson 8 Lesson 9 Lesson 10 Lesson 11 Lesson 12 Lesson 13 Lesson 14 Lesson 15 Lesson 16 Lesson 17 Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Introduction to NDT ET Inspection and Certification Electricity Magnetism Principles of ET Electromagnetism & ET Page 3 Page 5 Page 19 Page 27 Page 39 Page 55 Electrical Circuits and Probe Impedance Page 63 Impedance Diagrams Test Equipment Instrumentation Analysis Techniques Testing With Surface Probes Surface Probe Signal Analysis Tubes & Cylindrical Components. Tubes Signal Analysis Alternative Test Techniques Discontinuity & Defect Development Common Formula Laws Conductivity Tables Definitions Page 77 Page 95 Page 111 Page 129 Page 155 Page 181 Page 193 Page 213 Page 245 Page 253 Page 271 Page 275 Page 277 Page 285 Page so 208LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION TO NDT Page Intentionally Blank TEODOI. Era Gouse Neat Page 201204LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION TO NDT. Introduction ‘There are many more than the six main Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) procedures described here as in excess of one hundred techniques have been developed, but space and time prohibits discussion of all but the main techniques. Each has been developed in response to a demand for improved quality in the products we use. Quality is required to ensure safety and fitness for purpose of products used in work places, transportation, defence equipment and at home. NDT can be used to ensure cost efficient quality by preventing defective components reaching the market place. NDT offers the advantage of useable products if they pass testing, unlike destructive testing where the product is destroyed by testing whether itis defective or not. Destructive tests also rely on random sampling which is not the most reliable way of assuring quality. NDT may be carried out on all products made, not just a limited number. However, each NDT technique has limitations, examples are; penetrants can only be used to detect surface breaking discontinuities, magnetic particle inspection can only be applied to ferro-magnetic materials and radiography is expensive. Basic NDT Methods: Visual Inspection (VT) The oldest of all the methods. Components are scanned visually, sometimes with the aid of low or high power lenses, borescopes, cameras and video equipment, to determine surface condition ‘An example of visual inspection is the ‘walk around inspection" carried out by an airline pilot prior to departure of the his aircraft from the airport. However, itis limited to detection of large defects such as missing panels, flat wheels, large surface breaking cracks and external corrosion. It can be an inexpensive procedure although video borescopes can be very expensive. A video probe inspection is shown in Figure 1. “TEGO ET2 Cree Notes Pogo 2 204ATTAR ‘nratareomau LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION Page Intentionally Blank Te0001.1Er2 Cause Neoe Page of 204LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION Figure 1 Video borescope inspection equipment. Penetrant Inspection (PT) The test object or material is coated with a visible of fluorescent dye solution. The excess dye is removed from the surface and a developer which acts like a blotter is applied drawing penetrant out of imperfections open to the surface. With visible dyes, the vivid colour contrast between the penetrant and the developer is used to show sub-visible discontinuities. With fluorescent dyes, an ultraviolet lamp is used to make the “bleed out" fluoresce brightly allowing the discontinuity to be seen readily. Itis used most frequently on non-ferrous materials and austenitic or 1878 stainless steels. Aluminium structural welds are often subjected to penetrant inspection as are jet engine turbine blades, aluminium alloy wheels and aluminium alloy engine heads. ‘TECOOs.1 E72 Caure Neos Page 501204ATTAR LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION The technique is time consuming and is limited to surface breaking defects but is a relatively inexpensive technique unless large systems for production lines are required. Figure 2 Results of colour contrast penetrant inspection, Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT) Magnetic particle inspection is used to identify surface and near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as steel and iron and is more sensitive in this application then penetrants. The technique uses the principle that magnetic lines of force (flux) will be distorted by the presence of a discontinuity. Discontinuities (for example, a crack) are highlighted following the application of fine magnetic particles, to the area under test, because the fine magnetic particles are attracted to the flux leakage field that occurs at the discontinuity. Steel crank shafts and camshafts in motor vehicles are routinely inspected using fluorescent magnetic particle inspection as are welds in steel pressure vessels. The technique is quick but is limited to surface breaking or near surface detects. It is slightly more expensive than penetrant inspection unless large magnetic particle benches for production lines are required TE0O01.1 ET2Coszo Neos Pago Bot 204& ATTAR LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION Although relatively easy to perform it requires skilled operators as interpretation may be very difficult where there are changes in cross section and sharp corners. Figure 3 Magnetic particle inspection of sea bed riser, BHP Chalis Venture. Ultrasonic Inspection (UT) Uttrasonic inspection uses high frequency sound waves to detect imperfections or changes in properties within the materials. It can also be used to measure thickness of a wide range of metallic and non metallic materials where access from one side only is available. Ships hulls are thickness tested and the integrity of welds on pressure vessels are checked via ultrasonics using straight beam compression waves. Similarly ultrasonics is used to examine forgings and castings for internal discontinuities. Ultrasonics can detect subsurface discontinuities; its easier if their orientation is known, and works best on fine grained components with smooth surfaces. Angle beam shear waves are used extensively for checking welded structures such as pipelines, pressure vessels and structural steel for defects developed during welding, because it is more reliable than radiography for detecting laminar defects such as cracks and lack of fusion. ‘Tecon:.1 £72 Cause Hots Page 71206LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION {t provides instant results although not many systems provide permanent records of the test results. Ultrasonic thickness gauges are reasonably cheap. The most used A scan units are more expensive and computer controlled production line systems can be very expensive. Figure 4 Ultrasonic inspection of fatigue test specimen. ‘eoaot.s 2 Gauss Netes Page aot 204B&B TTAR LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION Radiography (RT) Radiography uses an x-ray machine or radioactive isotope as a source of radiation which passes through the material and is captured on film. After processing the film an image of varying density is obtained. Possible imperfections are identified through density changes. Castings, both ferrous and nonferrous, and welds are regularly inspected using x- rays. Radiography can detect subsurface discontinuities; once again its easier if their orientation is known. Equipment is very expensive to buy and X-ray film costs are high. Even with automatic film processors there is a slight delay in obtaining results and skilled operators are required for interpretation of the results. Safety is a major problem with radiography and operators must be licensed by local Occupational Health and Safety Authorities. Fluoroscopy or real time radiography is used extensively to monitor aluminium castings in many casting plants, particularly in the automotive industry. Computer based radiography that uses an re-useable plastic film read using a laser system is the most recent advance in this area and promises to cut down chemical and film use as well as film storage costs, as the image is stored on disc and viewed on the computer screen. However, the up front costs are high. Figure 5 Casting X-ray showing density variation at different thicknesses... “TeCo0r.1 Ere Gove Notes Pago dot 204LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION Eddy Current (ET) In eddy current testing electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an induced magnetic field. Distortions in the flow of the electric current (eddy currents) caused by imperfections or changes in a materials conductive properties will cause changes in the induced magnetic field. These changes when detected indicate the presence of the discontinuities or some change in the test material. The thickness of paint on metals can be checked using small portable eddy current equipment. Near surface cracks are found in aircraft wheels and turbine blades using this technique. Non-ferrous heat exchanger tubing in power stations is best examined using this technique. Corrosion damage is readily detected and it is used regularly to check for corroded aluminium conductors in overhead transmission lines. Also limited to surface breaking or near surface discontinuities equipment costs are similar to that of ultrasonics. More sophisticated equipment requires well trained operators for reliable results. Figure 6 Eddy current inspection of aluminium steel reinforced overhead conductors ‘TEOO0}.1 ET2Gaue Nate Page 10204ATTAR LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION Summary Non-destructive testing techniques do not compete with each other, they are all complementary, each having its own advantages in certain areas. When correctly selected and used by competent personnel certified under AS 3998 Non-destructive testing ~ Qualification and certification of personnel — General engineering, NDT is a cost effective production and maintenance tool. A380 minute video “Non-Destructive Testing in Australia is available from AINDT, PO Box 52, PARKVILLE VIC 3002 for $72.00 plus GST. It covers all methods discussed above and a couple of others. Applications of Eddy Current Inspection Eddy current testing (ET) is @ nondestructive test technique based on inducing electrical currents in the material being inspected and observing the interaction between those currents and the material. Eddy currents are generated by electromagnetic coils in the test probe, and monitored simultaneously by measuring probe electrical impedance. Since it's an electromagnetic induction process, direct electrical contact with the sample is not required; however, the sample material has to be conductive. Eddy current testing is a versatile technique that is used to test a variety of metallic products such as forgings, castings, sheet, and tube. t's mainly used for thin materials; in thick materials, penetration constraints limit the inspected volume to thin surface layers. In aduition to discontinuity inspection, ET can be used to indirectly measure mechanical and metallurgical characteristics which correlate with electrical and magnetic properties. Also, geometric effects such as thickness, curvature and probe to material spacing influence eddy current flow and can be measured The large number of potentially significant variables in ET is both a strength and a weakness of the technique since effects of otherwise trivial parameters can mask important information or be misinterpreted. Virtually everything that affects eddy current flow or otherwise influences probe impedanes has to be taken into account to obtain reliable results. Thus, credible eddy current testing requires a high level of operator training and awareness. ‘TECOON.1 ET? Course Notes Page 1 o 206LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION Discovery of Eddy Currents ‘The discovery of the relationship between electricity and magnetism came about by accident as many great scientific discoveries have. In 1820 a Danish professor, Hans Christian Oerstead, during a lecture was demonstrating the heating effects of electrical current flowing through a wire. There happened to be a compass lying near the wire. Each time the current was turned on, the compass needle was plainly seen to swing sidewise. When the current ceased, the needle swung back. The flow of electricity had created a field of magnetic force around the wire. Scientists of the day began working with this new discovery and soon developed the ability to magnetize various metals using the continuous current. Development of the electromagnet capable of lifting huge weights soon followed. But if electricity produced magnetism, then magnetism should produce electricity Michael Faraday in England and Joseph Henry in America, working independently, discovered the answer in 1832. Unfortunately for Henry, Faraday published his results first and hence received most of the credit for the discovery but Henry did receive his share. The secret that they discovered that it was motion that mattered, i.e. the movement of the invisible magnetic field past the conduetor caused electricity to flow in the conductor. These two men, after many failures involving the placement of coils and magnets near one another, noted that if a current carrying coil was placed near a second coil that a current appeared in the second coil only at those instances when the current in the primary coil was turned on and off. From this they deduced that it was the changing magnetic field that had done the trick. Faraday wrote, "An instantaneous current in one of the other direction accompanies every change in the magnetic intensity.” They also discovered that a surge of current could be produced by moving a permanent magnet towards, or away from, the secondary coil. Mechanical energy could be changed to electrical energy. These wonderfully convenient principles connecting magnetism with electrical current is the base of our entire alternating current power distribution system today. Almost a hundred years passed before it was discovered that these same principles could be used to detect discontinuities in metals ‘TeoDO!.s E7a Course Notes Page 120206ATTAR LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION Objective of Eddy Current Inspection: Eddy Current inspection is suitable for detecting surface breaking and slightly subsurface discontinuities. The distance below the surface that a discontinuity may be detected depends upon the technique used size and type of discontinuity. It may also be used to measure coating thickness and conductivity. When used in the discontinuity detection mode the objective of Eddy Current inspection is to ensure component reliability by means of: 1. Detecting discontinuities. 2. Obtaining information related to the discontinuities such as size, type and location, 3. Separating acceptable and unacceptable discontinuities in accordance with predetermined standards. Advantages of Eddy Current inspection Can be used with both non ferrous and ferrous metals. Highly sensitive, can detect small discontinuities. Can detect subsurface discontinuities Gives a real time result. Enables rapid inspection. Most equipment is portable. PnreNs 1. Cannot detect deep seated discontinuities 2. Well trained experienced operators are required for maximum reliability. 3. Permanent records are not always available. 4. Calibration standards are required Training and certification Itis important that the technician and supervisor be qualified in the eddy current before the technique is used and test results evaluated, The Australian Institute for Non-Destructive Testing uses AS 3998 - 2002/ ISO 9712:1999 Non-destructive testing - Qualification and certification of personnel, as the basis for certification of NOT personnel in Australia as it is a direct copy of international standard, ISO 9712. TECOOI + E72 Course Notas Pago 1901204LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION A The standard provides everyone in the NDT industry with the necessary guidelines for proper qualification and certification for NDT technicians in all methods. It describes in detail how the technician will be trained, examined and certified. Certification: Certification of NDT personnel is the responsibility of AINDT and is at three levels, based on the competency of the technician as follows: NDT Level 1 An individual certified to NDT level 1 is qualified to carry out NDT operations in accordance with written instructions and under the supervision of level 2 or level 3 personnel. He shall be able to: a, Setup the equipment; b, Perform the tests; c. Record and classify the results in accordance with documented criteria; d. Report on the results. An individual certified to level 1 shall not be responsible for the choice of the test method or technique to be used. NDT Level 2 An individual certified to NDT level 2 is qualified to perform and direct non - destructive testing in accordance with established or recognized procedures. This may include: a. Defining the limitations of application of the test method for which the level 2 individual is qualified; b. Translating NDT codes, standards, specifications and procedures into practical testing instructions adapted to the actual working conditions; Setting up and verifying equipment settings; Performing and supervising tests; Interpreting and evaluating results according to applicable codes, standards and specifications; Preparing NDT instructions; Carrying out or supervising all level 1 duties; Training or guiding personnel below level 2; Organizing and reporting results of non-destructive tests. pao ‘TECOOI.1 ET2 Cause Notas Pogo 14 ot 206LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION NDT Level 3 An individual certified to NDT level 3 may be authorized to direct any operation in the NDT method(s) for which he is certified. This may include: a. Establishing and validating techniques and procedures; b. Interpreting codes, standards, specifications and procedures; c. Designating the particular test methods, techniques and procedures to be used for specific NDT work; d. Interpreting and evaluating results in terms of existing codes, standards and specifications; 2, Managing qualification examinations, if authorized for this task by the certification body; f. Carrying out or supervising all level 1 and level 2 duties An individual certified to level 3 shall have: a. Sufficient practical background in applicable materials, fabrication and product technology in order to be able to select methods and establish techniques and to assist in establishing acceptance oriteria where none is otherwise available; b. A general familiarity with other NDT methods; c. The ability to train or guide personnel below level 3. Certification Pre-requisites Vision: Distant vision shall equal Snellen fraction 20/30 or better in at least one eye, either uncorrected or corrected. Near vision sufficient to read the Jaeger number 1 size letters at a distance of not less than 300mm in at least one eye, either uncorrected or corrected, Colour vision shall be sufficient to distinguish the contrast between colours used in the particular NDT method. Before certification, a technician must provide evidence of satisfactory vision. TECOOI + E12 Gaus Nos Pegg 15.9 208ATTAR LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION { Academic: While there are no formal prerequisites for NDT training, the following could be used as guidelines: 7 Eddy current Year 10 maths and AINDT qualification/certification in one testing (ET1) NDT technique other than PT. ET2 ‘As above Magnelic particle | Year 10 maths or experience in an NDT technique or a weld testing (MT1) inspector's certificate. MT2 MTi Penetrant testing None. (PT) PI2 PTA Radiographic testing | Year 10 maths and AINDT quallfication/ceriification in one NDT (RT4) technique or a weld inspector's certificate. RT2 Tt Ultrasonic testing | Year 10 maths and AINDT qualification/certification in one NDT | (UT1) technique or a weld inspector's certificate. uT2 UT? Training and experience: ‘The student is advised to study the current edition of AS 3998 to determine the recommended number of hours of classroom instruction and months of experince necessary to be certified as an Eddy Current inspection technician. The 2002 edition indicates the following hours of training and experience are required before certification by AINDT: Level 1: Eddy current testing Magnetic particle testing Penetrant testing Radiographic testing Ultrasonic testin 24 16 ‘TEODOI. Ere Gawse Notes Page 16 ot 204ATTAR LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION Level 2: Training (hours) Experience (months) NDT method Wilh level 1__| Without evel? | With level 1 _ | Without level 7 Eddy current testing 9 12 Magnetic particle testing | 40 64 3 4 Penetrant testing 40 56. 3 4 Radiographic testing 80. 120 9 1B Ultrasonic testin: 80. 120 9 12 Examinations Under AS 3998 AINDT examines level 1 technicians in the following areas: a. General examination covering basic method theory. b, Industry specific examination covering application of method to the industrial sector. Practical examination Under as 3998 AINDT examines level 2 technicians in the following areas: a. General examination covering advanced method theory. b. Industry specific examination covering application of method to the industrial sector, e.g. Multi-sector. c. Practical examination, application of the technology to welded samples. AS 3998 recommends that NDT level 3 personnel be examined in the following areas: a. Basic examination covering advanced method theory and other NDT techniques. b. Main Method examination covering application of method to industrial sector, e.g. Multi-sector. c Practical examination at level 2. TEOOOI. E72 Couree Note Page 17a 204TTAR LESSON 2 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION & CERTIFICATION { AINDT provides a service to the NDT industry by providing exams for all levels in a range of industrial sectors. Industrial sectors Industrial sectors currently available are: Welds — (UT, RT) Castings - (UT, RT). Forgings - (UT, RT). Underwater inspection (MT, UT) Multi sector ~ (PT, MT, ET) geeN Further details on the AINDT certification scheme may be obtained from: AINDT PO Box 52 PARKVILLE VIC 3052 Phone: 03 9326 7550 Fax 03 9326 7272 ‘TECodt.1 872 Course Notas Page 180204x LESSON 3 ELECTRICITY Current, voltage and amperage Current According to the electron theory, an electric current is defined as an orderly movement of electrons from one part of a circuit to another. To obtain this movement in a simple electric circuit, it is necessary to have a source of electrical pressure (cell or generator) and a complete external electric circuit comprising a system of conductors connected to the source. In such a circuit, the conventional flow is from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. The actual movement of the electrons is from the negative terminal, where there is an excess of electrons, to the positive terminal where there is deficit. Each electron, being a minute negative charge of electricity, is always attracted to a positive charge. Figure 3.1 shows a portion of a conductor within which there is an electric field of intensity E. In a metallic conductor the entire current is due to the motion of the free charges and thus in a metallic conductor electrons move in the opposite direction to the conventional current. The value of this current is given by the relation: [eat Figure 3.1 Negative charges crossing a section from right to left are equivalent to positive charges crossing from left to right Where Q is the net charge flowing across the section in time t. The current units are in amperes or amps; one ampere represents a quantity of one coulomb of charge flowing per second or the flow of 6.25 X 10"® electrons per second past a given point in an electric circuit A direct current shall be flowing in any conductor if the applied field is always in the same direction even though it may fluctuate in magnitude. The lead storage batteries and other forms of cells are true sources of direct current. ‘TECoat.1 2 Course Mots Page 19 204PA Attar Aa. LESSON 3 ELECTRICITY Voltage: The charge has an associated potential energy because of its position. The electrical potential difference is defined in terms of potential energy per unit charge. The potential difference between two points, is the work that has to be done to move a unit positive charge between them. This work has to be done to move the charge against the electric force that is acting on it. V = Energy to move charge/charge moved The unit of potential difference is the ‘volt’ when the energy is in joules and the charge is in coulombs. 1 volt =1 Joule/coulomb If there is a potential difference of 10 volts between two points in an electrical circuit, this means that 10 J are needed to move 1 C between them. Ohms law, resistance, conductivity & resistivity _ Ohms Law & Resistance Resistance is opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of current in a circuit, measured in Ohms. Resistance depends upon: The length of the conductor. a. The cross-sectional area. b. The material of the conductor. c. The temperature of the conductor. The potential difference is proportional to the current, provided there is no change in the physical state of the conductor ‘TeCOOt.1 Te Gowee Notes Page 20 of 204ATTAR_ LESSON 3 ELECTRICITY As Vis proportional to current I, this means: Gait Where R is a constant known as resistance of the conductor. The relation is known as Ohm's law. The unit of resistance is Ohm which is equal to a flow of current of one ampere through any conductor held at a potential difference of one volt. The value of resistance for a conductor depends upon the nature, dimensions and the physical state of the conductor. For a conductor of length L and area of cross section A, its resistance value is given as: R=pLA Where p is a constant known as resistivity and its value depends upon the nature of the material. ‘Temperature Coefficient of Resistance | Resistance values for conductors at any temperature other than the standard temperature (usually specified at 20 Celsius) on the specific resistance table must be determined through the formula: R= Ree LL + OT - Ted] Where, R= Conductor resistance at temperature "T" Ryg= Conductor resistance at reference temperature T,.;, usually 20° C, but sometimes 0° C. a Temperature coefficient of resistance for the conductor material. T= Conductor temperature in degrees Celcius. Tue= Reference temperature that is specified at for the conductor material. EO001.1 E72 Course Hates ge 2101208&B ATTAR LESSON 3 ELECTRICITY The “alpha” (a) constant is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance, and symbolizes the resistance change factor per degree of temperature change. Just as all materials have a certain specific resistance (at 200 C), they also change resistance according to temperature by certain amounts. For pure metals, this coefficient is a positive number, meaning that resistance increases with increasing temperature. For the elements carbon, silicon, and germanium, this coefficient is a negative number, meaning that resistance decreases with increasing temperature. For some metal alloys, the temperature coefficient of resistance is very close to zero, meaning that the resistance hardly changes at all with variations in temperature (a good property if you want to build a precision resistor out of metal wire!). The following table gives the temperature coefficients of resistance for several common metals, both pure and alloy: TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS OF RESISTANCE, AT 20 DEGREES C Material Element/Alloy “alpha” per degree Celsius Nickel Element 0.005866 Iron Element 0.005671 Molybdenum Element 0.004579 Tungsten Element 0.004403 Aluminum Element 0.004308 Copper Element 0.004041 Silver Element 0.003819 Platinum Element 0.003729 Gold Element 0.003715 Zinc Element 0.003847 Steel" Alloy 0.003 Nichrome Alloy 0.00017 Nichrome V Alloy 0.00013 Manganin Alloy +/- 0.000015 Constantan Alloy -0.000074 * = Steel alloy at 99.5 percent iron, 0.5 percent carbon TeoDO1.1 E72 Cause Notas Pago 28204ATTAR LESSON 3 ELECTRICITY ‘Review: — Most conductive materials change specific resistance with changes in temperature. This is why figures of specific resistance are always specified at a standard temperature (usually 200 or 250 Celsius). The resistance-change factor per degree Celsius of temperature change is called the temperature coefficient of resistance. This factor is represented by the Greek lower-case letter “alpha” (a). A positive coefficient for a material means that its resistance increases with an increase in temperature. Pure metals typically have positive temperature coefficients of resistance. Coefficients approaching zero can be obtained by alloying certain metals. Anegative coefficient for a material means that its resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. Semiconductor materials (carbon, silicon, germanium) typically have negative temperature coefficients of resistance. ‘Conductivity & Resistivity, Conductivity is the name given to the ability of a material to conduct electrical current. Itis the opposite of resistance. Materials that have high resistance have poor conductivity and materials that have low resistance have high conductivity The unit of conductivity is called the “mho” and its quantitative value is the reciprocal of the resistance value R: Conductivity o-1/R- [3.4] and is measured in Siemens/m or mho/m. Resistivity, the reciprocal of conductivity is the intrinsic resistance to electron flow p. Increasing temperature increases resistivity as does alloying of metals. Alternating current If we wish to maintain a continuous current in a conductor, we have to maintain a field, i.e. a potential difference, within it. If the field reverses its direction periodically the flow of charge reverses and the current is thus alternating between the two constant maximum positive and minimum negative values. The current changes its amplitude every half cycle as seen in Figure 3.2. In the curve, also recognized as sine wave, we see that the current attains the maximum positive value starting from zero in half of the cycle and an equal time is required to reach maximum of negative amplitude value. “TECOOI.1 ET2 Course Nols Page 23 208ATTAR LESSON 3 ELECTRICITY ( w Figure 3.2 (a) Direct current (DC) (b) and alternating current (AC). - one wave cycle —» (0) F— one wave cycle —>] Figure 3.3 Summary ‘Ohms Law & Resistance i VeIR | Resistance is opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of current in a circuit, measured in Ohms. Resistance depends upon: The length of the conductor, cross-sectional area, material of the conductor, temperature of the conductor. “TECOOH.1 ET2 Course Notes Page 240 204ATTAR LESSON 3 ELECTRICITY “Conductivity & Resistivity, Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct electrical current. It is the opposite of resistance. The unit of conductivity is called the *mho" and it is the reciprocal of the resistance value R: Conductivity 6 -1/R and is measured in Siemens/m or mho/m. Resistivity, the reciprocal of conductivity is the intrinsic resistance to electron flow p. Increasing temperature increases resistivity as does alloying of metals. TEO001.1 E72 Gouge Notes Page 25 o 206LESSON 3 ELECTRICITY Page Intentionally Blank “TeCo0t.1 ET Course Noes Page 26 of 238ATTAR LESSON 4 MAGNETISM All matter is made up of atoms with a positively charged nucleus around which negatively charged electrons continually rotate. In metals these electrons form clouds that move around the metal atoms. Application of a magnetic field distorts the electron orbits. The amount of recovery of the magnetic field after removal of the magnetisation depends upon the initial distortion of the metals lattice structure. Work hardened and heat treated matetials recover less than soft low carbon steels Domain theory of magnetism Magnetisable materials contain magnetic domains, normally randomly oriented. These domains are related to the spin of the electrons and are of different sizes and may cover many grains within the metal or many domains may be contained within one grain of the metal. Application of a magnelising force enlarges those domains oriented in the same direction as the magnetic field and decreases those not in the same direction. Thus an object is magnetized when the largest of its magnetic domains are oriented in the direction of the applied magnetic field as in Figure 3.1. In some texts this is simplified by showing randomly oriented “molecules” that become aligned when the magnetic field is applied. |» —}\ ERE EEO ere eee 4, Ss N >> ae N fa —+ J Randomly oriented magnetic domains. Aligned enlarged magnetic domains. Figure 4.1 Magnetic domains before and after the application of the magnetic field, Permanent magnets Permanent magnets such as bar and horseshoe magnets have been subjected to very strong magnetic fields and their domains are permanently set as shown in Figure 4.1. This strengthening of the magnetic domains creates lines of force. With the large magnetic domains lined up, the magnetic bar develops a total force slightly less than the sum of all of the magnetic domains. TECOOt.1 ET2 Course Not Page 2 o 206LESSON 4 MAGNETISM Figure 4.2 Schematic magnetograph of the magnetic field on the outside of a bar magnet. Magnetic lines of force These lines of force appear when a magnetograph is made by placing iron powder on a sheet of paper with a bar magnet. The magnetic lines of force travel from the north to the South Pole outside the magnet and from the south to the North Pole inside the magnet. They leave the magnet at the North Pole and enter it at the South Pole. They are most concentrated at the poles, they do not cross each other and they take the path of least resistance. All of the lines of force make up the magnetic field, which is densest at the ends or poles of the magnet, Figure 4.2 Each line is considered to be a continuous loop which is never broken. Poles S N |,Like poles repel N S Figure 4.3 Attraction and repulsion at the magnetic poles. Created at the point where the magnetic field leaves a magnet the poles are a North seeking pole, that is itis attracted to the Earth's North magnetic pole, and a South seeking pole, commonly referred to as the north and south poles of the magnet. ECHO. ET2 Gourse Notes Page 260 204Ao. LESSON 4 MAGNETISM The ability of a magnet to attract or repel is concentrated at the poles. The north and south poles exhibit attraction and repulsion as shown in Figure 4.8. The force that attracts other Magnetisable materials to the magnetic poles is known as magnetic flux and the magnetic flux is made up of all of the lines of force. Magnets will attract other Magnetisable material only where the lines of force leave or enter the magnet, i.e. at the poles. Magnetic flux density. This is the flux per unit area of the magnetised component which cuts the section at right angles to the direction of the magnetic flux, itis designated B. Itis a measure of the magnetic field strength and its units were Gauss, but under the SI measurement system they are Weber per metre” (Wb/m*) or Tesla (T). Electrically induced magnetic fields Induced magnetic field Current flow Figure 4.4 A circular magnetic field is produced by the flow of an alternating current through a conductor. Passing an electric current through a conductor results in the generation of a magnetic field around the conductor, Figure 4.4. The direction of the magnetic field in relation to the current flow may be obtained from the right hand rule. To find the direction of an electrically induced magnetic field, place your thumb on the conductor in the direction of “current flow” (taken to be from positive to negative) and your fingers will then point in the direction of the lines of force. ‘Tecoot.1 Te Course Neos Page 29 204LESSON 4 MAGNETISM — pyc Figure 4.5 Right hand rule. Magnetic fields and their characteristics Longitudinal magnetic fields The magnetic field in a bar magnet is referred to as a longitudinal field because it runs along the length of the bar, Figure 4.6, and the magnetic flux lines are parallel. acweric FieLo Figure 4.6 Longitudinal magnetic flux field in a bar magnet. Ii the bar magnet contains a discontinuity new north and south poles are created and the magnetic flux field leaves the bar at the North Pole and returns at the South Pole. This field created in the air is referred to as a flux leakage field. Finely divided magnetic iron particles placed in this magnetic field are attracted to the north and south poles and highlight the presence of a discontinuity. ‘TE0001.1 £72 Couso Hes Page 0 ol 284LESSON 4 MAGNETISM FLUX LEAKAGE FLUX LEAKAGE ee . = SS YS a ~~ Figure 4.7 The effect of discontinuities on the longitudinal magnetic flux field. ‘The amount of flux leakage depends upon the permeability, depth and orientation of the discontinuity, the type and magnitude of current. Circular magnetic fields Ita bar magnet is bent and joined a circular magnet is formed and there are no north south poles and the magnetic flux field is contained within the magnet as a circular magnetic field. There is no external magnetic field. However the presence of a crack allows the magnetic flux field to leave the bar at the North Pole and returns at the South Pole once again creating a flux leakage field to which finely divided magnetic iron particles may be attracted as shown in Figure 48, a. uncracked b. cracked Figure 4.8 Circular magnetic flux fields. “TECQOH.1 Ee Coure Note Pope at of 204LESSON 4 MAGNETISM Magnetic materials If an object is placed in a magnetic field a force is exerted on it and it becomes magnetized. The intensity of magnetization depends upon the susceptibility of the metal to become magnetized. Some metals are attracted to a magnet, these are para-magnetic metals of which ferro-magnetic materials are a sub group, Others are repelled by magnets; these are dia-magnetic metals. Para-magnetic materials _ Para-magnetic metals have a positive susceptibility to magnetization that means they are attracted to magnets. Some are only weakly attracted; magnesium, molybdenum, lithium and tantalum are examples. Ferromagnetic metals. These are para-magnetic materials that have a large and positive susceptibility to magnetization. They have a strong attraction and are able to retain their magnetization after the magnetizing field has been removed. Iron, cobalt and nickel are examples of ferromagnetic metals. Ferromagnetic materials are the only metals commonly inspected with the magnetic particle testing method. This includes welded steel structures and nickel based jet turbine blades. Dia-magnetic materials. Diamagnetic metals have a small and negative susceptibility to magnetization or are slightly repelled by magnets. Copper, silver and gold are examples of diamagnetic materials. Magnetic properties The following properties of a metal can determine how effective the eddy current method will be in evaluating a part.As. LESSON 4 MAGNETISM ‘Permeability (1), Refers to the ease with which a magnetic flux is established in the article being magnetised. metal htis easly neapetsed ‘has high permeability. One that is) difficult to magnetise has low permeability. Permeability |W="B/H measured in Henry per metre (Him) where B = magnetic flux density (Tesla) and H = magnetising force (ampere per metre) (Reluctance) This is the opposition of a magnetic metal to the establishment of a magnetic flux. A metal with high permeability will have a low reluctance and a metal with low permeability will have a high reluctance. Residual magnetism This refers to the amount of magnetism retained after the magnetizing force is removed. Metals with high permeability will have a low residual magnetism and metals with low permeability will have high residual magnetism. Retentivity Refers to the ability of the material to retain a certain amount of residual magnetism. Metals with high permeability will have low retentivity magnetism and metals with low permeability will have high retentivity Coercive force Is the reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove the residual magnetism from the part? Metals with high retentivity will require a high coercive force and metals with low retentivity will require a low coercive force. ‘As an example: if a piece of high carbon steel were placed in a magnetizing field: It would have low permeability because it would be hard to magnetise. It would be highly reluctant to accept a magnatic flux because of the high carbon content. “TECOOt.1 Te Course Notes Page 33 ol 254ATTAR LESSON 4 MAGNETISM ‘ It would have a high residual magnetic field. The high carbon steel is reluctant to accept a magnetic flux but is also reluctant to give it up once it has been accepted. t would be highly retentive of the magnetic field that it has accepted. it would take @ high coercive force to remove the residual magnetism from the high carbon steel part. Hysteresis loops. The permeability of a material can be determined by increasing the magnetizing force (electric current strength) until the material reaches its saturation point. Each type of material has a point of maximum flux density (saturation). It we place a piece of steel in an electric circuit so that a direct current (DC) passes through it, we can plot the relation between magnetizing current “H” and the flux density “B*. The DC current is increased slowly by hand and may be reversed when required. The result is a hysteresis loop as shown in Figure 4.10 below. At each increase of the force H there is an increase in flux density B until B no longer increases with increasing H, the saturation point is reached. ¢ The dashed line (points o-a) shows the maximum flux density and is often referred to as the virgin curve and it may be seen that as the magnetic force (DC current) is increased, the flux in the material increases quite rapidly at first, then more slowly until it reaches a point beyond which any increase in the magnetizing force does not increase the flux density (point a). TESLA B+ IFLUX DENSITY) He (MAGNETIZING FORCE OF OPPOSITE POLARITY TO H+} He MAGNETIZING FORCE) f Wee - FER YW ( fe (FLUX DENSITY OF OPPOSITE fo A POLARITY TO B+) NErate Figure 4.10 fisteresis loop, acCAtions ( Gate | TECOOr.1 ET2 Gouse Notes Page 94294LESSON 4 MAGNETISM Figure 4.10 as the magnetizing force is reduced to zero (from point a to b), the flux density slowly drops until the magnetizing force (DC current) is zero, Figure aq The ability of the steel to retain a certain amount of residual magnetism is called retentivity, as shown between points o and b. senha e+ crux oeusnyy sme | MAGHETISM , bY (uacnerizac FORCED He ne co macnernzOG Force Figure 4.11. Measure of residual magnetism when the magnetizing force is zero. When the magnetizing force is reversed, or goes from positive DC current to negative DC current, the flux density is reduced to zero at point c as shown in Figure 4.12 below. Bt (FLUX DENSITID RETENTIVITY (RESIDUAL MAGNETISM) (MAGNETIZING Forcey H- Me Co MAGNETIZING FORCE: coercive Force Figure 4.12 Measure of the coercive force (reverse magnetizing force) required to remove the residual magnetism or return B to zero. T0001. E72 Cate Hates Page 95 of 208ATTAR LESSON 4 MAGNETISM ( ‘The coercive force is the reverse magnetizing force required to remove residual magnetism from the material as shown in Figure 4.12 above. Hardened steel would require a stronger reverse magnetizing force to remove the residual magnetism than would a soft plain carbon steel. As the reverse magnetizing force is increased beyond point c, the flux density increases to the saturation point in the reverse direction shown at point d in Figure 4.13 below. Point e in Figure 4.13 below shows the residual magnetic field in the reverse direction. B+ (FLUX DeNSITDD RESIDUAL thenerisa te macneri2Ie Fores ws fee Cemacueniame Force | —~ neverse I RESICUAL acnerisa saTuravion pom oF ‘SPPOStTE POLARITY. & Figure 4.13 Measure of the reverse residual magnetism. The force required to remove this residual field is shown between points 0 and f and is again called coercive force, Figure 4.14, below. + CFLux DeNsiMn vxoiun FLux Bexsity MaAGNeTIZNG (MAGNETIZING FORCE UME. FORCED We He CeMAGRETIZING Force) ~ ‘COERCIVE FoRcE Figure 4.14 The completed hysteresis loop showing the reverse coercive force. ‘TECOOt.1 E72 Course Not Page 9 204B ATTAR pe vineatarconan LESSON 4 MAGNETISM The hysteresis loop is completed as the magnetizing force is again increased to a maximum flux density at point a, Figure 4.14. A hysteresis loop as shown on the previous pages, is formed with every complete cycle of 80 hertz alternating current where the current is automatically reversed between straight (+) polarity and reverse (-) polarity 50 times per second. The hysteresis loop gets its name from the lag between the applied magnetizing force and the actual flux density in the part. A wide hysteresis loop indicates a material that is difficult to magnetize (one with a high reluctance). A narrow hysteresis loop indicates a material that is easy to magnetize (one with a low reluctance). TEODD1. ETE Gouge Notes Page ao 208LESSON 4 : MAGNETISM ( Page Intentionally Blank “TeCoor.+ ET2 Course Noe Page a0 of 204LESSON 5. PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING Eddy current testing involves the use of a varying magnetic field produced by a test coil to induce small, circulating currents called eddy currents into electrically conductive materials. Certain properties within the material have an effect on the induced eddy currents. The eddy currents themselves set up a magnetic field that interacts with the magnetic field of the coil in such a way that the impedance of the test coil is changed. Any change in the eddy currents is reflected by a change in test coil impedance. Since the impedance of the test coil can be monitored by instruments, any factor existing in the material under test that affects the eddy currents can be detected. Basic Eddy Current Theory Faraday's law states that whenever a magnetic field cuts a conductor an electrical current will flow in the conductor if a closed path is provided over which current can circulate. Figure 5.1 illustrates the application of this law to eddy current testing. pee Ee MAGNETIC FIELO AS COIL's MAGNETIC FIELD ALTERNATES Test CoML, EOo¥ GURMENTS FLOW IN ONE DIRECTION AND THEN THE OTHER goDY GURRENT Paris MATERIAL Figure 5.1. Induction of eddy currents The alternating current flowing through the test coil produces an alternating magnetic field in the coil. When the test coil is brought near to, or placed on, material that is capable of conducting electrical current the magnetic field passes into (cuts) the material and circular eddy currents are induced in the material. E0001. E72 Cowge Noes Page 29 204A. LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING The flow of eddy currents in the material causes a fluctuating magnetic field of its ‘own. This magnetic field is always in opposition to the coil's magnetic field as illustrated in Figure 5.2. Thus, when the test coil is placed on conductive material, the strength of the coil's magnetic field is lessened. This change in the magnetic. field causes a change in the impedance of the coil which, in turn, causes a change in the current flowing through the coil. This change in impedance is detected by a meter placed in the test circuit. Inoicaris INSTRUMENT So oinecrion oF cow's rieto conoucrive MATERIAL, ©) EDDY CURRENTS Figure 5.2 Basic eddy current test system It follows then that anything that affects the eddy currents will affect the impedance of the coil and, thus, be detectable by the test circuit. Geometry of Eddy Currents Figure 5.3 illustrates the three basic types of test coils used in eddy current testing: the surface coil, the encircling coil, and the internal, or bobbin type, coil Because the positioning of the surface coil relative to the matetial differs from that of the encircling and internal coils, the eddy current geometry differs since eddy currents always have a definite spatial relationship with the magnetic fields producing them. Understanding this relationship is very important when looking for, or recognizing the presence of, discontinuities. TECa0|.1 E12 Cree Notes Page 4 01206LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING SURFACE COWL EXTERNAL COIL Figure 5.3 Basic test coil types Eddy currents produced by test coils always flow parallel to the plane of the coil producing them. Eddy currents are strongest near the surface of the material and their strength decreases with depth. Thus, a discontinuity whose major axis lies parallel to the current flow will not have as great an effect on the eddy currents as one whose major axis cuts across the flow of current; and a deep lying discontinuity will not have as great an effect as one lying near the surface. Surface Coil Eddy Current Geometry Figure 5.4 shows a surface probe as it is placed near the test article, the eddy currents produced, and the geometric relationships between the test coil and the eddy currents. When the inspection coil is energized with alternating current a small (in size) alternating magnetic field is produced. The magnetic field is approximately the same diameter as the coil. ‘The induced current (eddy current) flows at right angles to the coil’s magnetic field. Since the magnetic field is perpendicular to the face of the coil, the eddy currents circulate in planes parallel to the face of the coll. The magnetic field produced by the eddy currents is at right angles to the current flow and opposes the primary magnetic field. Note that when a surface probe is used, the eddy currents induced are parallel to the surface. ‘TECOOr.1 2 Course Note Page 41 of 24LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING PRIMARY ELECTRO. MAGNETIC FIELD com. SECONDARY FIELD on conpuctor BY EDDY. CURRENT ‘OPPOSES EDDY CURRENT PRIMARY, PATHS FIELO (EDDY CURRENT ‘STRENGTH DECREASES WITH DEPTH OF PENETRATION) Figure 5.4 Eddy currents produced by a surface coil Encircling Coil Eddy Current Geometry | Figure 5.5 shows the eddy currents produced in a test rod by an encircling coil Since the primary magnetic field intensity in the coil is normally considered to be constant across the diameter of the coil, it might seem reasonable to expect that the density of the eddy currents induced would also be constant across the rod. This is not true. The eddy current strength is greater near the surface and decreases towards the center of the rod. If the diameter of the rod is large enough there is no current at the center. This phenomenon is known as the “skin effect” and is the result of the opposition of the eddy current field. The eddy current magnetic field at the surface opposes the primary field and reduces it. This reduced field is again reduced by eddy currents just below the surface. Ultimately the strength of the primary field is reduced to zero and no further eddy currents are induced. Note that the eddy currents flow in the same direction as the current flow in the coil; .¢., around the circumference of the rod. Thus the encircling coil is especially adapted to locating discontinuities which are parallel to the length of the rod. ‘TEGOOI. E72 Course Notes Pago 420206Be... LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING Figure 5.5 Eddy currents produced by an encircling coil The eddy current paths that result from an internal coil, like those resulting from an external coil, flow circumferentially around the pipe. Due to the skin effect, the current is more highly concentrated on the inner surface of the pipe and decreases towards the outer surface. Thus, the internal coil is more sensitive to discontinuities on the inner surface of the pipe. Material Properties Affecting Eddy Currents There are three fundamental properties of materials that affect the eddy currents induced in the test material. These are: a. The.conduetivity of the material. b. Theidimensions of the material c. The|permeability of the material Variations in each of these fundamental properties cause changes in the impedance of the test circuit Conductivity Conductivity of a material was defined as the ability of the material to carry electrical current, i.e., the number of amperes of current that will flow through a given size (cross-sectional area) of the material when a given voltage is applied to the material. This definition is too cumbersome to use with ease in eddy current testing. Instead, the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) system is used. ‘TECOO!.1 2 Course Note Pago 4 204ATTAR ee LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TE! In the IACS system the conductivity of unalloyed (pure) annealed copper is arbitrarily selected as the standard and the conductivities of all other mat are expressed as a percentage of this standard. For example, a wire made of aluminum can carry only 61% of the current that can be carried by the same size wire made of pure alloyed copper at a given voltage Metal or Alloy Conductivity, % [ACS Silver 105 Copper, Annealed 100 Gold 70 | Aluminum 7 61 7 ‘Aluminum Alloys 6061.76 A 7075.16 32. 2024.74 30 Magnesium Bre E [70/30 Brass 28 Phosphor Bronzes it [Monel 3.6 Zirconium 34 Titanium 34 Ti.6A14V Alloy 10 304 Stainless Steel 23 Table 5.1A summary of conductivity values for selected materials. Each type of material has an inherent conductivity that is different from every other type of material. Some are good conductors: others are poor conductors; and some cannot conduct electricity at all. Table 5.1 lists the % IACS conductivity of several materials. A more comprehensive list is given in ‘Appendix 1. In order to perform tests using eddy currents, the material must have some degree of conductivity. The higher the conductivity, the more sensitive the test. |Factors affecting conductivity | While the inherent conductivity of a material is always the same, there are internal factors that can cause what appears to be a change in the inherent conductivity. These are: 1) a combination of two or more materials to form an alloy; 2) changes in the hardness of the material; 3) temperature of, and residual stresses in, the material; and 4) the presence of a coating or cladding of another material. Page 4 o 206LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING a. Alloys. Alloys are combinations of other metals and/or chemical elements with a base metal. Each metal or chemical element has an individual effect on the conductivity of the base metal. The conductivity of the base metal is changed to a value related to the composition of the alloy. Thus it is possible to identify basic metals and their alloys by measuring their conductivities. b. Hardness. When a metal or alloy is subjected to heat treatment (or to excessive heat during normal operation) the metal will . become harder or softer depending on the material. This change in hardness is brought about by an internal change in the material which also affects the conductivity of the material. This change in conductivity can also be detected by eddy current test methods. An improper heat treatment can be detected in this manner. c. Temperature and Residual Stresses. The ambient temperature and internal residual stresses of a material under test also have an effect on the conductivity of the material. These changes can also be detected by eddy current testing. An increase in the temperature of the material normally results in a decrease in the conductivity of the material. Residual stresses cause an unpredictable, but detectable, change in conduct Conductive Coatings. The presence of a conductive coating on a conductive material changes the inherent conductivity of the base metal just as an alloy would. However, if the thickness of the cladding varies, the conductivity will vary. This change in thickness can be detected by eddy current testing methods. Dimensional factors of the material that are of concern in eddy current testing fall under two types: 1) the dimension and shape of the material under test; and 2) the presence of discontinuities in the material a. Material Thickness. Eddy currents do not penetrate throughout a thick material but tend to be concentrated near the surface. Thus, there is a finite, or limited, depth of penetration. For mathematical reasons it has become useful to define the standard depth of penetration as the distance from the surface of the article to the point where the current density is, approximately 37% of the current density at the surface. ‘TeOQo1.1 2 Course Notes Page 450208ATTAR LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING ‘The depth of penetration of eddy currents in a material depends upon the inherent conductivity of the material (the greater the conductivity, the less the penetration) and the frequency of the alternating current used to energize the test coil (the lower the frequency, the greater the penetration). When the material is thin enough, as shown on Figure 5.6, so that all of the coil's magnetic field is not utilized in creating eddy currents, the strength of the eddy current is reduced. This appears to the test circuit as an apparent difference in conductivity from that of the thicker piece of the material. x come OS fe ms keg Eee | Figure 5.6 Effect of material thickness on eddy current tests b. _ Discontinuities. The flow of eddy current within the material is affected by the presence of discontinuities such as cracks, porosity, or inclusions. Discontinuities cause an apparent decrease in the flow of electricity in the material by increasing the length of the path along which the current must flow as shown on Figure 5.7. This results in a reduction of current flow which causes a change in the impedance of the test circuit. WoicaTiNG insrmuwent] { SOURCE DIRECTION OF colt’s FIELO DIRECTION OF EODY CURRENT’S FIELD DISCONTINUITY EDDY CURRENTS. ‘TECOO1.+ ETE Cows Noi Page 45 0 204Boe. ATTAR LESSONS PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING The magnitude of the indication caused by a discontinuity is primarily dependent upon the amount of current disrupted by the discontinuity. In other words, the depth, width and length of the discontinuity determines the change in indication. Permeability When an energized test coil is placed upon nonmagnetised ferromagnetic material, the greatly intensified by the magnetic properties of the material so that a large change in the impedance of the test coil occurs. If the magnetic field strength at various locations varies even slightly, these small variations have a large effect on the impedance of the coil. These changes in the impedance of the coil are often so large (in comparison to the changes caused by changes in conductivity or dimension) that they mask all other changes. When specimen geometry permits, this effect may be overcome by magnetizing the material to saturation using a separate coil powered by direct current. Magnetic saturation effectively eliminates any variations in the residual magnetic field due to magnetic variables, and thus allows other variations to be measured. After testing is completed, the article must be demagnetized. Dimensional Factors of Coils The dimensional factors of coils that are of concern in eddy current testing are: the spacing between the test coil and the material, the depth of penetration of the eddy currents produced by the coil, and the size and shape of the test coil. Each of these factors affect the eddy currents induced into the material and therefore affect the readings obtained during the test. Lift off and fil factor are the terms used to describe any space that occurs between the article under test and the inspection coil (see Figure 5.8). Each has an identical effect on the eddy currents. Lift off and fill factor are essentially the ‘same thing; one is applied to surface coils and the other to encircling and internal coils. a. __Lift Off. When a surface coil is energized and held in air above a conductor the impedance of the coil has a certain value. As the coil is moved closer to the conductor the initial value will change when the field of the coil begins to intercept the conductor. Because the field of the coil is strongest close to the coil, the impedance value will continue to change until the coil is directly on the conductor. Conversely, once the coil is on the conductor any small variation in the separation of coil and conductor will change the impedance of the coil. “TEGOON + E72 Gouge Noes Page 47 0 204k=. LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING The lift off effect is so pronounced that small variations in spacing can mask many indications. INDIGATION. IMPEDANCE INDIGANON urtorr e oe eaaent avmaenn -(2} Figure 5.8 Lift off and fill factor b. Fill Factor n(6ta). In an encircling coil, or an internal coil, fill factor is a measure of how well the conductor (test specimen) fits the coil. It is necessary to maintain a constant relationship between the diameter of the coil and the diameter of the conductor. Again, small changes in the diameter of the conductor can cause changes in the impedance of the coil. This can be useful in detecting changes in the diameter of the conductor but it can also mask other indications. For an external coi Fill Factor 9 = (Dy/D2)” Where Dyis the part diameter and Dz is the coil diameter ‘For an internal coi Fill Factor 7 = (D2/Dy)?_ Thus the fill factor must be less than 1 since ify = 1 the coil is exactly the same size as the material. However, the closer the fill factor is to 1 the more precise the test. Because of the necessity to maintain fill factor at a constant value (assuming no change in the diameter of the rod or tube under test) it is necessary to have the means to guide the specimen through the centre of the coil as shown in Figure 5.9, or the means to guide the probe through the tube. “TECOOt.1 ETa Course Nees Page a8 204ATTAR LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING GUIDE COIL. © RODOR GUIDE, uF ‘sue cure jure 5.9 Guides ensure constant fill factor Eddy currents are not uniformly distributed throughout an article being inspected. They densest at the surface immediately beneath the coil and become progressively less dense with increasing distance below the surface of the material. At some distance below the surface of a thick material there will be essentially no currents flowing. Figure 5.10 shows the distribution of eddy currents in a material Of course, the depth of penetration would vary with different materials because it is affected by the conductivity and permeability of the material. The higher the conductivity of the material the less the penetration; and the higher the permeability the less the penetration. The effectiveness of permeability is, of course, absent in nonferromagnetic materials. When testing ferromagnetic materials, the permeability factor will have no effect on the depth of penetration if the test article is magnetized to saturation by a separate DC coil. 120 : | Figure 5.10 Variation in eddy 38 om0)\ oor akvernanion current density Bag om|\ |_/THEOE SRE graterscyee"- sea o BEE ozo} Ni unitsoF peers UNMULTIPLES OF THE STANDARD Derr OF PENETRATION] TEO001.1 E72 Gouge Noes Page 490 204LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING The one controllable test parameter that affects the depth of penetration is the test frequency. The depth of penetration decreases as the frequency increases. At low frequencies, magnetic fields and eddy currents penetrate more deeply into the material, At higher frequencies eddy currents are limited to a thin layer just, beneath the surface so that deeper sections cannot be investigated, but the sensitivity of the eddy currents to surface discontinuities is increased. Standard depth of penetration The standard depth of penetration has been defined as the depth at which the eddy current density is about 37% of the density at the surface. Figure 5.11 shows the standard depth of penetration for several materials with different conductivities at various operating frequencies. Ht DEPTH OF PENETRATION (ich? [FREQUENCY (KH Figure 5.11. Standard depth of penetration versus frequency for different materials. If the standard depth of penetration exceeds the thickness of the material under test, the restriction of the eddy current paths appears as a change in conductivity of the material. The coil response then reflects the thickness of the material. It should be remembered, however, that eddy currents do not cease to exist beyond the standard depth. Normally, the material must have a thickness of 2 or 5 times the standard depth before thickness ceases to have any effect on the test coil. ‘Teooot.1 E12 Gowee Notas Page 50 0294ATTAR LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING | Edge effect, ‘As shown in Figure 5.12, eddy currents are distorted when the end, or an edge, of a part is approached with the test coil since the currents have no place to flow. The distortion results in a false indication that is known as “edge effect.” (Edge effect is also apparent at the junction of different materials.) 2 SURFACE COIL ENCIRCLING COIL Figure 5.12. Distortion of eddy current field due to edge effect. Sinoe, to the test coil, the edge of the part looks like a very large crack or hole, there is a very strong reaction that will mask any changes due to other factors. The limit as to how close to the edge a coil can be placed is determined by the size of the coil. Locating the limit at which edge effect becomes a factor to be considered is accomplished by approaching the edge with the inspection coil at several different places (to assure that the reading is not affected by some discontinuity) and observing the initial change in the instrument reading. This initial change marks the limit of coil measurement towards the edge: In searching for discontinuities such as cracks, which are often found at the edges of parts or bolt holes, edge effect can be overcome by using a special holder which will maintain a constant coil to edge distance. If this distance can be held constant, instrument response to the edge of the material will not change as the coil is run along the edge unless there is some discontinuity. A discontinuity will cause a change above the edge effect balance point ‘TECOOt.1 ET Course Nets Page Sto 206LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING ‘Summary — In eddy current inspection a magnetic field is produced by an alternating current flowing through the test coil. When the energized coil is brought close to, or placed in contact with, a conductive material, eddy currents are induced in the material. The induced eddy currents produce a magnetic field that opposes the field produced by the coil. The net effect is to cause a change in the impedance of the test coil. This change in impedance can be detected with a high degree of accuracy by the instrument circuits. A.change in test coil impedance can be caused by three fundamental physical and metallurgical properties of the material that affect the amount of eddy current in the material under test. These are: the conductivity of the material, the dimensions of the material, and the permeability of the material Several factors affect the conductivity of the material. These are: Alloying of two or more materials, The hardness of the material, Temperature of, and residual stresses in, the material and The presence of coatings over the material aeon Dimensional factors that affect eddy current testing are: a. The thickness of the material and b. The presence of discontinuities in the material. Permeability is a factor only when the material to be tested is ferromagnetic ‘material, i.e., is capable of being magnetized. Permeability has an adverse effect on the eddy current test, but the adverse effect may be overcome by magnetizing the test specimen to saturation with a coil powered by direct current. Geometrical factors of coils that are of concern to the test technician are: a. The size, shape, and positioning of the coil, b. The geometric relationship between the coil windings and the suspected discontinuities, c. The effect of changes in lit off or fill factor, d. The depth of penetration, and e. The edge effect TeooOI.1 ET Course Notes Page 520 204LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING ‘The problem faced by the nondestructive testing technician is one of determining which of the factors caused the change in impedance. The major objectives in the development of the science of eddy current testing is to find ways to ascertain the exact cause for the change, i.e, to eliminate those factors which are not of interest. Because of the need to know how to separate the various factors causing impedance changes, the usefulness of an eddy current test is dependent upon the knowledge and skill of the technician. TeOOO1 1 E72 Gouge Naas Page 5801 208LESSON 5 PRINCIPLES OF EDDY. CURRENT TESTING Page Intentionally Blank ‘Teooot.s E72 Course Nees Page So 204