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Lecture 02

Temperature refers to the average kinetic energy of particles within an object. Higher temperatures mean particles are moving faster. Temperature is important across many fields of science and daily life. Kinetic energy increases as a substance absorbs heat and its particles move faster, raising the temperature. Heat describes the transfer of thermal energy between particles, while temperature describes average particle kinetic energy. Thermometers indirectly measure temperature by detecting changes in a substance's volume as its kinetic energy and temperature increase. Common temperature scales are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. Potential temperature removes the effect of compression or expansion on a water parcel's temperature when moved between pressures. Salinity measures dissolved matter in seawater and affects its density. Conductivity can determine salinity

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Lecture 02

Temperature refers to the average kinetic energy of particles within an object. Higher temperatures mean particles are moving faster. Temperature is important across many fields of science and daily life. Kinetic energy increases as a substance absorbs heat and its particles move faster, raising the temperature. Heat describes the transfer of thermal energy between particles, while temperature describes average particle kinetic energy. Thermometers indirectly measure temperature by detecting changes in a substance's volume as its kinetic energy and temperature increase. Common temperature scales are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. Potential temperature removes the effect of compression or expansion on a water parcel's temperature when moved between pressures. Salinity measures dissolved matter in seawater and affects its density. Conductivity can determine salinity

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Clow N
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Temperature

Temperature refers to the hotness or coldness of a body. In specific terms, it is the way of
determining the kinetic energy of particles within an object. Faster the movement of particles;
more the temperature and vice versa.
Temperature is important in all fields of Science right from Physics to Geology and also it is
crucial in most aspects of our daily life.

Relationship Between Temperature and Kinetic Energy


Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion. We see a range of kinetic
energy in molecules because all molecules don’t move at the same speed. When a substance
absorbs heat, the particles move faster so the average kinetic energy and therefore the
temperature increases.

Heat vs Temperature
It is important to understand that heat and temperature are not the same. Although the two
concepts are linked they mean different things.
Heat describes the transfer of thermal energy between molecules within a system and it is
measured in Joules. An object can gain or lose heat, but it cannot have heat. Heat is not a
property possessed by an object or system rather it is a measure of change.
Temperature describes the average kinetic energy of molecules within a material or system and
is measured in Celsius (°C), Kelvin(K), Fahrenheit (°F).
Concluding we can say that heat is a transfer of thermal energy caused by a difference in
temperature between molecules.

Temperature Measurement
As molecules are minuscule particles, we must use indirect methods to measure the kinetic energy of
the molecules of a substance. As heat is added to the substance, the molecules move more rapidly.
This increased motion causes a small increase in the volume, or amount of space, taken up by most
materials. There are devices that use the expansion of a substance to give an indirect measure of
temperature. Such devices are called thermometers.

What is the Temperature Sensor?


A temperature sensor is an RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) or a thermocouple, that
collects the data about temperature from a particular source and converts the data into an
understandable form for a device or an observer. Temperature sensors are used in many
applications such as food processing units and medical devices. The most common type of
temperature sensor is the thermometer, which measures the temperature of solids, liquids, and
gases. It is also a common type of temperature sensor mostly used for non-scientific purposes
because it is not so accurate. The following are a few temperature sensors besides the
thermometer.

 Thermocouples
 Resistor temperature detectors
 Thermistors
 Infrared sensors
 Semiconductors
Temperature Scales
Thermometers measure temperature according to well-defined scales of measurement. The three
most common temperature scales are the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales.

Celsius Scale & Fahrenheit Scale


The Celsius scale has a freezing point of water as 0ºC and the boiling point of water as 100ºC. On the
Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is at 32ºF and the boiling point is at 212ºF. The
temperature difference of one degree Celsius is greater than a temperature difference of one degree
Fahrenheit. One degree on the Celsius scale is 1.8 times larger than one degree on the Fahrenheit
scale 180/100=9/5.

Kelvin Scale
Kelvin scale is the most commonly used temperature scale in science. It is an absolute temperature
scale defined to have 0 K at the lowest possible temperature, called absolute zero. The freezing and
boiling points of water on this scale are 273.15 K and 373.15 K, respectively. Unlike other
temperature scales, the Kelvin scale is an absolute scale. It is extensively used in scientific work. The
Kelvin temperature scale possesses a true zero with no negative temperatures. It is the lowest
temperature theoretically achievable and is the temperature at which the particles in a perfect
crystal would become motionless.

Do yourself: Relationship Between Different Temperature Scales

3.3. Potential temperature


Pressure in the ocean increases greatly downward. A parcel of water moving
from one pressure to another will be compressed or expanded. When a parcel
of water is compressed adiabatically, that is, without exchange of heat, its
temperature increases. (This is true of any fluid or gas.) When a parcel is
expanded adiabatically, its temperature decreases.

The change in temperature which occurs solely due to compression or


expansion is not of interest to us - it does not represent a change in heat
content of the fluid. Therefore if we wish to compare the temperature of water
at one pressure with water at another pressure, we should remove this effect
of adiabatic compression/expansion.

Definition. "Potential temperature" is the temperature which a water parcel


has when moved adiabatically to another pressure. In the ocean, we
commonly use the sea surface as our "reference" pressure for potential
temperature - we compare the temperatures of parcels as if they have been
moved, without mixing or diffusion, to the sea surface. Since pressure is
lowest at the sea surface, potential temperature (computed at surface
pressure) is ALWAYS lower than the actual temperature unless the water is
lying at the sea surface.

4. Salinity and conductivity

4.1 Salinity

Definition. Salinity is roughly the number of grams of dissolved matter per


kilogram of seawater. This was the original definition, and at one time salinity
was determined by evaporating the water and weighing the residual. The
dissolved matter in seawater affects its density, hence the importance of
measuring salinity.

Units. In the original definition, salinity units were o/oo (parts per thousand).
This was replaced by the "practical salinity unit" or psu.

The total amount of salt in the world oceans does not change except on the
longest geological time scales. However, the salinity does change, in response
to freshwater inputs from rain and runoff, and freshwater removal through
evaporation.

How is salinity measured? (1) Evaporate and weigh residual (oldest


method). (2) Determine amount of chlorine, bromine and iodine to give
"chlorinity", through titration with silver nitrate. Then relate salinity to
chlorinity: S = 1.80655 C. Accuracy is 0.025 (less than 2 places). This method
was used until the International Geophysical Year in 1957.

4.2. Conductivity
Definition. Conductivity of sea water depends strongly on temperature,
somewhat less strongly on salinity, and very weakly on pressure. If the
temperature is measured, then conductivity can be used to determine the
salinity. Salinity as computed through conductivity appears to be more closely
related to the actual dissolved constituents than is chlorinity, and more
independent of salt composition. Therefore temperature must be measured at
the same time as conductivity, to remove the temperature effect and obtain
salinity. Accuracy of salinity determined from conductivity: 0.001 to 0.004.
Precision: 0.001. The accuracy depends on the accuracy of the seawater
standard used to calibrate the conductivity based measurement.

5.1. Density

Definition. Seawater density depends on temperature, salinity and pressure.


Colder water is denser. Saltier water is denser. High pressure increases
density. The dependence is nonlinear. An empirical equation of state is used,
based on very careful laboratory measurements.
Units. Mass/volume.

mks: kg/m^3.
cgs: g/cm^3.

Discussion. Freshwater density is 1000 kg/m^3. Typical densities for


seawater are only slightly higher: 1020 to 1050 kg/m^3, with most of this
range being due to pressure. The range of densities at the sea surface is about
1020 to 1029 kg/m^3.

Density depends nonlinearly on temperature and salinity.

Figure (left panels). Density as a function of temperature for pure and salty
water.
5.2. Potential density

Seawater is compressible, although not as compressible as a gas. As a water


parcel compresses, the molecules are crushed together and the density
increases. (At the same time, and for a completely different reason,
compression causes the temperature to increase which very slightly offsets
the density increase due to compression.)

Figure (top right). Increase in density with pressure.

Most variation in seawater is caused by pressure variation. This has little to do


with the source of water, and if we wish to trace a water parcel from one place
to another, one depth to another, we prefer to remove the pressure
dependence. (This is in analogy with temperature; we also remove the
pressure dependence in the temperature.)

We define potential density as the density a parcel has when moved


adiabatically to a reference pressure. If the reference pressure is the sea
surface, then we compute the potential temperature of the parcel, and
evaluate the density at pressure 0 dbar. The measured salinity is used as it has
very little pressure dependence.

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