EC LVL 2 Notes 14-17

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EC LVL 2 Notes 14-17

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ney LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS Tubes or rods up to about 50 mm diameter can be inspected for discontinuities with encircling coils. Discontinuity sensitivity in larger diameter components decreases because the inspected volume increases while discontinuity “volume” remains the same for a given discontinuity. For larger diameters, surface probes should be used to obtain higher discontinuity sensitivity, see Lesson 12. The components can be in the form of wire, bars or tubes and round, square, rectangular or hexagonal in shape, as long as appropriate coil shapes are used. Inspection is fast and efficient since an encircling coil samples the complete circumference of the component, allowing 100% inspection in one pass. Discontinuity detectability depends on disruption of eddy current flow. Therefore, the best probe is the one which induces highest possible eddy current density in the region of material to be inspected, and perpendicular to the discontinuity. When planning an inspection, the following questions must first be answered: pe of discontinuities is Once these questions have been answered a suitable probe design, test frequency and calibration standards can be decided upon. With the proper procedures it is possible to discriminate between discontinuity signals and false indications as well as determine depth once a discontinuity is located. These procedures are based on knowledge of impedance diagrams and phase lag. Probes for Tubes and Cylindrical Components Four common probe types for testing round materials are illustrated in Figure 14.1: (b) and (d) are differential probes, (a) and (c) show absolute probes. Each type contains two separate coils to satisfy AC bridge circuit requirements, which is the typical mode of operation of most eddy current instruments. These bridges require matching coils on two separate legs of the bridge to balance, thus permitting amplification of the small impedance differences between the two Coils. If the two coils are placed side by side, both equally sensing the test material, the probe is “differential”. If one coil senses the test article, the other acting only as a reference, the probe is absolute. ‘TECOON.1 E72 Course Notes Page 19901284LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS Figure 14.1(a) and (c) show effective designs for absolute probes; the piggy-back reference coil is separated from the test article by the test coil and therefore couples only slightly to the test article (fil factor n rremea. oe () excncLine Prone, IF FenenToAL Tee Figure 14.1 Tube Probe Types TE0001.1 E72 Couee Neos aga 1960238Be ae LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS Coil size The best compromise between resolution and signal amplitude is obtained when coil length and thickness equal discontinuity depth. See Figure 14.2 for a labeled diagram of a probe cross section. 4 je DIL sPaciNG —] con mors ort ticaness ‘D (AVERAGE COIL DIAMETER) TuBE-cO1L CLEARANCE UZIEZLZZZIZI EEL LL EE . However, to improve coupling, a rectangular cross section with thickness reduced to one half the length can be used. For greater sensitivity to small near surface discontinuities, coil length and thickness can both be reduced further. Unfortunately this will result in a decrease in sensitivity to external (far surface) discontinuities. Coil spacing, in differential probes, should approximately equal discontinuity depth or wall thickness for general inspections. For increased sensitivity to near surface discontinuities, spacing can be reduced at the expense of a reduction in sensitivity with distance from the coil. Probe to tube clearance or gap should be as small as possible. In most internal tube inspections, a gap equal to half the wall thickness is common Absolute probes with a fixed reference coil are essential to basic understanding. They enable study of all physical properties of a test article by plotting characteristic impedance loci When an absolute coil signal is plotted as a function of distance (as the probe travels along a tube axis) dimensional variations and discontinuities can be separated. See the example of Figure 14.3(b). The signal is a function of effective cross section area of eddy current flow, i.e., wall thickness in the case of tubes, and can be analyzed like a surface roughness trace with the extra advantage that subsurface discontinuities can be sensed. ‘TeCoat.1 Ee Course Notes Page 1950254LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS _FR ooo LL LO | “y cero = heen Figure 14.3. Eddy Current Y Channel Recordings from a Brass Heat Exchanger Tube OD = 26.9 mm, t= L.lmm, feo =21 kHz In tube testing with an internal coil, absolute probe signals from discontinuities and supports are simple and undistorted; signals from multiple discontinuities and discontinuities under support plates are often vectorially additive. Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition (although they could be wound in addition with similar results). When the two coils are over a discontinuity free area of test sample, there is no differential signal developed between the coils since they are both inspecting identical material. However, when first one and then the other of the two coils passes over a discontinuity, a differential signal is produced. They have the advantage of being insensitive to slowly varying properties such as gradual dimensional variations and temperature: the signals from two adjacent sections of a test article continuously cancel. Probe wobble signals are also reduced with this probe type. However, there are disadvantages; the signals may be difficult to interpret, even to the extent of being misleading. Discontinuity signals under support plates can be extremely complicated. The signal from a discontinuity is displayed twice: once as the first coil approaches the discontinuity and again for the second coil. The two signals form a mirror image and the signal direction from the first coil must be noted. If a discontinuity is longer than the spacing between the two coils only the leading and trailing edges will be detected due to signal cancellation when both coils sense the discontinuity equally. ‘TeDoat.+ ere couse Noes Page 196 of 238LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS Tespond to both sudden and gradual changes in properties and dimensions separate (simple interpretation) combined signals are usually easy to ‘An even more serious situation occurs with differential probes when the ends of a discontinuity vary gradually; the discontinuity may not be observed at all. The advantages and disadvantages of the two probe types are: prone to drift from temperature instability more sensitive to probe wobble than a differential probe show total length of discontinuities ot sensitive to gradual changes in properties or dimensions Tot sensitive to gradual changes (may miss long gradual discontinuities entirely) immune to drift from temperature changes will only detect ends of long discontinuities less sensitive to probe wobble than an absolute probe may yield signals difficult to interpret “TeCoOr.1 ET? Course Notes Page 1970206LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS When inspecting for discontinuities, it is essential that flow of eddy currents be as perpendicular as possible to discontinuities to obtain maximum response. If eddy currents flow parallel to a discontinuity there will be little distortion of the eddy currents and hence little change in probe impedance. The eddy current flow characteristics of circumferential internal or external probes are listed and illustrated in Figure 14.4. 00" CURRENTS FLOW Im CLOSED PATHS = EDDY CURRENT FLORS PARALLEL TO nor cunPeNT FLOW biMini SHES 10 {MED To" cONBUCTING MATERIAL OIL HINGINGS - naY SERSITIVE 7ea0 AY THE CENTRE OF 4 SOLI0 ROD Ta'PURELY CIROUMPERENTIAL GRACES MD SENSITIVITY AT CENTAE coor SEARITION etme f: cunkents core oor cuRnent FLOWS PARALLEL {0 CURRENTS CONCENTRATE NEAR THE TRE SURFACE «NOT SERSITINE SURFACE CLOSE TD THE COIL - OEPTH oasis Pame Ons. (oF PENETAKTION 1S CONTROLLED BY TEST FREQUENCY Figure 14.4 Directional properties of eddy currents in cylindrical test articles TECOON.s E72 Cours Reses Page 198 294LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS In addition to considerations of eddy current flow direction, the following are important: 1 * | Magnetic flux is not bounded by the tube wall but will induce eddy currents in adjacent conducting material, e.g. tube support plates in heat exchangers. * Eddy current coils are sensitive to ferromagnetic material introduced into a coils magnetic field. The ferromagnetic material need not be an electrical conductor nor need it form a closed path for eddy currents. * Eddy current coils are sensitive to all material variations that affect conductivity or permeability. Impedance Plane Diagrams Eddy current probes for testing cylindrical components differ mechanically from those for plate testing, but coil impedance can be treated similarly for both test coil configurations. The impedance display treatment introduced in Lesson 12 applies for internal and external circumferential coils with the following changes: 1. Liftoff becomes “fil-factor’, Fill factor is a measure of coupling between the coil and test object. In general, itis the fraction of magnetic field that crosses the test object; for a long coil, this is the fraction of the test coil area filed with test material. for an encircling coil, 1 =Do*/D,” for a bobbin type internal coil, n=D./D? where Deis cylinder diameter De is average coil diameter and D; is tube internal diameter Fill factor is always a quantity less than or equal to one (n < 1.0). For a coil inside a tube the impedance change due to decreasing 7 is the same as an increase in D, (with constant wall thickness). For a coil around a tube or cylinder, decreasing 1 is the same as decreasing Do, 2. Probe diameter in plate testing is replaced by tube or cylinder diameter for cylindrical components. They have a similar effect on the operating point on the impedance diagram. TE0001.1 E72 Gouge Notes Page 199296LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS Figure 14.5 summarizes the effect of test and material variables on a simple semicircular impedance diagram. Note the similarity of changes in resistivity, test frequency, diameter and fill-factor with the surface probe results of Figures 12.9 to 12.13. Impedance diagrams presented in the literature are often only strictly valid for long coils (much longer than material thickness), coil lengths for inspection are normally only a fraction of material diameter. Decreasing coil length has an effect similar to decreasing fill-factor, it causes the impedance diagram to be smaller than expected (but similar in shape) from coil and test material geometry. Following sections will present impedance diagrams for tubes and solid cylinders. For simplicity a fil-factor of unity will be used. | ac / ieee a) Figure 14.5 Simplified impedance diagram of a long coil around a non- magnetic thin wall tube showing effect of test and material variablesA. z LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS Solid cylinders The impedance diagram for a solid cylinder (diameter, D.) inside a long coil is shown in Figure 14.6. As in Figure 14.5 an increase in test frequency or diameter moves the operating point (the point on the impedance diagram that specifies the normalized inductive reactance and resistance of the test coil) down the curve while an increase in resistivity moves it up the curve. This diagram applies to both wires and round bars. R Figure 14.6 Impedance diagram for a solid cylinder The shape of impedance diagrams for cylinders differs markedly from a semicircle, particularly at higher test frequencies. The shape difference is due to skin effect and phase lag, factors which were not included in arriving at the semicircular shapes in earlier lessons. At high test frequencies the curve approaches the X and Y axes at 45°, In testing cylinders with an encircling coil it should be recognized that sensitivity to discontinuities at the centre of bar or wire is zero, regardless of test frequency. The reason for this is illustrated schematically in Figure 14.7 which shows plots of eddy current density across a cylinder. ‘TEODOT.1 E72 Course Nets Page 201 ot 234LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS tow rrewency p> 22 9, ‘wreeueoiaTE FReavency 8 = 92 10 wie ereoueney 5 «SE. aaius iomuAL2€0 EOOY CURRENT BENSITY Figure 14.7 Schematic of eddy current distribution in a cylinder surrounded by an encireling coil Discontinuities have to disrupt eddy current flow in order to affect probe impedance. It is apparent from Figure 14.7 that eddy current density is always zero at the centre of a cylinder resulting in no sensitivity to discontinuities. Sensitivity in Centre of a Cylinder It was stated in the previous section that eddy current density in the centre of a cylinder is zero because eddy current flow is proportional to radial distance from centre of a cylinder. Hence no current flows at the centre (at r = 0) and there is no sensitivity to discontinuities. ‘eca0t.1 £re Course Nees Page 2020258ATTAR LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS Tubes The impedance diagram for an extremely thin-wall tube with either an internal or external circumferential coil is a semicircle. This shape is only obtained when wall thickness, t, is much less than skin depth (te<8), i.e. skin effect and phase lag are negligible. This situation will rarely be encountered in practice, especially at intermediate and high test frequencies, but the concept is useful since it defines one of the coil impedance limits. With an external coil the other limit is defined by the impedance curve for a solid cylinder (maximum possible wall thickness). The impedance diagram for any lube tested with an external coil, hence, has to lie between the two broken curves in Figure 14.8, for example the solid line applies to a tube with internal diameter 80% of the outside diameter i.e., Di/Do = 0.8. Tubes with D/D, greater than 0.8 would lie to the right of the solid line. The dotted lines in Figure 14.8 trace the shift in operating point as wall thickness decreases (D, constant, Dy increasing). Note the spiral shape of the wall thickness locus. The thick wall end of the curve deviates from a semicircle locus. This is attributed to phase lag across the tube wall and forms the basis for eddy current signal analysis. runceR (25 + 0) + WHE (0; /0, + 08) # TWIN AALL (O\=093 7 t 5 ocennine mie rceness 2 onancs2en west staves Figure 14.8. impedance diagram for a tube with encircling coil showing effect of decreasing wall thickness ‘TeCOOI.1 ET2 Gowse Notes Page 2030 296ATTAR LESSON 14 TESTING OF TUBES & CYLINDRICAL PRODUCTS Figure 14.8 also illustrates the dependence of the terms “thick-wall” and “thin- wall” on test frequency, Near the top of the diagram (low frequency) a tube with DyD, = 0.8 qualifies as thin wall, there is no phase lag across the tube wall, te< 8. Near the bottom (high frequency) the same tube becomes thick-wall because thickness becomes much greater than skin depth, for eddy current purposes the tube now appears as a solid cylinder. When a tube is tested with an internal circumferential coil the impedance diagram for a thin-wall tube remains semicircular but that for a thick-wall tube differs markedly from a solid cylinder; compare Figures 14.8 and 14.9. The THIER MMLL TUBE (0,C) aBsoLute a Tanouse 5 MOLE g ef 9.0. veFer & Lab. eereer 0 ECeregee eee creer ee rea ter 0 1 2 30 a 50 60 70 ao 90 ‘¢) DIFFERENTIAL SIGNAL PATTERN PHASE ANGLE (8), DEGREES Figure 15.7 Eddy current phase angle/defect depth calibration ‘TECOO.T ET? Cours Notes Page 201 ot 208LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS. When an eddy current signal source is located it is often useful to retest at other frequencies to confirm a defect exists and/or to improve depth estimate. Defect depth is estimated from signal pattern recognition and verified by comparison with calibration defect signals at various test frequencies. Normally, frequencies of one-half and twice are sufficient. However, to check for magnetic deposits or inclusions a frequency of one-tenth fao or less may be required. Figure 15.4 shows effect of changes in frequency on calibration signals. Increasing test frequency increases phase separation between ID and OD defects as predicted by phase lag. Italso increases sensitivity to probe wobble and dents but lowers sensitivity to tube supports and external deposits. Is it valid to compare machined holes and grooves in calibration tubes with real defects to estimate type and depth. The following examples justify this approach. Figure 15.8 shows external corrosion in a copper tube. Attack is general but non- uniform with localized severe pitting. An absolute internal probe was used to obtain signals from artificial defects and three of the localized pits. The phase angle of the first two corrosion indications shows they are OD defects, comparison with the calibration defect led to a depth estimate of 25 to 50%. Independent mechanical measurement found deepest penetration to be 50% for both defects. The third defect has a noticeably different phase angle from the first two. It approaches the angle for a through-wall hole, hence its depth was estimated to be 50 to 75% (actual measurement yielded 75%) Lgen 25° 00 ‘caLtBRation pore ECCENTRIC ROOVE erecrs neehe Eccentare ‘eoave conrosion nerects Figure 15.8 Extemal corrosion in a copper tube (Do=15.9 mm, t = 1.0 mm, feo = 5.3 kHz) TeCO01.t ET2Gowse Notes Page 22201296ATTAR LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS ‘An example of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in Type 316 stainless steel, rom a heavy water plant heat exchanger, is shown in Figure 15.9. The crack extends nearly half way around the tube. Phase angle of the crack signal shows it extends through the tube wall. Since the eddy currents flow parallel to coil windings, circumferentially, the large crack signal is due entirely to the component of the crack along the tube axis. The intergranular, branching nature of SCC generally permits their detection. Since a defect must disrupt eddy current flow to be detectable, if circumferential cracks are suspected, fatigue cracks for example, special probes are required. ‘stare? 70 viiladatidiatdad 50% op 3.2 an CONCENTRIC HOLE —~ GROOVE. RACK 1.6 an, SIGNAL HOLE CALIBRATION DEFECTS Figure 15.9 Stress corrosion cracking in type 316 stainless steel tubing (Do =19.1 mm,t = 1.8 mm, feo = 68 kHz) “TECoOI.1 E72 Cause Notes Page zen 1204ATTAR LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS Vectorial Addition and Defects at Baffle Plates During in-service inspection of tubes in heat exchangers, tube supports (baffle plates) are frequently defect prone regions. Inspection for defects at baffles is possible because eddy current signals are often vectorially additive. This permits analysis of superimposed signals; the signals can be (mentally or graphically) subtracted from the total indication with resultant separated signals appearing similar to calibration defects. Vectorial addition provides the basis for multifrequency eddy current testing (Section 15.3). Figure 15.10 illustrates how signals from a steel baffle plate and an external groove are added to obtain a superimposed indication. The difference between the end points of the baffle plate and baffle and groove signals equals the indication obtained from the groove by itself, on se00ve aceite ‘ROOvE Steen BAFFLE Figure 15.10 Vectorial addition of eddy current signals Figure 15.11(a) shows a section of stainless steel tube removed from a power plant heat exchanger with part of the carbon steel support plate still in place. The support shows considerable corrosion; originally there was about 0.25 mm clearance between the tube and the hole in the plate. Corrosion products have completely filled the gap leading to crevice corrosion evident in Figure 16.11(b) which is a similar tube with the plate removed. Calibration signals are presented in Figure 15.11(c). The eddy current signal from the baffle plate region of Figure 1.11(a) is shown in Figure 15.11(d). This seemingly simple signal is actually quite complex. The upward component is due to external pitting similar to that in Figure 15.11(b). The presence of a support plate should result in -X, -Y signal components; in fact a + X deflection is observed ‘TECOON.1 Ere Cours Noter Page 204 ot 284LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS (a) (b) Bate a te) cautnastion (a) Figure 15.11 Corrosion and Denting Under a Steel Baffle Plate (Do 15.9 mm, t = 1.25 mm, Feo = 80 kHz) This is the result of denting of the tube, Denting is circumferential constriction of tubes due to compressive stresses exerted by baffle plate corrosion products such as magnetite. The presence of magnetite can also contribute to signal distortion particularly at low test frequencies. Tube denting is of concer because, in addition to complicating eddy current signal analysis, it can lead to further tube damage such as stfess corrosion cracking or thermal fatigue because tubes are no longer free to expand and contract during thermal cycling Another example of defects near a carbon steel tube support is shown in Figure 15.12. These were obtained from a brass, thermal power plant condenser tube which suffered erosion/corrosion on either side of supports. Defect signals trom the baffle plate vicinity are so large the support signal is obscured. The main point of this example is the advantage of using phase angle, rather than amplitude, to judge defect severity. Defect 8 with both differential and absolute probes has a phase angle approaching that of a through-wall hole, i.e, it probably extends at least 75% through the wall. Defect A on the other hand is vertical and hence is probably no deeper than 50% even though it exhibits greater amplitude than B “TeCoUr.4 ET2 Course Notes Pago 226 of 204ATTAR vnratacom 38 LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS i 7 ale s Tx Figure 15.12 Quadrature eddy current signals from the brass tube in Figure 8.6 Only considered ferromagnetic tube supports have been considered to this point, carbon steel is the material used in most heat exchangers. With magnetic baffle plates vectorial adcition appears to apply for all types of defects. Unfortunately deteriorating water quality, denting problems and longer service life requirements have made it necessary to construct some heat exchangers with non- ferromagnetic support plates. Vectorial addition of eddy current signals involving nonmagnetic supports is generally not valid. Several factors contribute to this situation, nonmagnetic supports yield much larger signals than magnetic supports. The large signal from nonmagnetic baffle plates effectively reduces signal-to-noise making small defects more difficult to detect. Possibly the most difficult defects to detect under non- magnetic supports are those of the same width as the plate, e.g., fretting wear from tube vibration. Figure 15.13(a) illustrates such a situation, a brass baffle plate with a copper-nickel tube containing simulated 50% deep fretting wear. The same defect with a magnetic bafile plate is shown in Figure 15.13(b) for comparison. Problems in detecting defects at non-magnetic supports can not be overcome by employing a multifrequency eddy current technique. The multifrequency approach relies on vectorial addition being valid (Section 15.4). Sensitivity can be improved by employing special probes as will be shown in Section 15.1.6. ‘TEOOOI. E72 Gaus Nowe ego 228 204LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS 80° op ECCENTRIC GROOVE contact (0p Groove (0p aROOVE, BAFFLE ITH eRoove MAXIMUM ERP ° Baeete BRASS BAFFLE Tw conTacT ~—S BRASS, macneTic BAFFLE SRFLE a co) Figure 15.13 Wear Under (a) non-ferromagnetic and (b) ferromagnetic baffle plates ‘Tecoot.+ £72 Gaur Nee Page 2270204LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS Tube Inspection at Tubesheets Heat exchanger tubesheets are usually made of carbon steel, eddy current response should therefore appear similar to a battle signal. In addition, a large fill factor (tube expansion) signal is also obtained as a result of tubes being rolled into tubesheets. Rolling eliminates corrosion prone crevices and also helps hold tubes in the tubesheet. With carbon steel tubesheets, expansion usually yields the largest signal component; the tubesheet only contributes appreciably at test frequencies below fgo. Figure 15.14 shows tube configuration at a tubesheet and typical eddy current signals. Occasionally a tubesheet clad with a corrosion resistant alloy such as stainless steel or Inconel may be encountered. If the cladding is non-magnetic the same complications arise as with non-magnetic baffle plates (Section 15.1.4). Fortunately, most tubesheets are only clad on the primary side (near tube ends) where service related defects rarely occur. recone s ~NSS* FFF = =? Figure 15.14 Schematic of Tube Geometry at Rolled Joint in Tubesheet and Associated Eddy Current Signals ‘TeCoDI.£ Ere Cause Hoe Pape 2260204LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS The end of the rolled joint at the inboard edge of a tubesheet is a defect prone area because of high residual and service stresses and also because deposits tend to accumulate at this location which can lead to corrosion. Eddy current indications with bobbin-lype probes from defects in this region can be difficult to interpret because of excessive signal distortion from tube expansion. Sensitivity may be improved by employing a spring loaded surface probe as discussed in next section. Testing tubes with internal surface probes During in-service inspection of tubes, situations arise where conventional circumferential probes (both differential and absolute) prove inadequate. Surtace probe designs have also been found to yield improved test results in the case of defects at non-magnetic baffle plates and at heat exchanger tubesheets. susesieer exo o Icon, 600 Potuge vont Tunes tit ree Léa wit, a susesieer rusesveer ‘nny pegecr at ee tStlef ow ——+ convention, soseace coe scat Figure 15.15 Comparison of eddy current test results in heat exchanger tubesheet region with conventional and surface probes 12.5 mm, t= 1.2mm, feo = 200 kHz) TECOOI. ET2 Cows Notes Pago 20001208ATTAR LESSON 15 r TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS i Figure 15.15 illustrates surface probe testing at the tubesheet region of a power plant steam generator. It compares signals, from what is believed to be OD corrosion damage at the end of the rolled joint, obtained with conventional and surface probes. The reason for the characteristic A’B'C’ surface probe signal is as follows. As the probe is withdrawn from the tube (direction of arrow) it encounters the start of the expanded area. Failure of the probe to follow this contour exactly results in an increasing lift-off signal, A’B', superimposed on the impedance change, A’C’, due to the presence of the tubesheet. Both defect signals were obtained from the same tube, note the considerable improvement in sensitivity obtained with the surface probe. This tube was in fact leaking. Surface probes have several advantages over bobbin-type probes. They can be made much smaller than tube diameter and hence sample a smaller volume of tube periphery, this provides inherently greater sensitivity to small defects. Spring loading of a surface probe against the tube wall eliminates much of the fil-factor (lift-off) distortion caused by tube expansion in tubesheets. The main drawback to surface probe tube testing is that a number of scans have to be made for complete circumferential coverage. Conventional probes sample the entire tube in a single scan. supe wa ied wy eecenTare CALIBRATION Brass BAeeLE Ss gaaove mete (axe a2) Fi v0 69) Figure 15.16 Internal surface probe testing for fretting wear under a non- magnetic baffle plate. (Compare with Figure 15.13 results) Teo001.1 E72 Cowee ates Page 23001 286LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS A second example of improved sensitivity with an internal surface probe involves fretting wear under non-magnetic baffle plates, Figure 15.16. Compare this with Figure 15.13(a) which shows test results for the same defect obtained with an internal circumferential probe. With no gap, the 50% groove was barely detectable with a conventional probe, while Figure 15.16 shows this defect is easily detected with a surface probe. Anomalous Eddy Current Signals Some eddy current signals can be mistaken for defect indications; these are called false or anomalous signals. The following examples illustrate more common ones which have been encountered in practice. Ferromagnetic Inclusions and Deposits Materials with relative magnetic permeability greater than 1.0 affect eddy current response drastically. Skin depth and probe inductance are both affected by permeability; permeability values of 50 to several hundred are typical. Such signals can be distinguished from real defects by reducing test frequency to move the operating point near the top of the impedance diagram. Figure 15.17 illustrates the procedure where 1, 2 and 3 represent ferromagnetic material on the inside, in the tube wall and on the outside respectively. It may be difficult to achieve a sufficiently high operating point with some instruments and probes when testing low resistivity, large diameter tubes. However, if a low enough frequency is achieved, real defect indications will fall nearly parallel to fil-tactor whereas high permeability indications are nearly perpendicular to fill-factor. At 240 KHz (foo) in Figure 15.17, 1 and 2 could easily have been mistaken for ID defects. There is no confusion at 10 kHz since it is known that all defect indications must fall between fill-factor and an OD defect signal. The following two examples demonstrate the procedure to discriminate false defect (ferromagnetic) ingications. TeCOOI.t E72 Come tee Page 231 0! 204\TTAR LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS C Fenmsacierie | sere “4 “aie Figure 15.17 Coil impedance display at two test frequencies. Ferromagnetic inclusions are occasionally encountered during eddy current testing of non-magnetic materials. These arise from chips or filings from stee! tooling and handling equipment which are embedded during manufacture. The surface of nominally non-magnetic stainless steels and nickel-base alloys can also become magnetic as a result of cold working or through alloy depletion from oxidation or corrosion. ‘Tecoot.: €7e Gouge Notes Page 2820 288ATTAR LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS. o.n, treet so nreer Con eeetieroeryie eee a EEE eee 230 ue —_FemoMeNEe = metus a \ wnetosron eyusion ho. aa Se Figure 15.18 Defect and magnetic inclusion signals obtained from a new Inconel 600 tube 0 hi (Do = 13 mm, t = 1.1 mm) with an absolute external coil. feo = 250 kHz, ‘Though one might consider a magnetic inclusion a defect, there are several reasons why it is important to identify the origin of an indication. Even very small, perhaps insignificant, magnetic inclusions can yield sizeable eddy current signals because of the extreme sensitivity to magnetic permeability. A second reason to determine defect origin is so measures can be taken to minimize further damage: magnetic inclusions are nearly always manufacturing defects. Figure 15.18 shows the signal from a magnetic inclusion in new Inconel 600 tubing at various test frequencies. These results were obtained with an external encircling probe; this explains the reversal in appearance of ID and OD defects from previous examples. The magnetic inclusion yields a signal whose angular separation from the fill-factor direction increases as test frequency is reduced. The response of real defects is just the opposite. TeOOON.1 ET2 Cour Note Page 25801258LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS ( Figure 15.19 shows eddy current response to magnetite (Fes04) deposits inside an Inconel 600 tube at various test frequencies. As in the previous example, the existence of ferromagnetic material is verified by lowering test frequency; magnetite signals rotate clockwise whereas defect signals rotate counter- clockwise. The magnetite signals could be easily mistaken for real defects at 250 kHz and 50 kHz. Reducing test frequency can also be used to verify the presence of magnetite on the outside of a tube. This approach has been used to measure the height of sludge deposits (containing magnetite) above tubesheets during in- service inspection of vertical heat exchangers. 0.0, verect 1.0. peFECT — wreeua veoner Te 250 kN —— macner Te aower Te suaoner ne a \ Figure 15.19 Defect and magnetite signals from an Inconel 600 tube 50 ke 10 we (D. = 13mm, (foo = 250 kHz) 1.1 mm) obtained with an absolute internal probe. ‘TECOOr.1 ET2 Gaur Notes Pope 284 ot 204ATTAR LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS Figure 18.20 shows the eddy current signals from a Monel 400 steam generator tube with external wall thinning near a tube support. The tube was inspected with an absolute saturation probe and the signals recorded with wall thinning giving a vertically upward signal. At 50 kHz the vertical component of the complex signal is from wall thinning and the horizontal signal is primarily from magnetic deposit. At 200 kHz (2 fo) the vertical component is again from wall thinning but the horizontal signal is primarily from an increase in tube magnetic permeability because of incomplete magnetic saturation under the carbon steel tube support. At 400 kHz eddy currents just barely penetrate through the wall. In this case the signal is primarily from tube magnetic permeability variations. 0.0. GROOVE 0.0. Zoent oewr oe “4 NaGNETITE 4 vent a BAFFLE 1 = 400 He BAFFLE enerte PLATE ae PLATE taf ci he 4250 wie maGner TE: CALIBRATION TUBE SHGUALS ov = oar foo 24. SYS wacnerite = f)*50 une 4) = 200 bis ty = 400 we ACTUAL DEFECT SiGNAL Figure 15.20 Eddy current signals from Monel 400 tube at baffle plate location. (foo = 100 kHz) ‘TECOO!.1 E72 Course Noes Page 25 01204ATTAR Pe verestoncamas LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS. Conducting Deposits The most probable conducting deposit which may be encountered during in- service tube testing is copper. Copper taken into solution in one part of a cooling circuit, from brass tubes for example, can re-deposit at another location at the expense of a less noble metal such as iron. An example is shown in Figure 15.21 which is a copper-alloy tube from an air conditioner heat exchanger. Copper deposits occur near tube supports, maximum thickness was 0.05 mm. Even such a thin deposit yields a large eddy current signal since copper is a good conductor. Figure 15.21 shows response from both absolute and differential internal probes. The absolute probe gave eddy current signals with no +¥ component, clearly indicating the non-defect nature of the anomaly. The differential probe signal is not nearly as clear and illustrates another limitation of differential probes. Comparison of the deposit indication with calibration defects could easily lead one to conclude the presence of an OD defect; particularly if the eddy current results were compressed on X and Y channel recordings as is often the case during in-service inspection, With a differential probe, one has to observe defect sense (arrows) to distinguish between deposit signals and those from real defects. (cle EEE! Copper Deposits fab cauirearina sooté A Le WV & eee aor sesouite irFenenrtaL eae se pe Figure 15.21 Eddy current indications from copper deposits on a copper alloy tube (Dp = 19 mm, t = 1.1 mm, fyp = 57 KHz) ‘TECOOH.1 ET2 Course Notes Page 20601204LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS Figure 15.22 shows simulated copper deposit signals at different test frequencies. There is @ noticeable change in phase angle with increasing deposit thickness as. well as test frequency. At frequencies above fao there exists a possibility deposits could be mistaken for ID defects, even with an absolute probe. The procedure for in-service inspection of nuclear power plant boilers specified by ASME leads to test frequencies between foo and 2fgo. This appears to be a weakness in the code which may lead to revision if copper deposits prove more common as boilers age. Inspection of Figure 15.22 reveals clearer discrimination between copper and defects is achieved at fyo/2 than at fo. Optimum test frequency for copper coated tubes appears to be the frequency which just leaves copper signals below the horizontal fill-factor direction. 1.14 9m yalce comets aoDUND TUE Ae BS c. De Figure 15.22 Eddy current signals obtained with an internal circumferential probe from simulated copper deposits on tubes Tecoo1.s era Course Notes Page 297 0 204LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS Multifrequency Eddy Current Testing Successful in-service Eddy Current inspection relies on eddy current probes that can sense defects and an analysis of eddy current signals. Both aspects are equally important. While scanning each tube, eddy current signals are obtained from baffle plates, magnetite deposits, dents, tubesheets, tube expansion, etc. and maybe defects. It is, therefore, important to discriminate between defects and insignificant signals and even more important, estimate defect severity when it occurs together with other signal sources. It would be much easier if the data could be processed to contain only defect signals; Multirequency ET can do this. In multirequency testing, two or more sinusoidal signals of different frequencies are fed simultaneously to a single eddy current probe. Gain and phase of the output signal from each frequency can be separately controlled. These signals can then be combined to eliminate unwanted signals and leave only the defect signal. This method is only effective if a defect signal differs characteristically from unwanted signals and if signals are vectorially additive. The first condition makes detection of intemal defects, in the presence of internal variations, impossible. The second requirement makes the method ineffective for detection of fretting wear under non-ferromagnetic battle plates (Section 15.1.4). As a consequence of combining signals from three different frequencies, detect signal amplitude decreases and instrument noise increases. Eddy current penetration and phase lag are a function of frequency; increasing test frequency reduces penetration and increases phase lag. Since an eddy current signal is a function of current density and phase ag, it is possible to change the response to various signal sources by changing test frequency. ‘TeCUOt.1 ET2 Caure Note Page 28 of 204LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS twroucy ‘BAFFLE wu woe PLATE 10 GROOVE 0D Groove wigerite 1D am ext 18 a to mete eee bent ocrecrs oer BaF PLATE BAFFLE Pure wagneriTE 1 220 AH 1, 100 kA 1 © 500 wae @ co) «© Figure 18.23 Internal probe response to various parameters fgo = 130 kHz If a heat exchanger tube with defects, deposits, dents and support plates are simulated the following results are obtained: With this background in mind, the combination of frequencies that should be used to eliminate extraneous (unwanted) signals may be selected. The following two examples illustrate these effects. ‘Tecont.+ E72 Course Noes Page 259204TAR Tponaatareor LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS 20 kHz f= 100 KHZ «) (b) Figure 15.24 Eddy current signals at baffle plate position in tube of Figure 15.11 For the dented tube example described in Section 15.1.3 (Figure 15.11), the extraneous signals making up the composite signal at f = 100 kHz can be determined by re-inspecting the tube at higher and lower test frequencies. If the signals from the actual defect in Figure 15.24 are compared with the corresponding calibration signals in Figure 15.23, it can be seen that at 500 kHz the signal is primarily from a dent while that at 20 kHz contains a large baffle plate signal component. “TeCOOI.1 E72 Course Notes Page 2401254LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS. Multifrequency Testing Of Dented Tubes With single frequency eddy current inspection, tube supports and dents tend to mask signals from tube damage under tube supports. This makes detection and estimation of severity difficult and time consuming. In the remaining section we show how multifrequency simplifies the inspection of the dented tube described previously. ‘ 3 20 kk 500 kH2 Figure 15.25 Tube stripping sequence by multifrequency. Figure 15.25 illustrates the tube stripping sequence; one or more signals are removed by each mixing of two frequencies. By proper manipulation of the signals from the two lower frequencies, baffle plate and magnetite deposit signals can be eliminated. However, the resultant eddy current signal is stil distorted by the ‘denting’ signal. Again, by combining this resultant signal with the signal from a higher test frequency, the dent signal can also be eliminated. The tube now looks bare. If a defect existed under the baffle plate, it would be very easy to detect, the resultant signal contains only information from the OD corrosion ‘TECOOI.s E72 Course Notes Page 21 af 204LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS This process of unwanted signal elimination is like solving three simultaneous: ‘equations with three unknowns and solving for the parameter X; = defect. ‘As shown in Figure 15.23, the signal at each baffle plate is a composite signal comprising a battle plate, magnetite deposit (or baffle plate corrosion products), dont and defect signal. Figure 15.26 illustrates elimination of baffle plate and magnetite signals. The probe is moved back and forth under the baffle plate and the signal is monitored on the storage scope in the chopping mode, where both frequency signals are displayed simultaneously. a SIR, MAE Svat Figure 15.26 Suppression of baffie plate and magnetite signals ‘The fe signal is first rotated to match the fy signal orientation. Then f amplitude is changed to match, as nearly as possible, the f; signal size. In this case, this method by itself doesn't work. However, by decreasing the vertical component of the fy batfle plate signal, one obtains a good match. On subtracting the signal, through an electronic mixer (C,), the signals from the battle plate and the magnetite deposit both nearly disappear. A small residual signal remains due to different approach signals at the two test frequencies, indicated in Figure 15.26 by the two open circles. Although the baffle plate signals are identical, the two points do not coincide; the baffle plate is sensed earlier at the lower test frequency. This residual signal is insignificant for this application though it can become quite serious when testing for small cracks under non-erromagnetic baffle plates ‘Teoodt.1 E72 Course Note Pago 2421 204LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS Figure 15.27 illustrates how the ‘denting’ signal can be eliminated from the resultant (Ci=f2- fy) signal. This is achieved by first matching the phase and amplitude of the C; and f'dent’ signals and then using a second mixing module (C2) for subtraction. Figure 15.28 traces the above sequence for two defective tubes, and shows the eddy current signal becoming simpler to analyze with each step. On comparing defective tube signals with those from a calibration tube, one observes the f,defect signal is distorted by the baffle plate, dent and/or magnetite deposit. The C; signal is only distorted from the dent signal, and G2 is a clear signal indicating OD pits approximately 50% deep. Even an inexperienced inspector could analyze these results. DENT a fs 500 kHz DENT St C1 = f2-f1 C2=Ci-£5 ! RESIDUAL DENT SIGNAL Figure 15.27 Suppression of dent signal ‘TeCo0t.1 E72 Cause Notes Page 240 of 20¢ATTAR. LESSON 15 TESTING OF TUBES - SIGNAL ANALYSIS ce) 100% oo to rr aed 100, aLonarion ‘o farrie SENT acabrte a... A AWE Figure 19.20 muluiequenvy euuy Gurren signals unt Gerecuve WUE When using multi-frequency to eliminate “ID noise", such as signals from cycli lic internal diameter variations (‘pilger noise or die chatter’), dents and probe wobble, the signal amplitude from internal defects is drastically reduced. However, signal amplitude from external defects is not altered significantly. Multifrequency is more effective for external defect detection than for detection of internal defects in tubes. ‘Teooor.: €72 Cave Notes Pago 24 of 208Eos LESSON 16 ALTERNATIVE TEST TECHNIQUES This information based on information published by the NDT Resource Center and is available at: hitp//www.ndted.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Adva needTechniques Pulsed Eddy Currents The use of pulsed eddy currents has long been considered for testing metals (Libby, 1971) and it has been applied to operations in specialized areas, such as in the nuclear energy industry, where testing equipment is often constructed to order. However, significant progress in this direction has taken place only recently after appropriate advances in technology (Krzwosz et al. 1985; Sather, 1981; Waidelich, 1981; Wittig and Thomas 1981). Only in recent years has limited commercial equipment become available. The method has the potential advantages of greater penetration, the ability to locate discontinuities from time-of-flight determinations, and a ready means of multi-frequency measurement. At present, it does not generally have the precision of the conventional methods. The apparatus is somewhat complicated in design and not readily usable by the average operator who is experienced with the conventional eddy current equipment. Its main successes are in the testing of thin metal tubes and sheets, as well as metal cladding for measuring thickness and for the location and sizing of internal defects. When comparing the pulsed method with the conventional eddy current technique, the conventional technique must be regarded as a continuous wave method for which propagation takes place at a single frequency or, more correctly, aver a very narrow frequency bandwidth. With pulse methods, the frequencies are excited over a wide band, the extent of which varies inversely with the pulse length; this allows multi-frequency operation. As found with ultrasonic testing, the total amount of energy dissipated within a given period of time is considerably less for pulsed waves than for continuous waves having the same intensity. For example, with pulses containing only one or two wavelengths and generated 1000 times per second, the energy produced is only about 0.002 of that for continuous waves having the same amplitude. Thus, considerably higher input voltages can be applied to the exciting coil for pulsed operation than for continuous wave operation. Pulsed waves can reasonably be expected to allow penetration of measurable currents through a metal sample to a depth of about 10 times the standard penetration depth 6, provided a suitable probe is used, i.e. a shielded ferrite-cored coil. Therefore, penetration is possible through a 2 mm thick plate at frequencies of 1-3 kHz for non-ferromagnetic metals having corresponding electrical conductivity ranging from 60 down to 20MS/m. However, with an un-magnetized steel plate 2 mm thick, where sigma = 5 MS/m and u, = 100, the maximum frequency for through-penetration is only 100 Hz. TECOOI.1ET2 Course Nos Page 265 01208ATTAR LESSON 16 ( ALTERNATIVE TEST TECHNIQUES Pulsed eddy currents may be generated by a thyratron connected in series with the exciting coil through a capacitor (e.g. Waidelich, 1981). A direct voltage, of the order of 1200 V, slowly charges the capacitance and when the thyratron condusts there is an abrupt discharge through the coil in which free-damped harmonic oscillations occur. This is repeated periodically, i.e. at 1 kHz, so as to propagate the eddy current pulses through the metal. The currents are detected by a receiving probe located either adjacent to or on the opposite side of the metal sample from the exciting probe when access is possible. The range of propagated frequencies depends on the logarithmic decrement of the. exciting circuit, and because the speed of the waves is a function of frequency, dispersion takes place and the pulse changes in shape as it progresses through the metal. As one would expect, the height of the peak and its time delay can be related to the thickness of the metal. Waidelich reports a maximum penetration of 90 mm for aluminum sheet and 10 mm for steel. For 6 mm thick sheets, the peak value of the received pulse voltage was 13 V for aluminum but only 20 mV for steel. Krzwosz et al. (1985) has shown how pulses that result from the presence of s internal simulated defects produce broadening with an increase in depth. The frequency content of the pulses depends on their lengths, and in the extreme contains continuous spectra ranging from less than 100 Hz to 1 or 2 kHz, By performing a Fourier transformation, the pulse obtained by the receiving probe can be displayed in the form of the variation of amplitude (or phase) with frequency. By sampling different delay times within a pulse, different parts of the spectrum can be evaluated (Sather, 1981). If both amplitude and phase are measured, two parameters (i.e. presence of defects, vatiations in tube thickness, and changes in fil-factor oF liftoff) can be evaluated for each frequency selected in the same way as with the multi-frequency method, although, at present, with a lower degree of precision. Dodd et al.(1988) designed and developed a pulsed magnetic saturation method for the eddy current testing of ferromagnetic metals. The DC field pulses are generated by passing a high-current pulse through an electromagnet so as to produce saturation in the metal object; the pulse length is made equal to the thickness of the object, thus ensuring complete eddy current penetration where feasible, The DC pulse of the order of 1 ms duration, simultaneously produces an eddy current pulse, which is detected by a probe; the output of the probe is characteristic of the material being tested. TEOOOI.1 ET2Gouese Notes Page 26 of 234LESSON 16 ALTERNATIVE TEST TECHNIQUES This technique has the advantage of producing high magnetic peak powers with low average powers, thus keeping any heating of the test sample down to an acceptable level. It has been applied successfully for the internal testing of the walls of steel steam generator tubes, and tubes of diameter 10.9 mm and wall thickness 5 mm have been examined with peak powers of 500 kW. Small defects close to the external surfaces can be detected, and by taking advantage of the multi-frequency properties of pulsed eddy currents, their indications can be resolved from those that originate from other characteristics of the tubes. Gibbs and Campbell (1991) inspected cracks under fasteners in aluminum aircraft structures using a pulsed eddy current system. Here, a Hall element was used as a receiver. Radial position, approximate depth, and relative size of defects hidden under fastener heads could be determined in countersunk areas for defect depths of up to 7 mm for nonferrous fasteners and 14 mm for ferrous fasteners. Lebrun et al. (1975) reported the detection of deep cracks in ferramagnetic samples using an emission coil excited by square pulses of high intensity and employing highly sensitive magneto-resistive sensors to measure the resultant magnetic fields. Defects of 1 mm x 1 mm could be detected at a depth of 5 mm and having dimensions of 8 mm x 4 mm at a depth of 20 mm A recent commercial development and its application to pipe assessment under insulation, the RTD Incotest is detailed in the paper attached to this chapter. Far or Remote Field Eddy Current Testing Eddy current testing for external defects in tubes when external access is not possible, e.g. with buried pipelines, is conducted using internal probes. When testing thick-walled ferromagnetic metal pipes with conventional internal probes, very low frequencies (e.g. 30 Hz for a steel pipe 10 mm thick) are necessary to achieve the through-penetration of the eddy currents. This situation produces a very low sensitivity of flaw detection. The degree of penetration can, in principle, be increased by the application of a saturation magnetic field, However, because of the large volume of metal present, a large saturation unit carrying a heavy direct current may be required to produce an adequate saturating field. The difficulties encountered in the internal testing of ferromagnetic tubes can be greatly alleviated with the use of the remote field eddy current method, which allows measurable through penetration of the walls at three times the maximum frequency possible with the conventional direst field method. Teo001.1 E12 Ceues Notes Page 247 0294ATTAR LESSON 16 ALTERNATIVE TEST TECHNIQUES This technique was introduced by Schmidt in 1958. Although it has been used by the petroleum industry for detecting corrosion in their installations since the early 1960s, it has only evoked general interest in the 1990's. This interest is largely because the method is highly sensitive to variations in wall thickness, but relatively insensitive to fil-factor changes. The method has the added advantage of allowing ‘equal sensitivities of detection at both inner and outer surfaces of a ferromagnetic tube. It cannot, however, differentiate between signals from these respective surfaces. : Tube. Ee Energy flow ot Probe Detector coil lead Exciter coit Corrosion Figure 16.1 Remote fiold coil inside tube [1. In its basic form, the probe arrangement consists of an exciting coil and a receiver coil kept at a rigidly fixed separation along the axial direction. The separation between exciting coil and receiver coil should be’at least twice the inner diameter of the tube, preferably two and a hall times, for the reasons explained below. The exciting coil induces a magnetic field in the normal manner; some of the field penetrates the wall of the tube and the rest remains within the tube's air space. Eddy currents follow circular paths concentric with the axis of the tube flow within the tube wall and set up a reverse magnetic field. The reverse field attenuates that part of the field remaining within the air space, which decreases to zero before reaching receiver coil. The region that is active where the field induces directly by the exciting coil, is called the direct field zone. This field can produce a current in any coil suitably placed within the zone. The remote field zone is the region in which no direct coupling can take place between the exciting coil and any receiver coil inside it. Coupling can take place only through diffusion of the magnetic flux excited by the exciting coil into the tube wall and its subsequent spreading lengthwise along the tube, but with a lower attenuation than the direct field. The remote field technique has been highly effective in testing tube-wall thinning, but in its present form it is not suitable for crack detection. However, Atherton et al. (1989) has achieved some success in increasing the flux penetration through the tube wall by using "saturation windows.” Permanent magnets are located in the vicinities of the wall at the two probe positions, thus increasing the sensitivity of the method and enabling it to detect cracks. “ecaat.1 2 course Notes Page 248.0294LESSON 16 ALTERNATIVE TEST TECHNIQUES Dubois et al. (1992) reported that working in the transition zone can increase sensitivity in measuring defects, allowing the probe length to be shorter and enabling a higher degree of resolution. ‘The resultant field effect becomes a maximum where direct and indirect fields have equal magnitudes and opposite phases. Small variations in the incident magnetic field can produce large changes in the resultant field, thus increasing the sensitivity of defect detection, With a careful choice of frequency it is possible to resolve signals indicating variations of magnetic permeability from signals indicating the presence and size of defects. Veameter —2ameton Aimar ° istnce “sine toner 10 (190) feu 10c19) 01 0) tied o0n(o1) | coupled | Tanston one | Rete fi ore | iar" | Figure 16.2. Zones in remote field testing [2] Eddy Current Testing versus Remote Field Testing In typical eddy current testing instruments, the impedance of the inspection coil is measured. Usually the coil is part of a bridge circuit that becomes unbalanced as the coil passes aver a change in material thickness, permeability or conductivity Discontinuities are characterized and sized by the phase rotation and attenuation of the signal as compared to a reference standard. The test coil in eddy current testing can be an energized coil or it can be a passive coil that receives its energy from a separate energized coil in close proximity (send and receive configuration). Common coil configurations are absolute or differential coils; axial or radial coils; and bobbin or pancake coils. TECOON.1 ET? Course Notes Page 2490204LESSON 16 ALTERNATIVE TEST TECHNIQUES Remote field testing has many similarities to eddy current testing but there are also major differences. 1. In remote field testing, the exciter coil is always separated from the receiver coil or coils by at least two tube diameters. As such, remote field test coils are always in a send and receive configuration. 2 In remote field testing, the energy from the exciter coil passes through the tube wall twice, once when leaving the exciter and again when passing back through the wall at the detector. 3. The sensitivity to discontinuities on the outside of a tube is reduced in the eddy current technique whereas remote field testing maintains almost equal sensitivity to discontinuities either inside or outside the tube 4. Remote field test systems measure the phase and amplitude of a signal. Eddy current test systems may measure the same quantities in send and receive configurations or may measure the impedance of the test coil. 5. Eddy current technique probes are sensitive to changes in the proximity of the test coil to the tube surface. This change is known as probe wobble as the probe passes through the tube, it can be pushed to one side of centre by internal scale or dents. Even if the tube is clean, the eddy current testing probe can wobble unless it is cantered with mechanical guides. 6 Remote field probes are relatively insensitive to probe wobble and are forgiving if the probe is undersized or pushed to one side of the tube. 7. Because of the much lower test frequencies used for remote field testing in steel (and because the measurement of phase usually requires at least one time period of the excitation signal), remote field probes must be moved more slowly than eddy current probes. The remote field probe must be near the smallest discontinuity required to be detected for at least one cycle in order to detect the discontinuity. 8. Absolute coils for both remote field and conventional eddy current techniques are both sensitive to temperature variations over the length of the tube. 9. In steel tubes, remote field testing is more sensitive to circumferential cracks that interrupt the lines of magnetic flux. Eddy current bobbin probes are more sensitive to axial cracks in tubes, which interrupt the eddy currents. 10. Because of its so called through-transmission nature, remote field testing can examine thicker materials than eddy current techniques can. 11. Because it is commonly used for steel and cast iron, remote field testing is generally carried out at a lower frequeney than eddy current techniques are. ‘Teouot.s E72 Course Note Poge 250 288LESSON 16 ALTERNATIVE TEST TECHNIQUES References for Figures 1. Nondestructive Testing Handbook 3" Ed, Vol 5, Electromagnetic Testing, ‘American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 2004. 2. Atherton, D.L., D.D. Macintosh, 8.P. Sullivan, J.M.S. Dubois and T.R Schmidt. "Remote Field Eddy Current Signal Representation." Materials Evaluation. Vol. 51, No. 7. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (July 1993): p 782-789. ‘TECo0s.1 £72 Course Noes Pago 25101298ATTAR LESSON 16 ALTERNATIVE TEST TECHNIQUES. Page Intentionally Blank ‘TECOO%.1 E72 Cowee Nae Pogo 2520206ATTAR LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT DISCONTINUITY AND DEFECT DEVELOPMENT DURING FABRICATION AND IN-SERVICE This lesson will cover types of discontinuities that can be developed in materials, some of which may be evaluated with the eddy current method, the difference between a discontinuity and a defect and the way in which discontinuities are developed. Discontinuities are not necessarily defects. Any indication that is found by the inspector is called a discontinuity until it can be identified and evaluated as to the effect it will have on the service of the part. An inspector looks for all discontinuities which are evaluated against an acceptance rejection criterion, usually based on the requirements of a Standard, either an International, National or In-house Standard. Remember that surface discontinuities are more of a problem than the equivalent discontinuity buried within the body of the part. Also linear discontinuities are greater stress concentrators than round discontinuities. The greatest aid in interpretation of any discontinuity is knowledge of what is likely to be present in the component or structure at any given instance. This can be achieved by knowing the history of a part, what it is made of and what processes it has been. True Discontinuities These discontinuities may be classified on the basis of their origin and may be divided into three general categories, Inherent, Processing and Service. Inherent discontinuities are usually formed when the metal is molten. inherent cast discontinuities relate to the melting, casting and solidification of a cast article. Usually caused by inherent variable such as inadequate feeding, gating, excessive pouring temperature and entrapped gases. “TECOO:,1 ETE Court Note Page 258 ot 94ATTAR LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT Inherent Discontinuities found in an ingot and other castings are: Non-metallic inclusions such as slag, oxides and sulphides are present in the original ingot. “not detectable unless very close to the surface or surface breaking Pporosity is formed by gas which is ne . insoluble in the molten metal and is trapped et is trapp =: ici sonuerau when the metal solidifies sours not detectable unless very close to the ronosity surface or surface breaking. Pipe is a discontinuity in the centre of the ingot caused by internal shrinkage during solidification not detectable unless very close to the surface or surface breaking Segregation's occur when the distribution of the various elements is not uniform throughout the ingot. This condition is called “Banding” and is not usually significant. Figure 17.1 Typical casting defects found in an ingot not detectable. An ingot is further processed into stabs, blooms and billets; it is possible for the discontinuities to change size and shape. For example the cast discontinuities after rolling and forming are called laminations, stringers or seams depending on the type of processing and the original type of discontinuity. These are wrought inherent discontinuities. The “Hot Top” is usually cropped off to remove most of the discontinuities before the ingot is further processed. ‘TECoO1.1 Era Cowee Note Pago 254 of 204i ATTAR, LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT Inherent discontinuities in Castings These occur when molten metal is poured into a mould and allowed to solidify. Typically cold shuts are caused when molten metal is poured over skinned over metal or cold shots form when molten metal splashes onto the mould walls as. shown below: COLD SHUT = OPEN TO THE SURFACE (SMOOTH, CURVED APPEARANCE SPLASHEO METAL, Figure 17.2 Cold shots (left) and cold shut (centre) Cold shots appear as continuous circular indications and cold shuts appear as, linear indications, either continuous or broken, probably curved. Hot tears (shrinkage cracks) ocour when there is unequal shrinkage between light and heavy sections as shown below: TEO0O1. E72 Coven Notoe Pag 255 of 294ATTAR LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT. LIGHT (SMALL? SECTIONS, SOLIDIFY AND SHRINK. FASTER THAM THE NEAWY SECTIONS *N vor reans Figure 17.3 Hot tears Hot tears are usually detected visually and are normally wider gaping linear discontinuities Shrinkage cavities are usually caused by lack of enough motten metal to fill the space created by shrinkage, similar to pipe in the ingot. MOLTEN METAL HAS. FILLED THE CASTING HARDENED ASTIN eee SHRmK CAVITY Figure 17.4 Shrinkage porosity in a badly designed casting Shrinkage is usually detected visually. TEOOOI.F E72 Coun Matas Page 258 0238ATTAR LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT Microshrinkage usually appears as many small subsurface holes at the gate of the casting. Microshrinkage can also occur when the molten metal must flow from a thin section into a thicker section of a casting. It is not detected with eddy currents. Blow holes are small holes at the surface of the casting caused by gas which comes from the mould itself. Many moulds are made of sand and when molten metal comes into contact with the mould, the water in the sand is released as steam. Detected visually Porosity is caused by entrapped gas. Porosity is usually subsurface but can occur on the surface depending on the design of the mould and may be detected if very close to the surface or surface breaking. Inherent wrought discontinuities relate to the discontinuities formed during melting and solidification of the original ingot before it is formed into slabs, blooms and billets. During this forming itis possible for the discontinuities to change size and shape. For example the cast discontinuities after rolling and forming are called laminations, stringers or seams depending on the type of processing and the. original type of discontinuity. Laminations. As a billet is flattened and spread out, nonmetallic inclusions may cause a lamination. Pipe and porosity could also cause laminations in the same manner as shown below: Figure 17.5 Laminations (manganese sulphide) in a steel plate. These are only detectable if exposed at the edge of the plate, strip, etc. and appears as straight lines. E0001. E72 Cowes Notas Pogo 2570206LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT Stringers are round inclusions elongated by extrusion, rolling, WOR-METALLIC. INCLUSIONS) STRINGERS Figure 17.6 Stringers formed from inclusions during rolling These are not usually detected with eddy current inspection unless just below the surface. Seams are surface irregularities which are a folding of the metal due to improper rolling or because cracks were present in the ingot. Top view ‘CRACK ab Figure 17.7 Seam development in a rolled bar ‘TEGODI.§ETa Course Rots Pega 2560204LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT As these are surface breaking they are readily detectable and appear as straight lines. Processing discontinuities These are usually related to the various manufacturing processes such as machining, forging, extruding, rolling, welding, heat treating and plating. During the manufacturing process, many discontinuities that were subsurface {and not detectable by eddy current inspection) may be made open to the ‘surface by machining, grinding, etc. Forging discontinuities occur when metal is hammered or pressed into shape, usually while the metal is very hot. A forged part gains strength due to the grain flow taking the shape of the die and the process is shown below: ‘A forging lap is caused by folding of metal on the surface of the forging, usually when some of the forging metal is squeezed out between the two dies and not properly removed prior to the next forging operation LEE, rorcine Figure 17.8 Forging laps caused by folding over of metal ‘TECeOt.1 E72 Course Noe Page 259 of 238ATTAR LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT A forging burst is a rupture caused by forging at improper temperatures. Bursts may be either internal or open to the surface as shown below. INTERNAL, EXTERNAL auRsT BURST OR CRACK (SUBSURFACE? (OPEN TO THE SURFACE? Figure 17.9. Internal (Subsurface) forging burst (left) and external forging burst (right) Welding discontinuities - the following are types of processing discontinuities developed during and after the welding has been carried out. ity is gas trapped if there is insufficient time for it to escape before ication. The trapped gas is usually in the form of round holes, termed porosity o blow-holes, or of an elongated shape called piping or wormholes. Round porosity may be isolated, in groups ~ group porosity. linear porosity) Gas formation may be caused by chemical reactions during welding, high sulphur content in plate and/or electrode, excessive moisture in the electrode or on base plate edges, too short an ate, incorrect welding current, wrong polarity. Porosity usually visually detected if surface breaking ‘TECOOH.t ET2 Couse Notes Page 28001294LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT Slag inclusions Most weld inclusions contain slag from the flux that has been trapped in the deposited metal during solidification. If the metal fails to remain molten for a period sufficient to allow the slag to rise to the surface some slag may be trapped within the metal. In multi-pass welding insufficient cleaning and brushing of the bead between passes may not remove all the slag coating. This may then be trapped in the metal by subsequent passes. W WT Ey Porosity Slag Inclusion Tungsten inclusion ne Goes aoe Lack of root penetration Root concavity Underfill Vy Ns wy Lack of sidewall fusion Undereut Melt through & CWS Crater cracks Overlap Figure 17.10 Weld discontinuities “Tecoot.1 €72 cour Nees Page 261 238Axe. LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT Tungsten inclusions in GTAW welding (TIG) if the tungsten electrode is dipped into the weld pool it will melt leaving tungsten are trapped in the weld metal. Detected radiographically. Lack of penetration occurs when the root of a weld is not adequately filled with weld metal and a void is left. It may be caused by too small a root opening, too large an electrode, insufficient weld current, excessive welding speed, improper groove preparation, etc. In joints requiring complete penetration this type of defect is generally not acceptable because it is usually a linear stress raiser, and requires complete removal and re-welding. Detected visually or with ultrasonics. Root concavity or suck-back, is commonly produced by the GTAW. process. The molten weld metal can sink under the force of gravity, particularly in the overhead position, or in the flat position it may be pulled up by surface tension into the weld preparation, to create a groove in the root of a butt weld. Detected visually Underfill is where there is a depression in the weld metal that is lower than the base metal and is dus to insufficient filler metal, Detected visually. Root pass oxidation is the result of insufficient protection of the weld and heat affected zone from the atmosphere. Severe oxidation will occur on stainless steels for example, reducing the corrosion resistance, if the joint is not purged with an inert gas. Usually detected radiographically or with ultrasonics. Lack of fusion occurs at weld interfaces where adjacent layers of metal, or the base metal and weld metal, fail to fuse properly due to a very thin layer of oxide that forms on the metal surfaces. It is usually caused by failure to raise the temperature of the base metal or previously deposited weld metal high enough to allow any oxide layers, slag, imputities, etc. to rise to the surface. Detected with eddy currents if at the root or toe of the weld and exposed to the surface. “TeoOO1.+ ETa Course Noes Pago 2621206LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT. Undereut occurs during welding of the final or cover pass, the exposed upper surfaces of the base metal tend to melt and to run down into the deposited metal in the weld groove. The result is a groove that may be intermittent or continuous and parallel to the weld bead. Undercutting may be caused by excessive welding current, incorrect arc length, high speed, incorrect electrode manipulation, etc. It is detected visually and can cause entrapment of eddy currents giving non- relevant indications. As it is undesirable it may be ground out and reinspected to ensure no cracks are present. Melt through is that portion of the weld bead where excessive penetration has caused the weld pool to be blown through the base metal. Isis caused by factors that produce excessive heat in one area such as high current, slow electrode speed, incorrect manipulation, etc. Detected visually. Crater Cracks are found at weld terminations. When a welding are is broken, a crater will form if inadequate molten metal is available to fil the arc cavity. Arc craters are often the site of weld defects because the last metal to solidify treezes under a high degree of constraint and contains an accumulation of weld metal segregates. These conditions can produce hot cracking and subsequent service failures. Detected visually. Overlap is protrusion of the weld metal past the toe, face or root of the weld. Detected with magnetic particle and penetrants.. Are strikes are localised remelted areas due to incorrect arc initiation. They can give rise to hard spots due to the formation of martensite and act as stress raisers. Detected visually. Spatter is molten metal particles expelled during welding can also give tise to localised hard spots and cracking. The solidifed metal needs to be removed prior to eddy current inspection as they give non-relevant indications that may hide cracks, Segregation is non-uniform distribution of impurities or alloying elements in the weld metal. ‘TEGO. ET? Goure Not Page 258 of 204LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT. Lamellar Tearing occurs in the heat affected zone (HAZ)or the base metal of restrained welded joints as shown in Figure 17.11. It results from inadequate Gucility in the through thickness direction of the base metal whose susceptibility to lamellar tearing depends upon the joint geometry, and the extent and location of laminar inclusions, either oxides or sulphides. It can occur when no laminar inclusions are present. (a) ‘Lamellar tearing (b) Figure 17.11. Lamellar tearing in (a) the base metal and (b) the HAZ. Cracks are usually associated with poor design, incorrect procedures or equipment, that is the weldability of the metal. Itis often difficult to determine whether a crack has initiated in the weld metal or in the base metal after is has propagated through both materials. Defects in the base metal such as inclusions, laminations, seams and blowholes, can act as notches and thus promote cracking under constraint. Cracking may occur during welding, upon completion or some time later. Completed welds occasionally crack during the welding of joints elsewhere in the structure. This is due, primarily, to the contraction of the new welds, which set up stresses exceeding the strength of the earlier welds. in some cases inspection cannot be carried out for 48 hours after welding to allow cracking to occur. Where cracks are very close to or break the surface they may be found with eddy current inspection, though it can be difficult at the weld toe or root. “TeCoot.+ £72 Course Noes Page 254 of 284LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT Hot Cracks Hot cracking in a weld or heat-affected zone can be caused by a combination of joint design and chemical composition. The presence of low-melting constituents which have low strength and duotity at high temperature causes grain boundary cracking under the thermal contraction stresses. Cracking can be avoided by control of composition, heat input and cooling rates. Examples are: Solidification cracking which occurs within a few hundred degrees of the melting point and is induced by welding stresses and low melting point constituents. Ductility dip cracking where some metals such as austenitic stainless steals experience decreased ductility near the recrystallization temperature and if the residual or applied stresses are high cracking may occur. Reheat cracking usually occurs in the HAZ when steels such as austenitic stainless, ferritic creep resistant and microalloyed steels are reheated as in multipass welds. Cold Cracks Cold cracking or delayed cracking occurs after welding has finished and requires the presence of atomic hydrogen, a susceptible microstructure and high tensile stresses. Hydrogen may come from welding in a moist atmosphere, with damp electrodes or because the protective atmosphere was blown away. If either or both of the weld metal or heat affected zone transform to martensite this provides a susceptible microstructure. Transformation to martensite occurs if the alloy element content, particularly carbon, is high enough and the mass of steel or the ambient temperature is such that the metal cools rapidly from the austenite temperature. The tensile stress may be due to an applied stress due to use of restraining jigs or residual stress due to the restraining action provided by the surrounding cold metal which means the hot weld metal is put under tension. This can often be avoided by preheating or post heating and by the use of dry low- hydrogen electrodes. Proper weld design can minimize the build up of residual stresses. Tecoot.1 72 cause Mowe Page 2680296ATTAR LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT. There are many types of cold cracking and they include: Longitudinal cracks Underbead cracks Toe cracks Transverse cracks Root cracks Centreline cracks Sidewall cracks ‘Transverse crack Longitudinal erack Under bead erack "Toe crack Figure 17.12 Examples of cold cracking associated with welds. Grinding cracks are a processing- type discontinuity caused by stresses which are built up from excess heat created between grinding wheel and metal. Grinding cracks will usually ocour at right angles to the rotation of the grinding wheel. They are found in crankshatts, camshafts and ground heat treated steel All are usually found with Figure 17.13 Grinding cracks due to localised fluorescent magnetic particles. overheating “TeCoor.t E12 Course Note Pago 2660204ATTAR ‘wuaitcom an LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT Heat treating cracks are often caused by the stresses built up during heating and cooling. Unequal cooling between light and heavy sections may cause heat treat cracks as will too rapid cooling. Heat treat cracks have no specific direction and usually start at sharp corners which act as stress concentration points as shown in Figure 17.15. Figure 17.15 Heat treat cracks showing cracking at change in section and random cracks. Service discontinuities Service discontinuities are related to the various service conditions such as stress corrosion, fatigue and erosion. Ifyou are involved in maintenance these are probably the most important types to consider. “TECOOI.1 Ere Course Not Pago 267 of 238& ATTAR LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT Figure 17.16 A fatigue crack originating at a slot in the shaft. Fatigue cracks are service-type discontinuities that are usually, but not always, open to the surface where they start from stress concentration points. They are possible only after the part is placed into service, but may be the result of porosity, inclusions or other discontinuities in a highly stressed metal part subject to constant or random amplitude repetitive loads. Articles subject to repeated alternating loads may develop defects due to fatigue and are considered extremely critical and demand close attention. Eddy currents are often used to detect these in non-ferromagnetic materials. ry Figure 17.17 A fatigue crack originating at a change in section on a stub axle. TeoHor.1 72 Cause Noes Page 289 1284: LESSON 17 C DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT ¢ Figure 17.18 A closer view of the fatigue crack. Note its characteristics which are different from those of the heat treat crack. Stress corrosion cracks occur under a corrosive environment where there is high applied or residual stress in the material. Some aluminium alloys (7075) and high strength steels are subject to this. Characterised by crack branching as shown below. This form is cracking is often easier to pick up via eddy currents when parallel to the eddy currents than fatigue because of its branching nature Figure 17.19 A micro-section through a 304SS showing the grain structure and the characteristic branching of stress corrosion cracking Tecoot.1 £72 Gauge Noes Page 269 of 296ATTAR comer LESSON 17 DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT DEVELOPMENT Erosion by solid in fluids or cavitating fluids can occur at changes in direction of pipes or joins and results in wall thinning. This is not detected by eddy current inspection. Corrosion erosion occurs where the fluid is stagnant in a pipe or vessel and corrosion occurs. When the fluid flows the corrosion product is removed, thinning the wall a small amount. When the flow stops corrosion restarts and the cycle is repeated until the wall fails. TEOWOH.1 E72 Course Nowe Page 27001255

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