Chapter 8 − Nasolacrimal duct – empties lacrimal

fluid into the nasal cavity

Special Senses
 Function of the Lacrimal
Apparatus
 The Senses  Properties of lacrimal fluid
 General senses of touch (tactile) → Dilute salt solution (tears)
● Temperature- thermoreceptors (heat) → Contains antibodies (fight antigens-
● Pressure- mechanoreceptors foreign substance) and lysozyme
(movement) (enzyme that destroys bacteria)
● Pain- mechanoreceptors  Protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye
 Special senses  Empties into the nasal cavity
● Smell- chemoreceptors (chemicals)  Extrinsic Eye Muscles
● Taste- chemoreceptors  Muscles attach to the outer surface of the
● Sight- photoreceptors (light) eye
● Hearing- mechanoreceptors  Produce eye movements
● Equilibrium- (balance)  When Extrinsic Eye Muscles
mechanoreceptors Contract
 The Eye and Vision ● Superior oblique- eyes look out and down
 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in ● Superior rectus- eyes looks up
the eyes ● Lateral rectus- eyes look outward
 Each eye has over a million nerve fibers ● Medial rectus- eyes look inward
 Protection for the eye ● Inferior rectus- eyes looks down
− Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony ● Inferior oblique- eyes look in and up
orbit made up of the lacrimal (medial),  Structure of the Eye
ethmoid (posterior), sphenoid ● The wall is composed of three tunics
(lateral), frontal (superior), and ▪ Fibrous tunic – outside layer
zygomatic and maxilla (inferior) ▪ Choroid – middle layer
− A cushion of fat surrounds most of the ▪ Sensory tunic – inside layer
eye  The Fibrous Tunic
◘ Sclera
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
− White connective tissue layer
▪ Eyelids
− Seen anteriorly as the “white of the
− brush particles out of eye or cover eye
eye”
▪ Eyelashes
− Semi-transparent
− trap particles and keep them out of
◘ Cornea
the eye
− Transparent, central anterior portion
▪ Ciliary glands
− Allows for light to pass through (refracts, or
− modified sweat glands between the
bends, light slightly)
eyelashes eyelashes
− Repairs itself easily
− secrete acidic sweat to kill bacteria,
− The only human tissue that can be
lubricate eyelashes
transplanted without fear of rejection
▪ Conjunctiva
 Choroid Layer
− Membrane that lines the eyelids
 Blood-rich nutritive tunic
− Connects to the surface of the eye-
 Pigment prevents light from scattering
forms a seal
(opaque- blocks light from getting in, has
− Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye
melanin)
▪ Lacrimal apparatus
 Modified interiorly into two structures
− Lacrimal gland – produces lacrimal
▪ Cilliary body – smooth muscle
fluid
(contracts to adjust the shape of the
− Lacrimal canals – drains lacrimal fluid
lens)
from eyes
▪ Iris- pigmented layer that gives eye
− Lacrimal sac – provides passage of
color (contracts to adjust the size of
lacrimal fluid towards nasal cavity

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 the pupil- regulates entry of light into  To see any color, the brain must compare
the eye) the input from different kinds of cone
▪ Pupil – rounded opening in the iris cells—and then make many other
 Sensory Tunic (Retina) comparisons as well.
 Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors)  The lightning-fast work of judging a color
→ Rods begins in the retina, which has three layers
→ Cones of cells. Signals from the red and green
→ Signals leave the retina toward the cones in the first layer are compared by
brain through the optic nerve specialized red-green "opponent" cells in
 Signals pass from photoreceptors via a two- the second layer. These opponent cells
neuron chain compute the balance between red and
→ Bipolar neurons and Ganglion cells green light coming from a particular part of
 Visual Pigments the visual field. Other opponent cells then
 Rhodopsin- visual purple, in high compare signals from blue cones with the
concentration in RODS combined signals from red and green cones.
 Composed of opsin and retinal (a derivative  COLORBLINDNESS
of vitamin A) proteins  An inherited trait that is transferred on the
 When light hits the protein it “bleaches”- sex chromosomes (23rd pair)- sex-linked
turns yellow and then colorless. It trait
straightens out and breaks down into opsin  Occurs more often in males
and retinal.  Can not be cured or corrected
 There are three different other opsins  Comes from a lack of one or more types of
beside rhodopsin, with absorption for color receptors.
yellowish-green (photopsin I), green  Most are green or red or both and that is
(photopsin II), and bluish-violet (photopsin due to a lack of red receptors.
III) light.  Another possibility is to have the color
 Neurons of the Retina and Vision receptors missing entirely, which would
▪ Rods result in black and white vision.
− Most are found towards the edges of  Lens
the retina  Biconvex crystal-like structure
− Allow dim light vision and peripheral  Held in place by a suspensory ligament
vision (more sensitive to light, do not attached to the ciliary body
respond in bright light)  Refracts light greatly
− Perception is all in gray tones  Internal Eye Chamber Fluids
▪ Cones ▪ Aqueous humor
− Allow for detailed color vision − Watery fluid found in chamber
− Densest in the center of the retina between the lens and cornea
− Fovea centralis – area of the retina − Similar to blood plasma
with only cones − Helps maintain intraocular pressure
− Respond best in bright light − Provides nutrients for the lens and
 No photoreceptor cells are at the optic disk, cornea
or blind spot − Reabsorbed into venous blood
 Cone Sensitivity through the canal of Schlemm
 There are three types of cones ▪ Vitreous humor
 Different cones are sensitive to different − Gel-like substance behind the lens
wavelengths − Keeps the eye from collapsing
● red- long − Lasts a lifetime and is not replaced
● green- medium  Lens Accommodation
● blue- short  Light must be focused to a point on the
 Color blindness is the result of lack of one retina for optimal vision
or more cone type  The eye is set for distance vision
 How do we see colors? (over 20 ft away)

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 20/20 vision- at 20 feet, you see what a − Equilibrium (balance) (interpreted in
normal eye would see at 20 feet (20/100- the cerebellum)
at 20, normal person would see at 100)  Receptors are mechanoreceptors
 The lens must change shape to focus for  Different organs house receptors for each
closer objects sense
 MYOPIA  Anatomy of the Ear
→ Nearsightedness, or myopia is the difficulty  The ear is divided into three areas
of seeing objects at a distance. ● Outer (external) ear
→ Myopia occurs when the eyeball is slightly ● Middle ear
longer than usual from front to back. This ● Inner ear
causes light rays to focus at a point in front  The External Ear
of the retina, rather than directly on its  Involved in hearing only
surface.  Structures of the external ear
→ Concave lenses are used to correct the → Pinna (auricle)- collects sound
problem. → External auditory canal- channels
 HYPEROPIA sound inward
→ Hyperopia, or farsightedness, is when light  The External Auditory Canal
entering the eye focuses behind the retina.  Narrow chamber in the temporal bone-
→ Hyperoptic eyes are shorter than normal. through the external auditory meatus
→ Hyperopia is treated using a convex lens.  Lined with skin
 Images Formed on the Retina  Ceruminous (wax) glands are present
 If the image is focused at the spot where  Ends at the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
the optic disk is located, nothing will be  The Middle Ear or Tympanic
seen. This is known as the blind spot. Cavity
There are no photoreceptors there, as  Air-filled cavity within the temporal bone
nerves and blood vessels pass through this  Only involved in the sense of hearing
point.  Two tubes are associated with the inner ear
 Visual Pathway → The opening from the auditory canal is
 Photoreceptors of the retina covered by the tympanic membrane
 Optic nerve (eardrum)
 Optic nerve crosses at the optic chiasma → The auditory tube connecting the middle
 Optic tracts ear with the throat (also know as the
 Thalamus (axons form optic radiation) eustacian tube)
 Visual cortex of the occipital lobe − Allows for equalizing pressure
 Eye Reflexes during yawning or swallowing
 Internal muscles are controlled by the − This tube is otherwise collapsed
autonomic nervous system  Bones of the Tympanic Cavity
→ Bright light causes pupils to constrict  Three bones span the cavity
through action of radial (iris) and ● Malleus (hammer)
ciliary muscles ● Incus (anvil)
→ Viewing close objects causes ● Stapes (stirrip)
accommodation  Vibrations from eardrum move the malleus
 External muscles control eye movement to  These bones transfer sound to the inner
follow objects- voluntary, controlled at the ear
frontal eye field  Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth
 Viewing close objects causes convergence  Also known as osseous labyrinth- twisted
(eyes moving medially) bony tubes
 The Ear  Includes sense organs for hearing and
 Houses two senses balance
− Hearing (interpreted in the auditory  Filled with perilymph
cortex of the temporal lobe)  Vibrations of the stapes push and pull
on the membranous oval window, moving

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 the perilymph through the cochlea. The  Crista ampullaris – receptors in the
round window is a membrane at the semicircular canals
opposite end to relieve pressure. → Tuft of hair cells
 A maze of bony chambers within the → Cupula (gelatinous cap) covers the
temporal bone hair cells
● Cochlea  Action of angular head movements
● Upper chamber is the scala vestibuli → The cupula stimulates the hair cells
● Lower chamber is the scala tympani → Movement of endolymph pushes the
● Vestibule cupula over and pulls the hairs
● Semicircular canals → An impulse is sent via the vestibular
 Organ of Corti nerve to the cerebellum
 Located within the cochlea  Chemical Senses – Taste and
 Receptors = hair cells on the basilar
Smell
membrane
 Mechanisms of Hearing
 Both senses use chemoreceptors
1. Vibrations from sound waves move
▪ Stimulated by chemicals in solution
tectorial membrane (pass through the
▪ Taste has four types of receptors
endolymph fluid filling the membranous
▪ Smell can differentiate a large range
labyrinth in the cochlear duct)
of chemicals
2. Hair cells are bent by the membrane
 Both senses complement each other and
3. An action potential starts in the cochlear
respond to many of the same stimuli
nerve
4. The signal is transmitted to the midbrain  Olfaction – The Sense of Smell
(for auditory reflexes and then directed to  Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the
the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe) nasal cavity
5. Continued stimulation can lead to → Neurons with long cilia
adaptation (over stimulation to the brain → Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus
makes it stop interpreting the sounds) for detection
 Organs of Equilibrium  Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory
 Receptor cells are in two structures nerve
▪ Vestibule  Interpretation of smells is made in the
▪ Semicircular canals cortex (olfactory area of temporal lobe)
 Equilibrium has two functional parts  The Sense of Taste
▪ Static equilibrium- in the vestibule  Taste buds house the receptor organs
▪ Dynamic equilibrium- in the  Location of taste buds
semicircular canals ● Most are on the tongue
 Static Equilibrium ● Soft palate
 Maculae – receptors in the vestibule ● Cheeks
→ Report on the position of the head  Structure of Taste Buds
→ Send information via the vestibular  Gustatory cells are the receptors
nerve → Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
 Anatomy of the maculae → Hairs are stimulated by chemicals
→ Hair cells are embedded in the dissolved in saliva
otolithic membrane  Impulses are carried to the gustatory
→ Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel complex (pareital lobe) by several cranial
around the hair cells nerves because taste buds are found in
 Function of Maculae different areas
 Movements cause otoliths to bend the hair ● Facial nerve
cells (gravity moves the “rocks” over and ● Glossopharyngeal nerve
pulls the hairs) ● Vagus nerve
 Dynamic Equilibrium  Taste Sensations
 Whole structure is the ampulla  Sweet receptors
▪ Sugars
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 ▪ Saccharine
▪ Some amino acids
 Sour receptors
▪ Acids
 Bitter receptors
▪ Alkaloids
 Salty receptors
▪ Metal ions
 Umami
▪ Glutamate, aspartate (MSG, meats)
 Developmental Aspects of the
Special Senses
► Formed early in embryonic development
► Eyes are outgrowths of the brain
► All special senses are functional at birth

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.