M

Marriage keep the parents together and available to raise

their common offspring. Infants and children are
Glenn Weisfeld1 and Carol Cronin Weisfeld2 highly dependent on their parents and develop
1
Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA better when raised by their biological parents
2
University of Detroit Mercy, Detroit, MI, USA than in most if not all other arrangements. This
is true not only of infants but also of children and
adolescents and applies to health, psychological
Synonyms functioning, cognitive performance, antisocial
behavior, and survival itself (Geary 2005; Cabrera
Pair bonding; Long-term partnership et al. 2000).
The functional hypothesis that marriage
evolved mainly in order to promote biparentalism
Definition is supported by the fact that pair bonding, the
rough animal equivalent, tends to occur in mam-
Marriage is a sociosexual and socially recognized mals with highly dependent young. In essence, in
bond of some duration between a man and a these species the male tends to remain with his
woman. This is the traditional definition of mar- mate rather than pursue other sexual opportuni-
riage, although other sociosexual partnerships ties. However, even in the primates, in which the
may meet the criterion. young are highly dependent on maternal care, pair
bonding is the exception rather than the rule.
Another factor recognized in the evolution of
Introduction marriage is the opportunity for effective mate
guarding.
An evolutionary model of marriage begins with Marriage is universal, and almost all adults
recognition of the centrality of reproduction to the seek to marry, and most do marry, sometimes
relationship. The economic benefits of marriage, more than once. Marriage confers health and emo-
such as economies of scale and specialization of tional benefits on both sexes (Field 2011). People
labor, are essentially subordinate to reproduction; who do not marry tend to fail to attract a partner,
raising children is costly in terms of wealth and such as impoverished men. These facts suggest
labor. that adult humans possess what might be called a
Marital behavior that maximizes reproductive pair-bonding motive, perhaps best termed amo-
success will be favored by natural selection. Mar- rousness. In a US survey, almost no one not in a
ital behavior seems to have evolved in order to romantic relationship renounced seeking such a
# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
T.K. Shackelford, V.A. Weekes-Shackelford (eds.), Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_127-1
2 Marriage

relationship for any appreciable length of time. support a family. A job that allows a man to
Amorousness is distinct from the sex drive, support only himself generally renders him
although from puberty on, a sexual component unmarriageable and raises the likelihood of
seems invariably to accompany amorous feelings divorce. The marriage rate in a society tends to
toward the partner. The capacity for amorousness be correlated with economic opportunities, partic-
is universal (Jankowiak and Fischer 1992). Even in ularly for men. Where good jobs for men are
arranged marriages, amorousness tends to develop scarce, fewer men marry and the age of marriage
afterward, although less often than in self-selected rises, as men need more time to accumulate suffi-
marriages. The evolved basis of amorousness is cient resources and skills to afford marriage. In
further supported by the fact that particular brain modern societies with companionate marriage,
areas are activated by viewing a photo of the loved women’s age at marriage tends to track men’s, so
one, including the anterior cingulate cortex (Fisher with the current decline in economic opportunities
2006). Brain areas involved in pair bonding tend to for young people, men and women are marrying
have vasopressin or oxytocin receptors; these hor- later than in the recent past.
mones play a role in pair bonding and parental care In modern societies with comparatively late
in rodents (Bartels and Zeki 2004). Orgasm causes marriage, women tend not to be protected against
a surge in oxytocin in both sexes that enhances the premarital pregnancy by the period of adolescent
bond between them. Relationship satisfaction in subfertility. Hence an adolescent girl can get preg-
women is correlated with oxytocin levels and in nant and become an unwed young mother, the
men with vasopressin levels (Taylor et al. 2010). consequences of which are usually grim for both
her and the child. The rate of premarital pregnancy
and hence single motherhood is higher in coun-
Marriage Rates tries such as the USA where confidential, free
contraceptive services are not provided in second-
The adult sex ratio influences the marriage rate. ary schools.
When men are in short supply, a lower percent of The marriage rate has been falling in Western
women marry since men can secure sexual oppor- societies since the Industrial Revolution. Fewer
tunities, sometimes with multiple women, without women are marrying, and more women are
having to marry. When women are scarce, more divorcing. The main reason seems to be that
are able to secure the advantages of marriage for women’s economic opportunities have been rising
economic security, companionship, and childcare steadily: salaried jobs are open to them, and they
assistance. Under these latter conditions, their are no longer bound to the family farm (Goode
marriage rate rises, and the divorce rate falls. 1993). Many of them can support themselves, and
It has been observed that the contemporary even raise children independently. Cultures in
African American community suffers from a which women and men labor independently tend
dearth of marriageable men, with the result that to have higher divorce rates.
the great majority of children are raised by a single
mother, often assisted by her mother. This matri-
archal family arrangement is not a carryover from Mate Choice
slavery since around World War II when good
jobs for black men were abundant, 80 % of adults In most tribal cultures, a man must furnish a bride
were married (Harris 1974). Only with the return price or labor in order to procure her from her
of white veterans and the subsequent loss of fac- father. The fact that a man often needs many
tory jobs for black men did the marriage rate begin years in order to acquire the requisite skills or
its decline. Economic factors more than cultural resources helps to explain the fact that husbands
factors drive marital dynamics. tend to be older than their wives across cultures.
The marriage rate is low where men have dif- The age disparity is also explained by the breeding
ficulty finding work that allows them to help imperative: a woman who is just reaching the
Marriage 3

onset of fertility is at her maximal reproductive Another important criterion in mate choice is
value for a prospective husband. Accordingly, the apparent commitment of the potential spouse.
women in tribal societies tend to marry, or be The resources that a man commands will be of no
married off, about 2 years after menarche, when value to the woman unless they are directed toward
the period of adolescent subfertility has just her and her children. Likewise, a man may not only
passed. This also ensures that she is unlikely to squander his resources if his wife is unfaithful; he
be pregnant. may wind up aiding a rival. A man may employ a
The criteria of mate choice show considerable range of tactics to ensure a woman that he is pas-
consistency across cultures. Both sexes seek signs sionately committed to her, including offering gifts,
of health and genetic quality in a prospective pledging his devotion, and complimenting her
spouse. Physical attractiveness tends to be extravagantly. A woman may test a man’s commit-
enhanced not just by signs of health and vigor ment by deferring sexual involvement, provoking
but also by indications of full reproductive matu- his jealousy, and raising the question of marriage.
ration. Masculine men and feminine women tend She can ensure him of her commitment by the
to be more fertile than less sex-differentiated indi- unambiguous expedient of having sex with him
viduals. Women also seek men who are high in exclusively. Both sexes may employ various mate
social status, act with self-confidence, exhibit guarding tactics to detect cheating by the other,
nonverbal dominance displays, and secure valued including, nowadays, constant monitoring by cell
resources (reviewed by Weisfeld 1999). Etholo- phone. The tactics of courtship and marriage may
gists define dominance as success in fights or in be categorized as self-promotion and disparage-
gaining contested resources, and female animals ment of rivals, evaluation of the potential or actual
generally seek dominant males. It seems that mate, and retention of the mate.
women also seek a dominant mate.
Spouses tend to be moderately similar geneti-
cally. This seems to be achieved by a combination Marital Satisfaction and Stability
of olfactory and visual cues. The sexes are repelled
by olfactory cues that indicate close genetic relat- One would expect that these universal criteria of
edness (Jacob et al. 2002; Weisfeld et al. 2003). mate choice would, if met, lead to happier and
This guards against inbreeding depression effects more stable marriages. That is, selection would
and enhances the immunocompetence of offspring. have favored criteria that led to stable marriages
Less well known is the phenomenon of sexual and resulting enhanced fecundity. This seems gen-
imprinting. In many birds and mammals, the off- erally to be the case. Young brides go on to pro-
spring imprints on the visual image of the opposite- duce more children than older ones. Wealthier
sex parent and uses this image in seeking a mate at men raise more children successfully than do
maturity. This mechanism guides the offspring to poorer ones. Wealthier men are less likely to
pursue mates of the right species, gender, and state divorce and more likely to be polygynous. Cou-
of maturity. Men and women tend to marry some- ples who are similar tend to stay together.
one who resembles the opposite-sex parent, thus Analyzing data on scores of cultures, Betzig
enhancing genetic similarity of spouses. Preference (1989) identified common reasons cited for a
for mates of moderate genetic similarity has been divorce. These included sexual refusal, suspected
demonstrated in insects, birds, and primates, so it infertility, husband’s cruelty, and wife’s infidelity.
must be generally adaptive. One explanation is that Other research has pinpointed having a
moderate homogamy, or positive assortative mat- handicapped child, death of a child, sexual dissat-
ing, preserves combinations of genes that are adap- isfaction, and rape of the wife. All these factors in
tive in the parents’ (and offspring’s) environment. divorce make sense in terms of reproductive fail-
Moderate homogamy enhances fertility in humans ure. Furthermore, around the world the more chil-
as well as other species (Rushton 1988). dren a couple have, the lower the likelihood of
divorce (Goode 1993). Divorce is more likely in
4 Marriage

marriages without children, and peaks at about usually taboo during menstruation, often taboo
4 years of marriage. The first few years of mar- during pregnancy, and seldom taboo during lacta-
riage seem to provide a trial period for deciding to tion. In the absence of contraceptive use, concep-
have children or not and for testing fertility with tion typically occurs within 1 year of the onset of
the spouse. After 2 or 3 years of a romantic rela- coitus. Inter-birth intervals for our species are
tionship, the period of intense infatuation has about 3 years, so women are perennially pregnant
passed, freeing the couple to shift their affection or lactating. Breastfeeding typically lasts for
to the newborn. In a sense, the spouses are now about 3 years, with solid food introduced after
kept together by their baby. about 2 years. In simians nursing usually stops
Another cross-cultural criterion of mate choice when the next pregnancy begins, if it has not
is kindness (Buss 1989). Recent cross-cultural already ceased.
research has shown that lack of kindness is an Sexual infidelity is associated with low marital
important factor in marital conflict, along with and sexual satisfaction, permissive values, low
sexual problems, issues regarding child rearing, economic status, and opportunities. Men report
disputes about division of labor, and economic more infidelity than women, and attractive men
difficulties (Dillon et al. 2015). Kindness would with wealth and high testosterone report more
seem to be essential for an enduring marital rela- infidelity, at least partly because of greater oppor-
tionship. Similarly, in the same five cultures, it tunities. In US research, women with low self-
was found that the spouse making one laugh was esteem reported more infidelity. In a cross-cultural
correlated with marital satisfaction of both hus- study, sexual infidelity for both sexes was corre-
band and wife, but especially the wife (Weisfeld lated with low love of the spouse, finding others
et al. 2011). Many women seek a mate with a sexually attractive, and the spouse being unfaith-
sense of humor, so this criterion seems to be ful (Nowak et al. 2014).
valid in terms of subsequent marital satisfaction.
Having a funny husband did not seem to enhance
the wife’s marital satisfaction because it was a Jealousy
sign of intelligence, however. Mediation analysis
revealed that having a funny spouse enhanced the Like other valued relationships, pair bonds tend to
spouse’s satisfaction even more by being a sign of be defended against interlopers. For example,
kindness, understanding, and dependability. children tend to show jealousy if their parent
Developmentally, marital satisfaction tends to favors their sibling (Dillon 2013). Rivalry for
decline over time. This does not seem to be related parental resources tends to be greater between
to any adverse emotional effects of having chil- half-sibling and stepsiblings than full siblings.
dren, at least in collectivist cultures with a thriving Lovers too exhibit sexual and romantic jeal-
extended family (Dillon and Beechler 2010). The ousy; mate guarding is typical of pair-bonding
probability of divorce declines over time as well. species. If in human evolution there had not
This is one indication that marital satisfaction and been at least occasional instances of infidelity,
marital stability are somewhat independent. This jealousy would not have evolved. Estimates of
is also the case in cultures that forbid divorce; the frequency of marital infidelity vary but are
unhappy couples are forced to remain together. not insubstantial. Infidelity may raise a husband’s
reproductive success if he succeeds in fertilizing
another woman. Infidelity may benefit a wife if
Sex in Marriage she cuckolds her husband and thus deceives him
into caring for a child she has had by a man of
Sexual satisfaction and sexual frequency are greater genetic quality than his or garners
highly correlated with marital satisfaction. In resources from her lover. Jealousy in men tends
tribal cultures sex is reported to occur nightly to be evoked by the threat of the wife’s sexual
except during periods when it is taboo. Sex is infidelity more than by the threat of her desertion;
Marriage 5

the opposite pattern is more typical of women. When a second child is born, the father is inclined
Suspected infidelity is the principal cause of to assume some of the care of the weanling, while
homicide around the world. the mother attends to the newborn. Some Scandi-
In a cross-cultural study, both sexes worried navian countries provide fathers with their own
about spousal infidelity more if the spouse was period of paid paternal care that they can take after
attractive (Dillon et al. 2014). Worry was greater the first year or so of parental leave expires.
when the spouse socialized independently. Indi- Fathers often take their sons on excursions during
viduals who felt possessive about the spouse this time. Around the world, men specialize in
touched the spouse more. Worry was greater in tutoring their sons in subsistence skills, protecting
persons who were themselves unfaithful. the family, performing tasks with hard and heavy
materials, serving as warriors, and providing more
resources given that wives devote more time to
Child Rearing child rearing and domestic tasks (Mackey 1996).
Mothers are the main teachers of girls’ subsistence
Since marriage is essentially about reproduction, and child-rearing skills.
it seems appropriate to consider child-rearing In every culture, women provide more
behavior within marriage. Longitudinal research childcare than men on average. The parents are
reveals that when a man marries or becomes a typically assisted by grandparents, older siblings
father, his testosterone level falls, and if he especially daughters, other kin, and other women.
divorces, it rises (Mazur and Michalek 1998). Some cultures are described not as having the
One effect of testosterone is to increase competi- extended family but as having the nuclear family.
tive behavior; a married man has less need to However, this invariably means that the grandpar-
compete for mates than before. Similarly, hus- ents do not share the parents’ dwelling but do
bands with comparatively low testosterone tend reside nearby in a family compound. Thus the
to be more family oriented, whereas those with norm for our species is care by the extended
higher testosterone are more likely to divorce and family. Bonds of kinship are established and
to earn less money. When a woman becomes maintained by olfactory cues, kinship terms,
pregnant, she and her spouse experience a steady social contact, social pressure, and other factors.
rise in prolactin, one of the several parental hor- In addition, adolescents undergo a period of
mones (Storey et al. 2000). The higher his prolac- intense tutoring by a same-sex adult. This instruc-
tin level after the birth, the more nurturant he is, as tion pertains to social and tribal obligations and
indicated by emotional responsiveness to a crying often culminates in a puberty rites ceremony.
baby. Prolactin also suppresses testosterone, Children also learn from imitating and being
resulting in further nurturance. instructed by older children in these cultures char-
Pregnant women undergo a rise in at least nine acterized by little age segregation.
hormones. Several of these, including oxytocin, Divorce typically reduces contact time with the
estrogens, progesterone, and prolactin, enhance father markedly and imposes financial loss due to
maternal bonding and behavior. Prenatal and the need for separate residences and other appur-
pubertal hormones contribute to the sex difference tenances for the ex-spouses. Children of divorce
in nurturant behavior observed throughout the life are essentially raised by a single parent in terms of
span in humans and other primates. Breastfeeding average developmental outcomes. If the mother
maintains the levels of the lactational hormones remarries, the consequences for her children are
prolactin and oxytocin. often no better than if she remains unattached.
Men and women are hormonally disposed to Stepchildren are at risk for neglect, abuse includ-
care for their children, but the mechanisms are ing sexual abuse, and even homicide and acciden-
quite different. Consistent with this, women tal death. In a US study, only about half of
seem to be closely bound to their infants, whereas stepfathers and one-fourth of stepmothers
men are relatively more attracted to weanlings.
6 Marriage

reported any parental feelings toward their societies, although only a handful of men could
stepchildren (Duberman 1975). afford more than one wife. Highly stratified soci-
eties, such as the USA, effectively have serial
polygyny when wealthy men divorce and remarry
Cultural Factors to found another family. Polygyny increases the
reproductive fitness of the husband, but at the
What has been presented thus far is an overview expense of men left unmarried. Women with
of human marriage – the normative pattern for our co-wives have almost the same fecundity as
species. But human behavior is very flexible, and monogamous wives, and certainly have more
marriage takes somewhat different forms around children than unmarried women. The availability
the world. In most modern societies and in tribal of the polygyny option seems to benefit women;
societies where little property is available for they may choose to marry a wealthy man who is
bride price, marriages are usually not arranged already married, rather than marrying a destitute
by parents – although parents seem to exert con- man or remaining unmarried.
siderable influence over children’s choices. In Polygyny is favored in economically stratified
these cultures a formal marriage ceremony is tribal societies. It becomes more common when
especially common, perhaps as a way of the sex ratio falls, as after a war: a defeat brings a
displaying wealth, discouraging divorce after a shortage of able-bodied men; a victory offers
public commitment, and arranging economic alli- women to be captured. Polygyny is also favored
ances with in-laws. Marriage ceremonies occur in by poor economic opportunities for women, who
the great majority of cultures (Quale 1988). In all must marry for a livelihood.
cultures the double standard of less acceptance of Polygyny has some advantages, cited by its
female promiscuity than male promiscuity is in defenders. It raises the marriage rate for women
evidence to some degree. In some cultures sex and the percentage of children brought up by their
roles are strictly prescribed, whereas in modern biological parents. Co-wives can cooperate in
societies these are being mitigated. However, various ways, such as childcare and conspiring
even in modern societies, men gravitate toward against the husband. Co-wives are often sisters;
jobs involving hard manual labor and women if so, child survival is higher. A young wife may
toward service occupations. Cultures vary in the be favored sexually by the husband, but first wives
status ascribed to women compared with men. In tend to have more power.
most cultures, especially bellicose ones, women
are expected to defer to men in various ways, and
sons are privileged over daughters. Other societies Conclusion
are more egalitarian, and women live much longer
than men, unlike “male supremacy” cultures, The field of marriage research has been largely
where the gap is smaller. In most cultures a man atheoretical. Factual data abound, but conceptual
must qualify for marriage economically. Among integration of these data has been lacking. Many
wealthy people in highly stratified societies, a studies deal only with a single society, particularly
woman’s family may offer her a dowry to enhance the USA. Some standard facts are trivial, such as
her marriage prospects for marrying into another that spouses tend to have lived near each other
wealthy family. She will also be pressured to before marriage and that spouses tend to have
remain a virgin until marriage, as a way of raising similar values. Until fairly recently, most research
her mate value and of discouraging her from elop- on marriage surveyed only the wife. None of the
ing with a penurious cad. For an analysis of mar- commonly used measures of marital satisfaction
riage systems, in particular subsistence has been validated by invariance testing for cross-
conditions, see Quale (1988). cultural use. Only the Marriage and Relationship
One particularly interesting variant is polyg- Questionnaire (MARQ) developed in England by
yny. This was permitted in the majority of tribal Russell and Wells (1993) seems to have had scales
Marriage 7

validated across cultures and genders (Lucas Also making great contributions to our under-
et al. 2008). standing of marriage is research on the brain and
The emerging evolutionary approach to the hormones. These findings have the felicitous side
topic of marriage has offered some distinct advan- effect of helping to dispel the notion, prominent in
tages. The fraught topic of sex differences in mar- the social sciences, that social behavior is simply
ried people has been addressed seriously for the the product of experience and culture. Demon-
first time. Previously, husbands and wives have strating that a particular neural mechanism medi-
been treated largely as interchangeable parts. Sim- ates some marital behavior or capacity is one sort
ilarly, much of the social science literature of information confirming the evolved basis of
neglects the factor of kinship. Huge effects of that behavior. Other methods include showing
stepparenthood have been disclosed by evolution- the specific effect of a hormone and establishing
ary scholars. Unfortunately, the US Census that the behavior is universal. Demonstrating that
Bureau does not inquire about biological parent- a given behavior has an evolved basis rather than
hood in its surveys of households. being a product of our domain-general capacities
Evolutionary psychologists have been some- is necessary for delineating human nature. Once a
what slow off the mark in studying marriage. In behavior can be shown to have an evolved basis,
a way, married couples have been victims of the questions of its function can be addressed.
success of the field in studying mate choice. Hun- The great promise of an evolutionary analysis
dreds of studies have been conducted on mate of marriage is that comparative analysis, includ-
choice, many of them on US college students in ing analysis of pair bonding in various species,
dating relationships. Conducting research on mar- will lead to elucidation of the function of particu-
ried adults has been more methodologically chal- lar marital behaviors. Function is a unifying con-
lenging. Particularly rare has been ethological cept that can bridge disciplinary boundaries and
research on married couples, along the lines of make common sense of otherwise baffling
Weisfeld and Stack (2002), who found that research findings.
wives gazed longer at the spouse than husbands,
whose glances were brief, and wives laughed and
smiled more. Also needed is more cross-cultural
Cross-References
research, especially on diverse cultures. If, say, a
sex difference is found in a variety of cultures, the
▶ Costs and Benefits of Mate Poaching
likelihood of an evolved basis is higher than if it is
▶ Frequency of Infidelity
found only in Western societies. A volume by
▶ Human Mate Poaching
Weisfeld et al. (in press) is intended to address
▶ Increased Mating Success
some of these shortcomings.
▶ Infidelity Risk
Another area in need of further work is the
▶ Mate Value
emotional basis of various marital behaviors.
▶ Relationship Dissolution and Divorce
Mate retention tactics, employed outside and
▶ Relationship Satisfaction and Commitment
inside marriage, might be analyzed with regard
▶ Reproductive Strategy
to the emotions involved in execution and
▶ Romantic Attachment
the effects on the partner. For example, several
emotions seem to be involved in the threat of mate
loss; they might be analyzed in detail. The emo-
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