Department of Civil Engineering

University of South Asia

Lab Manual
Engineering Mechanics (CE 122)

Name of Student: ______________ Roll No.____________

Session: _______________ Group: ____________

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr. No. Description Page No.

1 Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab………………………………………... 1

2 Study of System of Units……………………………………………………… 3
3 Measurements of Various Objects and Determination of Area and Volume in
SI and FPS Systems…………………………………………………………… 6
4 Determination of Forces in Tie and Jib of a Simple “JIB-CRANE” by
experimental, Analytical and Graphical Method……………………………… 8
5 Verification of the Principle of Moments……………………………………... 12
6 To Determine the Reactions of a Simply Supported Beam by Experimental
and Analytical Methods……………………………………………………….. 15
7 To Locate Centroid of Different Shapes Experimentally and Analytically…… 18
8 To Determine Tension in Various Parts of a Flexible Cable………………….. 21
9 To Determine Co-Efficient Of Friction between Various Surfaces…………… 24
10 To Determine Moment of Inertia of Fly Wheel……………………………….. 28
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab…………………………................. 1

Figure 4.1: Jib Crane Model……………………………………………….................... 8
Figure 4.2: Concurrent forces at B…………………………………………………….. 9
Figure 4.3: Illustration of Graphical Method………………………………………….. 10
Figure 5.1: Principle of Moments Model Apparatus…………………………………... 12
Figure 5.2: Illustration of Moment…………………………………………………….. 12
Figure 5.3: Illustration of Verignon's Theorem………………………………………... 12
Figure 6.1: Beams……………………………………………………………………… 15
Figure 6.2: Types of Beams on the Basis of Determinacy…………………………….. 15
Figure 6.3: Types of Beams on the Basis of Cross Sectional Shape…………………... 15
Figure 6.4: Types of beams on the Basis of Cross Sectional Area…………………….. 16
Figure 7.1: Illustration of Centroid…………………………………………….............. 18
Figure 7.2: Different Shapes to Determine the Centroid……………………................. 19
Figure 8.1: Flexible Cable Model……………………………………………………… 21
Figure 8.2: Categories of Equilibrium…………………………………………………. 22
Figure 9.1: Angle of Internal Friction…………………………………………………. 25
Figure 9.2: Friction Apparatus Model………………………………………………… 26
Figure 10.1: Fly Wheel Apparatus Model…………………………………………….. 29
 LIST OF TABLE

Table 1.1: Details of Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab…………………………….. 2

Table 2.1: Basic SI and FPS Units………………………………………………………... 3
Table 2.2: Mass Force Relations………………………………………………………….. 4
Table 2.3: Important Conversion Factors………………………………………………… 4
Table 2.4: Important Prefixes……………………………………………………………... 5
Table 3.1: Observations and Calculations for Different Specimen ………………………. 6
Table 3.2: Observations and Calculations……………………………………………........ 7
Table 4.1: Calculations and Observations for Determination of Forces………………….. 10
Table 4.2: Comparison of Analytical and Graphical Values…………………………....... 10
Table 5.1: Calculations and Observations Set 1………………………………………….. 13
Table 6.1: Calculations and Observations Set 2………………………………………….. 13
Table 7.1: Calculations and Observations Set 3………………………………………….. 13
Table 6.1: Calculations and Observations for Reactions of Simply Supported 16
Beam……. 19
Table 7.1: Observations and Calculations for Center of Gravity of Different Shapes…… 23
Table 8.1: Observations and Calculations for Tension in Cable………………………….. 27
Table 9.1: Observations and Calculations for Friction between Various Surfaces……….. 29
Table 10.1: Observations and Calculations for Moment of Inertia………………………..
Engineering Mechanics Lab Manual

Experiment No. 1
Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab
Date:

PURPOSE:

Layout of Engineering Mechanics lab (List of experiments and location of their respective
apparatus)

Figure 1.1: Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab

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LAYOUT DETAILS:
Dimensions:

Table1.1: Details of Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab

Sr. Location Name of the

Description
No. No. Apparatus

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Engineering Mechanics Lab Manual

Experiment No. 2

Study of System of Units

Date:

PURPOSE:

To Study System of units

THEORY:

System of units and Conversion factors:

System of units used:
1. CGS (using Centimeter, Gram, Second)
2. SI (System International using Meter, Kilogram, Second)
3. FPS (using Foot, Pound, Second) also called US Customary Units

Note: SI and FPS are used in engineering works.

Table 2.1: Basic SI and FPS Units

Quantity Dimension SI Unit FPS Unit

Length L Meter (m) Foot (ft)
Kilogram
Mass M Slug
(kg)
Time T Second (s) Second (s)
Force F Newton (N) Pound (lb)

Note: The pound is used to express force as well as mass. lbf represents pound expressing
force and lbm is pound expressing mass.

Newton: A force which produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 in a 1 kg mass.

I N = I kg × 1 m/s2
W = mg (g = 9.81 m/s2)

Slug: Mass which is given an acceleration of 1ft/s2 when acted upon by a force of 1 lbf.

1 S = 1 lb_
1 ft/s2
m = W(g = 32.2 ft/s2)
g

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Mass Force relations:

Table 2.2: Mass Force Relations

Mass(kg) Mass(lbm) Weight(lbf) Weight(N) Mass(S)

1 2.204 2.204 9.807 -
0.454 1 1 4.45 -
14.6 32.2 32.2 143.28 1

Important Conversion Factors:

Table 2.3: Important Conversion Factors

LENGTH: AREA:

1 m = 3.281 ft 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2(i.e. 3.2812 ft2)

1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 “murabba” = 25 acre
I mile = 1.609 km = 5280 ft 1 acre = 8 kanals = 43560 sq ft
1 yard = 3 ft 1 kanal = 20 marlas
1 marla = 272.25 sq ft
(in commercial area 1 marla = 225 sq ft)
1 hector = 10,000 m2 = 107640 ft2

VOLUME:

1 m3 = 35.311 ft3(i.e. 3.2813 ft3) Note: Tarbela = 9.74 MAF, Mangla

= 219.97 gallon (UK) = 6.34 MAF
= 264.17 gallon (US)
Discharge units (Vol. discharged rate)
MAF = Million acre per feet =Cumics (m3/s)
MCM = Million cubic meters (For large storage e.g. = Cusecs (ft3/s)
water reservoirs) 1 Cumic = 35.311 Cusec
*1 MAF = 1 million, 1 acre areas of I ft depth.

MASS: FORCE/WEIGHT:

1 kg = 2.204 lbs 1 lbf = 4.45 N

1 tonne = 1000 kg = 1 Mg 1 N = 0.2248 lbf
1 ton (UK) = 1016 kg
1 ton (US) = 908.1 kg *Note: Commercially we take 1 ton = 1000
kg = 2240 lbs

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PRESSURE/STRESS/MODULUS:

N_ = Pascal (standard multiples → kPa, MPa, GPa)

m2
N_ = MPa = 106 N_
mm2 mm2

I bar = 100 kPa = 14.504 psi = 750.56 mmHg = 10.215 mH2O

Important Prefixes:

Table 2.4: Important Prefixes

SYMBOL NAME FACTOR

T Tera 1012
G Giga 109
M Mega 106
K Kilo 103
H Hecto 102
Da Deca 101
D Deci 10-1
C Centi 10-2
M Milli 10-3
Μ Micro 10-6
N Nano 10-9
P Pico 10-12

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Engineering Mechanics Lab Manual

Experiment No. 3
Measurements of Various Objects and Determination of Area and
Volume in SI and FPS Systems

Date:

PURPOSE:

To carry out measurements of various objects and determination of area and volume in SI and
FPS Systems.

APPARATUS:

Steel cabinets, metallic measuring tape.

PROCEDURE:

1. Startingwith one of the faces of the cabinet, measure both its dimension in feet. Take
measurement of each dimension thrice at different positions e.g. for the length-height face
(front face) measure the length and the height thrice and average the measurements to get
one value for each side.
2. Repeat this procedure for the other 2 faces i.e. width-height (side face) and length-width
face (top face).Finally the 3 measurements for a particular dimension of a face should be
averaged and recorded.
3. Once the dimensions in feet have been determined, repeat the above procedure by
measuring in meters.
4. Finally determine the area of the 3 face of cabinet in ft 2 as well as m2 and volume of
cabinet in ft3 and m3. Tabulate results.

CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:

Table 3.1: Observations and Calculations

Dimension 1 2 3 Avg.
Ft
Length
M

Ft
Width
M

Ft
Height
M

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Table 3.2: Observations and Calculations

Face 1 2 3 Avg.
ft2
L-W
m2

ft2
L-H
m2

ft2
W-H
m2

ft3
Volume
m3

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The tape should be kept horizontal when taking the measurements.

2. The tape should not be sagging during measurement.
3. Take the measurements of a side at reasonably spaced distances.
4. Do not take measurements from irregular edges

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Experiment No. 4
Determination of Forces in Tie and Jib of a Simple “JIB-CRANE” by
Experimental, Analytical and Graphical Method

Date:

PURPOSE:
A

To determine forces in tie and jib of a simple JIB-CRANE

Tie
by experimental, analytical and graphical method. B

Jib
APPARATUS:
C
Jib crane model (figure 4.1), weights and meter rule or steel Weight
tape.
Figure 4.1: Jib Crane Model
THEORY:

CRANES (TYPES & FUNCTIONS):

A crane is a piece of construction equipment used to hoist heavy loads and move them short
distances. Generally speaking, a crane is a steel boom mounted on a hinge to a platform or
tower with a sturdy cable running through it on pulleys. Usually, the cable ends in a hook on
one end and is raised or lowered by a winch attached to the platform. The boom can also be
raised and lowered, and the entire platform can turn or slew. Most cranes today are hydraulic.
They can be either mobile or stationary and vary in size and shape due to their functions.

The following are the basic types of cranes used for various purposes.

1. Bridge/Overhead Crane: It consists of a bridge girder supported by towers or girders.

The bridge has a pulley that moves a cable back and forth horizontally. These crane
models are often suspended from the ceilings of warehouses.
 Gantry Crane:This is a bridge crane used with girders that move along tracks. These
are common on piers or in shipyards.
2. Crawler/Mobile Crane: Any kind of mobile crane with steel truss or telescopic boom
mounted on a mobile platform, which may be rail, wheeled (including "truck" carriers)
or caterpillar tracks.
3. Construction Crane: Any kind of crane can be used in construction, but the most
common kind of construction crane is a tower crane which is used to build large steel
structures.
4. Floating crane: A crane mounted on a barge used in bridge building and port
construction.
5. Jib Crane: A jib crane is like a bridge crane except that it only has one girder which is
usually attached to a vertical column.

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6. Stationary Crane: Any crane with an immobile platform. Most tower crane models are
of this variety.
7. Telescopic crane: A type of crane whose boom consists of a number of tubes fitted one
inside the other. A hydraulic mechanism extends or retracts the tubes to increase or
decrease the length of the boom.

EQUILIBRIUM OF CONCURRENT FORCES:

Concurrent forces: Forces, whose lines of action, coincide at a single point are called as
concurrent forces.

Equilibrium:
It is the state of a body in which the resultant of all forces and moments on it is zero
OR
A body is in equilibrium if the sum of all the forces and moments acting on it, is zero.

There are 2 types of equilibrium:

 Static equilibrium
 Dynamic equilibrium (not dealt here)

Its conditions: For a body to be in equilibrium the following conditions must be true:
1. The sum of all the forces applied on body is zero.
2. The net moment of all the forces on the body is zero.

Expressing mathematically,
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ----- (1) ΣMo = 0 ----- (2)

PROCEDURE:

1. Note the zero error of spring balance.

2. Apply weight at hanger and observe spring balance reading and geometrical observations
i.e. AB, BC and AC (constant).
3. Calculate the angles α, β and γ from the geometrical lengths using Cosine Law.
4. Repeat above steps by increasing weight in hanger
5. Determine forces in tie and jib analytically and graphically.

Analytical Method:

Analyze the concurrent forces at B using conditions of

static equilibrium (ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0)
From the figure 4.2, we have;
 ΣFx = 0 → FT Sinα − FJ Sinγ = 0
 ΣFy = 0 → FT Cosα + FJ Cosγ = W
Using these relations we can work out the magnitude of
Figure 4.2: Concurrent forces at B
the unknown forces.

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Graphical Method:

1. Select a suitable scale for forces i.e. 1 cm → 1 N

2. Draw a vertical line whose length represents magnitude of force applied at hanger.
3. Knowing α and γ, draw two lines from vertical line such
that they intersect at one point as shown in figure 4.3.
4. The length of two lines gives the magnitude of forces in
tie and jib.
5. The direction can be found using head to tail rule.

Figure 4.3: Illustration of Graphical

CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS: Method

Table 4.1: Calculations and Observations for Determination of Forces

Load
Lengths (cm) Angles ( º) FT (N) FJ (N)
(W)
N AB AC BC Α β γ EXP ANA GRAP ANA GRA

Comparison of results:

Table 4.2: Comparison of Analytical and Graphical Values

%age % difference = E − A× 100

Load %age difference(FT)
difference(FJ) E
(N) *This gives difference of “A” w.r.t. “E”.
E -A E-G A–G A-G

Note: L.C of spring balance = 0.2 lb, Zero error = 1 lb = 4.45 N

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. First of all the initial errors in the apparatus should be noted.

2. Care should be taken, when loading or unloading heavier weights from the hanger to
avoid any injury in case a weight falls.
3. No lateral movement or vibration should be allowed in the apparatus.
4. Too heavy loading should be avoided.

COMMENTS:

The tabulated results of the experiment, on comparison clearly show that, the analytical and
experimental methods are much more accurate compared to the graphical method; when
dealing with problems involving forces in equilibrium.

Hence the former two methods are preferable when we need accuracy. However the
advantage of the graphical method is that it provides a visual image of the concerned
problem, which makes it more comprehendible.

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Engineering Mechanics Lab Manual

Experiment No. 5
Verification of the Principle of Moments

Date:

PURPOSE:
PULLEY

To verify the principle of moments.

DISC

APPARATUS:

Moment balancing apparatus, weights, hangers and ruler WEIGHTS

or measuring tape. Figure 5.1: Principle of Moments Model

Apparatus
THEORY:

MOMENTS
M
Moment: The tendency of a force to move a body about an
axis in its direction of application is called its moment. It is
F
denoted by “M”.
Moment is also referred to as torque. It is a vector quantity and r
O
obeys all laws of combinations. d

Axis: It is any line which is neither intersecting nor parallel to

line of action of the force. Figure 5.2: Illustration of
Moment
Magnitude of moment: The magnitude of a moment is the vector product of the force and its
moment arm from the axis of rotation as shown in figure 5.2. It is directly proportional to the
magnitude of force as well as the moment arm.

Vector terms: M = r × F Scalar terms: MO = F.d

= r (F Sin α)
= (r Sin α) F
P
Where, r = position vector which runs from moment reference F
point to line of application of force.
q
Sign convention: C.C.W = + ive, C.W = − ive. O p
D
Verignon’s theorem: Moment of a force about any point is
equal to the sum of moments generated by components of Figure 5.3: Illustration of
that force about the same point. Figure 5.3 is the illustration Verignon's Theorem
of Verignon’s Theorem.

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PROCEDURE:

1. In this experiment we will confirm the validity of the principle of moments by recording
the magnitudes of all the moments acting on the apparatus disc and see whether the CW
moments are equal to CCW moments or not. For this we will record the magnitudes and
moment arm of all the forces acting on the disc under a certain set of weights.
2. First of all paste a sheet of graph paper on the disc.
3. The first set of readings is taken by simply considering the weights of the hangers only
(no load readings).
4. Allow the disc to come to equilibrium and then record the five weights as F 1, F2, F3, F4
and F5.
5. Now carefully trace the location of all the five strings on the graph paper. The lines thus
obtained represent the lines of action of all the forces on the disc.
6. Very carefully measure and record the perpendicular distances of these lines of action
from the center of the disc.
7. Calculate the moments of all the forces. Also distinguish CW and CCW moments.
8. Repeat the above procedure by putting other suitable weights in the five hangers.

CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:

Table 5.1: Calculations and Observations Set 1
Weights (N) Moment arm Moment (Nm)
Hanger Weight Total Mm m CCW CW

ΣM=
Table 5.2: Calculations and Observations Set 2
Weights (N) Moment arm Moment (Nm)
Hanger Weight Total Mm m CCW CW

ΣM=

Table 5.3: Calculations and Observations Set 3

Weights (N) Moment arm Moment (Nm)
Hanger Weight Total Mm m CCW CW

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ΣM=
PRECAUTIONS:

1. When measuring the perpendicular distance, the ruler should be kept perpendicular to the
string representing the line of action of force.
2. There should be no kinks or twists in the strings of the moment apparatus. .
3. The disc should be allowed to come to equilibrium before carrying out any
measurements.

COMMENTS:

According to theprinciple of moments, for a body in static equilibrium the sum of clockwise
moments is equal to the sum of anti clockwise moments. Hence the difference of two types of
moments should be equal to zero.

The experiment carried out here, however shows slight differences in the sums of clockwise
and anti clockwise moments which is due to experimental errors in measurements on the part
of the person carrying out the experiment.

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Experiment No. 6
To Determine the Reactions of a Simply Supported Beam by
Experimental and Analytical Methods.

Date:

PURPOSE:

Determination of reactions of a simply supported beam for different loadings by experimental

and analytical methods.

APPARATUS:

Model of a simply supported beam, spring balance, weights, hangers, meter rule or steel tape.

THEORY:

BEAMS

Beam: It is a structural member that is designed to resist forces transverse to its axis.
As shown in figure 6.1
Note: A column is a special cantilever beam.

Types of beams:
Figure 6.1: Beams
1. On the basis of determinacy:

a.Statically determinate beam: A beam b. Statically indeterminate beam: The

having less than or equal to 3 unknown beam with greater than 3 unknown
external forces. external forces.

As shown in figure 6.2, Examples of statically indeterminate beams are:

FIXED BEAM (I.D) PROPPED CANTILEVER BEAM (I.D) CONTINUOUS BEAM (I.D)
Figure 6.2: Types of Beams on the Basis of Determinacy

2. On the basis of cross sectional shape: The types of beams on the basis of shapes are:
rectangular, square, circular, box, channel, T, L, double L and I section, as shown in
figure 6.3

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RECT. SQUARE CIRCLE BOX CHANNEL “T” “I”

Figure 6.3: Types of Beams on the Basis of Cross Sectional Shape
Note: Among these mentioned types “I” section is the most economical.

3. On the basis of material:

a.Built up beam: A beam which is b. Composite beam: The beam which is
fabricated by 2 or more pieces of fabricated by more than 2 materials e.g.
material joined together to form one R.C.C. beam.
piece e.g. I section using plate girders.
4. On the basis of cross-sectional area:
As shown in figure 6.4 following are the types of beams on the basis of cross sectional area;

a. Prismatic beam: A beam having constant cross-section area throughout

their length.

b. Non prismatic beam: Beam having variable cross-sectional area

through its length.
Figure 6.4: Types
of beams on the
c. Concealed beam: A beam, concealed in the roof slab, by positioning its Basis of Cross
bottom at the same level as that of the ceiling so that it is apparently Sectional Area
invisible from the interior of the building.

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below.

2. Note the readings on the 2 spring balances when the beam is not loaded.
3. Hang the weights W1 and W2 in the hangers at any arbitrary points A and B respectively
and note the corresponding readings of the spring balances.
4. Repeat the above procedure by altering the weights and the distances “a” and “b” as
shown in the diagram to get at least 5 sets of readings.
5. For each set calculate the magnitudes of reactions RA and RB using the conditions of
equilibrium i.e. ΣFy = 0 and ΣMo = 0.

CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:c = ”

Table 6.1: Calculations and Observations for the Reactions of Simply Supported Beam

Weights (N) Distances (m) RA(N) RB (N)

W1 W2 a b EXP ANA %DIFF EXP ANA %DIFF

% difference = RA(exp) − RA(ana) × 100

RA(ana)

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PRECAUTIONS:

4. Initial errors should be taken into account.

5. Beam must be horizontal when not loaded.
6. No lateral movement or vibration should be allowed in the apparatus
7. The hanger hooks must remain transverse to the beam.

COMMENTS:

The results suggest that the experimental method is comparatively more accurate than the
analytical method.

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Experiment No. 7
To Locate Centroid of Different Shapes Experimentally and
Analytically
Date:

PURPOSE:

To locate centroid (centre of gravity) of different

shapes/figures experimentally and analytically.

OBJECTIVE:

 To understand, how the centre of gravity is determined

experimentally for irregular geometrical shapes
 Comparison of experimentally and analytically
determined centroid (centre of gravity) Figure 7.1: Illustration of Centre
of Gravity

APPARATUS:

Various irregular geometric shapes, graph paper, cutter, pencil, eraser, scotch tape, plumb
bob, thread, nail and measuring tape.

THEORY:
Centre of gravity: The centre of gravity of a body is the point within or near a body where
the whole weight of the body appears to act, as shown in figure 7.1.
Centre of mass: The specific point where the entire mass of the body can be assumed to be
concentrated.
Note: Under ordinary conditions the centre of gravity and center of mass of a body coincide.

Centroid: The geometrical center of an object is called its centroid.

1st moment of area: The product of the area and the perpendicular distance from the centroid
of the area to the moment axis.
The shapes:For analytical analysis different shapes and their dimensions are shown in figure 7.2.

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Figure 7.2: Different Shapes to Determine the Centroid

PROCEDURE:

1. Take a lamina is taken and small holes are drilled near its edges.
2. The outline of the lamina is traced on a graph sheet and its cutout using a cutter is pasted
on it
3. The lamina is now suspended through one of the holes with the graph side up along with
a plumb line.
4. It is allowed to come to rest and then the thread of the plumb bob is traced on the graph
paper using a mirror.
5. This procedure is repeated to get at least 3 lines on the lamina which should coincide.
6. The point at which these 3 lines coincide is the center of gravity of the shape represented
by the lamina.

These steps are repeated for the remaining laminas of other shapes.

CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:

Table 7.1: Observations and Calculations for Center of Gravity of Different Shapes

EXP ANA
Shapes Remarks
x (mm) y (mm) x (mm) y (mm)

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. The holes drilled in lamina must not be too large.

2. When suspended the lamina should be allowed to hang freely.
3. The parallax error must be avoided when tracing the plumb line using a mirror.
4. Pencil used should be sharp to determine the location of CG as accurately as possible.

COMMENTS:

A comparison of the results of the analytical and experimental techniques show differences
but are approximately the same. However it can be said that the analytical method is more
accurate.

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Experiment No. 8
To Determine Tension in Various Parts of a Flexible Cable

Date:

PURPOSE:

To determine tension in various parts of a flexible

cable under one-point loading by experimental and
analytical methods.
Figure 8.1: Flexible Cable Model
APPARATUS:

Flexible cable Model (Figure 8.1), 2 spring balances, weights, hanger and measuring
tape.

THEORY:

FORCES & EQUILIBRIUM

Force: The action of one body on another is called as a force OR the action on a body which
tends to change its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line.
A force is completely specified by its: magnitude, direction, line of action and
point of application.

Types of forces:
5. On the basis of contact:
c.Body force: A remote action force is called a body force. It is
named so because it acts on the whole volume of the body e.g.
magnetic force, gravitational force, electrostatic forces.

d.Contact force: The force generated by the contact of a body

with another body is a contact force e.g. friction, forces
generated in collisions or simple contact between bodies.

6. On the basis of extent:

a.Concentrated force: A force whose area of action is very small
compared to the body’s area e.g. the weight of a fan on ceiling,
pin pierced into a surface.

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b.Distributed force: A force whose area of action is large i.e. comparable to the area of the
body e.g. large box placed on table.
A distributed load is of 2 types:
 Uniformly distributed load (U.D.L)
 Varying distributed load (V.D.L)
7. On the basis of effect:
c.Tensile force: A force which tends to pull (elongate) the body
producing tension effect. (Acts away from joint) e.g. force in a
wire used to suspend an object.

d. Compressive force: A force which tends to push

(compress) the body producing compressive effect. (Acts
towards joint) e.g. pushing a spring.

Categories of equilibrium: There are 4 main types of equilibrium as shown in figure 8.2:

 Collinear  Parallel equilibrium  Concurrent  General equilibrium.

equilibrium equilibrium

ΣFx = 0 ΣFx = 0, ΣMO = 0 ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0 ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0,

ΣMO = 0
Figure 8.2: Categories of Equilibrium

USES:

1. Suspension bridges.
2. Electrical transmission system.
3. Cable cars ( Recreation and transmission)

PROCEDURE:

1. Note the zero error in both the spring balances.

2. Now hang a certain suitable weight W in the hanger at B and note the corresponding
readings of the spring balances.
3. Measure distances L1, L2 and H.
4. Find the experimental values of T1 and T2 from the spring balances.
5. Find the analytical values of T1 and T2 using the conditions of equilibrium.
6. Repeat the above procedure by altering the weight W at B as shown in the diagram to get
at least 5 sets of readings.
7. Compare the experimental and analytical values of T1 and T2.

Analytical method:
Analyze the concurrent forces at B using conditions of static equilibrium (ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0)
From the diagram we have,

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 ΣFx = 0 → T1Cosθ1 − T2Cos θ2 = 0

 ΣFy = 0 → T1Sinθ1 + T2Sin θ2 = W
 θ1 = Tan−1H & θ2 = Tan−1H
L1 L2
Using these relations we can work out the magnitude of the unknown forces.

CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:L1 = ”, L2 = ”

Table 8.1: Observations and Calculations for Tension in Cable

Weights Distances(“) T1(N) T2(N)

L1 L2 H EXP ANA %DIFF EXP ANA %DIFF

kg N cm cm cm N N N N

Note: Zero error of 1st spring balance = 0.5 lb = 2.225 N,

Zero error of 2nd spring balance = 1 lb = 4.45 N.

% difference = T (exp) − T (ana) × 100

T (ana)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Initial errors should be taken into account.

2. There should be not kinks in the wires.
3. No lateral movement or vibration should be allowed in the apparatus

COMMENTS:

The close values obtained from both the methods show that the 2 methods are close to each
other in precision. However the analytical method is relatively more accurate as it gives more
precise values. The graphical method has possibilities of errors.

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Experiment No. 9
To Determine Co-Efficient Of Friction between Various Surfaces

Date:

PURPOSE:

To verify laws of friction and to determine co-efficient of friction between various surfaces.

APPARATUS:

Smooth plane assembly, weights, hangers, measuring tape, different surfaces. (Wood, steel
and copper)
 Wood on wood,
 Steel on wood
 Copper on wood

THEORY:
Friction:
Friction is the resistance offered to relative lateral motion of a body by contact surfaces
between 2 bodies sliding over one another.
OR
Resistance to lateral motion, when one attempts to slide surface of one object over another
surface is called friction or traction

In our everyday life sometimes friction is useful and we need to increase it e.g. in brake
systems, everyday walking.
However on other occasions it can be a menace and need to be eliminated or decreased
because it causes energy losses in mechanical systems e.g. in machinery, pipes carrying fluid
flow, movement through a fluid.

Types of friction:
There are 3 main types of friction:
a. Static friction: It is the friction acting on a body when it is stationary i.e. when the 2
contact surfaces are static with respect to each another.
b. Limiting friction: It is the frictional force of maximum magnitude, generated between
2 contact surfaces when one body is on the verge of motion under the action of a force.

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c. Dynamic friction: It is the frictional force generated when the 2 surfaces in contact
move relative to one another. Usually the dynamic friction is 25 % less than static
friction.

Other types of friction are:

a. Rolling friction: The frictional force between 2 bodies which are in circular motion
with respect to each other.
b. Sliding friction: The frictional force, when 2 bodies slide over each other.
c.Dry friction: When the 2 surfaces which are sliding with respect to one another are dry,
dry friction is said to be act.

Angle of internal friction:

A body on horizontal surface doesn’t move unless a certain force is applied. On an incline
which is moveable, the angle at which the x component of weight (i.e. component along the
incline) becomes equal to frictional force is called the angle of internal friction. (Refer to
Figure 9.1 below)

Figure 9.1: Angle of Internal Friction

Fluid friction: Friction between a solid object as it moves through a liquid or a gas.
Remember that whenever a fluid is involved we are dealing with fluid friction.

Coulomb’s Theory of friction: The following are the important points of the Coulomb’s
theory of friction:
1. The force of friction is dependent on the nature of surfaces in contact.
2. Frictional force is independent of contact area.
3. Friction is independent of the velocity of motion
4. Friction is proportional to the normal reaction “N”.

Coefficient of friction: According to the last point in the Coulomb’s Theory of friction;
Friction is proportional to the normal reaction “N”.Expressing mathematically, we have
Ff α N
Ff = k N

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Where k = the constant of proportionality between Ff and N. This is also denoted by the
Greek letter μ (meu). Hence we have
Ff = μ N
PROCEDURE:
P
HORIZONTAL PLANE: (a)
4. The apparatus (Figure 9.2, a) is first set on
a horizontal sliding plane as shown in Fig. W (= N)

a. and the force P is increased by adding

weights to the hanger. P
5. The first reading is taken with the block (b)
alone
6. The weights are then added to hanger until W Sin θ y
the block just starts to move. θ
W Cos θ
7. This value of P at which the block just θ W
starts to move is recorded. x
8. Further readings for the coefficient of
friction are taken by increasing the value of
the normal reaction (increasing W by adding Figure 9.2: Friction Apparatus Model more
weights).

INCLINED PLANE:
1. For the smooth plane assembly is inclined at an angle to the horizontal and the horizontal
and vertical measurements (x and y) are taken to determine the angle of incline (θ) as
shown in Fig b.
2. The first reading is taken with the block alone
3. The weights are then added to hanger until the block just starts to move.
4. This value of P at which the block just starts to move is recorded along with weight of
block W.
5. Further readings for the coefficient of friction are taken by increasing the value of the
normal reaction (increasing W by adding more weights).

These procedures are repeated for the other surfaces to be investigated.

Analytical procedure:

For the horizontal plane: For inclined plane:

Using the condition of equilibrium:
μ=P  ΣFx = 0 we get
N P − W Sin θ = Ff
P − W Sin θ = μ N
Where P = Force applied, and P − W Sin θ = μ W Cos θ
N = Normal reaction
W = Total weight of the block μ = P − W Sin θ
W Cos θ

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CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:

x= ,y=
Hence θ = Tan −1 ( / ) = º

Table 9.1: Observations and Calculations for Friction between Various Surfaces

Wood on Wood Steel on Wood Copper on Wood

HORIZONTAL PLANE
N P µ N P μ N P µ

Average ► Average ► Average ►

INCLINED PLANE
W P μ W P μ W P µ

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Too much weight should not be added suddenly to the hangers

2. The observers must stand clear of the apparatus to avoid any weight falling and hurting
someone.
3. A person should stand next to the block to prevent the block from skidding off the ramp.
4. There should not be any kink in the string.

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Experiment No. 10
To Determine Moment of Inertia of Fly Wheel

Date:

PURPOSE:

To measure the energy of a rotating fly wheel and determine the moment of Inertia of the
flywheel

APPARATUS:

 Fly wheel mounted on a wall,

 Stop watch,
 Vernier Calliper,
 Thread
 Weights (1/2kgf., 1kgf, 100gmf, 50gmf, 20gmf, 10gmf ),

THEORY:

The principal of conservation of energy is made use of in determining the M.I. of the fly
wheel. It states that the energy can neither be created nor destroyed though it can be
transferred from one form into any forms in which the energy exist. As the fly wheel revolves
due to a falling weight attached to the axis. The potential energy of the falling weight is equal
to the K.E. of the falling body when it drops off plus the energy stored in the fly wheel at that
instant plus the energy lost in the friction in bearings while the body is descending. Even the
energy stored in the fly wheel is lost in overcoming friction in bearing (after the weight has
dropped off) bringing the wheel to a standstill.

From law of conservation of energy:

Formulae: W*H = Wv2/2g + Iω2 (for negligible bearing friction)

Whereas,
v = u+at
v2 = u2+2aH
ω = v/r
W= weight falling in N
H = height from which the weight fall in meter
V = Linear velocity in m/s at the end of fall of H

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I = Moment of Inertia of fly wheel in kgm2

ω = Angular velocity of shaft in radian/sec.
r = Radius of shaft in m
Therefore, I = 2* (W*H – (Wv2/2g))/ ω2

Figure 10.1: Fly Wheel Apparatus Model

PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the diameter of the shaft with the help of vernier calliper and find the mean
radius of the shaft(r).
2. Wrap the cotton string round the shaft and suspend weight (W) so that fly can rotate
easily.
3. Now marked the height (H) for weight W from centre of mass of Weight W to the earth
and keep it same for different value of W in each observation.
4. Place a weight (W) hold the Pan in which this weight is placed. Release weight (W) and
start the stop watch simultaneously. Stop the watch as soon as the falling weight has
touched the level ground. This gives the time (t).
5. Repeat the experiment for different values of ‘W’. Repeat the experiment ten times.

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Diameter of shaft = _____________m

2. Radius of shaft (r) = _____________ m

Table 10.1: Observations and Calculations for Moment of Inertia

No. of
Falling No. of Nm 2 gh−r 2
Sr. Time of fall Rotations Height of I= ×
Weight Turns of
No. of weight (t) of wheel Fall (h) N +n w2
(m) String (n)
(N)
kg sec m m4

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1
2
3

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Note the time accurately to the fraction of a second.

2. Friction in the bearings should be minimum possible.
3. Overlapping of the string should be avoided.
4. Mark the height carefully from the centre of mass of weights to the ground.

COMMENTS:

1. There may be positive or negative error in Vernier calliper.

2. There may be error in recording time intervals (in fraction of seconds).
3. There may be little friction in bearings.

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Experiment No. 11
Vector Addition of Forces
Date:

PURPOSE:

1. Study static equilibrium under the action of several concurrentforces.

2. Test whether the forces on a body at rest add to zero.

3. Study how errors in vectors propagate.

APPARATUS:

Force table, three weight hangers, metric weight set, 17 x 11 or 17 x 22" drawing paper.

Note on Units:
You can avoid unnecessary multiplications by 9.8 m/s 2 or 980 cm/s2 by expressing all weights
in grams. This "convenience unit" is sometimes called the "gram-weight."

THEORY:

Forces:

Many measurable quantities in physics obey the laws of vector algebra, and force is one
example. The vector sum of the forces on a body is important because it determines whether
the body will move, and how it will move.

In this experiment you will study the special case of a body at rest under the action of only
three forces.

Static Equilibrium:  

Static equilibrium describes the condition in which a body is at rest with respect to a frame of
reference. When a body is in static equilibrium:

1. The vector polygon of all forces acting on the body in static equilibrium is closed. The
sum of the vectors representing the forces is zero.
2. The sum of the components of force along any axis is zero.

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PROCEDURE:

The force table apparatus demonstrates

the addition of forces acting on a body,
in two dimensions. In this experiment the
force table is a disk with pulleys attached
at its edges. Strings attach to a ring at the
center, pass over the pulleys to weight
hangers.

Take care to adjust the pulleys so the

strings pass straight over them, ensuring
minimum friction. Use enough weight on
the hangers so the strings are nearly Figure11.1: Force table.
parallel to the table and do not sag much.
Why is this important?

Important:The force exerted by a string on the ring is the sum of the weight on the hanger
plus the weight of the hanger. The hanger's mass is usually marked on the hanger, but it's a
good idea to check that by weighting them yourself.

When you achieve equilibrium of the body, the directions of the forces lie along the direction
of the strings. In each situation, adjust the weights and angles so that the ring is centered on
the table, and is not touching the center post. Record the amount of weight on each hanger,
and read the direction of its string on the table's scale.

Errors in vectors: One source of error in this experiment is the starting friction in the
pulleys. The size of this error is estimated by determining how much the weight on a weight
hanger can be varied without disturbing the equilibrium. Do this, and find the full range of
the uncertainty in each force. The "best" value of this force is at the center of this range.
Record the uncertainty of the force and its percent uncertainty. Investigate and record the
error in the angle in the same way.

SITUATIONS TO INVESTIGATE:

Each different situation may be recorded on a separate sheet of drawing paper. The analysis
for each situation is then done directly on that work sheet.

Use 200 to 500 gram weights on the hangers. Avoid situations where all hangers have the
same weight. Try for a representative, general case. Avoid special situations such as 30°, 45°,
or 90° between the forces.

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THREE FORCES. Set up an equilibrium situation with three forces acting on the ring.
ransfer the forces to the paper.

ANALYSIS:

POLYGON METHOD:

When adding vectors by the polygon method you must "move" the vectors parallel to
Figure 11.2: Moving a line parallel
to itself with ruler and triangle.
themselves. This is easily done with ruler and triangle as shown in Fig. 11.2. Lay an edge of
the triangle along the vector, then lay a ruler along another edge of the triangle. Hold the ruler
firmly in place on the paper and slide the triangle along the ruler until its edge falls where you
want the vector relocated. Draw the line of action of this vector along the edge of the triangle.

Figure11.3. illustrates the addition of three vectors by the polygon method. The vectors may
be assembled into the polygon in any order, since vector addition is commutative. In the case
of static equilibrium, which you are investigating, the vectors will very likely add to nearly
zero, so that any resultant A+B+C will be very small relative to the vectors being added.

Figure11.3: Polygon method for adding forces.

On a clear area of your work sheet, transfer the forces onto a vector polygon and test whether
the polygon closes. It probably won't close perfectly. Why not? What is the size and direction
of the additional "error" vector required to close the polygon? Is its size consistent with the

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error caused by error in each of the individual forces? This last question will require
considerable analysis, and a consideration of how to do an error propagation calculation
for vectors. Carry out this analysis for both experimental situations.

ANALYTIC METHOD:

 For each situation, choose arbitrary X and Y axes, and resolve the vectors into components
along these axes. It is not necessary to move the original vectors on the sheet. Merely drop
construction lines
(dotted lines in Figure
11.4) from their heads
and tails, perpendicular
to the chosen axis.
Measure the sizes of the
components and record
these in tabular form.
Numerically add the X
and Y components
separately to obtain the
X and Y components of
the resultant. Is the
resultant zero? If not, is
its size consistent with Figure11.4: Components of vectors by the analytic method.
the resultant found in analysis step (2)? Estimate how much additional error is introduced into
the drawing by construction and measurement steps.

Example:

Refer to Figure. 11.4. Find the components of vector B. Its head is at coordinate (16.2,4.7)
and its tail is at (6.5,9.8). Its x component is therefore 16.2 - 6.5 = 9.7, and its y component is
4.7 - 9.8 = -5.1. Notice how the y component came out negative. The vector is pointing
"downward" (negative) with respect to the y axis, but "forward" (positive) with respect to the
x axis.

Exercise 1. Refer to Fig. 11.4. (a) Find the components of vector A. (b) Find the components
of A+B. (c) Find the components of vector C. (d) Find the components of A+B+C.

Good "bookkeeping" is essential when doing these problems. For example, the following
table keeps track
of the numbers
of exercise 1.
We have only
filled in part of
it: you may fill
in the rest.

The size Figure 11.5: Good bookkeeping.

(magnitude) of a
vector is always positive, and may be found by using the Pythagorean theorem if the
components are known. The angle of a vector is conveniently specified with respect to the

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positive x axis, measured counterclockwise. If the components are known, the angle is
arctan(Vy/Vx).

Note that your electronic calculator always returns an angle less than 90°, which you must
convert to correctly indicate the quadrant in which the angle lies. Obviously the calculator
cannot do more for you because of the ambiguity of sign: Vy/Vx has the same sign (positive)
in first and third quadrants, and in the second and fourth quadrants the sign is negative.

QUESTIONS:

1. If the weights of the weight hangers were exactly the same could their weights have been
neglected in the computations? Explain.
2. One form of apparatus for this experiment has a special circular table with degree
markings around its rim. Three forces are applied to strings attached to a small round
metal ring around a center post. The center post keeps the ring centered while the system
is being balanced. When balance is achieved the ring is centered on the post, but not
touching the post. The post can then be removed. Was the ring in equilibrium during the
time when the weights were being balanced, while the ring was still touching the post?
3. Can one place three forces of 50, 75, and 150 grams at such angles that they will produce
equilibrium? Explain your answer, and try to make a general statement about this
situation.
4. Where on earth can one travel 10 miles north, then 10 miles west, then 10 miles south and
end up at the starting point? Why doesn't this seem to obey the laws of vector addition.
5. One answer to question (6) was easy to find, but there are other answers. In fact, there are
an unlimited number of other starting points on the surface of the earth from which this
may be done, and they all have a special relation to each other. Make a general statement
describing the location of these points.
6. The x and y cartesian components of a certain force are measured and found to be 68 ± 3
and 42 ± 2 N respectively. Calculate the direction and magnitude of this force, expressing
your result to the proper number of significant figures and showing the error in both
magnitude and angle. Note that the error in the latter is obtained from the error in its
tangent. Devise a procedure for doing this and show your work.

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Experiment No. 12
Determination of the Speed of a Projectile Using Ballistic Pendulum

Date:

PURPOSE:

To use the principles of conservation of energy and momentum applied to a ballistic

pendulum, to find the speed of a projectile.

BACKGROUND PHYSICS:

This experiment makes use of the following principles:

1. The total momentum of a closed system does not change.

2. The total energy of a closed system does not change.

An elastic impact is one in which the kinetic energy of the entire system remains unchanged.
All other collisions are called inelastic.

The commonest kind of inelastic collision in mechanics is one in which part of the system's
kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy. The thermal energy produced in a collision is
generally difficult to measure, for it soon dissipates to the surroundings. Thus, in an inelastic
collision, even though total energy is conserved, application of the energy conservation
equation may be impractical. In these cases it may be possible use the conservation of
momentum, for momentum is not at all affected by thermal energy production.

APPARATUS:

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Blackwood ballistic pendulum,

metric balance, meter stick, carbon
paper, wire restraint loop, heavy wire
or cable, high range spring balances.

The Blackwood pendulum (Fig. 15.1)

consists of a spring gun (G) which
fires a small steel ball (B) at a catcher
(C) on the end of a rigid pendulum
arm (PC). The target is designed to
capture the ball in a totally inelastic
interaction. The momentum of the
ball, transferred to the pendulum
causes it to swing upward, where it is
stopped at the highest point of its arc
by a pawl on the pendulum which engages a ratchet (S) on the frame of the apparatus.

Figure 12.1: Blackwood Ballistic Pendulum You will use this apparatus to make
the following measurements:

1) The firing velocity of the ball, by two independent methods.

2) The efficiency of the spring gun.

3) The kinetic energy lost in the ball-pendulum impact.

4) The mechanical energy dissipated in the firing mechanism.

NOTES ON THE APPARATUS:

1. PROPER REMOVAL OF BALL FROM THE PENDULUM CATCHER: The Cenco

apparatus has a piece of spring steel in the catcher (C) to retain the ball after
impact. The spring may break if it is bent backward. To remove the ball, push the
spring slightly upward, and the ball will roll out.

2. RECOIL RESTRAINT: A simple recoil restraint may be fashioned from a loop of

strong wire or rope. Loop the center of the wire around a table leg, bring its two end
loops together and loop them over the ratchet post of the apparatus (See Fig. 15.2).
Then move the whole apparatus back from the table edge until the wire is taut. This
simple method avoids tying knots each time the loop is used. When firing the gun,
have someone hold the base of the apparatus firmly in place with their hands (keeping
them out of the way of the projectile!). Do not use any kind of clamp to hold down the
apparatus, for the base of the apparatus is made of pot metal which can easily break or
crack.

3. REMOVAL OF THE PENDULUM ARM: You must remove the pendulum arm to
weigh it. Do this before or after the rest of the experiment. The upper end of the arm
is secured by two cone bearings which are slotted for a screwdriver, and each has a
locking nut. Use a small wrench to loosen the nut, then unscrew one bearing until the

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pendulum can easily be detached. When reattaching it, be sure the cone bearings are
not too tight. There should be a slight play for free pendulum movement.

4. MEASURING THE WORK DONE IN COCKING THE GUN: Cenco apparatus.A

hole has been drilled in the back end of the gun's firing plunger. Use a
short strongwire through this hole to attach a spring balance. Then use the spring
balance to pull the plunger back to cocked position. While doing this, have someone
hold the trigger back out of the way. Pull back until you just reach the position the
plunger had when cocked. If this force exceeds the range of the available spring
balances, use two balances of identical range together. Think about how they should
be used "together," and if in doubt, consult your instructor.

Beck apparatus. This apparatus doesn't provide a convenient method for measuring

the force required to cock the gun. We have devised a method which can do this,
which your instructor will demonstrate and supervise.

PROCEDURE:

(1) FIRING VELOCITY, BALLISTIC METHOD: Fire the ball into the pendulum catcher
5 to 10 times, recording which ratchet tooth the pawl stops at each time. Average these and
find the tooth corresponding to the average stopping position. A pointer on the pendulum
indicates its center of gravity. Measure carefully the vertical distance the center of gravity
rises from its lower rest position to the average stopping position. This change of height is
used to calculate the change in potential energy of the pendulum and ball. The change in
potential energy is equal to the kinetic energy of pendulum and ball at the instant after
impact. Application of conservation of momentum to the impact itself allows the calculation
of the ball's velocity just before impact, which is essentially its firing velocity.

(2) FIRING VELOCITY, TRAJECTORY METHOD: Move the pendulum up out of the

way so that the ball may be fired horizontally to the floor. Measurement of the height (H) of
the firing point, and the horizontal range (R) allows calculation of the velocity. Calculate the
position on the floor at which you predict the ball will land, using the value of velocity you
determined in part (1). At that place put a sheet of cardboard, then white paper, a face-down
sheet of carbon paper and another sheet of white paper. When the steel ball lands on this
sandwich of materials it will leave a black imprint on the bottom sheet of white paper. Fire
the ball. How accurate was your prediction of the range.

Do this at least ten times, and find the mean range. Use this to calculate the projectile
velocity. Compare with the velocity found in part (1) and discuss the errors and discrepency
with reference to your data.

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Figure 12.2: Illustration of Projectile

(3) STUDY OF THE SPRING GUN AS A SIMPLE

MACHINE: When pulling back the plunger of the spring gun you do
work on it. This work goes into potential energy of the compressed spring,
which is later released and converted to kinetic energy when the gun is
fired. However, there is considerable friction in the mechanism, and some
of this energy is lost as thermal energy, making no contribution to the
ball's velocity.

The efficiency of any mechanism is defined as the ratio of

the useful energy you get out of it to the total energy you put into it. Here,
the input energy is the work you do in cocking the gun. The "useful"
output is the kinetic energy of the ball.

The work done in cocking the gun may be found from a measurement of the force required to
compress the spring to its "cocked" position. If we assume that this force is a linear function
of plunger displacement, the work done in cocking the is one half of the product of the
maximum force and the distance the plunger moved.

Question 1: Derive this result, either by a geometric analysis of the area under the force-
displacement curve (F = ks for a spring which has not exceeded its elastic limit), or by
integrating the work dW = F ds.

THE SAGITTA FORMULA

In some forms of the apparatus it is easier to measure the angle of swing of the pendulum, or
the horizontal displacement of the pendulum.

Fig. 3 shows the geometry of the pendulum swing. You need to determine the height of rise,
S, of the pendulum as it swings through angle q. This may be determined from measurements
of the radius R and of the horizontal distance of swing, X. The line S is called the sagitta.

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The formula for S as a function of X and R is easily obtained.

A handy formula may be derived for approximate calculations, when S<<R. From the right
triangle,

R2 = X2 + (R - S)2 = X2 + R2 - 2RS + S2 = X2 + R2 - 2RS

X2
S = -- , the Sagitta formula.
2R

(1) The energy loss during the pendulum upswing may be estimated. Disable the pawl with a
rubber band and find how long the freely swinging pendulum takes to reduce its amplitude by
half, and count the number of periods. Then calculate how much energy is lost in the first
quarter period.

(2) The center of mass of the pendulum may be determined by finding its period for small
oscillations.

ANALYSIS:

1. Calculate and compare the values of firing velocity obtained in procedures (1) and (2).
Report a single value of v as your best experimental determination.

2. Calculate the efficiency of the spring gun.

3. Calculate the kinetic energy lost in the impact between ball and pendulum as the ball is
caught and held in the pendulum.

4. Calculate the mechanical energy lost in the gun mechanism in the cocking and firing
processes.

QUESTIONS:

1. Did this experiment provide verification of the law of conservation of momentum? If not,
why not, and what role did that law play in this experiment? If you say that the

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experiment did verify the law, specify which part of the experiment did this, and also
state the limits of error within which the law was verified.

2. Did this experiment provide verification of the law of conservation of energy? Justify
your answer in the same manner as indicated in item (5).

3. Suppose you had not bothered to restrain the apparatus to prevent recoil. The mass of the
Cenco apparatus is about 7 kilograms. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the
rubber feet and varnished wood is probably about 1. Now if you had performed the
calculations of this experiment without regard for the recoil, how much systematic error
would this cause in the experimental value of v o? In each case indicate whether the error
would make the result too high or too low in value.

4. How much systematic error would be caused if the gun were misaligned and fired slightly
upward, an angle α above the horizontal? Consider separately the systematic error this
would cause in your calculated vo for each of the two methods, if the calculations had
been done without knowledge of the misalignment.

5. Kinetic energy is lost in the impact between the ball and the pendulum. Suggest what
could have happened to the that energy. Did you observe anything to indicate into what
form some of it might have been converted? What fraction of the ball's energy is lost in
the impact with the pendulum if the ball has mass 75g, speed 60 cm/s and the pendulum
has mass 150 g?

6. Suppose the ball hit the catcher a bit offside, so that it bounced off without being
captured. This may have happened when you did the experiment. In this case, will the
pendulum swing higher, less high, or the same height as when the ball is properly
captured? Of course you must justify your answer by appeal to the physical laws and the
details of your apparatus and procedure.

7. The speed of the pendulum after impact decreases smoothly to zero during its swing. Is
the linear momentum of the loaded pendulum conserved during its swing? Is its angular
momentum conserved during its swing? Discuss this, considering the changes of
momentum of the pendulum during its swing, and the forces and torques which cause
those changes.

Name: Danish Saeed Page 41 Roll No.B-14414 .