7/22/2019 High School Chemistry Workbook

CK-12 Chemistry Workbook

CK-12 Foundation

February 13, 2010

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CK-12 Foundation is a non-profit organization with a mission to reduce the cost of textbook
materials for the K-12 market both in the U.S. and worldwide. Using an open-content, web-
based collaborative model termed the “FlexBook,” CK-12 intends to pioneer the generation
and distribution of high quality educational content that will serve both as core text as well
as provide an adaptive environment for learning.

Copyright ©2009 CK-12 Foundation

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 United States
License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-sa/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San

Francisco, California, 94105, USA.

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Contents

1 The Science of Chemistry Worksheets 11

1.1 Lesson 1.1 The Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Lesson 1.2 Chemistry in History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Lesson 1.3 Chemistry is a Science of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Lesson 1.4 Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Lesson 1.5 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Chemistry - A Physical Science Worksheets 15

2.1 Lesson 2.1 Measurements in Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Lesson 2.2 Using Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.3 Lesson 2.3 Using Mathematics in Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.4 Lesson 2.4 Using Algebra in Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3 Chemistry in the Laboratory Worksheets 31

3.1 Lesson 3.1 Making Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Lesson 3.2 Making Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Lesson 3.3 Using Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.4 Lesson 3.4 How Scientists Use Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4 The Atomic Theory Worksheets 33

4.1 Lesson 4.1 Early Development of a Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 Lesson 4.2 Further Understanding of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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4.3 Lesson 4.3 Atomic Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5 The Bohr Model of the Atom Worksheets 35

5.1 Lesson 5.1 The Wave Form of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 Lesson 5.2 The Dual Nature of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3 Lesson 5.3 Light and the Atomic Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.4 Lesson 5.4 The Bohr Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

6 Quantum Mechanics Model of the Atom Worksheets 37

6.1 Lesson 6.1 The Wave-Particle Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2 Lesson 6.2 Schrodinger’s Wave Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6.3 Lesson 6.3 Heisenberg’s Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6.4 Lesson 6.4 Quantum Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.5 Lesson 6.5 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

7 Electron Configurations for Atoms Worksheets 45

7.1 Lesson 7.1 The Electron Spin Quantum Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.2 Lesson 7.2 Pauli Exclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.3 Lesson 7.3 Aufbau Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.4 Lesson 7.4 Writing Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

8 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table Worksheets 51

8.1 Lesson 8.1 Electron Configurations of Main Group Elements . . . . . . . . . 51
8.2 Lesson 8.2 Orbital Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.3 Lesson 8.3 The Periodic Table and Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . 51

9 Relationships Between the Elements Worksheets 55

9.1 Lesson 9.1 Families on the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.2 Lesson 9.2 Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.3 Lesson 9.3 Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.4 Lesson 9.4 Chemical Family Members Have Similar Properties . . . . . . . . 57

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9.5 Lesson 9.5 Transition Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

9.6 Lesson 9.6 Lanthanide and Actinide Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

10 Trends on the Periodic Table Worksheets 59

10.1 Lesson 10.1 Atomic Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
10.2 Lesson 10.2 Ionization Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
10.3 Lesson 10.3 Electron Affinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

11 Ions and the Compounds They Form Worksheets 61

11.1 Lesson 11.1 The Formation of Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
11.2 Lesson 11.2 Ionic Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

11.3 Lesson 11.3 Properties of Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

12 Writing and Naming Ionic Formulas Worksheets 65

12.1 Lesson 12.1 Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
12.2 Lesson 12.2 Inorganic Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

13 Covalent Bonding Worksheets 67

13.1 Lesson 13.1 The Covalent Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
13.2 Lesson 13.2 Atoms that Form Covalent Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
13.3 Lesson 13.3 Naming Covalent Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

14 Molecular Architecture Worksheets 69

14.1 Lesson 14.1 Types of Bonds that Form Between Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
14.2 Lesson 14.2 The Covalent Molecules of Family 2A-8A . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
14.3 Lesson 14.3 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

14.4 Lesson 14.4 Electronic and Molecular Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

14.5 Lesson 14.5 Molecular Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

15 The Mathematics of Compounds Worksheets 89

15.1 Lesson 15.1 Determining Formula and Molecular Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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15.2 Lesson 15.2 The Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

15.3 Lesson 15.3 Percent Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
15.4 Lesson 15.4 Empirical and Molecular Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

16 Chemical Reactions Worksheets 99

16.1 Lesson 16.1 Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
16.2 Lesson 16.2 Balancing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
16.3 Lesson 16.3 Types of Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

17 Mathematics and Chemical Equations Worksheets 105

17.1 Lesson 17.1 The Mole Concept and Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
17.2 Lesson 17.2 Mass-Mass Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
17.3 Lesson 17.3 Limiting Reactant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
17.4 Lesson 17.4 Percent Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.5 Lesson 17.5 Energy Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

18 The Kinetic Molecular Theory Worksheets 113

18.1 Lesson 18.1 The Three States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
18.2 Lesson 18.2 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

18.3 Lesson 18.3 Gases and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

18.4 Lesson 18.4 Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
18.5 Lesson 18.5 Universal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
18.6 Lesson 18.6 Molar Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
18.7 Lesson 18.7 Stoichiometry Involving Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

19 The Liquid State Worksheets 119

19.1 Lesson 19.1 The Properties of Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
19.2 Lesson 19.2 Forces of Attraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
19.3 Lesson 19.3 Vapor Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
19.4 Lesson 19.4 Boiling Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
19.5 Lesson 19.5 Heat of Vaporization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

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20 The Solid State Worksheets-HSC 121

20.1 Lesson 20.1 The Molecular Arrangement in Solids Controls Solid Character-
istics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
20.2 Lesson 20.2 Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
20.3 Lesson 20.3 Types of Forces of Attraction for Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
20.4 Lesson 20.4 Phase Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

21 The Solution Process Worksheets 131

21.1 Lesson 21.1 The Solution Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
21.2 Lesson 21.2 Why Solutions Occur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
21.3 Lesson 21.3 Solution Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

21.4 Lesson 21.4 Measuring Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

21.5 Lesson 21.5 Solubility Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
21.6 Lesson 21.6 Factors Affecting Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
21.7 Lesson 21.7 Colligative Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
21.8 Lesson 21.8 Colloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
21.9 Lesson 21.9 Separating Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

22 Ions in Solution Worksheets 143

22.1 Lesson 22.1 Ions in Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
22.2 Lesson 22.2 Covalent Compounds in Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
22.3 Lesson 22.3 Reactions Between Ions in Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

23 Chemical Kinetics Worksheets 145

23.1 Lesson 23.1 Rate of Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
23.2 Lesson 23.2 Collision Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

23.3 Lesson 23.3 Potential Energy Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

23.4 Lesson 23.4 Factors That Affect Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
23.5 Lesson 23.5 Reaction Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

24 Chemical Equilibrium Worksheets 149

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24.1 Lesson 24.1 Introduction to Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

24.2 Lesson 24.2 Equilibrium Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
24.3 Lesson 24.3 The Effect of Applying Stress to Reactions at Equilibrium . . . 154
24.4 Lesson 24.4 Slightly Soluble Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

25 Acids and Bases Worksheets 161

25.1 Lesson 25.1 Arrhenius Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
25.2 Lesson 25.2 Strong and Weak Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
25.3 Lesson 25.3 Arrhenius Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
25.4 Lesson 24.4 Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
25.5 Lesson 25.5 pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

25.6 Lesson 25.6 Weak Acid/Base Equilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

25.7 Lesson 25.7 Bronsted Lowry Acids-Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
25.8 Lesson 25.8 Lewis Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

26 Water, pH and Titration Worksheets 165

26.1 Lesson 26.1 Water Ionizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
26.2 Lesson 26.2 Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
26.3 Lesson 26.3 Titrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
26.4 Lesson 26.4 Buffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

27 Thermodynamics Worksheets - HS Chemistry 167

27.1 Lesson 27.1 Energy Change in Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
27.2 Lesson 27.2 Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
27.3 Lesson 27.3 Spontaneous Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
27.4 Lesson 27.4 Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

27.5 Lesson 27.5 Gibb’s Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

28 Electrochemistry Worksheets 179

28.1 Lesson 28.1 Origin of the Term Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
28.2 Lesson 28.2 Oxidation-Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

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28.3 Lesson 28.3 Balancing Redox Equations Using the Oxidation Number Method 179
28.4 Lesson 28.4 Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
28.5 Lesson 28.5 Galvanic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

29 Nuclear Chemistry Worksheets 189

29.1 Lesson 29.1 Discovery of Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
29.2 Lesson 29.2 Nuclear Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
29.3 Lesson 29.3 Nuclear Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
29.4 Lesson 29.4 Nuclear Disintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
29.5 Lesson 29.5 Nuclear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
29.6 Lesson 29.6 Radiation Around Us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

29.7 Lesson 29.7 Applications of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

30 Organic Chemistry Worksheets 195

30.1 Lesson 30.1 Carbon, A Unique Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
30.2 Lesson 30.2 Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
30.3 Lesson 30.3 Aromatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
30.4 Lesson 30.4 Functional Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
30.5 Lesson 30.5 Biochemical Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

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Chapter 1

The Science of Chemistry Worksheets

1.1 Lesson 1.1 The Scientific Method

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

1.2 Lesson 1.2 Chemistry in History

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

1.3 Lesson 1.3 Chemistry is a Science of Materials

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

1.4 Lesson 1.4 Matter

Mass Versus Weight Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name_____________________________________ Date______
The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in it. The mass (amount of 
matter) of an object remains the same regardless of where the object is placed. For example,
moving a brick to the moon does not cause any matter in it to disappear or be removed. The
weight of an object is the force of attraction between the object and the earth (or whatever

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large body it is resting on). We call this force of attraction, the force of gravity. The
gravitational pull on the object varies depending on where the object is with respect to the
earth or other gravity producing object. For example, a man who weighs 180 pounds on
earth would weigh only 45 pounds if he were in a stationary position, 4, 000 miles above
the earth’s surface. This same man would weigh only 30 pounds on the moon because the
moon’s gravity is only one-sixth that of earth. If this man were in outer space with no planet
or moon nearby, his weight would be zero. There would be gravitational pull on him at
all. The mass of this man, however, would be the same in all those situations because the
amount of matter in him is constant.
We measure weight  with a scale, which is a spring that compresses when a weight is placed
on it. If the gravitational pull is less, the spring compresses less and the scale shows less
weight. We measure mass with a balance. A balance compares the unknown mass to
known masses by balancing them on a lever. If we take our balance and known masses to
the moon, an object will have the same measured mass that it had on the earth. The weight,
of course, would be different on the moon.

, or near the surface of, the earth, the force of gravity is constant and so we can determine
either the mass or the weight of an object if we know one of those two. On or near the
surface of the earth, the conversion factor between mass and weight is: 1.00 kg of mass will
have a weight of  9.80 Newtons(the standard unit of force in the SI system).
Example: What is the weight in Newtons of a 3.0 kg mass on the surface of the earth?

(gravitational force) = ( 3.00 kg )(9.80 N /kg ) = 2 9.4 N )

Example: If an object weighs 200. N  on the surface of the earth, what is its mass?

1.00 kg
mass = (200. N )( ) = 2 0 .4
9.80 N 
Exercises

1. If an object weighs 400. N  on the earth, how much mass does it contain?
2. What is the weight, in Newtons, of a 50 kg mass on the surface of the earth?

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3. On the surface of the earth, how much mass is contained in a 600. N  weight?
4. If an object weighs 1200 N  on the earth, how much will it weigh on the moon?
5. If an object has a mass of  120 kg on the earth, what is its mass on the moon?

1.5 Lesson 1.5 Energy

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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Chapter 2

Chemistry - A Physical Science Work-

sheets

2.1 Lesson 2.1 Measurements in Chemistry

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

2.2 Lesson 2.2 Using Measurements

Significant Figures Worksheet

Name___________________________________ Date________
Working in the field of science almost always involves working with numbers. Some
observations in science are qualitative and therefore, do not involve numbers, but in chem-
istry, most observations are quantitative and so, require numbers. You have been working
with numbers for many years in your math classes thus numbers are not new to you. Unfor-
tunately, there are some differences between the numbers you use in math and the numbers
you use in science.
The numbers you use in math class are considered to be exact numbers. When you are given
the number 2  in a math problem, it does not mean 1.999  rounded to 2  nor does it mean
2.000001 rounded to 2 . In math class, the number 2  means exactl 2.00000000... with
an infinite number of zeros - a perfect 2!  Such numbers are produced only by definition,
not by measurement. That is, we can define 1 foot to contain exactly 12 inches, and these
two numbers are perfect numbers, but we cannot measure an object to be exactly 12 inches
long.

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In the case of measurements, we can read our measuring instruments only to a limited number
of subdivisions. We are limited by our ability to see smaller and smaller subdivisions, and
we are limited by our ability to construct smaller and smaller subdivisions.
Even using powerful microscopes to construct and read our measuring devices, we eventually
reach a limit, and therefore, even though the actual measurement of an object may be a
perfect number of inches, we cannot prove it to be so. Measurements do not produce
perfect numbers and since science is greatly involved with measuring, science does not
produce perfect numbers (except in defined numbers such as conversion factors).
It is very important to recognize and report the limitations of measurements
along with the magnitude and unit of the measurement. Many times, the analysis
of the measurements made in a science experiment is simply the search for regularity in the
observations. If the numbers reported show the limits of the measurements, the regularity,
or lack there of, becomes visible.
Table 2.1: Two Sets of Observations

Observations List A Observations List B

22.41359 m 22.4 m
22.37899 m 22.4 m
22.42333 m 22.4 m
22.39414 m 22.4 m

In the lists of observations above, it is difficult to perceive a regularity in List A, but when
the numbers are reported showing the limits of the measurements as in List B, the regularity
becomes apparent.
One of the methods used to keep track of the limit of a measurement is called Signifi-
cant Figures. In this system, when you record a measurement, the written number must
indicate the limit of the measurement, and when you perform mathematical operations on
measurements, the final answer must also indicate the limit of the original measurements.
To record a measurement, you must write down all the digits actually measured, including
measurements of zero and you must NOT write down any digit not measured. The only real
problem that occurs with this system is that zeros are sometimes used as measured numbers
and are sometimes used simply to locate the decimal point and ARE NOT measured numbers.

In the case shown above, the correct measurement is greater than 1.3 inches but less

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than 1.4 inches. It is proper to estimate one place beyond the calibrations
of the measuring instrument. Therefore, this measurement should be reported as either
1.33, 1.34, 1.35, 1.36, or 1.37 inches.

In this second case, it is apparent that the object is, as nearly as we can read, exactly at
1 inch. Since we know the tenths place is zero and can estimate the hundredths place to be
zero, the measurement should be reported as 1.00 inch. It is vital that you include the zeros
in your measurement report because these are measured places.

This is read as 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, or 1.16 inches.

This is read 1.50 inches.

These readings indicate that the measuring instrument had subdivisions down to the tenths
place and the hundredths place is estimated. There is some uncertainty about the last and
only the last digit.
In our system of writing significant figures, we must distinguish between measured zeros and
place-holding zeros. Here are the rules for determining the number of significant figures in a
measurement.
RULES FOR DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

1. All non-zero digits are significant.

2. All zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
3. All beginning zeros are NOT significant.
4. Ending zeros are significant if the decimal point is actually written in but not significant
if 

the decimal point is an understood decimal.

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Examples of the Rules

1. All non-zero digits are significant.
543 has 3 significant figures.
22.437 has 5 significant figures.
1.321754 has 7 significant figures.
2. All zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
7, 004 has 4 significant figures.
10.3002 has 6 significant figures.
103.0406 has 7 significant figures.
3. All beginning zeros are NOT significant.
00013.25 has 4 significant figures.
0.0000075 has 2 significant figures.
0.000002 has 1 significant figure.
4. Ending zeros are significant if the decimal point is actually written in but not significant
if 
the decimal point is an understood decimal.
37.300 has 5 significant figures.
33.00000 has 7 significant figures.

1.70 has 3 significant figures.

1, 000, 000 has 1 significant figure.
302, 000 has 3 significant figures.
1, 050 has 3 significant figures.
1, 000, 000. has 7 significant figures.
302, 000. has 6 significant figures.
1, 050. has 4 significant figures.

Exercises
How many significant figures are given in each of the following measurements?

1. 454 g _____
2. 2.2 lbs _____
3. 2.205 lbs _____

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4. 0.3937 L _____
5. 0.0353 L _____
6. 1.00800 g _____
7. 500 g _____
8. 480 f t _____
9. 0.0350 kg _____
10. 100. cm _____
11. 1, 000 m _____
12. 0.625 L _____
13. 63.4540 mm _____
14. 3, 060 m _____
15. 500. g _____
16. 14.0 mL _____
17. 1030 g ______
18. 9, 700 g _____
19. 125, 000 m _____
20. 12, 030.7210 g _____
21. 0.0000000030 cm _____
22. 0.002 m _____
23. 0.0300 cm _____
24. 1.00 L _____
25. 0.025 m/s _____
26. 0.100 kg _____
27. 0.00300 km _____
28. 303.0 g _____
29. 250 g _____
30. 1, 000. m _____
Maintaining Significant Figures Through Mathematical Operations
In addition to using significant figures to report measurements, we also use them to report the
results of computations made with measurements. The results of mathematical operations
with measurements must include an indication of the number of significant figures in the
original measurements. There are two rules for determining the number of significant figures
after a mathematical operation. One rule is for addition and subtraction, and the other rule
is for multiplication and division. (Most of the errors that occur in this area result from
using the wrong rule, so always double check that you are using the correct rule for the
mathematical operation involved.
Significant Figure Rule for Addition and Subtraction
The answer for an addition or subtraction problem must have digits no further to the right
than the shortest addend.
Example:

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13.3843 cm
1.012 cm
+ 3.22 cm
17.6163 cm = 17.62 cm

Note that the vertical column farthest to the right has a 3 in the top number but that this
column has blank spaces in the next two numbers in the column. In elementary math lasses,
you were taught that these blank spaces can be filled in with zeros, and in such a case,
the answer would be 17.6163 cm. In science, however, these blank spaces are NOT zeros
but are unknown numbers. Since they are unknown numbers, you cannot substitute any
numbers into the blank spaces and you cannot claim to know, forsure, the result of adding
that column. You can know the sum of adding (or subtracting) any column of numbers that
contains an unknown number. Therefore, when you add these three columns of numbers,
the only columns for which you are sure of the sum are the columns that have a known
number in each space in the column. When you have finished adding these three numbers
in the normal mathematical process, you must round off all those columns that contain an
unknown number (a blank space). Therefore, the correct answer for this addition is 17.62 cm
and has four significant figures.
Example:

12 m
+ 0.00045 m
12.00045 m = 12 m

In this case, the 12 has no numbers beyond the decimal and therefore, all those columns
must be rounded off and we have the seemingly odd result that after adding a number to
12, the answer is still 12. This is a common occurrence in science and is absolutely correct.
Example:

56.8885 cm

8.30 cm
+ 47.0 cm
112.1885 cm = 112.2 cm

This answer must be rounded back to the tenths place because that is the last place where
all the added numbers have a recorded digit.

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Significant Figure Rule for Multiplication and Division

The answer for a multiplication or division operation must have the same number of signif-
icant figures as the factor with the least number of significant figures.
Example: (3.556 cm)(2.4 cm) = 8.5344 cm2 = 8.5 cm2
In this case, the factor 2.4 has two significant figures and therefore, the answer must have
two significant figures. The mathematical answer is rounded back to two significant figures.
Example: (20.0 cm)(5.0000 cm) = 100 cm2 = 100. cm2
In this example, the factor 20.0 cm has three significant figures and therefore, the answer
must have three significant figures. In order for this answer to have three significant figures,
we place an actual decimal after the second zero to indicate three significant figures.
Example: (5.444 cm)(22 cm) = 119.768 cm2 = 120 cm2
In this example, the factor 22 cm has two significant figures and therefore, the answer must
have twoInsignificant
figures. figures.
order to keep The mathematical
the decimal answer
in the correct is rounded
position, back to two
a non-significant zerosignificant
is used.
Exercises
Add, subtract, multiply, or divide as indicated and report your answer with the proper
number of significant figures.
1.
703 g
7 g

+ 0.66 g
2.
5.624 f t
0.24 f t
+ 16.8 f t

3.
34 kg
−
0.2 kg

4.
18.7 m
+ 0.009 m

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5. Add 65.23 cm, 2.666 cm, and 10 cm.

6. Multiply 2.21 cm and 0.3 cm.
7. Multiply: (2.002 cm)(84 cm)
8. Multiply: (107.888 cm)(0.060 cm)
9. Divide 72.4 cm by 0.0000082 cm.
10. Multiply 0.32 cm by 600 cm and then divide the
product by 8.21 cm.

Exponential Notation Worksheet

Name_____________________________________ Date______
Work in science frequently involves very large and very small numbers. The speed of light,
for example, is 300, 000, 000 meters/second; the mass of the earth is 6, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 00
and the mass of an electron is 0.0000000000000000000000000000009 kg . It is very inconve-
nient to write such numbers and even more inconvenient to attempt to carry out mathemat-
ical operations with them. Imagine trying to divide the mass of the earth by the mass of an
electron!
Scientists and mathematicians have designed an easier method for dealing with such numbers.
This more convenient system is called Exponential Notation by mathematicians and
Scientific Notation by scientists.
In scientific notation, very large and very small numbers are expressed as the product of 
a number between 1 and 110 and some power of  10. The number 9, 000, 000, for example,
can be written as the product of 9 times 1, 000, 000 and 1, 000, 000 can be written as 106 .
Therefore, 9, 000, 000 can be written as 9 x 106 . In a similar manner, 0.00000004 can be
written as 4 times 101 or 4 x 10 8 .
8
−

Table 2.2: Examples

Decimal Notation Scientific 4Notation  

95, 672 9.5672 x 10
8, 340 8.34 x 103
100 1 x 102
7.21 7.21 x 100
0.014 1.4 x 10 2−

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Table 2.2: (continued)

Decimal Notation Scientific Notation  

0.0000000080 8.0 x 10 9−

0.00000000000975 9.75 x 10 12−

As you can see from the examples above, to convert a number from decimal to exponential
form, you count the spaces that you need to move the decimal and that number becomes the
exponent of 10. If you are moving the decimal to the left, the exponent is positive, and if you
are moving the decimal to the right, the exponent is negative. One and only one non-zero
digit exists to the left of the decimal and ALL significant figures are maintained.
The value of using exponential notation occurs when there are many non-significant zeros.
Exercises

Express the following decimal numbers in exponential form. The exponential form should
have exactly one non-zero digit to the left of the decimal and you must carry all significant
figures.

1. 1000
2. 150,000
3. 243
4. 9.3
5. 435,000,000,000
6. 0.0035
7. 0.012567
8. 0.0000000000100
9. 0.000000000000467
10. 0.000200
11. 186,000
12. 9,000,000,000,000
13. 105
14. 77,000
15. 502,000

Carrying Out Mathematical Operations with Exponential Numbers

When numbers in exponential notation are added or subtracted, the exponents must  be the
same. If the exponents are the same, the coefficients are added and the exponent remains
the same.
Consider the following example.

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4.3 x 104 + 1.5 x 104 = (4.3 + 1.5) x 104 = 5.8 x 104 (43, 000 + 15, 000 = 58, 000)
8.6 x 107 − 5.3 x 107 = (8.6 − 5.3)x 107 = 3.3 x 107 (86, 000, 000 − 53, 000, 000 = 33, 000, 0

If the exponents of the numbers to be added or subtracted are not the same, then one of the
numbers must be changed so that the two numbers have the same exponent.
Examples
The two numbers given below, in their present form, cannot be added because they do not
have the same exponent. We will change one of the numbers so that it has the same exponent
as the other number. In this case, we choose to change 3.0 x 104 to 0.30 x 105 . This change
is made by moving the decimal one place to the left and increasing the exponent by 1. The
two numbers can now be added.

8.6 x 105 + 3.0 x 104 = 8.6 x 105 + 0.30 x 105 = 8.9 x 105

We also could have chosen to alter the other number. Instead of changing the second number
to a higher exponent, we could have changed the first number to a lower exponent.

8.6 x 105 → 86 x 104

Now, we can add the numbers, 86 x 104 + 3.0x 104 = 89 x 104

The answer, in this case, is not in proper exponential form because it has two non-zero digits
to the left of the decimal. When we convert the answer to proper exponential form, it is
exactly the same answer as before, 89 x 104 → 8.9 x 105 .
Exercises
Add or subtract the following exponential numbers as indicated.

1. (8.34 x 105 ) + (1.22 x 105 ) =

2. (4.88 x 103 ) − (1.22 x 103 ) =
3. (5.6 x 10 4 ) + ( 1.2 x 10 4 ) =
− −

4. (6.38 x 105 ) + ( 1.2 x 104 ) =

5. (8.34 x 105 ) − (1.2 x 104 ) =
6. (8.34 x 10 5 ) + ( 1.2 x 10 6 ) =
− −

7. (4.93 x 10 1 ) − (1.2 x 10 2 ) =
− −

8. (1.66 x 10 5 ) + ( 6.4 x 10 6 ) =
− −

9. (6.34 x 1015 ) + ( 1.2 x 1016 ) =

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10. (6.34 x 1015 ) − (1.2 x 101 ) =

Multiplying or Dividing with Numbers in Exponential Form

When multiplying or dividing numbers in scientific notation, the numbers do not have to
multiply the coefficients
have the same exponents. To multiply exponential numbers,
and add the exponents. To divide exponential numbers, divide the coefficients and
subtract the exponents.
Examples of Multiplying Exponential Numbers 
Multiply: (4.2 x 104 )(2.2 x 102 ) = ( 4.2x 2.2)(104+2 ) = 9.2 x 106
The coefficient of the answer comes out to be 9.24 but since we can only carry two significant
figures in the answer, it has been rounded to 9.2 .
Multiply: (2 x 109 )(4 x 1014 = (2 x 4)(109+14 ) = 8 x 1023
Multiply: (2 x 10 9 )(4 x 104 ) = ( 2 x 4)(10
− − 9+4
) = 8 x 10 − 5

Multiply: (2 x 10 5 )(4 x 10 4 ) = ( 2x 4)(10

− − −5−4
) = 8 x 10 − 9

Multiply: (8.2 x 10 9 )(8.2 x 10 4 ) = ( 8.2 x 8.2)(10(

− − −9)+(−4)
) = 3 2.8 x10 13
−

The product in the last example has too many significant figures and is not in proper ex-
ponential form, so we must round to two significant figures, 33 x 10 13 , and then move the −

decimal and correct the exponent, 3.3 x 10 12 . −

Examples of Dividing Exponential Numbers 

8 x 107
Divide: 2 x 104
= ( 82 )(107 4 ) = 4 x 103
−

8 x 10−7 8 (−7)−(−4) 3
−

Divide: 2 x 10−4 = ( 2 )(10 ) = 4 x 10

4.6 x 103
Divide: 2.3 x 10−4
= ( 42..63 )(10(3) (
− − 4)
) = 2.0 x 107
In the final example, since the original coefficients had two significant figures, the answer
must have two significant figures and therefore, the zero in the tenths place is carried.
Exercises

1. Multiply: (2.0 x 107 )(2.0 x 107 ) =

2. Multiply: (5.0 x 107 )(4.0 x 107 ) =
3. Multiply: (4.0 x 10 3 )(1.2 x 10 2 ) =− −

4. Multiply: (4 x 10 113)(5 x 102 ) =5

5. Multiply: (1.53 x 10 )(4.200 x 10 ) =
6. Multiply: (2 x 10 13 )(3.00 x 10 22 ) =
− −

5
7. Divide: 42..00 xx 10 10 =
5
15
6.2 x 10
8. Divide: 2.0 x 10 = 5
− 5
9. Divide: 83.6.1 xx 1010 =
3

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−5
10. Divide: 38..16 xx 10
10
−
11 =

2.3 Lesson 2.3 Using Mathematics in Chemistry

Measurements Worksheet
Name_______________________________________ Date____
Measurement makes it possible to obtain more exact observations about the properties of 
matter such as the size, shape, mass, temperature, or composition. It allows us to make more
exact quantitative observations. For example, the balance makes it possible to determine
the mass of an object more accurately than we could by lifting the object and a clock gives a
better measure of time than we could determine by observing the sun’s position in the sky.

Measurements were orginally made by comparing the object being measured to some familiar
object. Length was compared to the length of one’s foot. Other measures were handspans,
elbow to fingertip, and so on. As people’s needs increased for more consistent measurements,
STANDARD systems of measurement were devised. In a standard system of measurement,
some length is chosen to be the standard and copies of this object can then be used by every-
one making measurements. With a standard system of measurement, two people measuring
the same distance will get the same measurement.
For a time, the standard for length (one meter) was a platinum bar which was marked and
stored at constant temperature in a vault. It was stored at constant temperature so that it
did not expand or contract. Standard masses are also stored in airtight containers to insure
no change due to oxidation. Presently, the standard meter  is the distance light travels in a
1
vacuum in 299,792,458
second and the standard second  is based on the vibrations of a cesium
−133 atom.

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For any system of measurements, all measurements must include a unit term; a word fol-
lowing the number that indicates the standard the measurement is based on. Systems of 
measurement have several standards such as length, mass, and time, and are based on phys-
ical objects such as platinum bars or vibrating atoms. Standards based on physical objects
are called undefined units. All the other standards are expressed in terms of these object-
based standards. For example, length and time are object-based standards and velocity
(meters/second) and acceleration (m/s2 ) are expressed in terms of length and time. Volume
is expressed in terms of the length standard, volume = length x length x length, such as
cm3 .
There are two major systems of standards used in the United States. The one commonly
used by the public (pounds, feet) and the system used for all scientific and technical work
(kilograms, meters). The system used for scientific work is called the Metric System in
its short form and is called the International System (SI) in its complete form. The
undefined units in the SI system are the meter, gram, and second. All the sub-divisions in
the SI system are in decimal form.
Conversion Factors, English to Metric
1.00 inch = 2.54 centimeters
1.00 quart = 0.946 liter
1.00 pound = 4.54 Newtons (= 454 grams on earth)
Units and Sub-Divisions for the SI System
Basic unit for length = meter
Basic unit for mass = gram
Basic unit for time = second
Unit for volume = liter (lee-ter)
1000 millimeters = 1 meter
100 centimeters = 1 meter
1000 meters = 1 kilometer
10 centimeters = 1 millimeter
1000 milligrams = 1 gram

1000 grams = 1 kilogram

1000 milliliters = 1 liter
1 milliliters = 1 cubic centimeter = < math > 1cm3
All the relationships between units are defined numbers and therefore, have an infinite num-

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ber of significant figures. When converting units, the significant figures of the answer are
based on the significant figures of the measurement, not on the conversion factors.
The unit terms for measurements are an integral part of the measurement expression and
must be carried through every mathematical operation that the numbers go through. In
performing mathematical operations on measurements, the unit terms as well as the numbers
obey the algebraic laws of exponents and cancellation.
Examples:
Table 2.3: Unit Terms Follow the Rules of Algebra

Math Operations Unit Term Operations

6x + 2x = 8x 6 mL + 2 mL = 8 mL
(5x)(3x) = 1 5x2 (5 cm)(3 cm) = 1 5 cm2
3 3
9x 9cm
3x
= 3x2 3cm
= 3 cm2
21 grams
21x
= 7( x ) = 7 grams
3 3

3a a 3 cm cm

Converting Units
Frequently, it is necessary to convert units measuring the same quantity from one form to
another. For example, it may be necessary to convert a length measurement in meters to
millimeters. This process is quite simple if you follow a standard procedure called unit 
analysis . This procedure involves creating a conversion factor from equivalencies between
various units.
For example, we know that there are 12 inches in 1 foot. Therefore, the conversion factor
between inches and feet is 12 inches = 1 foot. If we have a measurement in inches and we
wish to convert the measurement to feet, we would generate a conversion factor ( 121 inches
foot
)
and multiply the measurement by this conversion factor.
Example: Convert 500. inches to feet.

1 foot
(500. inches)( ) = 4 1.7 feet
12 inches

We design the conversion factor specifically for this problem so that the unit term ”inches”
will cancel out and the final answer will have the unit ”feet”. This is how we know to put
the unit term ”inches” in the denominator and the unit term ”foot” in the numerator.
Example: Convert 6.4 nobs to hics given the conversion factor, 5 hics = 1 nob.

5 hics
(6.4 nobs)( ) = 3 2 hics
1 nob

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Example: Convert 4.5 whees to dats given the conversion factor, 10 whees = 1 dat.

1 dat
(4.5 whees)( ) = 0.45 dats
10 whees

Sometimes, it is necessary to insert a series of conversion factors.Example: Convert 5.00 wags

to pix given the conversion factors, 10 wags = 1 hat, and 1 hat = 2 pix.

1 hat 2 pix
(5.00 wags)( )( ) = 1.00 pix
10 wags 1 hat

Solved Conversion Problems

1. Convert 1.22 cm to mm.

10 mm
(1.22 cm)( ) = 1 2.2 mm
1 cm

2. Convert 5.00 inches to mm.

2.54 cm 10 mm
(5.00 inches)( )( ) = 127 mm
1 inch 1 cm

3. Convert 66 lbs to kg. As long as the object is at the surface of the earth, pounds (force)
can be converted to grams (mass) with the conversion factor 454 g = 1 lb.

454 g 1 kg
(66 lbs)( )( ) = 3 0. kg
1 lb 1000 g

The mathematical answer for this conversion comes out to be 29.964 but must be rounded
off to two significant figures since the original measurement has only two significant figures.
When 29.964 is rounded to two significant figures, it requires a written in decimal after the
zero to make the zero significant. Therefore, the final answer is 30. kg .
4. Convert 340. mg /cm3 to lbs/f t3 .

340. mg 1g 1 lb 16.39 cm3 17.28 in3

( 3
)( )( )( 3
)( 3
) = 2 1.2 lbs/f t3
1 cm 1000 mg 454 g 1 in 1 ft

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You should examine the units yourself to make sure they cancel and leave the correct units
for the answer.
Exercises

1. Convert 40. cots to togs given the conversion factor, 10 cots = 1 tog .
2. Convert 8.0 curs to nibbles given the conversion factor, 1 cur = 10 nibbles.
3. Convert 100. gags to bobos given the conversion factor, 5 gags = 1 bobo.
4. Convert 1.0 rat to utes given the conversion factors, 10 rats = 1 gob and 10 gobs =
1 ute.
5. Express 3.69 m in cm.
6. Express 140 mm in cm.
7. Convert 15 inches to mm.
8. Express 32.0 grams in pounds. (Be aware that such a conversion between weight and
mass is only reasonable on the surface of the earth.)
9. Express 690 mm in m.
10. Convert 32.0 lbs/qt to g/mL.
11. Convert 240. mm to cm.
12. Convert 14, 000 mm to m.

2.4 Lesson 2.4 Using Algebra in Chemistry

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Chapter 3

Chemistry in the Laboratory Worksheets

3.1 Lesson 3.1 Making Observations

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3.2 Lesson 3.2 Making Measurements

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3.3 Lesson 3.3 Using Data

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3.4 Lesson 3.4 How Scientists Use Data

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Chapter 4

The Atomic Theory Worksheets

4.1 Lesson 4.1 Early Development of a Theory

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4.2 Lesson 4.2 Further Understanding of the Atom

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4.3 Lesson 4.3 Atomic Terminology

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Chapter 5

The Bohr Model of the Atom Work-

sheets

5.1 Lesson 5.1 The Wave Form of Light

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5.2 Lesson 5.2 The Dual Nature of Light

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5.3 Lesson 5.3 Light and the Atomic Spectra

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5.4 Lesson 5.4 The Bohr Model

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Chapter 6

Quantum Mechanics Model of the Atom

Worksheets

6.1 Lesson 6.1 The Wave-Particle Duality

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

6.2 Lesson 6.2 Schrodinger’s Wave Functions

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

6.3 Lesson 6.3 Heisenberg’s Contribution

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

6.4 Lesson 6.4 Quantum Numbers

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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6.5 Lesson 6.5 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

Quantum Numbers and Orbital Shapes Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry . . . . Name______________________

Date_________

Figure 6.1: ?

Mathematically, from Schrodinger’s Equation, energy level 5 would have a fifth sub-level
named g . It would have 9 orbitals and hold a maximum of  18 electrons. Similarly, energy
level 6 would have this g sub-level and another sub-level named h. Sub-level h would have
11 orbitals and would hold a maximum of  22 electrons. This pattern would continue through
all the larger energy levels. In terms of usefulness, however, we have no atoms that contain
enough electrons to use the 5g, 6g, 6h, 7g, 7h sub-levels. The known atoms never use any
energy sub-levels beyond 5f, 6f , and 7f . Therefore, in most listings of energy levels and
sub-levels, energy levels 5, 6, and 7 will look exactly like energy level 4, with only s ,p,d, and
f  sub-levels listed.
The probability patterns for these sub-levels are shown below.
The s orbitals in every energy level are spherical.
The three p orbitals in energy levels 2 − 7 are dumbbell shaped.
The five d orbitals in energy levels 3 − 7 are sometimes referred to a butterfly shaped.
The seven f  orbitals in energy levels 4 − 7 are too complex to describe.
Exercises
True/False
1. All sub-energy levels with ℓ = 1, regardless of the principal energy level quantum number

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Figure 6.2: ?

Figure 6.3: ?

Figure 6.4: ?

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Figure 6.5: ?

will have dumbbell shape.

A. True
B. False
2. Theoretically, it is possible for a principal energy level to have n2 sub-energy levels.

A. True
B. False
3. It is impossible for an electron in an atom to have the quantum numbers n = 3, ℓ =
2, ml = 3, ms = + 12 .
A. True
B. False
Multiple Choice
4. How many sub-energy levels may be present if the principal quantum number is 3?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. None of these.
5. How many possible orbitals are there when n = 3?
A. 1
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. 9

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6. How many electrons can be accommodated in the energy level for which n = 3?
A. 2
B. 6
C. 8
D. 10
E. 18
7. How many atomic orbitals are present in the subshell for which n = 3 and ℓ = 2?
A. 1
B. 3
C. 5
D. 7
E. 9
8. How many orbitals are present in the subshell for which n = 5 and ℓ = 4?
A. 1
B. 3
C. 5
D. 7
E. 9
9. What is the shape of an orbital in the subshell for which n = 3 and ℓ = 0?
A. spherical
B. dumbbell
C. butterfly or clover shaped
D. Could be any of these.
E. None of these.
10. What is the shape of an orbital in the subshell for which n = 7 and ℓ = 0?
A. spherical
B. dumbbell
C. butterfly or clover shaped
D. Could be any of these.

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E. None of these.
11. Which type of orbital is described by the quantum numbers n = 2, ℓ = 1?
A. 2s
B. 2 p
C. 2d
D. 2f 
E. None of these.
12. If the principal quantum number of an atomic orbital is 4, what are the possible values
of  ℓ?
A. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
B. 1, 2, 3, 4
C. 0, 1, 2, 3
D. 0, 1, 2
E. None of these.
Use the image below to answers questions 13, 14, and 15.

Figure 6.6: ?

13. Identify the image above as an s−orbital, p−orbital, d−orbital, f −orbital or none of 
these.
A. s
B. p
C. d
D. f 

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E. None of these.
14. What is the ℓ value for the type of orbital pictured above?
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
E. 4
15. Will an orbital of the shape pictured above be found in the n = 2 energy level?
A. Yes
B. No

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Chapter 7

Electron Configurations for Atoms Work-

sheets

7.1 Lesson 7.1 The Electron Spin Quantum Number

Quantum Numbers Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________

1.
2. Which
Which quantum
quantum number
number indicates
indicates the
the electron’s
electron’s energy level?
sub-energy level?
3. Which quantum number indicates the electron’s orbital within the sub-energy level?
4. Which quantum number indicates the electron’s spin?
5. What is the lowest energy level that has a d sub-level?
6. What is the total number of electrons that can exist in the 3r d energy level?
7. Which sub-energy level is indicated by ℓ = 1?
8. which sub-energy level is indicated by ℓ = 2?
9. What is the maximum number of electrons that can be held in an f  sub-energy level?
10. What does it mean for an electron to be ”excited”?
11. What are the n and ℓ quantum numbers for the last electron in bromine?
12. What are the n and ℓ quantum numbers for the last electron in iron?
13. What are the n and ℓ quantum numbers for the electron in hydrogen?
14. The three electrons in the 2 p sub-energy level of nitrogen have the n and ℓ quantum
numbers. What are the mℓ quantum numbers for each of these three electrons?
15. What is the basic tenet of the quantum theory?
16. Why are the quantum numbers n = 2, ℓ = 2, mℓ = 2, s = 12 , not an acceptable set of 

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quantum numbers for an electron?

17. Sketch a picture of the 2s sub-energy level showing any nodes present.
18. Give the full set of quantum numbers for each of the electrons in a helium atom.
19. What maximum number of electrons in an atom can have the quantum numbers n =
2, ℓ = 1?
20. What maximum number of electrons in an atom can have the quantum numbers n =
3, ℓ = 3?

7.2 Lesson 7.2 Pauli Exclusion

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

7.3 Lesson 7.3 Aufbau Principle

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

7.4 Lesson 7.4 Writing Electron Configurations

Orbital Configuration Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry . . . . Name______________________
Date_________
Table 7.1: Richard Parsons Draw the Orbital Configuration for these Atoms

Symbol Orbital Diagram

Mg title

P title

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Table 7.1: (continued)

Symbol Orbital Diagram

Ge title

Kr title

O title

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Table 7.1: (continued)

Symbol Orbital Diagram

F title

Pb title

Table 7.2: Write the Electron Configuration Code for these Atoms

Atom Electron Configuration Code

V 1s2 2s2 2 p6 3s2 3 p6 4s2 3d3
Mg
P
Ge
Kr

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Table 7.2: (continued)

Atom Electron Configuration Code

O
F
Pb

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Chapter 8

Electron Configurations and the Peri-

odic Table Worksheets

8.1 Lesson 8.1 Electron Configurations of Main Group

Elements
There are no worksheets for this lesson.

8.2 Lesson 8.2 Orbital Configurations

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

8.3 Lesson 8.3 The Periodic Table and Electron Con-

figurations

The Periodic Table and Electron Configuration Worksheet

When Mendeleev organized the periodic table, he placed the elements in vertical columns
according to their chemical behavior. That is, elements were placed in the same vertical
columns because they behaved similarly in chemical reactions. All the alkali metals (Li,
Na, K, Rb, Cs) react with water to produce heat, hydrogen gas, and the metal hydroxide
in solution. Essentially, the only difference in the reactions is that the larger alkali metals
react faster than the smaller ones. The vertical columns of elements are frequently referred
to chemical “families” because of their similar chemical characteristics.

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When quantum theory generated electron configurations which demonstrated that the ele-
ments in the same family have the same outer energy level electron configuration, the reason
these elements behaved similarly became clear. Since chemical behavior is determined by
outer energy level electron configuration, it was clear that elements that behaved similarly
should have similar electron configuration.

Table 8.1: The Electron Configuration of Family 1A Elements

Element Electron Configuration

Li 1s2 2s1
Na 1s2 2s2 sp6 3s1
K 1s2 2s2 sp6 3s2 3 p6 4s1
Rb 1s2 2s2 sp6 3s2 3 p6 4s2 3d10 4 p6 5s1
Cs 1s2 2s2 sp6 3s2 3 p6 4s2 3d10 4 p6 5s2 4d10 5 p6 6s1

Table 8.2: The Electron Configuration of Family 7A Elements

Element Electron Configuration

F 1s2 2s2 2 p5
Cl 1s2 2s2 sp6 3s2 3 p5
Br 1s2 2s2 sp6 3s2 3 p6 4s2 3d10 4 p5
I 1s2 2s2 sp6 3s2 3 p6 4s2 3d10 4 p6 5s2 4d10 5 p5

Exercises

1. If the outermost energy level electron configuration of an atom is ns2 np1 ,

(a) to which family does it belong? ____________
(b) is the atom a metal, metalloid, non-metal, or a noble gas? ________________
(c) how many valence electrons does it have? ______________
2. If the outermost energy level electron configuration of an atom is ns2 np4 ,
(a) to which family does it belong? ____________
(b) is the atom a metal, metalloid, non-metal, or a noble gas? ________________
(c) how many valence electrons does it have? ______________
3. If the outermost energy level electron configuration of an atom is ns2 np6 ,
(a) to which family does it belong? ____________
(b) is the atom a metal, metalloid, non-metal, or a noble gas? ________________
(c) how many valence electrons does it have? ______________
4. The electron configuration of an element is [Ar]4s2 3d3 .

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(a) What is the identity of the element? _________________

(b) In what period does the element belong? _____________
(c) In what group does the element belong? _____________
(d) Is the element a main group element, a transition element, a lanthanide, or an
actinide? _____________
5. Write the electron configuration of only the outermost energy level for an element that
is in family 5A of the fifth period of the periodic table. _______________________
6. Write the electron configuration of only the outermost energy level for an element that
is in family 8A of the third period of the periodic table. _______________________

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Chapter 9

Relationships Between the Elements Work

sheets

9.1 Lesson 9.1 Families on the Periodic Table

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

9.2 Lesson 9.2 Electron Configurations

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

9.3 Lesson 9.3 Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams

Electron Configuration Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
1. Fill in the orbital electron representation for phosphorus.
2. Fill in the electron orbital configuration for cobalt.
3. Fill in the electron orbital configuration for bromine.
4. Write the electron configuration code for phosphorus.
5. Draw the electron-dot formula for phosphorus.

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Figure 9.1: ?

Figure 9.2: ?

Figure 9.3: ?

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6. How many valence electrons does phosphorus have?

7. Write the electron configuration code for cobalt.
8. How many valence electrons does cobalt have?
9. Write the electron configuration code for bromine.
10. How many valence electrons does bromine have?
11. How many valence electrons does tellurium have?
12. Give the electron dot formula for calcium.
13. What will be the outer energy level electron configuration for element # 118?
14. How many valence electrons does silicon have?
15. Draw the electron dot formula for silicon.

9.4 Lesson 9.4 Chemical Family Members Have Similar

Properties
There are no worksheets for this lesson.

9.5 Lesson 9.5 Transition Elements

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

9.6 Lesson 9.6 Lanthanide and Actinide Series

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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Chapter 10

Trends on the Periodic Table Work-

sheets

10.1 Lesson 10.1 Atomic Size

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

10.2 Lesson 10.2 Ionization Energy

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

10.3 Lesson 10.3 Electron Affinity

Trends in the Periodic Table Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________

1. Which atom is larger, by volume, hydrogen or helium?

2. What is the smallest atom, by volume, in the third period?
3. Describe the relationship between atomic volume and ionization energy.
4. Which atom has the greatest electron affinity?
5. What is the most stable number of electrons for an atom’s outermost energy level?
6. Which is larger in volume, oxygen or sulfur?
7. Which is chemically more reactive, potassium or cesium?

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8. Which is chemically more reactive, oxygen or sulfur?

9. Which atom in period 3 has the greatest electron affinity?
10. Which atom in period 3 has the largest volume?
11. Which atom has greater ionization energy, aluminum or gallium?
12. Which atom has greater second ionization energy, potassium or calcium?
13. What is the outer energy level electron configuration of a noble gas?
14. Which atom in period 3 has the lowest ionization energy?
15. Explain why fluorine, even though it is larger than neon, has a greater electron affinity.

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Chapter 11

Ions and the Compounds They Form

Worksheets

11.1 Lesson 11.1 The Formation of Ions

Ion Formation Worksheet

Questions 1 - 4 relate to element X  whose first six ionization energies are shown in the table
below. Element X is a representative element.
Table 11.1: The First Six Ionization Energies of Element X

Number of Ionization Energy Ionization Energy (kJ/mol)

1st 800
2nd 1, 400
3rd 15, 000
4th 18, 000
5th 21, 000
6th 25, 000

1. Is element X  more likely to be a metal or a non-metal?

2. Which family of elements does element X  belong to?
3. How many electrons is element X  most likely to gain or lose in a normal chemical reaction?
4. What is the most likely charge for an ion of element X ?
Questions 5 - 8 relate to element Y  whose first six ionization energies are shown in the table

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below. Element Y  is a representative element.

Table 11.2: The First Six Ionization Energies of Element Y

Number of Ionization Energy Ionization Energy (kJ/mol)

1st 500
2nd 4, 800
3rd 6, 800
4th 9, 000
5th 13, 000
6th 15, 000

5. Is element Y  more likely to be a metal or a non-metal?

6. Which family of elements does element Y  belong to?

7. How many electrons is element Y  most likely to gain or lose in a normal chemical reaction?
8. What is the most likely charge for an ion of element Y ?
Questions 9 - 12 relate to element M  whose first eight ionization energies are shown in the
table below.Element M  is a representative element.
Table 11.3: The First Eight Ionization Energies of Element M

Number of Ionization Energy Ionization Energy (kJ/mol)

1st 1, 100
2nd 1, 800
3rd 2, 800
4th 4, 000
5th 6, 000
6th 8, 000
7th 27, 000
8th 36, 000

9. Is element M  more likely to be a metal or a non-metal?

10. Which family of elements does element M  belong to?
11. How many electrons is element M  most likely to gain or lose in a normal chemical
reaction?
12. What is the most likely charge for an ion of element M ?
The table below gives the electron affinities for period 3 of the periodic table.

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Table 11.4: The Electron Affinities of Elements in Period Three

Family 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
Elec- 52 0 42 134 72 200 349 0
tron
Affinity
(kJ/mol)

The table below gives the electron affinities for period 4 of the periodic table.

Table 11.5: The Electron Affinities of Elements in Period Four

Family 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
Elec- 48 2 29 119 78 195 325 0
tron
Affinity
(kJ/mol)

While family 5A is somewhat anomalous, the general trend is apparent in this data.
13. If a representative element has an electron affinity greater than 150 kJ /mol, would you
expect it to be a metal or a non-metal?
14. If all the elements in a family have an electron affinity of  0 kJ /mol , what family is it
most likely to be?
15. The first ionization energies (in kJ/mol) of Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs in random order are
370, 520, 400, 500, and 420.
A. Which first ionization energy do you think belongs to Li?
B. Which first ionization energy do you think belongs to Cs?
C. What knowledge about chemical families did you use to make those choices?
16. Given the electron configuration of the outermost energy level of an atom to be s2 p4 :
A. is the element a metal or non-metal?
B. is it most likely to gain or lose electrons?
C. how many electrons is it most likely to gain or lose in a normal chemical reaction?
D. what is the most likely charge on an ion of this element?

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11.2 Lesson 11.2 Ionic Bonding

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

11.3 Lesson 11.3 Properties of Ionic Compounds

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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Chapter 12

Writing and Naming Ionic Formulas Work

sheets

12.1 Lesson 12.1 Predicting Formulas of Ionic Com-

pounds

Formula Writing Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________

Fill in the squares with the appropriate formula for the compound formed by the combination
of the atoms or ions that intersect.
Table 12.1: Formula Writing Practice

bromine acetate sulfate phosphate hydroxide sulfur

potassium
calcium
aluminum
ammonium
iron (III)
lead (II)

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12.2 Lesson 12.2 Inorganic Nomenclature

Inorganic Nomenclature Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry

Name______________________ Date_________
Table 12.2: Name the Following Compounds

Number Formula Name

1. LiF  _____________________
2. N a3 P O4 _____________________
3. Al(OH )3 _____________________
4. Cl2 O7 _____________________

5.
6. PbO 
F e2 S 3 _____________________
_____________________
7. T eO2 _____________________
8. CuSO4 _____________________
9. Ca3 (P O4 )2 _____________________
10. HN O3 _____________________

Table 12.3:

Number Name Formula

1. copper (I) sulfide _____________________
2. boron trichloride _____________________
3. potassium carbonate _____________________
4. sulfur hexafluoride _____________________
5. chlorine monofluoride _____________________
6. dinitrogen tetraoxide _____________________
7. tin (IV) oxide _____________________
8. silver acetate _____________________
9. diphosphorus pentoxide _____________________
10. lithium nitrate _____________________

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Chapter 13

Covalent Bonding Worksheets

13.1 Lesson 13.1 The Covalent Bond

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

13.2 Lesson 13.2 Atoms that Form Covalent Bonds

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

13.3 Lesson 13.3 Naming Covalent Compounds

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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Chapter 14

Molecular Architecture Worksheets

14.1 Lesson
Atoms 14.1 Types of Bonds that Form Between

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

14.2 Lesson 14.2 The Covalent Molecules of Family 2A-

8A

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

14.3 Lesson 14.3 Resonance

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

14.4 Lesson 14.4 Electronic and Molecular Geometry

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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14.5 Lesson 14.5 Molecular Polarity

Molecular Geometry Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry

Name______________________ Date_________
Lewis structures only show how many bonding pairs of electrons, and unshared pairs of 
electrons, surround a given atom on a flat page. The molecules are actually three dimensional
which is not shown by Lewis structures. To convey a sense of three dimensionality, we use
”ball and stick” models.
There is a correlation between the number of electron pairs, (sigma bonds plus non-shared
pairs) around the central atom of a molecule, and the electronic geometry of that molecule.
The idea that allows us to predict the electronic geometry is that each pair of electrons
(shared or unshared) repels all the other electron pairs. The electron pairs move as far apart
as possible, but since they are all tied to the central atom, they can only orient themselves in
such a way that they make the angles between them as large as possible. This is the essence
of the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory  for predicting
molecular shapes.
To use VSEPR theory, we must first be able to determine the number of valence shell electron
pairs around the central atom. These pairs consist of all sigma bond pairs and all unshared
pairs of electrons. Pi bond electrons are excluded because the electrons are not placed
between bonding atoms and therefore, do not contribute to electronic geometry.

Table 14.1: Visualizing Electron Pairs

Electron Pairs Image
To visualize the electron pairs that con- title
tribute to electronic geometry, imagine
them situated on the surface of a sphere
with the central atom at the center.

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Table 14.1: (continued)

Electron Pairs Image

If there title

are only two pairs of electrons in the valence

shell of the central atom, the two pairs can
avoid each other best if they are 180 apart. ◦

This means that the two pairs and the cen-

tral atom are in a straight line; the arrange-
ment is linear.
If a title

third pair of electrons is added, the three

pairs push around to the shape shown at
right. The angles between electron pairs
would be 120 and we call the shape trig-
◦

onal planar. The three pairs of electrons

and the central atom are all in a single
plane.

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Table 14.1: (continued)

Electron Pairs Image

A title

fourth pair of electrons causes the electrons

to push around into the shape shown at
right, the tetrahedron. The angles in this
shape are 109.5 . ◦

A fifth title

pair of electrons produces the shape known

as trigonal bipyramidal. The angles be-
tween the three pairs of electrons around the
◦

center is 120 and the angles between the

pairs around the center and the pairs on the
ends is 90 . ◦

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Table 14.1: (continued)

Electron Pairs Image

Finally, title

the sixth pair of electrons produces the oc-

tahedral shape shown at right. All angles
in this shape are 90 . ◦

Once the number of electron pairs surrounding the central atom is determined, the elec-
tronic geometry is known.

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Table 14.2: The Relationship Between Number of Electron Pairs and Electronic
Geometry

Electron Pairs Around the Central Electronic Geometry

Atom
1 pair Linear
2 pairs Linear
3 pairs Trigonal Planar
4 pairs Tetrahedral
5 pairs Trigonal Bipyramidal
6 pairs Octahedral

The molecular geometry may be different from the electronic geometry because many
times, not all the electron pairs are shared. An unshared electron pair will not have an atom
in that position of the electronic geometry. In order to determine molecular geometry, we
must recognize which pairs of electrons have an atom attached and which are lone pairs.
The overall shape of the molecule is determined by how many pairs of electrons are around
the central atom, and how many of these have atoms attached.
It is sometimes difficult for students to recognize the difference between the orientation
of electron pairs (called electronic geometry) and the overall shape of the molecule (called
molecular geometry). We will look at an example that shows the difference between electronic
and molecular geometry. Consider the following four molecules: hydrogen chloride, HCl ;
water, H 2 O; ammonia, N H 3 ; and methane, CH 4 .

Table 14.3: The Relationship Between Shared Pairs and Molecular Geometry

Shared Pairs Molecular Geometry

The central atom of each of these molecules title
is surrounded by four pairs of electrons. Ac-
cording to VSEPR theory, these four pairs
will be oriented in three-dimensional space
to be as far away from each other as pos-
sible. The four pairs will point to the cor-
ners of the geometrical shape known as a
tetrahedron. The angles between the elec-
◦

tron pairs
all four will be
cases, theapproximately 109.5 . In
electronic geometry is
tetrahedral but only one of the molecules
will have tetrahedral molecular geometry.

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Table 14.3: (continued)

Shared Pairs Molecular Geometry

In the title

case of HCl, even though there are four pairs

of electrons around the chlorine atom, three
of them are not shared. There is no atom
attached to them. These spaces are empty.
Since there are only two atoms joined by a
bond, the molecular geometry will be lin-
ear.
In the title

water molecule, two electron pairs are

shared and two are unshared. So while
the electronic geometry is tetrahedral, the
molecular geometry is bent (aka angular,
aka V-shaped).

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Table 14.3: (continued)

Shared Pairs Molecular Geometry

In the title

ammonia molecule, one pair of electrons is

unshared and the other three are shared.
This results in a molecular shape called
pyramidal.
In the title

methane molecule, all four pairs of electrons

are shared, and so not only is the electronic
geometry tetrahedral but the molecular ge-
ometry is also tetrahedral.

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Table 14.3: (continued)

Shared Pairs Molecular Geometry

Table 14.4:

Central Atom Electronic Bonding Molecular Sketch

Electron Geometry Pairs Geometry
Pairs
2 Linear 2 Linear title

Trigonal Planar 1 Linear title

3
Trigonal Planar 2 Bent title

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Table 14.4: (continued)

Central Atom Electronic Bonding Molecular Sketch

Electron Geometry Pairs Geometry
Pairs
Trigonal Planar 3 Trigonal Planar title

3
Tetrahedral 1 Linear title

4
Tetrahedral 2 Bent title

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Table 14.4: (continued)

Central Atom Electronic Bonding Molecular Sketch

Electron Geometry Pairs Geometry
Pairs
Tetrahedral 3 Pyramidal title

4
Tetrahedral 4 Tetrahedral title

4
Trigonal 1 Linear title
Bipyramidal

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Table 14.4: (continued)

Central Atom Electronic Bonding Molecular Sketch

Electron Geometry Pairs Geometry
Pairs
Trigonal 2 Linear title
Bipyramidal

5
Trigonal 3 T-shape title
Bipyramidal

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Table 14.4: (continued)

Central Atom Electronic Bonding Molecular Sketch

Electron Geometry Pairs Geometry
Pairs
Trigonal 4 Distorted title
Bipyramidal Tetrahedron

5
Trigonal 5 Trigonal title
Bipyramidal Bipyramidal

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Table 14.4: (continued)

Central Atom Electronic Bonding Molecular Sketch

Electron Geometry Pairs Geometry
Pairs
Octahedral 1 Linear title

6
Octahedral 2 Linear title

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Table 14.4: (continued)

Central Atom Electronic Bonding Molecular Sketch

Electron Geometry Pairs Geometry
Pairs
Octahedral 3 T-shape title

6
Octahedral 4 Square Planar title

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Table 14.4: (continued)

Central Atom Electronic Bonding Molecular Sketch

Electron Geometry Pairs Geometry
Pairs
Octahedral 5 Square Pyrami- title
dal

6
Octahedral 6 Octahedral title

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Table 14.4: (continued)

Central Atom Electronic Bonding Molecular Sketch

Electron Geometry Pairs Geometry
Pairs

In order to choose the correct molecular geometry, you must keep in mind that only electron
pairs involved in sigma bonds and unshared pairs contribute to electronic geometry. Pi bonds
are not directed bonds, and those electron pairs do not contribute to electronic geometry.
In the Lewis structure for the carbon dioxide molecule (shown at right), it is clear that the
central atom is carbon, and the carbon atom is surrounded by 4 pairs of electrons. But these
fours pairs of electrons are involved in two sigma bonds and two pi bonds. Therefore, the
electronic geometry of carbon dioxide is based on two pairs of electrons around the central
atom, and will be linear. Since both pairs of electrons are shared, the molecular geometry
will also be linear.

Figure 14.1: ?

The Lewis structure for the carbonate ion, shown at right, shows the central atom is carbon

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and it is surrounded by 4 electron pairs. One of those pairs, however, is a pi bond, and
therefore the electronic geometry of the carbonate ion is based on 3 pairs of electrons around
the central atom. Thus, the electronic geometry is trigonal planar and since all three pairs
are shared, the molecular geometry is also trigon planar.

Figure 14.2: ?
Polarity
Bonds between atoms that are of the same element are non-polar bonds. Molecules composed
of all the same atom such as Cl2 , O2 , H 2 , S 8 , P 4 , have no polar bonds and therefore do not
have dipoles. That is, the molecules will be non-polar. A molecule that does have polar
bonds can still be non-polar. If the polar bonds are symmetrically distributed, the bond
dipoles cancel and do not produce a molecular dipole.
Table 14.5: Symmetrical and Non-Symmetrical Molecular Shapes

Molecular Shape Symmetry

Linear Symmetrical
Bent Non-Symmetrical
Trigonal Planar Symmetrical
Pyramidal Non-Symmetrical
Tetrahedral Symmetrical
T-shaped Non-Symmetrical
Distorted Tetrahedron Non-Symmetrical
Trigonal Bipyramidal Symmetrical
Square Planar Symmetrical
Square Pyramidal Non-Symmetrical
Octahdral Symmetrical

Exercises

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Fill in the table with electronic geometry, molecular geometry, and indicate whether the
molecular will be polar or non-polar.

Table 14.6: Polarity Table

Formula Electronic
etry Geom- Molecular
etry Geom- Polarity
AsH 3
BC l3
IF 3
SiBr4
SeH 4
XeI 4
OF 2
KrF 2
ICl5
CCl2 F 2

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Chapter 15

The Mathematics of Compounds Work-

sheets

15.1 Lesson 15.1 Determining Formula and Molecular

Mass

Calculating Molar Masses Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________

The relative masses of atoms, in units called Daltons, are listed in the periodic table. The
relative masses of molecules, in the same units, can be determined by adding up the masses
of all the atoms that make up the molecule. For example, the periodic table lists the relative
mass of a hydrogen atom as 1.01 Dalton and relative mass of the an oxygen atom to be
16.00 Daltons. Therefore, on this same scale, the relative mass of a water molecule, H 2 O,
would be the sum of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, 1.01 + 1.01 + 16.00 =
18.02 Daltons.
When an Avogadro’s number, 6.02 × 1023 , of atoms or molecules are taken, the mass of the
group will be the same number as the relative mass, but the units will be grams. That is,
the mass in grams, of  6.02 × 1023 water molecules is 18.02 grams. An Avogadro’s number
of particles is called one mole and the mass of that group of particles is called the molar 
mass (or mass of one mole) of that substance.
Example: Find the molar mass of calcium phosphate, Ca3 (P O4 )2 .

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Table 15.1: Adding Up a Molar Mass

Atoms of Element Atoms x Atomic Mass Total

3 Ca atoms = 3 × 40.1 = 120.3
2 P atoms = 2 × 31.0 = 62.0
8 O atoms = 8 × 16.0 = 128.0
_____
310.3

Therefore, the molar mass of calcium phosphate is 310.3 grams/mole.

Exercises
Find the molar masses of the following compounds. (Do not fail to include units in your
answers.)

1. NaOH 
2. NaBr 
3. PbSO4
4. Ca(OH )2
5. AgF 
6. C 6 H 12 O6
7. Ba (C 2 H 3 O2 )2
8. ZnCl2
9. (N H 4 )2 SO 4
N H  P O
10. ( 4 )3 4

15.2 Lesson 15.2 The Mole

Moles Worksheet
CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________

An Avogadro’s
When number
an Avogadro’s of particles
number, 6.02 ×of
10a23substance
, of atoms is
or called oneare
molecules mole of that
taken, substance.
the mass of the
group will be the same number as the relative molecular mass, but the units will be grams.
The mass of one mole of a substance ( 6.02 × 1023 particles) is the relative molecular mass in
grams.
The relationship between the moles and mass of a substance is given by:

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grams = (moles)(molar mass)

This relationship can be solved for any one of the three variables in the expression.

grams grams
grams = (moles)(molar mass) moles = molar mass =
molar mass moles

Some students find the triangle below to be a useful crutch. You put your thumb over
the quantity you are solving for and the part of the triangle not covered shows the correct
formula.

Figure 15.1: ?

Example 1: How many moles are present in 10.0 grams of sodium hydroxide, NaOH ?
Solution: The molar mass of  NaOH  is 40.0 g /mol . (”mol” is the abbreviation of mole.)

grams 10.0 g
moles = = = 0.250 moles
molar mass 40.0 g /mol

Example 2: What is the mass, in grams, of  4.20 moles of  Ca(N O3 )2 ?
Solution: The molar mass of  Ca(N O3 )2 is 164.1 g /mol .

grams = (moles)(molar mass) = (4.20 mol)(164.1 g /mol ) = 689 grams

Example 3: What is the molar mass of an unknown substance is0.250 moles of the substance
has a mass of  52.6 grams?
Solution:

grams 56.2 g
molar mass = = = 225 g /mol
moles 0.250 mol

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Example 4: What is the mass of  3.01 × 1023 molecules of ammonia, N H 3 ?
Solution: This problem involves converting the number of molecules to moles (divide by
Avogadro’s number), and then multiplying the moles by the molar mass.

1.00 mol 17.0 g

mass = (3.01 × 1023 molecules)( )( ) = 8.50 grams
6.02 × 1023 molecules 1.00 mol

Exercises

1. How many moles are present in 5.00 grams of  NaOH ?

2. How many grams are present in 2.50 moles of  N H 3 ?
3. How many moles are present in 100. g of  Ca(N O3 )2 ?
4. What is the mass of  0.468 moles of  C 6 H 1224O6 ?
5. How many moles are present in 1.00 × 10 molecules of water?
6. What is the mass, in grams, of one molecule of water?
7. What is the molar mass of a substance if  0.336 moles of it has a mass of 70.0 grams?
8. Convert 4.00 grams of  CH 4 to moles.
9. Convert 4.00 moles of  CH 4 to grams.
10. How many molecules are present in 1.00 g of  Al(C 2 H 3 O2 )2

15.3 Lesson 15.3 Percent Composition

Percent Composition Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
The percent composition (or percentage composition) of a compound is a measure of the
percentage of each different element present in the compound. To calculate the percent
composition, the mass of each individual element is divided by the total mass of the com-
pound and then multiplied by 100 (to get its percentage). The percent composition of a
compound can be calculated either from the known masses of the elements in the compound
(determined in the lab) or from the formula of the compound.
Example: The composition of a compound is determined in the laboratory to be 5.748 grams
of sodium and 8.862 grams of chlorine. What is the percent composition of the compound?
Solution: The total mass of this sample of the compound is 14.61 grams.

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5.748 g
% sodium = × 100 = 39.34%
14.61 g
8.862 g
% chlorine = × 100 = 60.66%
14.61 g

When you add up all the percentages of elements, you should get 100%, although on many
occasions, rounding may cause the last digit of the total to be off by 1. That is, on occasion,
you get a total of  99.9% or 100.1% due to several individual percentages all being rounded
up or all being rounded down.
Example: Calculate the percent composition of all the elements in (N H 4 )3 P O4 .
Solution:

3 N atoms = 3 × 14.01 = 42.03

12 H atoms = 12 × 1.01 = 12.12
1 P atom = 1 × 30.97 = 30.97
4 O atoms = 4 × 16.00 = 64.00

Formula weight for (N H 4 )3 P O4 = 149.12

42.03 30.97
% N  = × 100 = 28.19% %P  = × 100 = 20.77%
149.12 149.12
12.12 64.00
% H  = × 100 = 8.13% % O = × 100 = 42.92%
149.12 149.12

When the four percentages are added in this case, the total is 100.01%. The extra 0.01% is
due to the fact that all four of these percentages were rounded up.
Exercises

1. Determine the percent composition of  N a2 SO 4 .

2. Determine the percent composition of  NaOH .
3. Determine the percent composition of  AlCl3 .
4. Determine the percent composition of  Ca(C 2 H 3 O2 )2 .
5. Determine the percent composition of  C 6 H 1 2O6 .

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15.4 Lesson 15.4 Empirical and Molecular Formulas

Empirical Formulas Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry

Name______________________ Date_________
Empirical formulas represent the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms that make up a
compound. In some cases, such as CO2 , the empirical formula is exactly the same as the
actual molecular formula. In other cases such as benzene, C 6 H 6 , whose empirical formula is
CH , the molecular formula is some multiple of the empirical formula.
Empirical formulas can be determined either from the masses of the elements making up the
compound or from the percent composition.
Example 1: What is the empirical formula of a compound that contains 0.0134 grams of 
iron, 0.00769 grams of sulfur, and 0.0115 grams of oxygen?
Step 1: Convert each of the masses into moles of atoms of that element. This is accomplished
by dividing the grams of each element by the atomic mass of the element.

0.0134 g
moles Fe = = 0.000240 mol
55.8 g /mol
0.00769 g
moles S  = = 0.000240 mol
32.1 g /mol
0.0115 g
moles O = = 0.000719 mol
16.0 g /mol
It is important to note that we are determining the number of moles of each atom that exists
in the compound and therefore, for the diatomic gases, we use the atomic mass of a single
atom of the element (not the diatomic molar mass).
Step 2: The ratio of moles that we determined in step 1 is the correct ratio for the compound.
We are not allowed, however, to write a formula in the form, F e0.000230 S 0.000240 O0.000719 .
Before we can write the formula, we must get the ratio into a simplest whole number ratio.
This is often accomplished by dividing each of the moles by the smallest of them.

moles F e =
0.000240 = 1.00
0.000240
0.000240
moles S  = = 1.00
0.000240
0.000719
moles O = = 3.00
0.000240

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Therefore, the empirical formula for this compound is FeSO3 .

Example 2: Find the empirical formula of a compound that contains 48.78% carbon, 2.439%
hydrogen, 26.02% oxygen, and 22.77% nitrogen.
Solution: When the empirical formula is to be determined from percent composition, it is
easiest to assume a 100. gram sample, take each percentage of the 100. grams to get grams
for each element, and then proceed as in Example 1. Using this technique, each of the
percentages in the problem becomes the mass of the element in grams.

grams C  = 48.78 g, grams H  = 2.439 ggrams O = 26.02 g,grams N  = 22.77 g

Step 1:

48.78 g
moles C  = 12.01 g /mol = 4.062 mols
2.439 g
moles H  = = 2.415 mols
1.01 g /mol
26.02 g
moles O = = 1.626 mols
16.00 g /mol
22.77 g
moles N  = = 1.625 mols
14.01 g /mol

Step 2: Divide each of the moles by the smallest.

4.062
moles C  = = 2.50
1.625
2.415
moles H  = = 1.49
1.625
1.626
moles O = = 1.00
1.625
1.625
moles N  = = 1.00
1.625

Step 3: In a case, such as this one, where step 2 does NOT produce a simple whole number
ratio, we then choose a multiplier with which to multiply each of the final numbers such
that we do get a simple whole number ratio. This is usually an integer between 2 and 5 but
could possible be a larger integer. In this case, the multiplier is 2.

moles C  = 5, moles H  = 3, moles O = 2, moles N  = 2

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Therefore, the empirical formula for this compound is C 5 H 3 O2 N 2 .
Exercises

1. Find the empirical formula for a compound that is 75.0% carbon and 25.0% hydrogen.
2. Find the empirical formula for a compound that is 32.8% chromium and 67.2% chlorine.
3. Find the empirical formula for a compound that is 67.1% zinc and the rest oxygen.
4. A sample of a compound was found to contain 0.62069 g of carbon, 0.10345 g of 
hydrogen, and 0.27586 g of oxygen. What is the empirical formula?
5. A sample of a compound was found to contain 48.65% carbon, 8.11% hydrogen, and
43.24% oxygen. What is its empirical formula?

Molecular Formulas Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry

Name______________________ Date_________
Empirical formulas show the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of the elements that
make up a compound. Molecular formulas show the actual number of atoms of each element
that make up the compound. The molecular formula for benzene is C 6 H 6 but the empirical
formula for benzene would be the simplest whole number ratio for these atoms, which would
be CH . The empirical formula can be determined from either the masses of the elements
in a compound or from percent composition. In order to determine the molecular formula,
we also need the molar mass of the compound. The molecular formula will always be some
whole number multiple of the empirical formula. In the case of benzene, the multiplier is 6.
The molecules C 2 H 4 , C 3 H 6 , C 4 H 8 , and C 5 H 10 all have the same empirical formula, namely
CH 2 . If we have the empirical formula CH 2 and the molar mass of  56 g /mol for a compound,
we can determine the molecular formula by dividing the formula mass of  CH 2 into the molar
mass to find the multiplier. The formula mass of  CH 2 is 14 g /mol . When we divide the
formula mass, 14 g /mol , into the molar mass, 56 g /mol, we get the multiplier 4. Therefore,
the molecular formula for this compound is 4 times the empirical formula. CH 2 × 4 = C 4 H 8 .
Example: What is the molecular formula for a compound with the empirical formula HCO2
and a molar mass of  90. g /mol?

Solution: The formula mass of  HCO2 is 45 g /mol. Dividing 45 g /mol into 90. g /mol
yields a multiplier of 2. Therefore, the molecular formula for this compound is
2 × CHO2 = H 2 C 2 O4 .

Exercises

1. A compound has the empirical formula C 2 OH 4 and a molar mass of  88 g /mol. What
is its molecular formula?

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2. A compound has the empirical formula C 4 H 4 O and a molar mass of  136 g /mol. What
is its molecular formula?
3. A compound has the empirical formula CFBrO and a molar mass of  254.7 g /mol .
What is its molecular formula?
4. A compound is 7.692% hydrogen and 93.308% carbon. Its molar mass is 104 g /mol .
What is its molecular formula?
5. A compound is 47.0% potassium, 14.5% carbon, and 38.5% oxygen. Its molar mass is
166.2 g /mol. What is its molecular formula?

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Chapter 16

Chemical Reactions Worksheets

16.1 Lesson 16.1 Chemical Equations

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

16.2 Lesson 16.2 Balancing Equations

Balancing Equations Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
Balance the following equations by inserting the smallest whole number coefficients.
1. (1, 0)15 CuCl + (1, 0)15 H 2 S  → (1, 0)15 Cu2 S  + (1, 0)15 HCl
2. (1, 0)15 N a + (1, 0)15 H 2 O → (1, 0)15 NaOH  + (1, 0)15 H 2
3. (1, 0)15 M g + (1, 0)15 O2 → (1, 0)15 M gO
4. (1, 0)15 F e + (1, 0)15 O2 → (1, 0)15 F e2 O3
5. (1, 0)15 H 2 O + (1, 0)15 N 2 O3 → (1, 0)15 HN O2
6. Fe + H 2 O → F e3 O4 + H 2
7. (1, 0)15 Al + (1, 0)15 P b(N O3 )2 → (1, 0)15 Al(N O3 )3 + (1, 0)15 P b
8. (1, 0)15 KOH  + (1, 0)15 H 3 P O4 → (1, 0)15 K 3 P O4 + (1, 0)15 H 2 O
9. (1, 0)15 C 2 H 6 + (1, 0)15 O2 → (1, 0)15 CO2 + (1, 0)15 H 2 O

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10. (1, 0)15 C 2 H 5 OH  + (1, 0)15 O2 → (1, 0)15 CO2 + (1, 0)15 H 2 O
11. (1, 0)15 N 2 + (1, 0)15 H 2 → (1, 0)15 N H 3
12. (1, 0)15 Al(OH )3 + (1, 0)15 H 2 SO 4 → (1, 0)15 Al2 (SO 4 )3 + (1, 0)15 H 2 O
13. (1, 0)15 SbCl3 + (1, 0)15 H 2 S  → (1, 0)15 Al2 S 3 + (1, 0)15 HCl
14. (1, 0)15 C 5 H 12 + (1, 0)15 O2 → (1, 0)15 CO2 + (1, 0)15 H 2 O
15. (1, 0)15 N H 4 Cl + (1, 0)15 Ca(OH )2 → (1, 0)15 CaCl2 + (1, 0)15 N H 3 + (1, 0)15 H 2 O
Convert the following word equations into formula equations and then balance them.
16. Iron + oxygen yields iron (III) oxide.
17. Antimony + chlorine yields antimony (III) chloride.
18. Sodium chlorate (NaClO3 ) yields sodium chloride + oxygen.
19. Lead (II) nitrate + hydrogen sulfide yields lead (II) sulfide + nitric acid ( HN O3 ).
20. Aluminum + sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) yields aluminum sulfate + hydrogen gas.

16.3 Lesson 16.3 Types of Reactions

Types of Chemical Reactions Worksheet

There are millions of different compounds and therefore, there must be millions of differ-
ent chemical reactions to form these compounds. When chemists are confronted with an
overwhelming number of things, they tend to classify them into groups in order to make
them easier to study and discuss. One popular system of classification for chemical reactions
places them in five major categories. Some of the categories have different names in different
books and you should become familiar with all the names.
Types of Chemical Reactions
1. Synthesis (also called Direct Combination)
A synthesis reaction occurs when two or more substances combine to make a single, more
complex substance. The reactants may be elements or compounds but the product will
always be a compound. The general formula for this type of reaction can be shown as:

A+B → AB

Some examples of synthesis reactions are shown below.

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2H 2(g) + O2(g) → 2H 2 O(g)

C (s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
CaO(s) + H 2 O(L) → Ca(OH )2(s)

You should note in each case above, there are two or more substances in the reactants and
only one substance as the product.
2. Decomposition (also called Analysis)
A decomposition reaction occurs when one substance is broken down into two or more simpler
substances. This type of reaction is the opposite of a synthesis reaction, as shown by the
general formula below:

AB → A+B

Some examples of decomposition reactions are shown below.

C 12 H 22 O11(s) → 12C (s) + 11H 2 O(g)

P b(OH )2(s) → P bO(s) + H 2 O(g)

2Ag2 O(s) → 4Ag(s) + O2(g )

3. Single Displacement (also called Single Replacement)

In this type of reaction, a neutral element becomes as ion as it replaces another ion in a
compound. The general form of this equation can be written as:

A + BC  → B + AC (positive ion replaced)

Or

A + BC  → C  + BA (negative ion replaced)

In either case, the equation is element + compound → element + compound.

Some examples of single displacement reactions are shown below.

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Zn(s) + H 2 SO 4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H 2(g)

2Al(s) + 3CuCl2(aq) → 2AlCl2(aq) + 3Cu(s)
Cl2(g) + KBr (aq) → KCl(aq) + Br 2(L)

4. Double Displacement (also called Double Replacement and Metathesis)

In this reaction type, pairs of ionic compounds exchange partners. The basic form for this
type of reaction is shown below.

AB + CD → CB + AD

The reaction is Compound + Compound → Compound + Compound

Some examples of double displacement reactions are shown below.

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

ZnBr2(aq) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Zn(N O3 )2(aq) + 2AgBr(s)
H 2 SO 4(aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → N a2 SO 4(aq) + 2H 2 O(L)

5.Combustion 
When organic compounds are burned, they react with oxygen in the air to form carbon
dioxide and water. The basic form of the combustion reaction is shown below.
hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Some examples of combustion reactions are shown below.

CH 4(g) + 2O2(g) → 2H 2 O(g) + CO2(g)

2C 2 H 6(g) + 7O2(g) → 6H 2 O(g ) + 4 CO2(g )

C 3 H 8(g) + 5O2(g) → 4H 2 O(g ) + 3 CO2(g )

Exercises
Fill in the reaction type on the line following the balanced equation.

1. 3 NaBr + H 3 P O4 → N a3 P O4 + 3 HBr _________________________

2. 3 Ca(OH )2 +Al2 (SO 4 )3 → 3 CaSO4 +2 Al(OH )3 _________________________

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3. 3 M g + F e2 O3 → 2 F e + 3 M gO _________________________
4. C 2 H 4 + 3O2 → 2 CO2 + 2 H 2 O _________________________
5. 2 PbSO4 → 2 PbSO3 + O2 _________________________
6. 2 N H 3 + 3 I 2 → N 2 I 6 + 3 H 2 _________________________
7. H 2 O + SO 3 → H 2 SO 4 _________________________
8. 2N H 3 + H 2 SO 4 → (N H 4 )2 SO 4 _________________________
9. 4C 5 H 9 O + 27O2 → 20CO2 + 18H 2 O _________________________
10. Li3 N +3 N H 4 N O3 → 3 LiNO3 +(N H 4 )3 N  _________________________

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Chapter 17

Mathematics and Chemical Equations

Worksheets

17.1 Lesson 17.1 The Mole Concept and Equations

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

17.2 Lesson 17.2 Mass-Mass Calculations

Stoichiometry Worksheet
CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
1. How many moles are present in 58.6 grams of lead (II) oxide?
A. 0.113 moles
B. 0.158 moles

C. 0.263 moles
D. 0.300 moles
E. None of these.
2. According to the following balanced equation, how many moles of oxygen can be produced
by the complete reaction of  10.0 moles of potassium chlorate, KClO3 ?

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2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2

A. 10.0 moles
B. 6.67 moles
C. 15.0 moles
D. 4.00 moles
E. None of these.
3. Balance the following equation and determine how many moles of water will be produced
by the complete reaction of  0.600 moles of aluminum hydroxide?

→
(1, 0)15 Al(OH )3 + (1, 0)15 H 2 SO 4 (1, 0)15Al2 (SO 4 )3 + (1, 0)15 H 2 O
A. 1.80 moles
B. 0.200 moles
C. 20.0 moles
D. 0.600 moles
E. None of these.
4. Using the balanced equation, 2KClO3 → 2 KCl + 3 O2 , how many moles of  O2 can be

produced by the complete reaction of  100. grams of  KClO3 ?

A. 0.326 moles
B. 0.544 moles
C. 0.816 moles
D. 1.22 moles
E. None of these.
5. If hydrogen is completely reacted with oxygen and produces 180. grams of water, how
many grams of hydrogen was consumed? The following equation for the reaction is not yet
balanced.

(1, 0)15 H 2 + (1, 0)15 O2 → (1, 0)15 H 2 O

A. 2.02 g

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B. 20.2 g
C. 10.1 g
D. 90.0 g
E. 180. g
6. How many grams of calcium can be produced by the complete reaction of 9.35 grams of 
calcium oxide, according to following, as yet unbalanced, equation?

(1, 0)15 CaO + (1, 0)15 C  → (1, 0)15 Ca + (1, 0)15 CO2

A. 6.70 g
B. 3.34 g

C. 12.4 g
D. 7.19 g
E. None of these.
7. In a particular reaction, iron (III) oxide and carbon solid reacted to produce iron metal and
carbon monoxide. How many grams of iron (III) oxide are required to produce 150. grams
of carbon monoxide?
A. 160. g
B. 222 g
C. 286 g
D. 480. g
E. None of these.
8. How many grams of octane, C 8 H 18 , when burned in oxygen gas are required to produce
272 grams of carbon dioxide? The other product is water.
A. 136 g
B. 121 g

C. 100. g
D. 94.6 g
E. 88.2 g
9. How many grams of bromine gas would be liberated when 25.0 grams of gallium bromide
were heated and decomposed to form gallium metal and bromine gas?

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A. 16.4 g
B. 19.4 g
C. 21.8 g
D. 27.1 g
E. None of these.
10. 2000. g of potassium carbonate react completely with barium phosphate to produce
potassium phosphate and barium carbonate. How many grams of barium carbonate will be
formed?
A. 1240 g
B. 1680 g
C. 2220 g

D. 2860 g
E. None of these.

17.3 Lesson 17.3 Limiting Reactant

Limiting Reactant Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry

Name______________________ Date_________
1. If 2.5 moles of copper and 5.5 moles of silver nitrate are available to react in the following
equation, what is the limiting reactant? (The equation is not yet balanced.)

(1, 0)15 Cu + (1, 0)15 AgNO3 → (1, 0)15 Cu(N O3 )2 + (1, 0)15 Ag

A. copper
B. silver nitrate

C. copper (II) nitrate

D. silver
E. None of these.
2. How many grams of calcium hydroxide will be formed in the following reaction when
4.44 g of calcium oxide and 7.77 g of water are available to react? (The equation is not yet

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balanced.)

(1, 0)15 CaO + (1, 0)15 H 2 O → (1, 0)15 Ca(OH )2

A. 12.2 g
B. 7.77 g
C. 5.86 g
D. 4.11 g
E. None of these.
3. Magnesium undergoes a single replacement reaction with nitric acid, HN O3 . Write the
balance equation for the reaction and determine how many grams of hydrogen gas will be
formed from the reaction of 3.00 grams of magnesium with 18.00 grams of nitric acid.
A. 0.695 g
B. 0.572 g
C. 0.540 g
D. 0.492 g
E. None of these.
4. Sulfur reacts with oxygen gas to produce sulfur trioxide. Write the balanced equation for
the reaction and determine how many grams of sulfur trioxide will be produced when 6.30 g
of  S  and 10.0 g of  O2 are available for reaction.
A. 16.3 g
B. 15.7 g
C. 13.2 g
D. 11.9 g
E. None of these.
5. Some of the acid in acid rain is produced from the following reaction:

3 N O2 + H 2 O → N O + 2 HN O3

A falling raindrop with a mass of 0.0500 gram comes into contact with 0.200 gram of  N O2 .
What mass of  HN O3 can be produced?
A. 0.183 g

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B. 0.250 g
C. 0.350 g
D. 0.146 g
E. None of these.
6. In problem #5, how many grams of the excess reactant remains after the reaction?
A. 0.0415 g
B. 0.0388 g
C. 0.0264 g
D. 0.0239 g
E. None of these.
7. Consider the following reaction: 2 Al + 6 HBr → 2 AlBr3 + 3 H 2 . When 87.0 g of  Al is
combined with 401 g of  HBr , how many grams of  H 2 are formed?
A. 3.89 g
B. 5.01 g
C. 7.11 g
D. 12.4 g
E. None of these.

17.4 Lesson 17.4 Percent Yield

Percent Yield Worksheet
CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
1. Methanol, CH 3 OH  can be produced by the following reaction.

2 H 2 + CO → CH 3 OH 

Assume CO is the limiting reactant and 2.00 mols of  CO are used in the reaction. If 
0.780 mols of  CH 3 OH  are produced by the reaction, what is the percent yield?
2. Consider the following reaction.

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3 Si + 2 N 2 → Si 3 N 4

A. What is the theoretical yield of  Si 3 N 4 from this reaction when 21.45 mols of Si are reacted
with excess N 2 ?
B. If  5.92 mols of  Si 3 N 4 are actually produced, what is the percent yield?
3. Part of the SO 2 that is introduced into the atmosphere by the combustion of sulfur
containing compounds ends up being converted to sulfuric acid, H 2 SO 4 by the following
reaction.

2 SO 2 + O2 + 2 H 2 O → 2 H 2 SO 4

A. What is the theoretical yield of  H 2 SO 4 if  100. g of  SO2 is completely consumed?
B. If the actual yield from the reaction in A is 100. g of  H 2 SO 4 , what is the percent yield?
4. Consider the reaction: 4 F eS 2 + 11 O2 → 2 F e2 O3 + 8 SO 2
A. If  20.0 moles of  F eS 2 react with 60.0 moles of  O2 , what is the limiting reactant?
B. How many moles of  SO2 are formed?
C. How many moles of the reactant in excess will be left over at the end of the reaction?
D. If the actual yield of  SO 2 is 25.0 moles, what is the percent yield?

17.5 Lesson 17.5 Energy Calculations

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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Chapter 18

The Kinetic Molecular Theory Work-

sheets

18.1 Lesson 18.1 The Three States of Matter

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

18.2 Lesson 18.2 Gases

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

18.3 Lesson 18.3 Gases and Pressure

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

18.4 Lesson 18.4 Gas Laws

The Kinetic Molecular Theory and Gas Laws Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
True or False

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_____ 1. The mass of a gas is the sum of the masses of the individual molecules.
_____ 2. The volume of a gas is the sum of the volumes of the individual molecules.
_____ 3. Molecules of different substances move at different velocities when they are at
the same temperature.
_____ 4. Molecules of the same substance move at the same velocity when they are at
the same temperature.
_____ 5. Molecules are in motion at all temperatures above absolute zero.
_____ 6. Gases are more compressible than solids and liquids because they have more
space between the molecules.
_____ 7. Molecules of liquid water and molecules of solid water at the same temperature
have the same velocity.
_____ 8. A liquid has its own shape and volume regardless of the container.
_____ 9. All molecules at the same temperature have the same velocity.
_____ 10. All molecules at the same temperature have the same average kinetic energy.
_____ 11. Molecules of different substances, at the same temperature, exert different
forces when they collide with the walls of their container.
_____ 12. In a mixture of gases, the partial pressure of a gas has the same ratio to the
total pressure as the mole fraction of that gas.
_____ 13. Small molecules diffuse faster than large molecules as the same temperature.
_____ 14. One mole of He gas will occupy a smaller volume than one mole of  U F 6 gas
under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.
_____ 15. The density of a gas under standard conditions can be found by dividing the
molar mass by 22.4 L.
Multiple Choice
16. A sample of gas is held at constant volume. When the temperature of the gas is 100. K ,
the pressure is 1.00 atm. What must the temperature become in order for the pressure to
become 3.00 atm?
A. 27 K 

B. 100. K 
C. 300. K 
D. None of these.
E. Cannot be determined from this data.

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17. A sample of gas occupies 100. mL at 1520 Torr and 323 K . What volume will this
sample occupy under standard conditions?
A. 100. mL
B. 116 mL
C. 232 mL
D. 169 mL
E. None of these.
18. 10.0 liters of oxygen gas is held at 3800. mm of Hg pressure and 27.0 C . What volume
◦

will this gas occupy if it is at −23.0 C  and 380. mm of Hg pressure?

◦

A. 8.33 L
B. 83.3 L

C. 833 L
D. 50.0 L
E. None of these.
19. 1.00 g of  H 2 gas is placed in a flask with 1.00 g of He gas. The total pressure in the flask
is 900. Torr. What is the partial pressure of the H 2 ?
A. 100. T orr
B. 300. Torr
C. 450. T orr
D. 600. Torr
E. 800. Torr
20. 10.0 atm of pressure is applied to 0.250 mole of methane gas. What must the temperature
be if the volume is to be 1400. mL?
A. 409 K 
B. 682 K 
C. 955 K 

D. 0 K 
E. None of these.
21. Given a sample of gas at 1.0 atm pressure, what would the pressure become if the amount
of gas is doubled, the volume decreased to half, and the absolute temperature quadrupled?

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A. 1.0 atm
B. 2.0 atm
C. 4.0 atm
D. 8.0 atm
E. 16 atm
22. How many mols of gas are required to fill a 1.0 liter container to 5.00 atm pressure at
27.0 C ?
◦

A. 0.13 moles
B. 0.20 moles
C. 0.29 moles
D. 0.38 moles
E. None of these.
23. What is the molar mass of a gas if  0.500 g of it occupies 0.250 liters at 1.00 atm and
100. C ?
◦

A. 32.0 g /mol
B. 44.0 g /mol
C. 61.3 g /mol
D. 77.2 g /mol
g mol
E. 104 /
24. 10.0 liters of gas at 27.0 C  and 0.15 atm has a mass of  10.0 grams. What is the molar
◦

mass of the gas?

A. 40. g /mol
B. 80. g /mol
C. 100. g /mol
D. 120 g /mol
E. 164 g /mol
25. What is the mass of  100. L of  Br 2 gas under standard conditions?
A. 22.4 g
B. 357 g
C. 560. g

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D. 714 g
E. Insufficient data to determine.

18.5 Lesson 18.5 Universal Gas Law

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

18.6 Lesson 18.6 Molar Volume

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

18.7 Lesson 18.7 Stoichiometry Involving Gases

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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Chapter 19

The Liquid State Worksheets

19.1 Lesson 19.1 The Properties of Liquids

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

19.2 Lesson 19.2 Forces of Attraction

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

19.3 Lesson 19.3 Vapor Pressure

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

19.4 Lesson 19.4 Boiling Point

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

19.5 Lesson 19.5 Heat of Vaporization

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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Chapter 20

The Solid State Worksheets-HSC

20.1 Lesson 20.1

Controls The
Solid Molecular Arrangement in Solids
Characteristics
There are no worksheets for this lesson.

20.2 Lesson 20.2 Melting

Heat Transfer Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
Temperature is defined as the average kinetic energy of all the molecules in a body, while
heat  is defined as the total kinetic energy of all the molecules in a body. A sample of 
matter will contain kinetic energy due to the motion of its molecules, and it also contains
potential energy due to its phase (solid, liquid, gas). When two objects come into contact
with each other, heat always flows from the one with higher temperature to the one with
lower temperature. This transfer of KE is accomplished by the collision of molecules and
continues until the two objects are at the same temperature.
Every chemical change and many physical changes involve the gain or loss of energy. In most
cases, this energy gain or loss occurs in the form of heat, but light and electricity are also
possible. Heat gains and losses are measured in units called Joules. It requires 4.18 Joules
of energy to raise the temperature of 1.00 gram of water by 1.00 C . When heat energy is
◦

added to a substance, it produces one or both of the following effects: 1. it may increase
the temperature of the object, which means it increases the average kinetic energy of the

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molecules or, 2. it may cause a phase change in that substance, which means it increases
the potential energy of the substance.
When heat is absorbed by a substance as kinetic energy, the temperature of the substance
increases because temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of 
the substance. Different substances have a different amount of increase in temperature when
they absorb the same amount of energy. The quantity of heat 1.00 gram of the substance
must absorb to raise its temperature by 1.00 C  is called the specific heat  of the substance.
◦

The symbol, C , is often used for specific heat. The specific heat of water is 4.18 J /g · C . ◦

This means that 1.00 gram of water requires 4.18 J  of heat to raise its temperature by
1.00 C . The specific heats of most substances are considerably less than that of water.
◦

Table 20.1: Specific Heat of Various Substances

Substance Specific Heat

Aluminum, Al 0.900 J /g · C  ◦

Copper, Cu 0.386 J /g · C 

Gold, Au 0.126 J /g · C  ◦

Silver, Ag 0.235 J /g · C  ◦

Ethanol, C 2 H 5 OH  2.40 J /g · C 

◦

Butane, C 4 H 10 2.34 J /g · C 

◦

Water, H 2 O 4.18 J /g · C 

◦

Energy is also absorbed or given off by substances when they undergo a phase change. The
energy gained or lost during a phase change is potential energy. This energy gain or loss does
not change the temperature of the substance. When substances undergo a phase change,
the average distance between the molecules changes and this requires an input or output
of potential energy. When a substance changes from solid to liquid, the energy that must
be absorbed is called heat of melting. The reverse process, changing from liquid to solid,
gives off exactly the same amount of energy but for this phase change, the amount of energy
is known as the heat of fusion. The phase change from liquid to gas requires an input of 
the heat of vaporization. The reverse process, gas condensing to liquid, gives off the same
amount of potential energy but it is called the heat of condensation. Like specific heat,
each substance has its own heat of melting and heat of vaporization.

Table 20.2: Thermodynamic Data of Various Substances

Substance Specific Heat Heat of Fusion, Heat of Vaporiza-

∆H fusion tion, ∆H vap
Aluminum, Al 0.900 J /g ·◦
C  400. J /g 10, 900 J /g
Copper, Cu 0.386 J /g ·◦
C  205 J /g 5, 069 J /g
Gold, Au 0.126 J /g ·◦
C  64.5 J /g 1, 578 J /g
Silver, Ag 0.235 J /g ·◦
C  111 J /g 2, 320 J /g

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Table 20.2: (continued)

Substance Specific Heat Heat of Fusion, Heat of Vaporiza-

∆H fusion tion, ∆H vap
Ethanol, C 2 H 5 OH  2.40 J /g · C 
◦
109 J /g 841 J /g
Butane, C 4 H 10 2.34 J /g · C 
◦
80.1 J /g 385 J /g
Water, H 2 O 4.18 J /g · C 
◦
334 J /g 2, 260 J /g

The energy absorbed or given off by a substance during a temperature change (with no phase
change) can be calculated with the equation, Q = mC ∆t, where Q is the amount of heat in
Joules, m is the mass in grams, C  is the specific heat, and ∆t is the temperature change.
Example: How many Joules are given off when 52.5 g of water cools from 67.5 C  to 23.2 C ? ◦ ◦

Solution: Q = mC ∆t = (52.5 g )(4.18 J /g · C )(44.3 C ) = 9720 J 

◦ ◦

The specific heat is taken from the table above and the units cancel appropriately to yield
Joules.
Example: If  4490 J  of heat are added to 50.0 g of solid silver at 25.0 C , what would the ◦

final temperature be?

Q
Solution: Q = mC ∆t so ∆t = mC 

Q 4490 J 
∆t = = = 382 C  ◦

mC  (50.0 g )(0.235 J /g · C ) ◦

◦ ◦ ◦

Final temperature = initial temperature + ∆t = 25 C  + 382 C  = 407 C 

The energy absorbed or given off by a substance during a phase change (with no temperature
change) can be calculated with the equations, Q = m∆H fusion or Q = m∆H vap , where Q
is the amount of heat in Joules, m is the mass of the substance in grams, and ∆H fusion or
∆H vap is the heat of fusion or vaporization.
Example: How many Joules are required to melt 17.7 grams of solid aluminum at its
normal melting point with no temperature change?
Solution: Q = m∆H fusion = (17.7 g )(400. J /g ) = 7080 J 
When heat is added to a substance such that the substance undergoes both a temperature
change and a phase change, the problem is solved separately for each process. For example, if 
sufficient heat is added to solid water (ice) at −20 C  to raise the temperature and cause the
◦

necessary phase changes, the solid water will go through five processes; 1. the temperature
of the ice will be raised to the melting point, 2. the solid water will be melted, 3. the
temperature of the liquid water will be raised to the boiling point, 3. the liquid will be
vaporized, and 5. the temperature of the gaseous water will be raised to the final temperature.

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To do calculations for this entire process, many bits of thermodynamic data will be required.
We would need to know the specific heat of solid water (not the same as liquid water), the
heat of fusion for water, the specific heat of liquid water, the heat of vaporization, and the
specific heat of gaseous water.
Example: Calculate the heat necessary to raise 100. g of iron at 25.0 C  to liquid iron at ◦

2000. C . The necessary thermodynamic data are: melting point of iron = 1540. C , specific
◦ ◦

heat of solid iron = 0.450 J /g · C , specific heat of liquid iron = 0.770 J /g · C , heat of fusion
◦ ◦

of iron = 280. J /g.

Solution:
Step 1: Heat the solid iron from 25.0 C  to its melting point at 1540. C  (∆t = 1515 C ).
◦ ◦ ◦

Q = mC ∆t = (100. g )(0.450 J /g · C )(1515 C ) = 68, 200 J 

◦ ◦

Step 2: Melt the solid iron to liquid.

Q = m∆H fusion = (100. g )(280. J /g ) = 28, 000 J 

Step 3: Heat the liquid iron from the melting point (1540. C ) to the final temperature
◦

(2000. C ) ∆t = 460. C .

◦ ◦

◦ ◦

Q = mC ∆t = (100. g )(0.770 J /g · C )(460 C ) = 35, 400 J 

Step 4: Add up the heat added for each step to get the total.

QTOTAL = 68, 200 J  + 28, 000 J  + 35, 400 J  = 131, 600 J  = 131.6 kJ  = 132 kJ 

Example: Calculate the heat necessary to raise 40.00 g of ice at − 50.0 C  to water vapor
◦

at 180.0 C. ◦

Necessary Thermodynamic Data

• C ice = 2.09 J /g · C  ◦

• C water = 4.18 J /g · C  ◦

• C water vapor = 2.01 J /g · C  ◦

• Melting Point = 0 C  ◦

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• Boiling Point = 100. C  ◦

• ∆H fusion = 334 J /g

• ∆H vap = 2260 J /g

Solution:
Step 1: Raise the temperature of the ice from − 50.0 C  to the melting point 0 C.
◦ ◦

Q = mC ∆t = (40.00 g )(2.09 J /g · C )(50.00 C ) = 4, 180 J 

◦ ◦

Step 2: Melt the ice to liquid water.

Q = m(∆H )fusion = (40.00 g )(334 J /g ) = 13, 360 J 

Step 3: Raise the temperature of the liquid water from the m.p. to the b.p. (∆t = 100. C ). ◦

Q = mC ∆t = (40.00 g )(4.18 J /g · C )(100. C ) = 16, 720 J 

◦ ◦

Step 4: Vaporize the liquid water.

Q = m∆H vap = (40.00 g )(2260 J /g ) = 90, 400 J 

Step 5: Raise the temperature of the gaseous water from the b.p. to the final temperature
(∆t = 100. C ).
◦

Q = mC ∆t = (40.00 g )(2.01 J /g · C )(80. C ) = 6, 400 J 

◦ ◦

Step 6: Add up the results of each step.

QTOTAL = 4180 + 13360 + 16720 + 90400 + 6400 = 131, 000 J  = 131 kJ 

Questions and Exercises

The thermodynamic data necessary for these problems can be found in the preceding pages.

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1. Assuming no phase change occurs, what happens to the temperature of a substance

when it absorbs heat?
2. What happens when two objects at different temperatures are brought into contact?
3. How many Joules of heat must be added to 5000. g of water to change its temperature
from 20. C  to 80. C ?
◦ ◦

4. If  500. g of water at 25. C  loses 10, 000. J  of heat, what will its final temperature be?
5. What does the temperature of an object actually measure?
6. At what temperature do molecules have zero kinetic energy? Describe a situation
where heat can enter a body without causing an increase in temperature?
7. How much heat is released when 44.8 g of solid gold are cooled from 80. C  to 62 C ?
◦ ◦

8. How much heat is needed to melt 25.0 g of silver at its normal melting point?
9. How much heat is absorbed when 24.5 g of ice at −10.0 C  is warmed to liquid water
◦

at 42.5 C ? ◦

10. Calculate the amount of heat necessary to raise 45.0 g of cesium metal from 24.0 C  to
◦

880.0 C . Use the data given below.

◦

Necessary Thermodynamic Data

• C solidCs = 0.251 J /g · C  ◦

• C liquidCs = 0.209 J /g · C  ◦

• C gaseousCs = 0.167 J /g · C  ◦

• Melting Point = 29.0 C  ◦

• Boiling Point = 690.0 C  ◦

• ∆H fusion = 16.3 J /g

• ∆H vap = 669 J /g

Calorimetry Worksheet
CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
The laboratory process for measuring the amount of heat gained or during a chemical reaction
or other energy exchange involves the use of an instrument called a calorimeter . The basic
idea of a calorimeter is sketched below.
The calorimeter has an insulated container to eliminate heat exchange with the outside, a
reaction vessel where the reaction to be measured will occur, a quantity of water to absorb
from or give up to the heat from the reaction, a thermometer to accurately measure the
temperature of the water, and a stirring rod to assure that all the water is the same tem-
perature. Since the heat will come out of or go into the reaction vessel, it is likely that the
water touching the vessel would be warmer or colder than the remainder of the water. The
stirring rod is used to keep the water circulating and thus all the water will be the same
temperature.

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Figure 20.1: ?

At an earlier time, the unit chemists used to measure heat was the calorie. The words
calorimeter  (the name of the instrument) and calorimetry  (the name of the process) came
from the unit, calorie. When scientists decided to use the same units in all branches of 
science, chemists changed their unit for heat (and all other forms of energy) from calories to
Joules. The old unit calorie  is equal to 4.18 Joules. Even though chemists don’t use the
calorie unit anymore, the words calorimeter and calorimetry remain with us.
Extremely accurate calorimeters are calibrated before each use. A precisely known amount
of heat is added to the calorimeter and the temperature change is noted. In this way, the
scientist can determine exactly how much heat is required to raise the temperature of the
calorimeter by 1.00 C . This allows the scientist to measure not only the heat absorbed by
◦

the water in the calorimeter but also the heat absorbed by the reaction vessel, the stirrer,
the thermometer, and the inside walls of the calorimeter. For a less precise calorimeter, the
scientist assumes all the heat added to the calorimeter is absorbed by the water, ignoring
the small amount of absorbed by other components.
To use a calorimeter of the less precise type, the scientist measures the amount of water
inside very carefully, measures the temperature of the water before the reaction begins, and
measures the maximum or minimum temperature the water reaches after the reaction. Since
it is assumed that all the heat absorbed or given off by the reaction went into the water,
knowing the amount of water and the temperature change of the water, the scientist can
then calculate the amount of heat that the water absorbed or gave off, and that is the heat
input or output by the reaction. The equation used to calculate the change in heat content
of the water is the same one used before, namely Q = mC ∆t.
Example: How much heat was absorbed by 1000. g of water in a calorimeter if the tem-
perature of the water was raised from 23.5 C  to 44.8 C ? ◦ ◦

Solution: Q = mC ∆t = (1000 .g )(4.18 J /g · C )(21.3 C ) = 89, 000 J  = 89 kJ 
◦ ◦

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Example: How much heat was absorbed by 500. g of water in a calorimeter if the water
temperature changed from 25.0 C  to 17.2 C ?
◦ ◦

Solution: Q = mC ∆t = mC (t2 − t1 ) = (500. g )(4.18 J /g · C )(17.2 C  − 25.0 C )

◦ ◦ ◦

Q = (500. g )(4.18 J /g · C )(−7.8 C ) = −16, 300 J  = −16.3 kJ 

◦ ◦

The negative sign of this result indicates the water in the calorimeter lost heat to the reaction,
so the reaction was endothermic.
Calorimeters are used by scientists to measure many types of heat exchanges, such as finding
the specific heat of substances, the heat value of fuels, and the heat of chemical reactions.
Coal mined in different areas is of different quality. When coal is purchased by users from
producers, the price paid is based not only on the mass of coal purchased but also on the
amount of heat produced by burning a unit quantity of the coal. When a trainload of coal
is delivered, there is a scientist on hand to take samples of the coal and burn them in a
calorimeter to determine the average Joules/gram of heat produced by that particular load
of coal and the price is adjusted accordingly.
Physicists use calorimeters to determine the specific heat of substances. Suppose we wished
to determine the specific heat of brass. We use a calorimeter containing 250. g of water
at 25.0 C  and into it we place a 100. g piece of brass whose temperature we have raised
◦

to 91.0 C . When the heat transfer is complete, the final temperature of the water and the
◦

piece of brass are 27.3 C . (Since they are in contact, they must eventually reach the same
◦

temperature.) The amount of heat lost by the brass will equal the amount of heat gained
by the water. We can use the following equation to find the specific heat of the brass.

mwater C water ∆twater = −mbrass C brass ∆tbrass

The negative sign on the brass side of the equation is present because the heat is being gained
by the water and lost by the brass. Therefore, the ∆t for the water will be positive but the
∆t for the brass will be negative. The heat calculated on the two sides of the equation can
only be equal if we change the sign of one of them.
Substituting from the problem yields

(250 .g )((4.18 J /g · C )(27.3 C  − 25.0 C ) = −(100 .g )((x J /g · C )(27.3 C  − 91.0 C )
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

.
Solving for x yields, x = 0.377 J /g · C  ◦

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The heat of reaction, ∆H , for a chemical reaction is commonly expressed in J/mole or
kJ/mole of product. It is also standard to express the ∆H  for an endothermic reaction as a
positive number (the reaction is gaining energy) and the ∆H  for an exothermic reaction as a
negative number (the reaction is losing energy). For the reaction between hydrochloric acid
and sodium hydroxide, HCl + NaOH  → NaCl + H 2 O, the amount of materials necessary to
produce one mole of water would be too large for the calorimeter. That is, we can’t actually
use molar quantities of these materials. Therefore, we use a fraction of a mole and calculate
what the heat transfer would have been for an entire mole.
Example: Suppose we carry out the above reaction in a calorimeter. We use 4.00 g of 
NaOH  with excess HCl solution. That means the NaOH  will be the limiting reactant.
The 4.00 g of  NaOH  is 0.100 mole and will produce 0.100 mole of  H 2 O. We use 250. g of 
water in the calorimeter and the temperature change during the reaction is from 22.4 C  to ◦

28.4 C . Calculate the the heat of reaction for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and
◦

sodium hydroxide.
Solution: We can calculate the heat absorbed by the water in the calorimeter in the usual
way.

Q = (250 .g )(4.18 J /g · C )(6.0 C ) = 6, 270J  = 6.27 kJ 

◦ ◦

We can then calculate the ∆H  for the reaction by dividing the heat transferred to the water in
the calorimeter by the moles of water produced during the reaction. Since the temperature of 
the water in the calorimeter increased, we know this is an exothermic reaction and therefore,
we provide for making the ∆H  a negative value . . . required by the definition of  ∆H . We
can use the following equation.

− ∆Q − 6.27 kJ 
∆H  = = = −62.7 kJ /mol
moles product 0.100 mol

Exercises

1. How much heat is absorbed by 1.00 g of water when its temperature changes from
20.0 C  to 25.0 C.
◦ ◦

2. What was the heat transfer if 800. g of water in a calorimeter underwent a temperature
change from 25.0 C  to 22.0 C ?
◦ ◦

3. A 7.38 g sample of coal is burned in a calorimeter and raises the temperature of  1000. g
of water in calorimeter form 22.0 C  to 68.8 C . What is the heat content of this coal
◦ ◦

in J/g?
4. A reaction that formed 10.0 g of magnesium oxide, M gO , was carried out in a calorime-
ter. The calorimeter contained 800. g of water and the temperature of the water
increased 44.6 C . What was the ∆H  for this reaction in kJ/mol?
◦

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5. Using the ∆H  you found in problem #4, suppose you had carried out exactly this
same reaction except that you had used a calorimeter than container 250. g of water
instead of  800. g of water. What would the temperature change have been? Give a
reason that this reaction wouldn’t be carried out with 250. g of water.

20.3 Lesson 20.3 Types of Forces of Attraction for Solids

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20.4 Lesson 20.4 Phase Diagrams

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Chapter 21

The Solution Process Worksheets

21.1 Lesson 21.1 The Solution Process

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21.2 Lesson 21.2 Why Solutions Occur

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21.3 Lesson 21.3 Solution Terminology

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21.4 Lesson 21.4 Measuring Concentration

Concentration by Percent Mass Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
The definition of percent mass concentration is the ratio of the mass of solute divided by the
total mass of the solution and multiplied by 100 to convert to a percentage.

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mass of solute
 percent by mass = × 100
mass of solution

100. grams What

Example: is theC percent
of ethanol, concentration by mass of a solution formed by dissolving
2 H 5 OH , in 100. grams of water?
mass of solute 100. g
Solution: percent by mass = mass of solution
× 100 = 200. g
× 100 = 50.0%
Example: If the density of a 10.0% by mass KN O3 solution in water is 1.19 g /mL, how
many grams of  KN O3 are present in 100. mL of the solution?
Solution: We can multiply the volume times the density to the mass of the 100. mL of 
solution and then take 10.0% of the mass of the solution to get the mass of the potassium
nitrate.

grams of solution = (100. mL)(1.19 g /mL) = 119 grams

grams of KNO3 = (0.10)(119 grams) = 11.9 grams

Exercises

1. If 30.0 grams of  AgNO3 are dissolved in 275 grams of water, what is the concentration
of the silver nitrate by mass percent?
2. How many grams of  M gF 2 are present in 100.0 g of a 20.0% M gF 2 in water solution?
3. How many grams of water are present in the solution in question #2?
4. The density of a 30.0% by mass solution of  NaOH  in water is 1.33 g /mL. How many
grams of  NaOH  are required to prepare 500. mL of this solution?
5. The density of pure water is 1.00 g /mL. What is the concentration gy percent mass
of a solution prepared by dissolving 85.0 grams of  NaOH  in 750. mL of water?
6. A solution is prepared by dissolving 66.0 grams of acetone, C 3 H 6 O, in 146.0 grams of 
water. The density of the solution is 0.926 g /mL. What is the percent concentration
of acetone by mass?
7. A 35.4% solution of  H 3 P O4 in water has a density of  1.20 g /mL. How many grams of 
phosphoric acid are present in 300. mL of this solution?

Mole Fraction and Molality Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
Mole Fraction 

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The definition of mole fraction is the ratio of the moles of solute divided by the total moles
of the solution.

moles of solute
mole fraction
= moles of solution

Example: What is the mole fraction of ethanol in a solution prepared by dissolving 100. g
of ethanol, C 2 H 5 OH , in 100. g of water?
Solution:

100. g
moles ethanol = = 2.17 moles
46.0 g /mol
100. g
moles water = 18.0 g /mol = 5.56 moles
2.17 mols
mole fraction of ethanol = = 0.281
7.73 mols

Molality 
The definition of molality is the ratio of the moles of solute divided by the kilograms of 
solvent.

moles of solute
molality = kilograms of solvent

Example: What is the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving 100. g of ethanol,

C 2 H 5 OH , in 100. g of water?

100. g
moles ethanol = = 2.17 moles
46.0 g /mol
2.17 mols
molality of ethanol = = 21.7 m
0.100 kg

Example: A 35.4% solution of  H 3 P O4 in water has a density of  1.20 g /mL. What is the
mole fraction of  H 3 P O4 in this solution and what is the molality?
Solution: We can choose a sample volume of this solution and get the mass of it by multi-
plying the volume times the density. Suppose we choose a 1.00 L sample.

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mass of solution = (1000. mL)(1.20 g /mL) = 1200. grams

mass of H 3 P O4 in the solution = (0.354)(1200. grams) = 425 grams
mass of H 2 O = 1200. grams − 425 grams = 775 grams
425 g
molesH 3 P O4 = = 4.34 moles
98.0 g /mol
775 g
molesH 2 O = = 43.1 moles
18.0 g /mol
4.34 mol 4.34 mol
mole fraction of H 3 P O4 = = 0.0916molality = = 5.60 m
47.4 mol 0.775 kg

Exercises

1. What is the mole fraction of  M gF 2 in a solution that has 20.0 g of  M gF 2 dissolved in
80.0 grams of water?
2. What is the molality of the solution in question 1?
3. The density of a 30.0% by mass solution of  NaOH  in water is 1.33 g /mL. What is
the mole fraction of  NaOH  in this solution?
4. What is the molality of the solution in problem 3?
5. What is the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving 4.00 g of  NaCl in 100. g of 
water?
6. How many grams of beryllium chloride would you need to add to 125 g of water to
make a 0.500 m solution?

7.
8. What wouldis be
A solution the molebyfraction
prepared of  BeCl
dissolving
2
66.0 ginofthe solution
acetone, C 3in
H 6problem 6?.0 g of water.
O, in 146
The density of the solution is 0.926 g /mL. What is the molality of this solution?
9. What is the mole fraction of acetone in the solution in problem 8?

Molarity Worksheet
CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________

The definition of molarity is the ratio of the mols of solute divided by the volume of the
solution.

moles of solute
molarity =
liters of solution

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Example: What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 60.0 grams of  NaOH 
in sufficient water to produce 2.00 liters of solution?
Solution:

60.0 g
moles N aOH  = = 1.50 moles
40.0 g /mol
1.50 mol
molarity = = 0.750 M 
2.00 L

Example: What volume of  0.750 M NaOH  solution will contain 10.0 gram of  NaOH ?

10.0 g
molesNaOH  = = 0.250 moles
40.0 g /mol
mol 0.250 mol
volume7 = = = 0.333 L
M  0.750 mol /L

Exercises

1. What is the molarity of a solution in which 4.50 g of  NaNO3 is dissolved in 265 mL
of solution?
2. How many grams of ammonia, N H 3 are present in 5.0 L of  0.100 M  solution?
3. How many milliliters of  0.200 M NaOH  solution is necessary to contain 6.00 grams
of  NaOH ?
4. How many liters of  0.500 M CaF 2 solution is required to contain 78.0 g of  CaF 2 ?
5. What mass of ammonium phosphate is needed to make 100. mL of 0.500M  (N H 4 )3 P O4
solution?
6. What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 198 g of  BaBr2 in 2.00 liters
of solution?
7. How many grams of glycerine, C 3 H 8 O3 , are needed to make 100. mL of  2.60 M  solu-
tion?
8. A test tube contains 10.0 mL of  3.00 M CaCO3 solution. How many grams of calcium
carbonate are in the tube?

21.5 Lesson 21.5 Solubility Graphs

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21.6 Lesson 21.6 Factors Affecting Solubility

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21.7 Lesson 21.7 Colligative Properties

Dilution Worksheet
CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
The process of dilution involves increasing the amount of solvent in a solution without
changing the amount of solute. For example, you could dilute 50. mL of  0.250 M H C l
solution by placing the solution in a 100. mL graduated cylinder and adding water until
the solution reached the 100. mL line in the graduate. The original solution contained
0.0125 moles of  HCl before it was diluted and therefore, it also contains 0.0125 moles of 
HCl after the dilution. In the process of dilution, the amount of solute never changes. The
amount of solvent, the total volume of the solution, and the concentration change but the
amount of solute remains the same.
For a solution whose concentration is expressed in molarity, the moles of solute can be
calculated by multiplying the volume in liters times the molarity.

moles solute = (molarity)(liters)

For the moles of solute in the original solution, molesinitial = molarityinitial × litersinitial or
molsi = M i × V i . After the solution has been diluted, the moles in the final solution can be
calculated with molsf  = M f  × V f . Since the mols do not change during dilution,

molsi = molsf  and M i × V i = M f  × V f 

.
In the dilution problems you will be given, for the most part, three of the four variables or
ways to find three of the four variables and you will asked to calculate the fourth variable.
Example: How many milliliters of  6.00 M NaOH  solution are necessary to prepare 300. mL
of  1.20 M NaOH  solution?
Solution:

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(M i )(V i ) = (M f )(V f )

(M f )(V f ) (1.20 M )(0.300 L)
V i = = = 0.0600 L = 60.0 mL
(M i ) (6.00 M )

Exercises

1. 200. mL of  3.00 M NaCl solution is diluted to a final volume of  500. mL. What is the
concentration of the final solution?
2. 100. mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid was diluted to 1.20 liters of 1.00 M  solution.
What was the concentration of the original concentrated solution?
3. What volume of  6.00 M NaOH  is needed to prepare 250. mL of  0.600 M NaOH ?
4. If  25.0 mL of  16.0 M H N O3 is diluted to 500. mL, what is the final concentration?

5. To
is 1what
.00 Mvolume
H 2 SO 4must
? you dilute 10.0 mL of  6.00 M H 2 SO 4 to produce a solution that
6. Solution A is 5.00 mL of  12.0 M H C l. Solution B is prepared by diluting solution A
to a new volume of  100. mL. Solution C is produced by taking 5.00 mL of solution B
and diluting it to 100. mL. What is the molarity of solution C?

Colligative Properties: Solution Vapor Pressure Worksheet

Colligative properties are those properties of a solution that depend on the number of parti-
cles of solute present in the solution, and not on the chemistry nor the mass of the particles.
That is, the chemical behavior and the molar masses of urea, (N H 2 )2 CO, and glucose,
C 6 H 12 O6 , are very different, but the colligative properties of a 1.0 M  solution of urea will
be exactly the same as the colligative properties of a 1.0 M  solution of glucose.
The colligative properties of solutions include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point ele-
vation, freezing point depression, and changes in osmotic pressure. The changes in these
properties are dependent entirely on the concentration of particles of solute in the solution.
It must be noted that ionic solutes dissociate when dissolved in water and therefore, add
more particles to the solution than a substance that does not dissociate in water.
Vapor Pressure Lowering

The vapor pressure

components (solute of
anda solution
solvent)can
andbethe
calculated from the
mole fractions individual
of each vapor pressures
component. of theis
Raoult’s Law
an expression of the relationship.

Vapor Pressuresolution = (X mol fraction solvent )(Vapor Pressuresolvent) + ( X mol fraction solute )(Vapor Pressu

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Example: What is the vapor pressure, at 25 C , of a solution produced by dissolving 50.0
◦

of acetone, C 3 H 6 O , in 50.0 grams of water? The vapor pressure of pure acetone at 25 C  is ◦

230. mm of Hg and the vapor pressure of pure water at 25 C  is 23.7 mm of Hg.

◦

Solution: 50.0 g of acetone is 0.86 moles and 50.0 g of water is 2.78 moles.

Therefore, the mole fractions in this solution are 0.236 acetone and 0.764 water.

V P SOLUTION = (0.764)(23.7 mmof Hg) + (0.236)(230. mmof Hg) = 18.1 mmof Hg + 54.3 mmof Hg

In this case, the vapor pressure of the solution is higher than the vapor pressure of the
solvent. That is due to the fact that acetone is a volatile (weak intermolecular forces of 
attraction) and therefore, evaporates readily. When we refer to vapor pressure lowering ,
we are referring to solutions in which the solute is non-volatile. When the solute is a solid,
it can be generally be assumed that the solute is non-volatile.
Suppose we are making a solution of glucose in water. Glucose is a non-volatile, solid solute
whose vapor pressure at room conditions is so small that it is negligible compared to the
vapor pressure of water. When we substitute the values for a glucose solution into Raoult’s
Law, the second term (the one for the solute) is essentially zero because the vapor pressure
of the pure solute is essentially zero.

Vapor PressureSolution = (X Mol fraction solvent )(Vapor PressureSolvent) + (X Mol fraction solute )(Vapor Press

If thefor
then second term with
a solution in this equation, (X 
a non-volatile
Mol fraction solute
solute, Raoult’s)(LawVapor PressureSolute ), becomes zero,
becomes:

Vapor PressureSolution = (X Mol fraction solvent )(Vapor PressureSolvent)

This is Raoult’s Law for solutions whose solute is a non-volatile.

VPSolution = (X Solvent)(VPSolvent)

Example: What is the vapor pressure, at 25o C, of a solution produced by dissolving 50.0
of glucose, 25 C , in 50.0 grams of water? Glucose is non-volatile and the vapor pressure of 
◦

pure water at 25 C  is 23.7 mm of Hg.

◦

Solution: 50.0 g of water is 2.78 moles and 50.0 g of glucose is 0.278 moles.

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Therefore, the mole fraction of water in this solution is 0.909. We do not need to calculate
the mole fraction of glucose because it isn’t needed in Raoult’s Law for non-volatile solutes.

VPSolution = (X Solvent)(VPSolvent = (0.909)(23.7 mmof Hg) = 21.5 mmof Hg

In this case, and in all cases of non-volatile solutes, the vapor pressure of the solution is less
than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent.
Exercises

1. If  25.0 grams of sodium chloride is added to 500. grams of water at 25 C , what will
◦

be the vapor pressure of the resulting solution in kPa? The vapor pressure of pure
water at 25 C  is 3.17 kPa.
◦

2. 125 g of the non-volatile solute glucose, C 6 H 12 O6 , is dissolved in 125 g of water at
25 C . IF the vapor pressure of water at 25 C  is 23.7 Torr , what is the vapor pressure
◦ ◦

of the solution?
3. Glycerin, C 3 H 8 O3 , is a non-volatile, non-electrolyte solute. If  53.6 g of glycerin is
dissolved in 133.7 g of ethanol at 40. C, C 2 H 5 OH , what is the vapor pressure of the
◦

solution? The vapor pressure of pure ethanol is 113 Torr at 40. C. ◦

4. The vapor pressure of hexane, C 6 H 14 , at 60.0 C  is 573 Torr . The vapor pressure of 
◦

benzene at the same temperature is 391 Torr . What will be the vapor pressure of a
solution of  58.9 g of hexane with 44.0 g of benzene?

Colligative
Worksheet Properties: B.P. Elevation and M.P. Depression
When a non-volatile, solid solute is added to a solvent, the boiling point of the solution will
be higher than the boiling point of the solvent, and the melting point of the solution will be
lower than the melting point of the solvent. The size of the boiling point elevation and the
melting point depression are colligative properties, that is, they are dependent not on the
chemistry of the solute but only on the number of solute particles present in the solution.
The formula used to calculate boiling point elevation is ∆T b = imK b , where ∆T b is the
increase in the boiling point, m is the molality of the solute, K b is the boiling point
elevation constant, and i is the van’t Hoff factor.
The boiling point elevation constant, K b , is an experimentally determined constant for the
solvent. Each solvent will have its own K b and these values are determined in the laboratory
and listed in reference tables. For example, the boiling point elevation constant for water
is 0.512 C /m. As the molality of the solution increases, the boiling point of the solution
◦

increases by 0.512 C  for each increase of  1.00 in the molality.

◦

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The van’t Hoff factor is the ratio between the actual concentration of  particles produced
when the substance is dissolved, and the concentration of the molecules dissolved. For
most non-electrolytes dissolved in water, the van’t Hoff factor is essentially 1. For most ionic
compounds dissolved in water, the van’t Hoff factor is equal to the number of discrete ions in
a formula unit of the substance. For example, a glucose solution that is 1.00 molal will have
a particle concentration that is also 1.00 molal because glucose molecules do not dissociate.
A 1.00 molal sodium chloride solution, on the other hand, since it dissociates into two ions
will have a particle molality  of  2.00 m. The van’t Hoff factor, i, is the number of ions
that the molecule will dissociate into when dissolved. Sometimes, in concentrated solutions,
an ionic substance does not dissociate 100% and therefore, the value of  i will not be exactly
equal to the apparent number of ions produced. In such cases, the value of  i must also be
determined experimentally. If you are not given an actual value for i in the problem, assume
that i is the number of ions apparently produced per molecule. This is true in most dilute
solutions.
The formula used to calculate melting point depression is ∆T f  = imK f , where ∆T f  is
the decrease in the melting point, m is the molality of the solute, K f  is the melting point
depression constant, and i is the van’t Hoff factor.
The melting point depression constant, K f , is an experimentally determined constant for the
solvent. Each solvent will have its own K f  and these values are determined in the laboratory
and listed in reference tables. For example, the freezing point depression constant for water
is 1.86 C /m. As the molality of the solution increases, the melting point of the solution
◦

decreases by 1.86 C  for each increase of  1.00 in the molality.

◦

Example: What is the boiling point of a 5.00 m glucose solution in water? Glucose is a
non-volatile, non-electrolyte solute. K b for water = 0.512 C /m. ◦

◦ ◦

Solution: ∆T b = imK b = (1)(5.00m)(0.512 C /m) = 2.56 C 

Since the boiling point of the pure solvent was 100.00 C , the b.p. of the solution is 100.00 C +
◦ ◦

2.56 C  = 102.56 C 
◦ ◦

Example: What is the melting point of a 5.00 m NaCl solution in water? Sodium chloride
is a non-volatile solute that dissociates 100% in water. K f  for water = 1.86 C /m. ◦

Solution: ∆T f  = imK f  = (2)(5.00 m)(1.86 C /m) = 18.6 C  (Since NaCl produces two
◦ ◦

ions in solution, i = 2.)

Since the melting point of the pure solvent was 0.00 C , the m.p. of the solution is 0.00 C  −
◦ ◦

18.6 C  = −18.6 C 
◦ ◦

Exercises

1. What is the melting point of a solution produced by dissolving 45.0 g of  NaCl in 500. g
of water. K f  for water = 1.86 C /m. ◦

2. What is the boiling point of a solution produced by dissolving 45.0 g of  NaCl in 500. g

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of water. K b for water = 0.512 C /m. ◦

3. Which solution will have higher boiling point: a solution containing 105 g of C 1 2H 22 O11
in 500. g of water or a solution containing 35.0 g of  NaCl in 500. g of water?
4. When 25.0 g of an unknown, non-volatile, non-electrolyte is dissolved in 130. g of water,
the boiling point of the solution is 102.5 C . What is the molar mass of the unknown?
◦

5. How many grams of C 2 H 6 O2 (anti-freeze, a non-electrolyte) must be added to 4, 000. grams
of water to reduce the melting point to −40. C ? ◦

6. The melting point constant for benzene is 4.90 C /m. The normal melting point of 
◦

benzene is 5.50 C . What is the melting point of a solution of  9.30 g of  C 12 H 25 OH  (a
◦

non-electrolyte) in 250. g of benzene?

7. Assuming 100% dissociation, what is the boiling point of a solution of  200. g of  AlF 3
in </math>500. \g</math> of water?

21.8 Lesson 21.8 Colloids

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21.9 Lesson 21.9 Separating Mixtures

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Chapter 22

Ions in Solution Worksheets

22.1 Lesson 22.1 Ions in Solution

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22.2 Lesson 22.2 Covalent Compounds in Solution

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22.3 Lesson 22.3 Reactions Between Ions in Solutions

Reactions Between Ions in Solution Worksheet
CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
For the following five reactions (all reactants are in water solution):

• Write and balance the molecular equation indicating the state of each reactant and
product.
• Write the total ionic equation.
• Identify the precipitate.
• Identify the spectator ions.
• Write the net ionic equation.

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1. iron (III) chloride + sodium hydroxide

Balanced molecular equation _________________________________________
Total ionic equation ______________________________________________
Precipitate = ___________________ Spectator ions = ____________________
Net ionic equation _______________________________________________
2. barium chloride + silver nitrate
Balanced molecular equation _________________________________________
Total ionic equation ______________________________________________
Precipitate = ___________________ Spectator ions = ____________________
Net ionic equation _______________________________________________
3. magnesium sulfate + potassium phosphate
Balanced molecular equation _________________________________________
Total ionic equation ______________________________________________
Precipitate = ___________________ Spectator ions = ____________________
Net ionic equation _______________________________________________
4. copper (II) nitrate + calcium hydroxide
Balanced molecular equation _________________________________________
Total ionic equation ______________________________________________
Precipitate = ___________________ Spectator ions = ____________________
Net ionic equation _______________________________________________
5. sodium chromate + strontium nitrate
Balanced molecular equation _________________________________________
Total ionic equation ______________________________________________
Precipitate = ___________________ Spectator ions = ____________________

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Chapter 23

Chemical Kinetics Worksheets

23.1 Lesson 23.1 Rate of Reactions

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23.2 Lesson 23.2 Collision Theory

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23.3 Lesson 23.3 Potential Energy Diagrams

Potential Energy Diagrams Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
Use the following Potential Energy Diagram to answer questions 1 - 12.
1. Is the overall reaction as shown exothermic or endothermic? ______________________
2. What is the activation energy for the forward reaction? _____________________
3. What is the activation energy for the reverse reaction? _____________________
4. What is the enthalpy change for (∆H ) for the forward reaction? ________________
5. What is the ∆H  for the reverse reaction? _______________

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Figure 23.1: ?

6. Is the reverse reaction exothermic or endothermic? _________________________

7. Which species is the activated complex? __________________

8. Which species or group of species has the highest  potential energy? __________________
9. Which species or group of species has the weakest  bonds? __________________
10. Which species or group of species has the strongest  bonds? ___________________
11. Which do you think would be faster  at that the same temperature, the forward or reverse
reaction? ________________
12. What is the threshold energy for the forward reaction? _________________
13. In general, as reactant particles begin a collision, the potential energy ________________
(increases, decreases, stays the same) and the kinetic energy ________________ (in-
creases, decreases, stays the same).
14. Describe what happens to two reactant particles that collide with less than the activation
energy?
Use the following Potential Energy Diagram to answer questions 15 - 22.
15. What is the activation energy for the forward reaction? _____________
16. What is the activation energy for the reverse reaction? _____________
17. What is the ∆H  for the forward reaction? ______________
18. What is the ∆H  for the reverse reaction? ______________
19. Is the forward reaction exothermic or endothermic? ______________
20. What is the threshold energy for the forward reaction? ______________
21. Which bond is stronger, A − B or B − C ? ______________

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Figure 23.2: ?

22. Give a reason for your answer in question 21.

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23.4 Lesson 23.4 Factors That Affect Reaction Rates

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23.5 Lesson 23.5 Reaction Mechanism

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Chapter 24

Chemical Equilibrium Worksheets

24.1 Lesson 24.1 Introduction to Equilibrium

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24.2 Lesson 24.2 Equilibrium Constant

Equilibrium Worksheet
CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
Questions 1 - 20 relate to the following reaction at equilibrium in a closed container.

P ( s) + 2 O2 (g )  P O4 (g ) ∆H  = −794 kJ /mol

1. What is the instantaneous effect on the FORWARD REACTION RATE of adding some
solid phosphorus with no change in surface area?

A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. No change.
2. What is the instantaneous effect on the FORWARD REACTION RATE of adding some
oxygen gas with no change in pressure?

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A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. No change.
3. What is the instantaneous effect on the FORWARD REACTION RATE of adding some
P O4 gas with no change in pressure?
A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. No change.
4. What is the instantaneous effect on the FORWARD REACTION RATE of increasing the
temperature?
A. Increase.

B. Decrease.
C. No change.
5. What is the instantaneous effect on the FORWARD REACTION RATE of increasing the
pressure by reducing the volume?
A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. No change.
6. What is the instantaneous effect on the FORWARD REACTION RATE of adding a
catalyst?
A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. No change.
7. What is the instantaneous effect on the REVERSE REACTION RATE of adding some
solid phosphorus with no change in surface area?
A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. No change.
8. What is the instantaneous effect on the REVERSE REACTION RATE of adding some
oxygen gas with no change in pressure?
A. Increase.

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B. Decrease.
C. No change.
9. What is the instantaneous effect on the REVERSE REACTION RATE of adding some
P O4 gas with no change in pressure?
A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. No change.
10. What is the instantaneous effect on the REVERSE REACTION RATE of increasing the
temperature?
A. Increase.
B. Decrease.

C. No change.
11. What is the instantaneous effect on the REVERSE REACTION RATE of increasing the
pressure by reducing the volume?
A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. No change.
12. What is the instantaneous effect on the REVERSE REACTION RATE of adding a
catalyst?

A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. No change.
13. Which direction will the equilibrium shift when solid phosphorus is added with no change
in surface area?
A. Forward.
B. Reverse.
C. No shift.
14. Which direction will the equilibrium shift when oxygen gas is added with no change in
pressure?
A. Forward.
B. Reverse.

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C. No shift.
15. Which direction will the equilibrium shift when gaseous P O4 is added with no change
in pressure?
A. Forward.
B. Reverse.
C. No shift.
16. Which direction will the equilibrium shift when the temperature is increased?
A. Forward.
B. Reverse.
C. No shift.
17. Which direction will the equilibrium shift when the pressure is increased by reducing
the volume?
A. Forward.
B. Reverse.
C. No shift.
18. Which direction will the equilibrium shift when a catalyst is added?
A. Forward.
B. Reverse.

C. No shift.
19. Which of the following changes to the sytem at equilibrium will change the value of the
equilibrium constant?
I. Adding some solid phosphorus.
II. Adding some oxygen gas.
III. Increasing the pressure by reducing the volume.
IV. Increasing the temperature.
V. Adding a catalyst.
A. I, II, and IV.
B. III, IV, and V.
C. IV and V.
D. IV only.

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E. V only.
20. If oxygen gas is added to the system at equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift forward
until a new equilibrium is established. When the new equilibrium is established, how will the
concentration of oxygen gas in the new equilibrium compare to the original concentration of 
oxygen gas before the stress was applied?
A. higher
B. lower
C. the same
21. Here are four equations with their equilibrium constant values. Which of these reactions
will have the greatest proportion of material in the form of products?
Table 24.1: Equilibrium Constants for Various Equations

Choice Equation Equilibrium Constant

A. AB(aq)  A+ (aq) + B(aq)
−
K e = 2 × 10
− 2

B. CD(aq)  C (+aq) + D(aq) −

K e = 3 × 10
− 2

C. EF (aq)  E (+aq) + F (aq)−

K e = 3 × 10
− 3

D. GH (aq)  G+ (aq) + H (aq)

−
K e = 6 × 10
− 3

22. Solid sulfur reacts with oxygen gas to form SO_{2(g)} according to the following equa-
tion.

S (s) + O2(g)  SO 2(g)

Given that the equilibrium constant for the reaction is 5.00 and that the reaction begins
with 60.0 M  sulfur and 3.00 M O2 , calculate the equilibrium concentration of  SO 2 .
A. 15.0 M 
B. 5.55 M 
C. 2.50 M 
D. 1.25 M 
E. None of these.
23. For the reaction, N 2(g) + O2(g)  2N O2(g) , the equilibrium constant is 1.0 × 10 6 . Find −

the equilibrium concentration of  N O2 if the beginning concentration of  N 2 and O2 are both
2.0 M ?
A. 0.0020 M 

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6
B. 2.0 × 10 −
M 
6
C. 4.0 × 10 −
M 
D. 0.020 M 
E. None of these.
24. For the reaction, H 2(g) + CO2(g)  H 2 O(g) + CO(g) , the two reactants begin the reaction
at 1.0 M and at equilibrium, the concentration of  CO is found to be 0.80 M . What is the
equilibrium constant value?
A. 1.7
B. 2.0
C. 4.0
D. 16

E. None of these.
25. K e = 4.00 for the reaction, H 2(g) + CO2(g)  H 2 O(g) + CO(g) . If all four species begin at
1.00 M, what will be the equilibrium concentration of  H 2 ?
A. 0.33 M 
B. 0.67 M 
C. 1.3 M 
D. 1.0 M 
E. None of these.

24.3 Lesson 24.3 The Effect of Applying Stress to Re-

actions at Equilibrium

Le Chatelier’s Principle Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry

Name______________________ Date_________
Le Chatelier’s Principle is useful in predicting how a system at equilibrium will respond
when certain changes are imposed. Le Chatelier’s Principle does NOT explain why the
system changes, and is not an acceptable explanation for the change. It merely allows
you to determine quickly how the system will change when a disturbance is imposed. The
explanation for why the system changes can be found in your textbook.

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There are three common ways a stress may be applied to a chemical system at equilibrium:

• changing the concentration (or partial pressure) of a reactant or product.

• changing the temperature.
• changing the volume of the container (which changes partial pressure of all gases in
the reaction).

You should be aware that adding a gaseous substance that is not involved in the reaction
changes the total pressure in the system but does not change the partial pressure of any of 
the reactants or products and therefore does not affect the equilibrium.
Le Chatelier’s Principle states when a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the equilibrium 
shifts so as to partially  undo (counteract) the effect of the disturbance.
Changes in Concentration or Partial Pressure

If a system at equilibrium is disturbed by adding a reactant or removing a product, Le

Chatelier’s Principle predicts that the equilibrium will shift forward, thus using up some of 
the added reactant or producing more of the removed product. In this way, the equilibrium
shift partially counteracts the disturbance. Similarly, if the disturbance is the removal of a
reactant or the addition of a product, the equilibrium will shift backward, thus producing
more of the removed reactant or using up some of the added product. Once again, the shift
tends to ”undo” the disturbance. It should be noted that when the disturbance is an increase
or decrease of concentration of reactant or product, the equilibrium shift tends to partially
return the concentration to its former value but it never gets all the way back to the
former value.

The equilibrium constant value, Ke is not changed by the addition or removal of reactants
or products. Since the concentration of solids are constant, they do not appear in the
equilibrium constant expression and their concentrations do not change when disturbances
cause equilibrium shifts, however, the amount of the solid present most certainly does
change. The amount of solid can increase or decrease but the concentration  does not change.
Changes in Temperature
Increasing the temperature of a system at equilibrium increases both forward and reverse
reaction rate, but it increases the endothermic reaction more that the exothermic. Therefore,
in an exothermic reaction, the reverse reaction is endothermic and so increasing the temper-
ature will increase the reverse reaction more than the forward reaction, and the equilibrium
will shift backwards. Since the forward reaction produces heat and the reverse reaction con-
sumes heat, Le Chatelier’s Principle predicts that when heat is added, the equilibrium will
shift backward, consuming heat, and thus partially countering the disturbance. Cooling an
exothermic reaction slows both reactions but it slows the reverse more than the forward,
hence the equilibrium will shift forward producing more heat, thus partially undoing the
stress.

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For an endothermic reaction, all the same logic is involved except that the forward reaction
is endothermic and the reverse reaction is exothermic. Therefore, heating an endothermic
reaction causes the equilibrium to shift forward, and cooling an endothermic reaction causes
the equilibrium to shift backward.
When an equilibrium shifts due to a temperature change all the substances on one side of the
equation move in the same direction, that is, they all increase or they all decrease. Therefore,
the equilibrium constant value will also change when the temperature is changed.
Table 24.2: Summary of 

Reaction Type Increase Temperature Decrease Temperature

Endothermic (∆H > 0) K  increases K  decreases
Exothermic (∆H < 0) K  decreases K  increases

Changes in Volume
When the volume of a reaction vessel is decreased, the partial pressure (and concentration)
of all gases in the container increase. The total pressure in the vessel will also increase.
Le Chatelier’s Principle predicts that the equilibrium will shift in a direction that tends to
counteract the disturbance. Therefore, the equilibrium will shift to produce fewer moles of 
gaseous substances so that the pressure will decrease. Thus, decreasing the volume will cause
the equilibrium to shift toward the side with fewer moles of gaseous substances. The reverse
is true if the volume of the vessel is increased. The partial pressure of all gases will decrease,
and the total pressure will decrease, so the equilibrium shift will be toward the side that
contains more moles of gas, thus increasing pressure and partially counteracting the change.

The Addition of a Catalyst

The addition of a catalyst will increase both forward and reverse reaction rates. In the case
of a catalyst, both reaction rates are increased by the same amount and therefore there will
be no equilibrium shift.
Exercises
Consider the following reaction.

5 CO(g) + I 2 O5(s)  I 2(g) + 5 CO2(g) ∆H  = −1175 kJ 

◦

1. If some CO2(g) is added to this sytem at equilibrium, which way will the equilibrium shift?
A. Toward the products.
B. Toward the reactants.
C. No shift.

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2. When equilibrium is re-established after the CO2(g) is added, how will the concentration
of  I )2(g ) compare to the original concentration?
A. Increased.
B. Decreased.
C. No change.
3. When equilibrium is re-established after the CO2(g) is added, how will the concentration
of  I 2 O5 compare to the original concentration?
A. Increased.
B. Decreased.
C. No change.
4. When equilibrium is re-established after the CO2(g) is added, how will the amount of  I 2 O5
compare to the original amount?
A. Increased.
B. Decreased.
C. No change.
5. When equilibrium is re-established after the CO2(g) is added, how will the value of  K 
compare to the original value of  K ?
A. Higher.
B. Lower.

C. No change.
6. If some I 2(g) is removed from this sytem at equilibrium, which way will the equilibrium
shift?
A. Toward the products.
B. Toward the reactants.
C. No shift.
7. When equilibrium is re-established after the I 2 (g ) is removed, how will the concentration
of  CO2 (g ) compare to the original concentration?
A. Increased.
B. Decreased.
C. No change.
8. When equilibrium is re-established after the I 2(g) is removed, how will the concentration

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of  I 2(g) compare to the original concentration?

A. Increased.
B. Decreased.
C. No change.
9. 5. When equilibrium is re-established after the I 2(g) is removed, how will the value of  K 
compare to the original value of  K ?
A. Higher.
B. Lower.
C. No change.
10. If the temperature of this system at equilibrium is lowered, which way will the equilibrium
shift?

A. Toward the products.

B. Toward the reactants.
C. No shift.
11. When equilibrium is re-established after the temperature was lowered, how will the
concentration of  CO(g) compare to its original concentration?
A. Increased.
B. Decreased.
C. No change.
12. When equilibrium is re-established after the temperature was lowered, how will the value
of  K  compare to the original value of  K ?
A. Higher.
B. Lower.
C. No change.
13. If the volume of the reaction vessel for this system at equilibrium is decreased, which
way will the equilibrium shift?
A. Toward the products.
B. Toward the reactants.
C. No shift.
14. When equilibrium is re-established after the volume was decreased, how will the concen-
tration of  CO(g) compare to its original concentration?

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A. Higher.
B. Lower.
C. No change.
15. When equilibrium is re-established after the volume was decreased, how will the value
of  K  compare to the original value of  K ?
A. Higher.
B. Lower.
C. No change.
Consider the following reaction.

4 N O(g) + 6 H 2 O(g)  4 N H 3(g) + 5 O2(g) ∆H  = +1532 kJ 

16. If some N O(g) is added to this sytem at equilibrium, which way will the equilibrium
shift?
A. Toward the products.
B. Toward the reactants.
C. No shift.
17. When equilibrium is re-established after the N O(g) is added, how will the concentration
of  N H 3(g) compare to the original concentration?
A. Increased.
B. Decreased.
C. No change.
18. If the temperature of this system at equilibrium is raised, which way will the equilibrium
shift?
A. Toward the products.
B. Toward the reactants.
C. No shift.

19. When equilibrium

centration is re-established
of  N O(g) compare afterconcentration?
to its original the temperature was raised, how will the con-

A. Increased.
B. Decreased.
C. No change.

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20. When equilibrium is re-established after the temperature was raised, how will the value
of  K  compare to the original value of  K ?
A. Higher.
B. Lower.
C. No change.

24.4 Lesson 24.4 Slightly Soluble Salts

Solubility and Solubility Product Constant Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________

1. When excess solid SrCrO4 is shaken with water at 25 C , it is found that 6.00 ×
◦

10 3 moles dissolve per liter of solution. Use this information to calculate the K sp for
−

SrCrO4 .
2. The solubility of  PbCl2 is 1.6 × 10 2 mol /L. What is the K sp for PbCl2 ?
−

3. The solubility of  AgC 2 H 3 O2 is 11.11 g /L at 25 C . What is the K sp for silver acetate
◦

at this temperature?
4. The solubility of Ag2 Cr2 O7 is 0.083 g /L at 25 C . What is the K sp for silver dichromate
◦

at this temperature?
5. What is the solubility of  AgI  in grams/liter given the K sp = 8.3 × 10 17 ? −

6
−
×
6.
7. What
Write is the solubility
balanced net ionic Ca(OH )2 for
of  equations in grams/liter given reactions
the precipitation the 6.0 occur
=that ?
K sp
10 when the
following pairs of solutions are mixed. If no reaction occurs, write ”no reaction”. Use
the solubility table in your textbook if you need it.
(a) Lead nitrate and hydrochloric acid.
(b) Silver nitrate and lithium hydroxide.
(c) Ammonium sulfide and cobalt (II) bromide.
(d) Copper (II) sulfate and potassium carbonate.
(e) Barium nitrate and copper (II) sulfate.
8. Lead (II) chloride has a K sp value of  1.7 × 10 5 . Will a precipitate form when 140.0 mL
−

of solution
9. A
P b3 (P O4 )2 is mixed
0.0100 Mcontains 1.0 × 10 4 Mwith 550.0 mL of  0.0550 M NaCl?
P b2+ ions and 2.0 × 10 3 M Sr 2+ ions. If a source
− −

of  SO 42 ions is very slowly added to this solution, will PbSO4 , (K sp = 1.8 × 10 8 ) or
− −

SrSO4 , (K sp = 3.4 × 10 7 ) precipitate first? Calculate the concentration of  SO 4 ions
− −−

that will begin to precipitate each cation.

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Chapter 25

Acids and Bases Worksheets

25.1 Lesson 25.1 Arrhenius Acids

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

25.2 Lesson 25.2 Strong and Weak Acids

Strong Acids and Bases Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
4
1. If the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution is 1.00 x 10 −
M, what is the hydroxide
ion concentration?
2. What is the hydroxide ion concentration in a solution whose pH is 11?
3. What is the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution prepared by dissolving 0.400 grams
of  NaOH  in enough water to make 2.00 liters of solution?
4. How many mL of 0.100 M potassium hydroxide are required to neutralize 75.0 mL of 
0.500 M HN O3 ?
5. If 50.0 mL of  H 2 SO 4 are neutralized by 100. mL of 0.200 M LiOH, what is the molarity
of the H 2 SO 4 ?
6. What volume of 6.00 M HCl would be necessary to neutralize 400. mL of 3.00 M
Ba (OH )2 ?
7. 200. mL of 0.0150 M NaOH  is mixed with 300. mL of 0.00100 M HCl. What is the final

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[H + ] and [OH  ]? −

8. What is the pH of the final solution in problem 7?

9. 700. mL of  1.00 x 10 4 M H 2 SO4 is mixed with 300. mL of  1.00 x 10
− 3
−
M Ba (OH )2 .
What is the final [H + ] and [OH  ]? −

10. What is the pH of the final solution in problem 9?

11. 25.0 mL of 0.0100 M HCl is mixed with 35.0 mL of 0.0300 M NaOH . What is the final
[H + ] and [OH  ]? −

12. What is the pH of the final solution in problem 11?

13. What is the final [H + ] and [OH  ] in a solution made by adding 100. mL of 0.000200 M
−

HN O3 to 100. mL of 0.0000990 M Ba (OH )2 ?

14. What is the pH of the final solution in problem 13?
15. What is the molar mass of a solid monoprotic acid if 0.300 grams of the acid requires
30.0 mL of 0.200 M NaOH  to neutralize it?

25.3 Lesson 25.3 Arrhenius Bases

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

25.4 Lesson 24.4 Salts

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

25.5 Lesson 25.5 pH

pH Worksheet
CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
1. Calculate the pH of a solution with [H + ] = 7.0 x 10 −5
M.
2. Calculate the pH of a solution that is 0.050 M NaOH .
5
3. Calculate the pH of a solution that is 7.0 x 10 −
M M g (OH )2 .
4. What is the [H + ] in a solution with pH = 4.4?

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5. What is the [OH  ] in a solution with pH = 3.0?

−

6. 10.0 g of  KOH  is added to enough water to make 400. mL of solution. What is the pH?
7. A 1.0 liter solution has a pH = 2. How many liters of water must be added to change the
pH to 3?
8. If you do the regular calculations to determine the pH of a 1.0 x 10 12 M HBr solution, −

you will get the pH = 12. You should have a feeling that something is wrong with this
situation because this indicates that a solution of acid has a basic pH. What do you think
is wrong with this calculation?
Complete the following table.

Table 25.1: Acid, Base, or Neutral

pH [H + ] [OH  ]−
A, B, or N
4
9. 6.2 x 10 −
M
10. 8.5 x 10 −
10 M
11. 10.75
2
12. 4.0 x 10 −
M

25.6 Lesson 25.6 Weak Acid/Base Equilibria

Weak Acids and Bases Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
1. Explain the difference between the designations ”strong” acid and ”weak” acid.
4
2. The K a of acid A is 6.4 x 10 −
and the K a of acid B is 1.7 x 10 5 . Which acid is the
−

stronger acid?
3. Explain what happens to the pH of a solution of acetic acid when a solution of sodium
acetate is added to it.
4. Explain why a solution of sodium acetate will be basic.
5. What is the pH of a 0.0100 M solution of a weak acid, HX , if the K a for HX  is 8.1 x 10 7 . −

6. The pH of a 0.100 M solution of a weak acid, HQ, is 4.0. What is the K a of this acid?
7. What is the pH of a 0.150 M solution of  N H 4 OH ? The K b for N H 4 OH  is 1.80 x 10 5 . −

8. The pH of a 1.00 M solution of the weak base methylamine is 12.3. The equation for the

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reaction of methylamine in water is

+
CH 3 N H 2(aq) + H 2 O  CH 3 N H 3( aq)
+ OH (aq) .−

What is the K b for methylamine?

9. Will a 1.00 M solution of potassium acetate be acidic, basic, or neutral?
5
10. Will a 1.00 M solution of  N H 4 N O2 be acidic, basic, or neutral? Use 1.8 x 10 −
as the
K b for N H 4 OH  and 7.1 x 10 4 as the K a for HN O2 .
−

25.7 Lesson 25.7 Bronsted Lowry Acids-Bases

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

25.8 Lesson 25.8 Lewis Acids and Bases

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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Chapter 26

Water, pH and Titration Worksheets

26.1 Lesson 26.1 Water Ionizes

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

26.2 Lesson 26.2 Indicators

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

26.3 Lesson 26.3 Titrations

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

26.4 Lesson 26.4 Buffers

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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Chapter 27

Thermodynamics Worksheets - HS Chem-

istry

27.1 Lesson 27.1 Energy Change in Reactions

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

27.2 Lesson 27.2 Enthalpy

Enthalpy Worksheet
1. The combustion of methane, CH 4 , releases 890.4 kJ/mol of heat. That is, when one
mole of methane is burned, 890.4 kJ are given off to the surroundings. This means that the
products have 890.4 kJ less energy stored in the bonds than the reactants. Thus, ∆H  for
the reaction = - 890.4 kJ. A negative symbol for ∆H  indicates an exothermic reaction.

CH 4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H 2 O(L) ∆H  = − 890.4 kJ 

A. How much energy is given off when 2.00 mol of  CH 4 are burned?
CH 
B. How much energy is released when 22.4 g of  4 are burned?
C. If you were to attempt to make 45.0 g of methane from CO2 and H 2 O (with O2 also being
produced), how much heat would be absorbed during the reaction?
Use the following heat of formation table in questions 2 – 6.

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Table 27.1: The Standard Enthalpy and Entropy of Various Substances

Substance ∆H f o (kJ/mol) S o (J /K  · mol )

C 4 H 10(g) -126 310
CaC 2(s) -63 70.
Ca(OH )2(s) -987 83
C 2 H 2(g) 227 201
CO2(g) -394 214
H 2(g) 0 131
H 2 O(g) -242 189
H 2 O(L) -286 70.
N H 3(g) -46 193
N O( g ) 90. 211
N O2(g) 34 240.
N 2 O(g) 82 220.

O 2(g) 0143 205

O3(g) 239

2. Using data from the heat of formation table above, calculate the enthalpy of reaction for

3 H 2(g) + O3(g) → 3 H 2 O(g) .

3. Using data from the heat of formation table above, calculate the heat of reaction for

2 N O(g) + O2(g) → 2 N O2(g) .

4. Using data from the heat of formation table above, calculate the heat of reaction for

N 2 O(g) + N O2(g) → 3 N O(g) .

5. Using data from the heat of formation table above, calculate the heat of reaction for

CaC 2(s) + 2 H 2 O(L) → Ca(OH )2(s) + C 2 H 2(g) .

6. Many cigarette lighters contain liquid butane, C 4 H 10 . Using the heat of formation table
above, calculate the quantity of heat produced when 1.0 g of gaseous butane is completely
combusted in air.

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Hess’s Law Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________

Example Problem
Find the ∆H  for the reaction below, using the following reactions and their ∆H  values.

N 2 H 4(L) + H 2(g) → 2 N H 3(g)

Table 27.2: Given Equations and

Equation ∆H  Value

N 2 H 4(L) + CH 4 O(L) → CH 2 O(g) + N 2(g) + 3 H 
∆2H 
(g ) = 37 kJ 
−

N 2(g) + 3 H 2(g) → 2 N H 3(g) ∆H  = − 46 kJ 

CH 4 O(L) → CH 2 O(g) + H 2(g) ∆H  = − 65 kJ 

Solution
Table 27.3: Solution Arrangement

Changes Equation ∆H  Value

Keep Same N 2 H 4(L) + CH 4 O(L) → CH 2 O∆ + N 
(g )H  =2(g−
)+373 kJ 
H 2(g)
Keep Same N 2(g) + 3 H 2(g) → 2 N H 3(g) ∆H  = − 46 kJ 
Reverse CH 2 O(g) + H 2(g) → CH 4 O(L) ∆H  = + 65 kJ 

________________________________________________________
Sum N 2 H 4(L) + H 2(g) → 2 N H 3(g) ∆H  = − 18 kJ 

Exercises
1. Find the ∆H  for the reaction below, using the following reactions and their ∆H  values.

→
H 2 SO 4(L) SO 3(g) + H 2 O(g)

Table 27.4: Given Equations and

Equation ∆H  Value

H 2 S (g) + 2 O2(g) → H 2 SO 4(L) ∆H  = − 235 kJ 
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Table 27.4: (continued)

Equation ∆H  Value

H 2 S (g) + 2 O2(g) → SO 3(g) + H 2 O(L) ∆H  = − 207 kJ 
H 2 O(L) → H 2 O(g) ∆H  = + 44 kJ 

2. Find the ∆H  for the reaction below, using the following reactions and their ∆H  values.

4 N H 3(g) + 5 O2(g) → 4 N O(g) + 6 H 2 O(g)

Table 27.5: Given Equations and

Equation ∆H  Value

→ −
N 2(g) 2(g) 2 N O(g)
+ O
N 2(g) + 3 H 2(g) → 2 N H 3(g ) ∆H 
∆H  =
= − 91.8.5kJ 
180 kJ 
2 H 2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H 2 O(g ) ∆H  = − 483.6 kJ 

3. Find the ∆H  for the reaction below, using the following reactions and their ∆H  values.

P Cl5(g) → P Cl3(g) + Cl2(g)

Table 27.6:

Equation ∆H  Value

P 4(s) + 6 Cl2(g) → 4 P Cl3(g) ∆H  = − 2439 kJ 
4 P Cl5(g) → P 4(s) + 10 Cl2(g) ∆H  = + 3438 kJ 

4. Find the ∆H  for the reaction below, using the following reactions and their ∆H  values.

1
3 H 2(g) + 2 C (s) + 2
O2(g) → C 2 H 5 OH (L)

Table 27.7: Given Equations and

Equation ∆H  Value

C 2 H 5 OH (L) + 3 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + 3 H 2 O(L) ∆H  = − 875.0 kJ 
C (s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆H  = − 394.5 kJ 
1
H 2(g) + 2 O2(g) → H 2 O(L) ∆H  = − 285.8 kJ 

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5. Find the ∆H  for the reaction below, using the following reactions and their ∆H  values.

5
2 CO2(g) + H 2 O(g) → C 2 H 2(g) + 2
O2(g)

Table 27.8: Given Equations and

Equation ∆H  Value
C 2 H 2(g) + 2 H 2(g) → C 2 H 6(g) ∆H  = − 94.5 kJ 
H 2 O(g) → H 2(g) + 12 O2(g) ∆H  = + 71.2 kJ 
C 2 H 6(g) + 72 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + 3 H 2 O(g) ∆H  = − 283.0 kJ 

6. Find the ∆H  for the reaction below, using the following reactions and their ∆H  values.

1
2 H 2(g) + 1
2 Cl2(g) → HCl(g)

Table 27.9: Given Equations and

Equation ∆H  Value

COCl2(g) + H 2 O(L) → CH 2 Cl2(L) + O2(g) ∆H  = + 48 kJ 
2 HCl(g) + 12 O2(g) → H 2 O(L) + Cl2(g) ∆H  = + 105 kJ 
3
CH 2 Cl2(L) + H 2(g) + 2 O2(g) → COCl2(g) + 2 ∆
H H  =) − 403 kJ 
2 O( L

27.3 Lesson 27.3 Spontaneous Processes

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

27.4 Lesson 27.4 Entropy

Entropy Worksheet
Use the following entropy of formation table in questions 1 – 5.
Table 27.10: The Standard Enthalpy and Entropy of Various Substances

Substance ∆H f o (kJ/mol) S o (J /K  · mol )

C 4 H 10(g) -126 310

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Table 27.10: (continued)

Substance ∆H f o (kJ/mol) S o (J /K  · mol )

CaC 2(s) -63 70.
Ca(OH )2(s) -987 83
C 2 H 2(g) 227 201
CO2(g) -394 214
H 2(g) 0 131
H 2 O(g) -242 189
H 2 O(L) -286 70.
N H 3(g) -46 193
N O( g ) 90. 211
N O2(g) 34 240.
N 2 O(g) 82 220.
O2(g) 0 205

O3(g) 143 239

1. Using data from the entropy of formation table above, calculate the entropy of reaction
for

3 H 2(g) + O3(g) → 3 H 2 O(g) .

2. Using data from the entropy of formation table above, calculate the change in entropy for

2 N O(g) + O2(g) →
2 N O2(g) .

3. Using data from the heat of formation table above, calculate the ∆S o for

N 2 O(g) + N O2(g) → 3 N O(g) .

4. Using data from the entropy of formation table above, calculate the heat of reaction for

CaC 2(s) + 2 H 2 O(L) → Ca(OH )2(s) + C 2 H 2(g) .

5. Using the entropy of formation table above, calculate the change in entropy for the
following reaction.

13
C 4 H 10(g) + 2 O2(g) → 4 CO2(g) + 5 H 2 O(g)

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27.5 Lesson 27.5 Gibb’s Free Energy

Enthalpy, Entropy, and Free Energy Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry

Name______________________ Date_________
1. As the amount of energy required to decompose a compound increases, the thermodynamic
stability of the compound _____________.

A. increases
B. decreases
C. remains constant
D. varies randomly

2. The enthalpy of formation for a free element is

A. 0 kJ/mol.
B. 1 kJ/mol.
C. 10 kJ/mol.
D. -100 kJ/mol.
E. variable.

Questions 3 and 4 relate to the following equation and ∆H R value.

2 HgO (s) → 2 Hg(L) + O2(g) ∆H R = + 181.7 kJ 

3. Which of the following can definitely be concluded from the equation and heat of reaction
above?

A. The reaction is spontaneous.

B. The reaction is non-spontaneous.
C. The reaction is endothermic.
D. The reaction is exothermic.
E. None of these.

4. From the equation and heat of reaction above, what is the ∆H f  of  HgO ?

A. 181.7 kJ/mol

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B. -181.7 kJ/mol
C. 0 kJ/mol
D. 90.9 kJ/mol
E. -90.9 kJ/mol

5. Which of the following four substances is the most thermodynamically stable? Use the
data in the Thermodynamic Data Table at the bottom of the worksheet.

A. N H 3(g)
B. CO2(g)
C. H 2 O(L)
D. N O(g)

6. The free energy of a reaction is the combination of ______________ and ___________

A. heat and work

B. pressure and volume
C. enthalpy and entropy
D. internal energy and PV
E. None of these.

7. All reactions that occur spontaneously must have a negative ____________.

A. T ∆S 

B. ∆G
C. ∆ H 
D. ∆S 
E. All of these.

Questions 8, 9, 10, and 11, relate to the equation shown below.

4 N H 3(g) + 5 CO2(g) → 6H 2 O(L) + 4 N O(g)

8. Use the data in the Thermodynamic Data Table at the bottom of this worksheet to find
the ∆H R for the reaction above?

A. +92.8 kJ
B. -92.8 kJ
C. -806.3 kJ
D. +806.3 kJ

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E. None of these.

9. Use the data in the Thermodynamic Data Table at the bottom of this worksheet to find
the ∆GR for the reaction above?

A. -981.6 kJ
B. +981.6 kJ
C. -269.0 kJ
D. +269.0 kJ
E. None of these.

10. Use the data in the Thermodynamic Data Table at the bottom of this worksheet to find
the ∆S R for the reaction above?

o
−
A. 575..99 J 
B. +575 J //o
C. −1419.1 J /o
D. +1419.1 J /o
E. None of these.

11. Use the ∆H R you found in question 6 and the ∆S R you found in question 8 to calculate
∆GR for this reaction.

A. 634.7 kJ

B.
C. -634.7 kJ
977.9 kJ
D. -977.9 kJ
E. None of these.

12. Find ∆S  for the reaction, 2 N O(g) + O2(g) → 2 N O2(g) .

A. -146.5 J/K
B. +146.5 J/K
C. -16.5 J/K

D. +16.5ofJ/K
E. None these.

13. Find ∆GR for the reaction, 2 H 2 O(g) + 2 F 2(g) → O2(g) + 4HF (g) .

A. -1550.0 kJ

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B. +1550.0 kJ
C. -635.6 kJ
D. +635.6 kJ
E. None of these.

14. What is the change in enthalpy for 4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 Al2 O3(s) ?

A. 0 kJ
B. -1657.7 kJ
C. +1657.7 kJ
D. +3351.4 kJ
E. -3351.4 kJ

15. What is the change in entropy for 4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 Al2 O3(s) ?

A. 0 J/K
B. -626.7 J/K
C. +626.7 J/K
D. -500.0 J/K
E. +500.0 J/K

16. Use the results from questions 14 and 15 to determine under what conditions this reaction
will be spontaneous.

A. This reaction will be spontaneous at all temperatures.

B. This reaction will never be spontaneous at any temperature.
C. This reaction will be spontaneous at high temperatures.
D. This reaction will be spontaneous at low temperatures.

Table 27.11: Thermodynamic Properties of Some Substances (at

Substance ∆H f o (kJ/mol) ∆Gof  (kJ/mol) S o (J /mol · K )

Al(s) 0 0 +28.3
Al2 O3(s) -1675.7 -1582.3 +50.9
CO(g) -110.5 -137.2 +197.7
CO2(g) -393.5 -394.4 +213.7
F 2(g) 0 0 +202.8
HF (g) -271.1 -273.2 +173.8
H 2 O(L) -285.8 -237.1 +69.9
H 2 O(g) -241.8 -228.6 +188.8

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Table 27.11: (continued)

Substance ∆H f o (kJ/mol) ∆Gof  (kJ/mol) S o (J /mol · K )

N H 3(g) -46.1 -16.5 +192.5
N O( g ) +90.3 +86.6 +210.8
N O2(g) +33.2 +51.3 +240.1
O2(g) 0 0 +205.1

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Chapter 28

Electrochemistry Worksheets

28.1 Lesson 28.1 Origin of the Term Oxidation

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

28.2 Lesson 28.2 Oxidation-Reduction

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

28.3 Lesson 28.3Number

Oxidation Balancing Redox Equations Using the
Method

Balancing Redox Equations Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________
Steps in the balancing redox equations process.

1. Determine the oxidation number for all atoms in the reaction.

2. Determine which atom is being oxidized and which is being reduced.
3. Write a half-reaction for the reduction process, showing the species containing the atom
being reduced and the product containing that atom.
4. Write a half-reaction for the oxidation process, showing the species containing the atom
being oxidized and the product containing that atom.

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5. If the atoms being oxidized and reduced are not already balanced in the half-reactions,
balance them.
6. Add the appropriate number of electrons to each half-reaction needed to bring about
the reduction and oxidation.
7. Balance all other atoms in each half-reaction except H  and O.
8. Balance the H  and O according to either (a) or (b) depending on whether the reaction
is acidic or basic.
(a) If the reaction is acidic, add H 2 O and H + . Balance O first by adding H 2 O , then
balance H  by adding H + . Charge should now be balanced.
(b) If the reaction is basic, add OH  and H 2 O . Balance charge first by adding OH  , then
− −

balance O by adding H 2 O. The H  should now be balanced.

9. Once the half-reactions are balanced, find the lowest common multiple (LCM) for the
electrons in the two half-reactions.
10. Multiply each half-reaction by a whole number so that the total number of electrons
in the reduction half-reaction equals the total number of electrons in the oxidation
half-reaction, and they each equal the LCM.
11. Add the two half-reactions and cancel those species that are common to both sides.
12. Check the equation to be sure that it is balanced by both atoms and charge.

Example of an acidic redox reaction balancing.

Given skeleton: M nO4 + C 2 O42− −
→ M n2+ + CO2 (in acid)
Step 1:

Step 2: M n+7 is being reduced to M n+2 and C +3 is being oxidized to C +4 .
Step 3: M nO4 −
→ M n2+
Step 4: C 2 O42 −
→ CO2
Step 5: M nO4 −
→ M n2+ and C 2 O42 −
→ 2 CO2
Step 6:

M nO4 + 5 e
− −
→ M n2+
2− −
→
C 2 O4 2 CO2 + 2e

Step 7: All atoms other than H  and O are balanced.

Step 8a: M nO4 + 5 e − −
+ 8 H + → M n2+ + 4 H 2 O
Step 8a: C 2 O42 −
→ 2 CO2 + 2 e −

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Step 9: The lowest common multiple for the electrons is 10. Therefore, we will multiply the
reduction half-reaction by 2 and the oxidation half-reaction by 5.
Step 10: 2 M nO4 + 10 e − −
+ 16 H + → 2 M n2+ + 8 H 2 O
Step 10: 5 C 2 O42 −
→ 10 CO2 + 10 e −

Step 11 and 12: 2 M nO4 + 16 H + + 5 C 2 O42

− −
→ 2 M n2+ + 8 H 2 O + 10 CO2
Example of an basic redox reaction balancing.
Given skeleton: M nO4 + Br − −
→ M nO2 + BrO3 −
(in basic solution)
Step 1:

Step 2: M n+7 is being reduced to M n+4 and Br is being oxidized to Br +5 .

Step 3: M nO4 → M nO2
−

Step 4: Br −
→ BrO3 −

Step 5: Both the atoms being oxidized and the atoms being reduced are balanced in the
half-reactions.
Step 6: M nO4 + 3 e − −
→ M nO2 and Br −
→ BrO3 + 6 e
− −

Step 7: All atoms other than H  and O are balanced.

Step 8b: M nO4 + 3 e− −
+ 2 H 2 O → M nO2 + 4 OH  −

Step 8b: Br −
+ 6 OH  −
→ BrO3 + 6 e
− −
+ 3 H 2 O
Step 9: The LCM for the electrons is 6. Therefore, we will multiply the reduction half-
reaction by 2 and the oxidation half-reaction by 1.
Step 10: 2 M nO4 + 6 e − −
+ 4 H 2 O → 2 M nO2 + 8 OH  −

Step 10: Br −
+ 6 OH  −
→ BrO3 + 6 e
− −
+ 3 H 2 O
Steps 11 and 12 (Cancel electrons, H 2 O, and OH  ): −

2 M nO4 + Br
− −
+ H 2 O → 2 M nO2 + 2 OH  −
+ BrO3 −

Exercises
Balance the following redox equations.
1. Br 2 + SO 2 → Br −
+ HSO 4 −
(in acidic solution)
2. P bO2 + M n2+ → P b2+ + M nO4 −
(in acidic solution)

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3. M nO4 + SO 32
− −
→ M nO2 + SO 4 −
(in basic solution)
4. Zn + N O3 −
→ N H 3 + Zn(OH )24 −
(in basic solution)
5. H 2 O2 + Cl2 O7 → ClO2 + O2
−
(in basic solution)

28.4 Lesson 28.4 Electrolysis

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

28.5 Lesson 28.5 Galvanic Cells

Electrochemical Cells Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry
Name______________________ Date_________

Use the standard cell sketched above to answer questions 1 - 9.

1. Which electrode is the cathode?

A. P b
B. Zn
C. Neither.

2. Which electrode is the anode?

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A. P b
B. Zn
C. Neither.

3. At which electrode will oxidation occur?

A. P b
B. Zn
C. Neither.

4. What is the maximum voltage for this standard cell?

A. 0.89 V
B. 0.63 V
C.
D. -0.89
-0.63 V
V
E. 0.50 V

5. Which way do the electrons flow in the external circuit?

A. From P b to Zn.
B. From Zn to P b.
C. No electron flow occurs.

6. Which way do cations flow through the salt bridge?

A. Toward the P b electrode.

B. Toward the Zn electrode.
C. No cation flow occurs.

7. What happens to the cell voltage when the reaction reaches equilibrium?

A. Becomes maximum.

B. Drops
C. to zero.
Becomes a positive value less than maximum.

8. Which electrode will gain mass as the cell runs?

A. P b

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B. Zn
C. Neither.

9. What happens to the cell voltage as the cell runs?

A. Remains constant.
B. Increases.
C. Decreases.
D. May increase or decrease.

Use the standard cell sketched above to answer questions 10 - 21.

10. Which electrode is the anode?

A. Al
B. Zn
C. Neither.

11. At which electrode does reduction occur?

A. Al
B. Zn
C. Neither.

12. What is the voltage of this standard cell?

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A. 2.42 V
B. -2.42 V
C. 0.90 V
D. -0.90 V
E. 1.80 V

13. Which way do the electrons flow in the external circuit?

A. From Al to Zn.
B. From Zn to Al.
C. No electron flow occurs.

14. Which way do anions flows through the salt bridge?

A. Toward the
B. Toward the Zn
Al electrode.
electrode.
C. No cation flow occurs.

15. Which electrode loses mass as the cell runs?

A. Al
B. Zn
C. Neither.

16. How many moles of electrons pass through the external circuit in order for 1.00 mole of 
atoms to be deposited on the cathode?

A. 6
B. 3
C. 4
D. 2
E. 1

17. If 24 electrons pass through the external circuit, how many atoms of zinc must react?

A. 24
B. 12
C. 8
D. 4
E. 0

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18. If 24 electrons pass through the external circuit, how many atoms of aluminum must
react?

A. 24
B. 12
C. 8
D. 4
E. 0

19. What will happen to the voltage of the cell if the molarity of  Zn2+ is increased?

A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. Remain the same.

20. What will happen to the voltage of the cell if the molarity of  Al3+ is increased?

A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. Remain the same.

21. What will happen to the voltage of the cell if the salt bridge is removed?

A. Increase slightly.
B. Decrease slightly.
C. Remain the same.
D. Drop to zero.

22. In the two cells in this worksheet, there are a total of three reduction half-reaction
indicated, Al, Zn, and P b. Which of these three metals is most easily oxidized?

A. Al
B. Zn
C. P b

23. Will a reaction occur if aluminum metal is placed in a solution of  Zn2+ ?

A. Yes
B. No

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24. Will a reaction occur if Pb metal is placed in a solution of  Al3+ ?

A. Yes
B. No

25. Will a reaction occur if aluminum metal is placed in a solution of  Zn2+ ?

A. Yes
B. No

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Chapter 29

Nuclear Chemistry Worksheets

29.1 Lesson 29.1 Discovery of Radioactivity

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

29.2 Lesson 29.2 Nuclear Notation

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

29.3 Lesson 29.3 Nuclear Force

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

29.4 Lesson 29.4 Nuclear Disintegration

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

29.5 Lesson 29.5 Nuclear Equations

Nuclear Chemistry Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry

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Name______________________ Date_________
In questions 1 - 5, a single nuclear particle is missing. Fill-in the complete nuclear symbol
for the missing particle.
1.
28 26
Al → Mg + ?
13 12

2.
210 210
Po → At + ?
84 85

3.

209
83 Bi
→
42He + ?

4.
242 12 1
Cm + C → 3 n+?
96 6 0

5.
223 226 1
Fr + ? → Ra + H
87 88 1
6. Fill-in the following table with the mass number and the charge of the particles.
Table 29.1:

Particle Mass Number Charge

neutron
proton
electron
alpha particle
U-235 nucleus

7. An isotope of bismuth, Bi-209, is bombarded with a proton. The product of the reaction
is an isotope of element X and two neutrons. What is the mass number of this isotope of 
element X?

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A. 206
B. 207
C. 208
D. 209
E. 210

8. Which of the following particles completes this equation?

238 4 241
U  + He → Pu + ?

A. Beta.
B. Alpha.
C. Proton.
D. Neutron.
E. None of these.

9. Which of the following particles completes this equation?

241 241
Pu → Am + ?

A. Beta.
B. Alpha.
C. Proton.
D. Neutron.
E. None of these.

10. Which of the following particles completes this equation?

10 6
B → Li + ?

A. Beta.
B. Alpha.
C. Proton.
D. Neutron.
E. None of these.

11. An atom contains 3 protons, 4 neutrons, and 3 electrons. What is its mass number?

A. 3

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B. 6
C. 7
D. 10
E. None of these.

12. If Th-234 undergoes beta decay, the resultant particle will be ___________.

A. Ra-234
B. Th-230
C. Pa-234
D. U-235
E. None of these.

13. U-234 undergoes alpha decay and the resultant particle undergoes beta decay. What is
the final particle after both decays?

A. Np-236
B. Pa-230
C. Ac-232
D. Np-239
E. Pa-233

14. 20.0 grams of a radioactive element is prepared in a nuclear reactor. The half-life of 
the isotope is 3 days. How many days will it take before there is only 2.50 grams of the
substance remaining?

A. 1.5 days
B. 3 days
C. 6 days
D. 9 days
E. 12 days

15. Element X has only two isotopes. One of the isotopes has a mass number of 190 and
the other has a mass number of 194. If the atomic mass of element X is 193.6, which of the
two isotopes is most commonly found in nature?

A. 190
B. 193.6
C. 194
D. The two isotopes are equally common.
E. Insufficient data to determine.

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29.6 Lesson 29.6 Radiation Around Us

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

29.7 Lesson 29.7 Applications of Nuclear Energy

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

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Chapter 30

Organic Chemistry Worksheets

30.1 Lesson 30.1 Carbon, A Unique Element

There are no worksheets for this lesson.

30.2 Lesson 30.2 Hydrocarbons

Organic Nomenclature Worksheet

CK-12 Foundation Chemistry

Name______________________ Date_________
Name the following molecules.
1. ____________________________________

2. ____________________________________

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3. ____________________________________

4. ____________________________________

5. ____________________________________

6. ____________________________________

7. ____________________________________

8. ____________________________________

9. ____________________________________

10. ____________________________________

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11. ____________________________________

Draw the following molecules.

12. 1-Butyne
13. Methoxyethane
14. Butanal
15. 1,2-Dibromopropane

30.3 Lesson 30.3 Aromatics

Th k h t f thi l

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