Discrete Mathematics

Relations, Partial Ordering

Unit 3
• Relations: Definition, Binary Relation, Representation, Domain, Range,
Universal Relation, Void Relation, Union, Intersection, and Complement
Operations on Relations, Properties of Binary Relations in a Set: Reflexive,
Symmetric, Transitive, Anti-symmetric Relations, Relation Matrix and Graph
of a Relation; Partition and Covering of a Set, Equivalence Relation,
Equivalence Classes, Compatibility Relation, Maximum Compatibility Block,
Composite Relation, Converse of a Relation, Transitive Closure of a Relation
R in Set X
• Partial Ordering: Definition, Examples, Simple or Linear Ordering, Totally
Ordered Set (Chain), Frequently Used Partially Ordered Relations,
Representation of Partially Ordered Sets, Hesse Diagrams, Least & Greatest
Members, Minimal & Maximal Members, Least Upper Bound (Supremum),
Greatest Lower Bound (infimum), Wellordered Partially Ordered Sets
(Posets). Lattice as Posets.
distributive modular and complemented lattices Boolean and pseudo Boolean lattices. (Definitions and simple examples only)
Recurrence Relation: Introduction,
Recursion, Recurrence Relation, Solving, Recurrence Relation
Relation
• Let A and B be sets.
• A binary relation from A to B is a subset of A × B.
• A binary relation from A to B is a set R of ordered pairs where the first
element of each ordered pair comes from A and the second element
comes from B.
• We use the notation aRb to denote that (a, b) ∈ R.
• Moreover, when (a, b) belongs to R, a is said to be related to b by R.
• Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {a, b}.
• Then {(0, a), (0, b), (1, a), (2, b)} is a relation from A to B.
• Let S be a binary relation.
• The set D(S) of all objects x such that for some y, (x,y) ∈ S, that is,
• D(S) = {x|(∃y)( (x, y) ∈ S)}
• The set R(S) of all objects y such that for some x, (x,y) ∈ S, that is,
• R(S) = {y|(∃x)( (x, y) ∈ S)}
Universal and Void Relation
• Let A and B be any two sets. A subset of the cartesian product AXB
defines a relation C such that D(C) ⊆ X and R(C) ⊆ Y and relation C be
from A to B.
• If B=A then C is said to be a relation from A to A.
• Thus any relation in A is a subset of AXA. The set AXA itself defines a
relation in A and is called a universal relation in A.
• The empty set which is also a subset of AXA is called a void relation in
A.
Example
• Let A be the set {1, 2, 3, 4}. Which ordered pairs are in the relation R =
{(a, b) | a divides b}?
• Solution:
• Because (a, b) is in R if and only if a and b are positive integers not
exceeding 4 such that a divides b,
• R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 4)}.
Example
• Consider these relations on the set of integers:
• R1 = {(a, b) | a ≤ b},
• R2 = {(a, b) | a>b},
• R3 = {(a, b) | a = b or a = −b},
• R4 = {(a, b) | a = b},
• R5 = {(a, b) | a = b + 1},
• R6 = {(a, b) | a + b ≤ 3}.
• Which of these relations contain each of the pairs (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1),
(1, −1), and (2, 2)?
• Solution:

• (1, 1) is in R1, R3, R4, and R6;

• (1, 2) is in R1 and R6;
• (2, 1) is in R2, R5, and R6;
• (1, −1) is in R2, R3, and R6;
• (2, 2) is in R1, R3, and R4.
Example
• How many relations are there on a set with n elements?
• Solution:
• A relation on a set A is a subset of A × A.
• Because A × A has n2 elements when A has n elements, and a set with
m elements has 2m subsets, there are 2n^2 subsets of A × A.
• Thus, there are 2n^2 relations on a set with n elements.
• For example, there are 23^2 = 29 = 512 relations on the set {a, b, c}.
Properties of Relations
• A relation R on a set A is called reflexive if (a, a) ∈ R for every element
a ∈ A.
Example
• Consider the following relations on {1, 2, 3, 4}:
• R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 4)},
• R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1)},
• R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 1), (4, 4)},
• R4 = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)},
• R5 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)},
• R6 = {(3, 4)}.
• Which of these relations are reflexive?
Example
• The relations R3 and R5 are reflexive because they both contain all
pairs of the form (a, a), namely, (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), and (4, 4).
• R1, R2, R4, and R6 are not reflexive.
• Is the “divides” relation on the set of positive integers reflexive?
• Solution:
• Because a | a whenever a is a positive integer, the “divides” relation is
reflexive.
• (Note that if we replace the set of positive integers with the set of all
integers the relation is not reflexive because by definition 0 does not
divide 0.)
Properties of Relation
• A relation R on a set A is called symmetric if(b, a) ∈ R whenever(a, b)
∈ R, for all a, b ∈ A.
• A relation R on a set A such that for all a, b ∈ A, if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a)
∈ R, then a = b is called antisymmetric.
• Using quantifiers, we see that the relation R on the set A is symmetric
• If ∀a∀b((a, b) ∈ R → (b, a) ∈ R).
• The relation R on the set A is antisymmetric
• if ∀a∀b(((a, b) ∈ R ∧ (b, a) ∈ R) → (a = b)).
• The terms symmetric and antisymmetric are not opposites, because a
relation can have both of these properties or may lack both of them.
Example
• Which of the relations are symmetric and which are antisymmetric?
• R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1)},
• R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 1), (4, 4)},
• R4 = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)},
• R5 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)},
• R6 = {(3, 4)}.
Example
• R2 and R3 are symmetric, because in each case (b, a) belongs to the
relation whenever (a, b) does.
• R4, R5, and R6 are all antisymmetric.
• For each of these relations there is no pair of elements a and b with a
= b such that both (a, b) and (b, a) belong to the relation.
Example
• Is the “divides” relation on the set of positive integers symmetric? Is it
antisymmetric?
• Solution:
• It is antisymmetric, for if a and b are positive integers with a |b and b
|a, then a = b
Properties of Relation
• A relation R on a set A is called transitive if whenever (a, b) ∈ R and
(b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R, for all a, b, c ∈ A.
• Using quantifiers we see that the relation R on a set A is transitive if
we have ∀a∀b∀c(((a, b) ∈ R ∧ (b, c) ∈ R) → (a, c) ∈ R).
Example
• Which of the relations are transitive?
• R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1)},
• R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 1), (4, 4)},
• R4 = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)},
• R5 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)},
• R6 = {(3, 4)}.
Example
• R4, R5, and R6 are transitive.
• R2 and R3 are not transitive.
Irreflexive
• A relation R on a set A is called irreflexive if, an (a, a) ∉ R for every
element a ∈ A.
• Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
• The relations are R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} and R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1,
3), (1, 4)}.
• R1 ∪ R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (3, 3)},
• R1 ∩ R2 = {(1, 1)},
• R1 − R2 = {(2, 2), (3, 3)},
• R2 − R1 = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4)}.
• Let A = {1,2,3,4}
• C ={(x,y): for x,y ∈ 𝐴, x-y is an integral multiple of 2}
• C = {(1,3),(3,1),(2,4), (4,2)}
• D = {(x,y): for x,y ∈ 𝐴, x-y is an integral multiple of 3}
• D = {(1,4),(4,1)}
• C ∪ D = {(1,3),(3,1),(2,4),(4,2),(1,4),(4,1)}
• C ∩ D = {∅}
• A ={a,b} B ={1,2}
• AXB = {(a,1),(b,1),(a,2),(b,2)}
• R = {(a,1),(a,2),(b,2)}
• Complement of R is {(b,1)}
• If relation A and B are reflexive, then A ∪ B and A ∩ B are reflexive.
• If relations A and B are symmetric and transitive, then A ∩ B is
reflexive.
Example
• Let R1 be the “less than” relation on the set of real numbers and let
R2 be the “greater than” relation on the set of real numbers, that is,
R1 = {(x, y) | x<y} and R2 = {{(x, y) | x>y}. What are R1 ∪ R2, R1 ∩ R2,
R1 − R2, R2 − R1, and R1 ⊕ R2?
• Solution:
• (x, y) ∈ R1 ∪ R2 if and only if (x, y) ∈ R1 or (x, y) ∈ R2.
• Hence, (x, y) ∈ R1 ∪ R2 if and only if x<y or x>y.
• Because the condition x<y or x>y is the same as the condition x = y, it
follows that R1 ∪ R2 = {(x, y) | x ≠ y}.
• it is impossible for a pair (x, y) to belong to both R1 and R2 because it
is impossible that x<y and x>y.
• It follows that R1 ∩ R2 = ∅.
• R1 − R2 = R1,
• R2 − R1 = R2, and
• R1 ⊕ R2 = R1 ∪ R2 − R1 ∩ R2 = {(x, y) | x = y}.
Representing Relations Using Matrices
• A relation between finite sets can be represented using a zero–one
matrix.
• Suppose that R is a relation from A = {a1, a2,...,am} to B = {b1, b2,...,bn}.
• The relation R can be represented by the matrix
• MR = [mij], where
• mij = 1 if (ai, bj) ∈ R,
= 0 if (ai, bj) ∉ R.
• Suppose that A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2}.
• Let R be the relation from A to B containing (a, b) if a ∈ A, b ∈ B, and
a>b.
• What is the matrix representing R if a1 = 1, a2 = 2, and a3 = 3, and b1
= 1 and b2 = 2?
• Solution: Because R = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2)}, the matrix for R is
• Let A = {a1, a2, a3} and B = {b1, b2, b3, b4, b5}. Which ordered pairs
are in the relation R represented by the matrix:
• R = {(a1, b2), (a2, b1), (a2, b3), (a2, b4), (a3, b1), (a3, b3), (a3, b5)}
• Suppose that the relation R on a set is represented by the matrix

Is R reflexive, symmetric, and/or antisymmetric?

• Suppose that the relations R1 and R2 on a set A are represented by
the matrices

What are the matrices representing R1 ∪ R2 and R1 ∩ R2?

Representing Relations Using Digraphs
• Each element of the set is represented by a point, and each ordered
pair is represented using an arc with its direction indicated by an
arrow.
• A directed graph, or digraph, consists of a set V of vertices (or nodes)
together with a set E of ordered pairs of elements of V called edges
(or arcs). The vertex a is called the initial vertex of the edge (a, b), and
the vertex b is called the terminal vertex of this edge.
• An edge of the form (a, a) is represented using an arc from the vertex
a back to itself. Such an edge is called a loop.
• The directed graph with vertices a, b, c, and d, and edges (a, b), (a, d),
(b, b), (b, d), (c, a), (c, b), and (d, b).
• The directed graph of the relation R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4),
(3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1)} on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}.
• Determine whether the relations for the directed graph is reflexive,
symmetric, antisymmetric, and/or transitive.
• Reflexive
• Not Symmetric and Antisymmetric
• Not Transitive
Partition and Covering of a Set
• Let S be a given set and A = {A_1,A_2,…, A_m} where each A_i, i=
1,…,m, is a subset of S and

‫𝑚ڂ‬
𝑖=1 𝐴_𝑖 = 𝑆

The set A is called a covering of S and the sets A_1, A_2,…, A_m are
said to cover S.
• If, in addition, the elements of A, which are subsets of S, are mutually
disjoint, then A is called a partition of S, and the sets A_1, A_2,…,A_m
are called the blocks of the partition.
• Two partitions are said to be equal if they are equal as sets.
• For a finite set, every partition is a finite partition i.e., every partition
contains only a finite number of blocks.
Equivalence Relations
• A relation on a set A is called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive.
• Two elements a and b that are related by an equivalence relation are
called equivalent.
• The notation a ∼ b is often used to denote that a and b are equivalent
elements with respect to a particular equivalence relation.
• Congruence Modulo m
• Let m be an integer with m > 1.
• Show that the relation R = {(a, b) | a ≡ b (mod m)} is an equivalence
relation on the set of integers.
• Solution:
• a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if m divides a − b.
• a − a = 0 is divisible by m, because 0 = 0 · m.
• Hence, a ≡ a (mod m), so congruence modulo m is reflexive.
• Now suppose that a ≡ b (mod m).
• Then a − b is divisible by m, so a − b = km, where k is an integer.
• It follows that b − a = (−k)m, so b ≡ a (mod m).
• Hence, congruence modulo m is symmetric.
• Suppose that a ≡ b (mod m) and b ≡ c (mod m).
• Then m divides both a − b and b − c.
• Therefore, there are integers k and l with a − b = km and b − c = lm.
• Adding these two equations shows that
• a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) = km + lm = (k + l)m.
• Thus, a ≡ c (mod m).
• Therefore, congruence modulo m is transitive.
• Therefore, Congruence modulo m is an equivalence relation.
• What are the equivalence classes of 0 and 1 for congruence modulo
4?
• Solution:
• The equivalence class of 0 contains all integers a such that a ≡ 0 (mod
4).
• The integers in this class are those divisible by 4.
• Hence, the equivalence class of 0 for this relation is [0] = {..., −8, −4, 0,
4, 8,...}
• The equivalence class of 1 contains all the integers a such that a ≡ 1
(mod 4).
• The integers in this class are those that have a remainder of 1 when
divided by 4.
• Hence, the equivalence class of 1 for this relation is [1] = {..., −7, −3, 1,
5, 9,...}.
• What are the sets in the partition of the integers arising from
congruence modulo 4?
• Solution: There are four congruence classes, corresponding to [0]4,
[1]4, [2]4, and [3]4.
• [0]4 = {..., −8, −4, 0, 4, 8,...},
• [1]4 = {..., −7, −3, 1, 5, 9,...},
• [2]4 = {..., −6, −2, 2, 6, 10,...},
• [3]4 = {..., −5, −1, 3, 7, 11,...}.
Compatibility Relations
• A relation R in X is said to be a compatibility relation if it is reflexive
and symmetric.
• All equivalence relations are compatibility relations.
Maximal Compatibility Block
• Let X be a set and ≈ a compatibility relation on X. A subset A ⊆ X is
called a maximal compatibility block if any element of A is compatible
to every other element of A and no element of X - A is compatible to
all the elements of A.
Composition of Binary Relations
• Let R be a relation from X to Y and S be a relation from Y to Z. Then a
relation written as R∘ 𝑆 is called a composite relation of R and S
where
• R∘ 𝑆 = {(x,z)|x∈ 𝑋 ∧ z ∈ 𝑋 ∧ (∃y)(y∈ 𝑌 ∧ (x,y) ∈ R ∧ (y,z) ∈ Z}
• The operation of obtaining R∘ 𝑆 from R and S is called composition of
relations.
Closures of Relations
• A computer network has data centers in Boston, Chicago, Denver,
Detroit, New York, and San Diego.
• There are direct, one-way telephone lines from Boston to Chicago,
from Boston to Detroit, from Chicago to Detroit, from Detroit to
Denver, and from New York to San Diego.
• Let R be the relation containing (a, b) if there is a telephone line from
the data center in a to that in b.
• How can we determine if there is some (possibly indirect) link
composed of one or more telephone lines from one center to
another?
• Because not all links are direct, such as the link from Boston to
Denver that goes through Detroit, R cannot be used directly to
answer this.
• In the language of relations, R is not transitive, so it does not contain
all the pairs that can be linked.
• We can find all pairs of data centers that have a link by constructing a
transitive relation S containing R such that S is a subset of every
transitive relation containing R.
• Here, S is the smallest transitive relation that contains R.
• This relation is called the transitive closure of R.
• Let R be a relation on a set A.
• R may or may not have some property P, such as reflexivity, symmetry,
or transitivity.
• If there is a relation S with property P containing R such that S is a
subset of every relation with property P containing R, then S is called
the closure of R with respect to P.
• The relation R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 2)} on the set A = {1, 2, 3} is
not reflexive.
• How can we produce a reflexive relation containing R that is as small
as possible?
• Add (2, 2) and (3, 3) to R, because these are the only pairs of the form
(a, a) that are not in R.
• The new relation contains R.
• Because this relation contains R, is reflexive, and is contained within
every reflexive relation that contains R, it is called the reflexive
closure of R.
Example
• What is the reflexive closure of the relation R = {(a, b) | a<b} on the
set of integers?
• Solution: The reflexive closure of R is
• R ∪ ∆ = { (a, b) | a<b } ∪ { (a, a) | a ∈ Z } = { (a, b) | a ≤ b}.
• The relation {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2)} on {1, 2, 3} is not
symmetric.
• How can we produce a symmetric relation that is as small as possible
and contains R?
• To do this, we need only add (2, 1) and (1, 3), because these are the
only pairs of the form (b, a) with (a, b) ∈ R that are not in R.
• This new relation is symmetric and contains R.
• Any symmetric relation that contains R must contain this new relation
because symmetric relation that contains R must contain (2, 1) and (1,
3).
• Consequently, this new relation is called the symmetric closure of R
Example
• What is the symmetric closure of the relation R = {(a, b) | a>b} on the set of
positive integers?

• Solution: The symmetric closure of R is the relation

• R ∪ R−1 = {(a, b) | a>b} ∪ {(b, a) | a>b} = {(a, b) | a = b}.

• This last equality follows because R contains all ordered pairs of positive
integers where the first element is greater than the second element and
R−1 contains all ordered pairs of positive integers where the first element is
less than the second.
• Suppose that a relation R is not transitive.
• How can we produce a transitive relation that contains R such that
this new relation is contained within any transitive relation that
contains R?
• Can the transitive closure of a relation R be produced by adding all
the pairs of the form (a, c), where (a, b) and (b, c) are already in the
relation?
• Consider a relation R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)} on the set {1, 2, 3,
4}.
• This relation is not transitive because it does not contain all pairs of
the form (a, c) where (a, b) and (b, c) are in R.
• The pairs of this form not in R are (1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), and (3, 1).
• Adding these pairs does not produce a transitive relation, because the
resulting relation contains (3, 1) and (1, 4) but does not contain (3, 4).
• This shows that constructing the transitive closure of a relation is
more complicated than constructing either the reflexive or symmetric
closure.
Path in Directed Edges
• A path from a to b in the directed graph G is a sequence of edges (x0,
x1), (x1, x2), (x2, x3), . . . , (xn−1, xn) in G, where n is a non-negative
integer, and x0 = a and xn = b, that is, a sequence of edges where the
terminal vertex of an edge is the same as the initial vertex in the next
edge in the path. This path is denoted by x0, x1, x2,...,xn−1, xn and
has length n.
• A path of length n ≥ 1 that begins and ends at the same vertex is
called a circuit or cycle.
• a, b, e, d; path, length 3.
• a, e, c, d, b; not a path.
• b, a, c, b, a, a, b; path, length 6.
• d,c; path , length 1 ((d,c) edge).
• c, b, a; path, length 2.
• e, b, a, b, a, b, e, path, length 6.
• Circuits
• b, a, c, b, a, a, b
• e, b, a, b, a, b, e
• because they begin and end at the same
vertex.
Transitive Closure
• Let R be a relation on a set A. The connectivity relation R∗ consists of
the pairs (a, b) such that there is a path of length at least one from a
to b in R.
• The transitive closure of a relation R equals the connectivity relation
R∗.
• The transitive closure of R is the union of R, R2, R3,..., and Rn.
• R∗ = R ∪ R2 ∪ R3 ∪···∪ Rn
• Let MR be the zero-one matrix of the relation R on a set with n
elements. Then the zero-one matrix of the transitive closure R∗ is MR∗
= MR ∨ MR[2] ∨ MR[3] ∨···∨ MR[n] .
Warshall’s Algorithm
• procedure Warshall (MR : n × n zero–one matrix)
• W : = MR
• for k : = 1 to n
• for i : = 1 to n
• for j : = 1 to n
• wij : = wij ∨ (wik ∧ wkj )

• return W{W = [wij ] is MR∗ }

• Partial Ordering: Definition, Examples, Simple or Linear Ordering,
Totally Ordered Set (Chain), Frequently Used Partially Ordered
Relations,
• Representation of Partially Ordered Sets, Hesse Diagrams, Least &
Greatest Members, Minimal & Maximal Members, Least Upper Bound
(Supremum), Greatest Lower Bound (infimum), Well-ordered Partially
Ordered Sets (Posets).
• Lattice as Posets
Partial Orderings
• A relation R on a set S is called a partial ordering or partial order if it is
• reflexive,
• Antisymmetric
• transitive.
• A set S together with a partial ordering R is called a partially ordered
set, or poset, and is denoted by (S, R).
• Members of S are called elements of the poset.
Example
• Show that the “greater than or equal” relation (≥) is a partial ordering
on the set of integers.
• a ≥ a for every integer a, ≥ is reflexive.
• If a ≥ b and b ≥ a, then a = b. Hence, ≥ is antisymmetric.
• ≥ is transitive because a ≥ b and b ≥ c imply that a ≥ c.
• It follows that ≥ is a partial ordering on the set of integers and (Z, ≥)
is a poset.
Example
• The divisibility relation | is a partial ordering on the set of positive
integers, because it is
• reflexive,
• antisymmetric, and
• transitive
Example
• In the poset (Z+, |), are the integers 3 and 9 comparable?
• Are 5 and 7 comparable?
• Solution:
• The integers 3 and 9 are comparable, because 3 | 9.
• The integers 5 and 7 are incomparable, because 5 ∤ 7 and 7 ∤ 5.
Example
• The poset (Z, ≤) is totally ordered, because a ≤ b or b ≤ a whenever a
and b are integers.
• In a partially ordered set (P, ≼), an element y ∈ P is said to cover an
element x ∈ P if x<y and if there does not exist any element z ∈ P such
that x ≼ z and z ≼ y; that is,
• y covers x ⟺ (x < y ∧ (x ≼ z ≼ y ⇒ x=z ∨ z=y))
• An element of a poset is called maximal if it is not less than any
element of the poset. That is, a is maximal in the poset (S, ≼ ) if there
is no b ∈ S such that a ≺ b.
• Similarly, an element of a poset is called minimal if it is not greater
than any element of the poset. That is, a is minimal if there is no
element b ∈ S such that b ≺ a.
• Maximal and minimal elements are easy to spot using a Hasse
diagram.
• They are the “top” and “bottom” elements in the diagram.
• A poset can have more than one maximal element and more than one
minimal element
• Is there a greatest element and a least element in the poset (Z+, |)?
Solution:
• The integer 1 is the least element because 1|n whenever n is a
positive integer.
• Because there is no integer that is divisible by all positive integers,
there is no greatest element.
• Find the greatest lower bound and the least upper bound of the
sets{3, 9, 12} and {1, 2, 4, 5, 10}, if they exist, in the poset (Z+, |).
• Solution:
• An integer is a lower bound of {3, 9, 12} if 3, 9, and 12 are divisible by
this integer.
• An integer is an upper bound for {3, 9, 12} if and only if it is divisible
by 3, 9, and 12.
• Find the greatest lower bound and the least upper bound of the
sets{3, 9, 12} and {1, 2, 4, 5, 10}, if they exist, in the poset (Z+, |).
• 3 is the greatest lower bound of {3, 9, 12}.
• 1 is the greatest lower bound for {1, 2, 4, 5, 10}.
• 36 is the least upper bound of {3, 9, 12}.
• 20 is the least upper bound of {1, 2, 4, 5, 10}
Lattice
• A partially ordered set in which every pair of elements has both a
least upper bound and a greatest lower bound is called a lattice.
• A totally ordered set is trivially a lattice, but not all partially ordered
sets are lattices.
References
• K. H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and its applications, Tata
McGrawHill, 7th Ed., 2007.
• J. P. Trembley and R. Manohar, Discrete Mathematical Structures with
Applications to Computer Science.