Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Definitions Series
f (n) = O(g(n)) iff ∃ positive c, n0 such that n n n
X n(n + 1) X n(n + 1)(2n + 1) X n2 (n + 1)2
0 ≤ f (n) ≤ cg(n) ∀n ≥ n0 . i= , i2 = , i3 = .
i=1
2 i=1
6 i=1
4
f (n) = Ω(g(n)) iff ∃ positive c, n0 such that
In general:
f (n) ≥ cg(n) ≥ 0 ∀n ≥ n0 . n  n 
X 1 X
im = (n + 1)m+1 − 1 − (i + 1)m+1 − im+1 − (m + 1)im


f (n) = Θ(g(n)) iff f (n) = O(g(n)) and m+1
f (n) = Ω(g(n)). i=1 i=1
n−1 m  
X 1 X m+1
f (n) = o(g(n)) iff limn→∞ f (n)/g(n) = 0. im = Bk nm+1−k .
i=1
m + 1 k
k=0
lim an = a iff ∀ǫ > 0, ∃n0 such that
n→∞ Geometric series:
|an − a| < ǫ, ∀n ≥ n0 . n ∞ ∞
X cn+1 − 1 X 1 X c
sup S least b ∈ R such that b ≥ s, ci = , c 6= 1, ci = , ci = , |c| < 1,
i=0
c−1 i=0
1−c i=1
1−c
∀s ∈ S.
n ∞
X ncn+2 − (n + 1)cn+1 + c X c
inf S greatest b ∈ R such that b ≤ ici = , c 6= 1, ici = , |c| < 1.
s, ∀s ∈ S. i=0
(c − 1)2 i=0
(1 − c)2
Harmonic series:
lim inf an lim inf{ai | i ≥ n, i ∈ N}. n n
n→∞ n→∞ X 1 X n(n + 1) n(n − 1)
Hn = , iHi = Hn − .
lim sup an lim sup{ai | i ≥ n, i ∈ N}. i=1
i i=1
2 4
n→∞ n→∞
n n     
n

X X i n+1 1
k Combinations: Size k sub- Hi = (n + 1)Hn − n, Hi = Hn+1 − .
sets of a size n set. i=1 i=1
m m+1 m+1
n n  
Stirling numbers (1st kind):
     
k n n! X n n n n
Arrangements of an n ele- 1. = , 2. =2 , 3. = ,
k (n − k)!k! k k n−k
k=0
ment set into k cycles.          
n n n−1 n n−1 n−1
n 4. = , 5. = + ,
k Stirling numbers (2nd kind): k k k−1 k k k−1
Partitions of an n element     
n m n n−k
 X n 
r+k
 
r+n+1

set into k non-empty sets. 6. = , 7. = ,
m k k m−k k n

n k=0
1st order Eulerian numbers: n     n     
k X k n+1 X r s r+s
Permutations π1 π2 . . . πn on 8. = , 9. = ,
m m+1 k n−k n
{1, 2, . . . , n} with k ascents. k=0
   k=0
k−n−1
    
n n n
= (−1)k

n 
2nd order Eulerian numbers. 10. , 11. = = 1,
k k k 1 n
Cn Catalan Numbers: Binary  
n
 
n

n−1
 
n−1

n−1
trees with n + 1 vertices. 12. = 2 − 1, 13. = k + ,
2 k k k−1
         
n n n n n
14. = (n − 1)!, 15. = (n − 1)!Hn−1 , 16. = 1, 17. ≥ ,
1 2 n k k
   n  
n−1
 
n−1
        
n n n n X n 1 2n
18. = (n − 1) + , 19. = = , 20. = n!, 21. Cn = ,
k k k−1 n−1 n−1 2 k n+1 n
          k=0    
n n n n n n−1 n−1
22. = = 1, 23. = , 24. = (k + 1) + (n − k) ,
0 n−1 k n−1−k k k k−1
  n      
0 1 if k = 0, n n n+1
25. = 26. = 2n − n − 1, 27. = 3n − (n + 1)2n + ,
k 0 otherwise 1 2 2
n      X m     X n   
X n x+k n n+1 n n k
28. xn = , 29. = (m + 1 − k)n (−1)k , 30. m! = ,
k n m k m k n−m
k=0 k=0 k=0
  X n  
n−k
    
n n n−k−m n n
31. = (−1) k!, 32. = 1, 33. = 0 for n 6= 0,
m k m 0 n
k=0
n 
(2n)n
       
n n−1 n−1 X n
34. = (k + 1) + (2n − 1 − k) , 35. = ,
k k k−1 k 2n
k=0
  X n       X    X n  
x n x+n−1−k n+1 n k k
36. = , 37. = = (m + 1)n−k ,
x−n k 2n m+1 k m m
k=0 k k=0
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Identities Cont. Trees
n  n n 
Every tree with n
  X  n  k         
n+1 X k X 1 k x X n x+k
38. = = nn−k = n! , 39. = , vertices has n − 1
m+1 k m m k! m x−n k 2n
k k=0 k=0 k=0
  X      X   edges.
n n k+1 n−k n n+1 k
40. = (−1) , 41. = (−1)m−k , Kraft inequal-
m k m+1 m k+1 m
k k ity: If the depths
  X m     X m  
m+n+1 n+k m+n+1 n+k of the leaves of
42. = k , 43. = k(n + k) ,
m k m k a binary tree are
k=0 k=0
d1 , . . . , dn :
  X     X  
n n+1 k n n+1 k
44. = (−1)m−k , 45. (n − m)! = (−1)m−k , for n ≥ m, n
m k+1 m m k+1 m
X
 k X      k  2−di ≤ 1,
n m−n m+n m+k n X m − nm + n m + k  i=1
46. = , 47. = ,
n−m m+k n+k k n−m m+k n+k k and equality holds
 k  X   k
only if every in-

n−k
    X  
k n−k n
 
n ℓ+m k n n ℓ+m
48. = , 49. = . ternal node has 2
ℓ+m ℓ ℓ m k ℓ+m ℓ ℓ m k
k k
sons.

Recurrences
Master method:
Generating functions:
T (n) = aT (n/b) + f (n), a ≥ 1, b > 1 1 T (n) − 3T (n/2) = n 1. Multiply both sides of the equa-
tion by xi .


log b a−ǫ 3 T (n/2) − 3T (n/4) = n/2
If ∃ǫ > 0 such that f (n) = O(n )
.. .. .. 2. Sum both sides over all i for
then
. . . which the equation is valid.
T (n) = Θ(nlogb a ).
log2 n−1 3. Choose a generatingPfunction


3 T (2) − 3T (1) = 2
If f (n) = Θ(nlogb a ) then G(x). Usually G(x) = ∞ i
i=0 x gi .
T (n) = Θ(nlogb a log2 n). Let m = log2 n. Summing the left side 3. Rewrite the equation in terms of
we get T (n) − 3m T (1) = T (n) − 3m = the generating function G(x).
If ∃ǫ > 0 such that f (n) = Ω(nlogb a+ǫ ), T (n) − nk where k = log2 3 ≈ 1.58496.
and ∃c < 1 such that af (n/b) ≤ cf (n) 4. Solve for G(x).
Summing the right side we get 5. The coefficient of xi in G(x) is gi .
for large n, then m−1
X n m−1
Example:
X
i
i 3
T (n) = Θ(f (n)). i
3 = n 2 .
i=0
2 i=0
gi+1 = 2gi + 1, g0 = 0.
Substitution (example): Consider the
Let c = 23 . Then we have Multiply
X and sum:
following recurrence X X
i
Ti+1 = 22 · Ti2 , T1 = 2.
m−1
X  m
c −1
 gi+1 xi = 2gi xi + xi .
i
n c =n i≥0 i≥0 i≥0
c−1
Note that Ti is always a power of two. i=0
We choose G(x) = i≥0 xi gi . Rewrite
P
Let ti = log2 Ti . Then we have = 2n(clog2 n − 1)
in terms of G(x):
ti+1 = 2i + 2ti , t1 = 1.
= 2n(c(k−1) logc n − 1) G(x) − g0 X
= 2G(x) + xi .
Let ui = ti /2i . Dividing both sides of = 2nk − 2n, x
i≥0
the previous equation by 2i+1 we get
ti+1 2i ti k
and so T (n) = 3n − 2n. Full history re- Simplify:
= + i. G(x) 1
2 i+1 2 i+1 2 currences can often be changed to limited = 2G(x) + .
history ones (example): Consider x 1−x
Substituting we find i−1
ui+1 = 21 + ui , u1 = 12 , X Solve for G(x):
Ti = 1 + Tj , T0 = 1. x
G(x) = .
which is simply ui = i/2. So we find j=0 (1 − x)(1 − 2x)
i−1
that Ti has the closed form Ti = 2i2 . Note that
i Expand this 
using partial fractions:
Summing factors (example): Consider X 2 1

the following recurrence Ti+1 = 1 + Tj . G(x) = x −
j=0 1 − 2x 1 − x
T (n) = 3T (n/2) + n, T (1) = 1.  
Rewrite so that all terms involving T Subtracting we find X X
i i−1 = x 2 2i xi − xi 
are on the left side
X X
Ti+1 − Ti = 1 + Tj − 1 − Tj i≥0 i≥0
T (n) − 3T (n/2) = n. j=0 j=0
X
i+1 i+1
= (2 − 1)x .
Now expand the recurrence, and choose = Ti . i≥0
a factor which makes the left side “tele-
scope” And so Ti+1 = 2Ti = 2i+1 . So gi = 2i − 1.
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
√ √
1+ 5 1− 5
π ≈ 3.14159, e ≈ 2.71828, γ ≈ 0.57721, φ= 2 ≈ 1.61803, φ̂ = 2 ≈ −.61803

i 2i pi General Probability
1 2 2 Bernoulli Numbers (Bi = 0, odd i 6= 1): Continuous distributions: If
Z b
2 4 3 B0 = 1, B1 = − 21 , B2 = 61 , B4 = − 30
1
, Pr[a < X < b] = p(x) dx,
1 1 5
3 8 5 B6 = 42 , B8 = − 30 , B10 = 66 . a

4 16 7 Change of base, quadratic formula: then p is the probability density function of

√ X. If
5 32 11 loga x −b ± b2 − 4ac Pr[X < a] = P (a),
logb x = , .
6 64 13 loga b 2a
then P is the distribution function of X. If
7 128 17 Euler’s number e: P and p both exist then
1
8 256 19 e=1+ + 61 + 24
2
1 1
+ 120 + ··· Z a
 x  n P (a) = p(x) dx.
9 512 23 lim 1 + = ex . −∞
n→∞ n Expectation: If X is discrete
10 1,024 29
n
n+1
1 + n1 < e < 1 + n1 . X
11 2,048 31   E[g(X)] = g(x) Pr[X = x].
n e 11e 1 x
1 + n1 = e −


12 4,096 37 + 2
−O .
2n 24n n3 If X continuous
Z ∞ then
13 8,192 41 Z ∞
Harmonic numbers: [g(X)] = g(x)p(x) dx = g(x) dP (x).
14 16,384 43 E
1, 23 , 11 25 137 49 363 761 7129
6 , 12 , 60 , 20 , 140 , 280 , 2520 , . . .
−∞ −∞
15 32,768 47 Variance, standard deviation:
16 65,536 53 ln n < Hn < ln n + 1, VAR[X] = E[X 2 ] − E[X]2 ,
17 131,072 59
 
1
p
Hn = ln n + γ + O . σ = VAR[X].
18 262,144 61 n For events A and B:
19 524,288 67 Factorial, Stirling’s approximation: Pr[A ∨ B] = Pr[A] + Pr[B] − Pr[A ∧ B]
20 1,048,576 71 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880, ... Pr[A ∧ B] = Pr[A] · Pr[B],
21 2,097,152 73  n  iff A and B are independent.
√
 
n 1
22 4,194,304 79 n! =
2πn 1+Θ . Pr[A ∧ B]
e n Pr[A|B] =
23 8,388,608 83 Pr[B]
Ackermann’s
 function and inverse:
24 16,777,216 89 For random variables X and Y :
 2j i=1
25 33,554,432 97 a(i, j) = a(i − 1, 2) j=1 E[X · Y ] = E[X] · E[Y ],

a(i − 1, a(i, j − 1)) i, j ≥ 2 if X and Y are independent.
26 67,108,864 101
27 134,217,728 103 α(i) = min{j | a(j, j) ≥ i}. E[X + Y ] = E[X] + E[Y ],
E[cX] = c E[X].
28 268,435,456 107 Binomial distribution:
 
n k n−k Bayes’ theorem:
29 536,870,912 109 Pr[X = k] = p q , q = 1 − p,
k Pr[B|Ai ] Pr[Ai ]
30 1,073,741,824 113 Pr[Ai |B] = Pn .
n   j=1 Pr[Aj ] Pr[B|Aj ]
31 2,147,483,648 127
X n k n−k
E[X] = k p q = np. Inclusion-exclusion:
32 4,294,967,296 131 k n n
k=1 h_ i X
Poisson distribution: Pr Xi = Pr[Xi ] +
Pascal’s Triangle
e−λ λk i=1 i=1
1 Pr[X = k] = , E[X] = λ. n k
k! X X h^ i
11 Normal (Gaussian) distribution: (−1)k+1 Pr Xij .
k=2 ii <···<ik j=1
121 1 2 2
p(x) = √ e−(x−µ) /2σ , E[X] = µ. Moment inequalities:
1331 2πσ   1
14641 The “coupon collector”: We are given a Pr |X| ≥ λ E[X] ≤ ,
random coupon each day, and there are n λ
1 5 10 10 5 1 h  i 1
different types of coupons. The distribu- Pr X − E[X] ≥ λ · σ ≤ 2 .
1 6 15 20 15 6 1 tion of coupons is uniform. The expected λ
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 Geometric distribution:
number of days to pass before we to col-
lect all n types is Pr[X = k] = pq k−1 , q = 1 − p,
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
∞
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1 nHn .
X 1
E[X] = kpq k−1 = .
p
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1 k=1
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Trigonometry Matrices More Trig.
Multiplication: C
n
(0,1) X
C = A · B, ci,j = ai,k bk,j . a
b b h
(cos θ, sin θ) k=1
C θ Determinants: det A 6= 0 iff A is non-singular.
A
(-1,0) (1,0) A c B
det A · B = det A · det B, Law of cosines:
c a n
(0,-1)
XY c2 = a2 +b2 −2ab cos C.
B det A = sign(π)ai,π(i) .
π i=1 Area:
Pythagorean theorem:
C 2 = A2 + B 2 . 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 determinant:

a b
 A = 21 hc,
Definitions:  c d  = ad − bc, = 21 ab sin C,
 
sin a = A/C, cos a = B/C,
c2 sin A sin B
 
a b c       
csc a = C/A, sec a = C/B, d e f  = g b c  − ha c  + ia
       b  = .
e f  d f  d 2 sin C
sin a A cos a B

g h i 
 e Heron’s formula:
tan a = = , cot a = = .
cos a B sin a A aei + bf g + cdh
= √
Area, radius of inscribed circle: − ceg − f ha − ibd. A = s · sa · sb · sc ,
1 AB s = 12 (a + b + c),
2 AB, . Permanents:
A+B+C XY n
sa = s − a,
Identities: perm A = ai,π(i) .
π i=1
sb = s − b,
1 1
sin x = , cos x = , Hyperbolic Functions sc = s − c.
csc x sec x
1 Definitions: More identities:
tan x = , sin2 x + cos2 x = 1,
cot x ex − e−x x −x
r
e +e x 1 − cos x
sinh x = , cosh x = , sin 2 = ,
1 + tan2 x = sec2 x, 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x, x
2
−x
2 2
e −e 1 r
tanh x = x , csch x = , 1 + cos x
sin x = cos π2 − x , cos x2 =


sin x = sin(π − x), e + e−x sinh x ,
1 1 2
sech x = , coth x = . r
tan x = cot π2 − x ,


cos x = − cos(π − x), cosh x tanh x 1 − cos x
tan x2 = ,
Identities: 1 + cos x
cot x = − cot(π − x), csc x = cot x2 − cot x, 1 − cos x
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1, tanh2 x + sech2 x = 1, = ,
sin x
sin(x ± y) = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y,
sin x
coth2 x − csch2 x = 1, sinh(−x) = − sinh x, = ,
cos(x ± y) = cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y, 1 + cos x
cosh(−x) = cosh x, tanh(−x) = − tanh x,
r
tan x ± tan y 1 + cos x
tan(x ± y) = , cot x2 = ,
1 ∓ tan x tan y sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y, 1 − cos x
1 + cos x
cot x cot y ∓ 1 = ,
cot(x ± y) = , cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y, sin x
cot x ± cot y sin x
2 tan x sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x, = ,
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x, sin 2x = , 1 − cos x
1 + tan2 x
cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x, eix − e−ix
cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x, cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1, sin x = ,
2i
1 − tan2 x cosh x + sinh x = ex , cosh x − sinh x = e−x , eix + e−ix
cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin2 x, cos 2x = , cos x = ,
1 + tan2 x
(cosh x + sinh x)n = cosh nx + sinh nx, n ∈ Z, 2
2 tan x cot2 x − 1 eix − e−ix
tan 2x = 2 , cot 2x = , 2 sinh2 x2 = cosh x − 1, 2 cosh2 x2 = cosh x + 1. tan x = −i ix ,
1 − tan x 2 cot x e + e−ix
sin(x + y) sin(x − y) = sin2 x − sin2 y, e2ix − 1
θ sin θ cos θ tan θ . . . in mathematics = −i 2ix ,
e +1
cos(x + y) cos(x − y) = cos2 x − sin2 y. you don’t under- sinh ix
0 0 √
1 √
0 sin x = ,
π 1 3 3 stand things, you i
Euler’s equation: 6 2
√
2
√
3 just get used to cos x = cosh ix,
eix = cos x + i sin x, e iπ
= −1. π 2 2
4 2 2 1 them.
√ √ – J. von Neumann tanh ix
c
v2.02 1994 by Steve Seiden π 3 1 tan x = .
3 2 2 3 i
[email protected] π
2 1 0 ∞
http://www.csc.lsu.edu/~seiden
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Number Theory Graph Theory
The Chinese remainder theorem: There ex- Definitions: Notation:
ists a number C such that: Loop An edge connecting a ver- E(G) Edge set
tex to itself. V (G) Vertex set
C ≡ r1 mod m1 c(G) Number of components
Directed Each edge has a direction.
.. .. .. Simple Graph with no loops or G[S] Induced subgraph
. . .
multi-edges. deg(v) Degree of v
C ≡ rn mod mn ∆(G) Maximum degree
Walk A sequence v0 e1 v1 . . . eℓ vℓ .
if mi and mj are relatively prime for i 6= j. Trail A walk with distinct edges. δ(G) Minimum degree
Path A trail with distinct χ(G) Chromatic number
Euler’s function: φ(x) is the number of
vertices. χE (G) Edge chromatic number
positive integersQnless than x relatively Connected A graph where there exists Gc Complement graph
prime to x. If i=1 pei i is the prime fac-
a path between any two Kn Complete graph
torization of x then
Yn
vertices. Kn1 ,n2 Complete bipartite graph
φ(x) = piei −1 (pi − 1). Component A maximal connected
r(k, ℓ) Ramsey number
i=1
subgraph. Geometry
Euler’s theorem: If a and b are relatively Tree A connected acyclic graph.
prime then Projective coordinates: triples
Free tree A tree with no root.
1 ≡ aφ(b) mod b. (x, y, z), not all x, y and z zero.
DAG Directed acyclic graph.
Eulerian Graph with a trail visiting (x, y, z) = (cx, cy, cz) ∀c 6= 0.
Fermat’s theorem:
each edge exactly once. Cartesian Projective
1 ≡ ap−1 mod p.
Hamiltonian Graph with a cycle visiting (x, y) (x, y, 1)
The Euclidean algorithm: if a > b are in- each vertex exactly once. y = mx + b (m, −1, b)
tegers then Cut A set of edges whose re- x=c (1, 0, −c)
gcd(a, b) = gcd(a mod b, b). moval increases the num- Distance formula, Lp and L∞
Qn
If i=1 pei i is the prime factorization of x ber of components. metric:
Cut-set A minimal cut.
p
then (x1 − x0 )2 + (y1 − y0 )2 ,
n Cut edge A size 1 cut.
X Y piei +1 − 1 1/p
|x1 − x0 |p + |y1 − y0 |p

S(x) = d= . k-Connected A graph connected with ,
i=1
pi − 1
d|x the removal of any k − 1 lim |x1 − x0 |p + |y1 − y0 |p
 1/p
.
Perfect Numbers: x is an even perfect num- vertices. p→∞

ber iff x = 2n−1 (2n −1) and 2n −1 is prime. k-Tough ∀S ⊆ V, S 6= ∅ we have Area of triangle (x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 )
Wilson’s theorem: n is a prime iff k · c(G − S) ≤ |S|. and (x2 , y2 ):
 
(n − 1)! ≡ −1 mod n. k-Regular A graph where all vertices 1
 x1 − x0 y1 − y0 
2 abs  x − x
 .
have degree k. 2 0 y2 − y0 
Möbius 
inversion: k-Factor A k-regular spanning
1 if i = 1. Angle formed by three points:
subgraph.

0 if i is not square-free.

µ(i) = r Matching A set of edges, no two of
 (−1) if i is the product of
 (x2 , y2 )
r distinct primes. which are adjacent.
ℓ2
Clique A set of vertices, all of
If θ
X which are adjacent.
G(a) = F (d), (0, 0) ℓ1 (x1 , y1 )
Ind. set A set of vertices, none of
d|a
which are adjacent. (x1 , y1 ) · (x2 , y2 )
cos θ = .
then X a Vertex cover A set of vertices which ℓ1 ℓ2
F (a) = µ(d)G . cover all edges. Line through two points (x0 , y0 )
d
d|a Planar graph A graph which can be em- and (x1 , y1 ):
 
Prime numbers: beded in the plane.  x y 1
ln ln n
 
Plane graph An embedding of a planar  x0 y0 1  = 0.
pn = n ln n + n ln ln n − n + n  
  ln n graph.  x1 y1 1 
n Area of circle, volume of sphere:
+O ,
X
ln n deg(v) = 2m.
v∈V
A = πr2 , V = 34 πr3 .
n n 2!n
π(n) = + + If G is planar then n − m + f = 2, so
ln n (ln n)2 (ln n)3 If I have seen farther than others,
  f ≤ 2n − 4, m ≤ 3n − 6. it is because I have stood on the
n
+O . Any planar graph has a vertex with de- shoulders of giants.
(ln n)4
gree ≤ 5. – Issac Newton
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
π Calculus
Wallis’ identity: Derivatives:
2 ·2 · 4 ·4 · 6 ·6···
π =2· d(cu) du d(u + v) du dv d(uv) dv du
1 ·3 · 3 ·5 · 5 ·7··· 1. =c , 2. = + , 3. =u +v ,
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
Brouncker’s continued fraction expansion:
v du dv



12 d(un ) du d(u/v) dx − u d(ecu ) du
π 4. = nun−1 , 5. = dx
, 6. = cecu ,
4 = 1+ 32 dx dx dx v2 dx dx
2+ 52
2+
2+ 72 d(cu ) du d(ln u) 1 du
2+···
7. = (ln c)cu , 8. = ,
dx dx dx u dx
Gregrory’s series:
π 1 1 1 1 d(sin u) du d(cos u) du
4 =1− 3 + 5 − 7 + 9 − ··· 9. = cos u , 10. = − sin u ,
dx dx dx dx
Newton’s series:
d(tan u) du d(cot u) du
1 1 1·3 11. = sec2 u , 12. = csc2 u ,
π
= + + + ··· dx dx dx dx
6 2 2·3·2 3 2 · 4 · 5 · 25 d(sec u) du d(csc u) du
Sharp’s series: 13. = tan u sec u , 14. = − cot u csc u ,
dx dx dx dx
1  1 1 1  d(arcsin u) 1 du d(arccos u) −1 du
π
= √ 1− 1 + 2 − 3 +··· 15. =√ , 16. = √ ,
6
3 3 ·3 3 ·5 3 ·7 dx 1 − u dx
2 dx 1 − u2 dx
Euler’s series: d(arctan u) 1 du d(arccot u) −1 du
17. = , 18. = ,
dx 1 + u2 dx dx 1 + u2 dx
π2 1 1 1 1 1
6 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + ··· d(arcsec u) 1 du d(arccsc u) −1 du
π2
19. = √ , 20. = √ ,
= 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ ··· dx u 1 − u dx
2 dx u 1 − u dx
2
8 12 32 52 72 92
π2
= 1
− 1
+ 1
− 1
+ 1
− ··· d(sinh u) du d(cosh u) du
12 12 22 32 42 52 21. = cosh u , 22. = sinh u ,
dx dx dx dx
Partial Fractions d(tanh u) du d(coth u) du
23. = sech2 u , 24. = − csch2 u ,
Let N (x) and D(x) be polynomial func- dx dx dx dx
tions of x. We can break down d(sech u) du d(csch u) du
N (x)/D(x) using partial fraction expan- 25. = − sech u tanh u , 26. = − csch u coth u ,
dx dx dx dx
sion. First, if the degree of N is greater
than or equal to the degree of D, divide d(arcsinh u) 1 du d(arccosh u) 1 du
27. =√ , 28. = √ ,
N by D, obtaining dx 1 + u dx
2 dx u − 1 dx
2

N (x) N ′ (x) d(arctanh u) 1 du d(arccoth u) 1 du

= Q(x) + , 29. = , 30. = 2 ,
D(x) D(x) dx 1 − u2 dx dx u − 1 dx
where the degree of N ′ is less than that of d(arcsech u) −1 du d(arccsch u) −1 du
31. = √ , 32. = √ .
D. Second, factor D(x). Use the follow- dx u 1 − u2 dx dx |u| 1 + u2 dx
ing rules: For a non-repeated factor: Integrals:
N (x) A N ′ (x)
= + , Z Z Z Z Z
(x − a)D(x) x−a D(x) 1. cu dx = c u dx, 2. (u + v) dx = u dx + v dx,
where
1 1
  Z Z Z
N (x) n
A= . 3. x dx = xn+1 , n 6= −1, 4. dx = ln x, 5. ex dx = ex ,
D(x) x=a
n+1 x
dx dv du
Z Z Z
For a repeated factor: 6. = arctan x, 7. u dx = uv − v dx,
N (x)
m−1
X Ak N ′ (x) 1 + x2 dx dx
m
= m−k
+ , Z Z
(x − a) D(x) (x − a) D(x) 8. sin x dx = − cos x, 9. cos x dx = sin x,
k=0

where Z Z
1 dk N (x)
  
Ak = . 10. tan x dx = − ln | cos x|, 11. cot x dx = ln | cos x|,
k! dxk D(x) x=a Z Z
12. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x|, 13. csc x dx = ln | csc x + cot x|,
The reasonable man adapts himself to the
world; the unreasonable persists in trying Z p
to adapt the world to himself. Therefore 14. arcsin xa dx = arcsin xa + a2 − x2 , a > 0,
all progress depends on the unreasonable.
– George Bernard Shaw
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Calculus Cont.
Z p Z
15. arccos x
a dx = arccos x
a − a2 − x2 , a > 0, 16. arctan xa dx = x arctan xa − a
2 ln(a2 + x2 ), a > 0,
Z Z
sin2 (ax)dx = 1
cos2 (ax)dx = 1



17. 2a ax − sin(ax) cos(ax) , 18. 2a ax + sin(ax) cos(ax) ,
Z Z
19. sec2 x dx = tan x, 20. csc2 x dx = − cot x,

sinn−1 x cos x n − 1 cosn−1 x sin x n − 1

Z Z Z Z
21. sinn x dx = − + sinn−2 x dx, 22. cosn x dx = + cosn−2 x dx,
n n n n
tann−1 x cotn−1 x
Z Z Z Z
n n−2 n
23. tan x dx = − tan x dx, n 6= 1, 24. cot x dx = − − cotn−2 x dx, n 6= 1,
n−1 n−1
tan x secn−1 x n − 2
Z Z
25. secn x dx = + secn−2 x dx, n 6= 1,
n−1 n−1
cot x cscn−1 x n − 2
Z Z Z Z
26. cscn x dx = − + cscn−2 x dx, n 6= 1, 27. sinh x dx = cosh x, 28. cosh x dx = sinh x,
n−1 n−1
Z Z Z Z
csch x dx = ln tanh x2  ,
 
29. tanh x dx = ln | cosh x|, 30. coth x dx = ln | sinh x|, 31. sech x dx = arctan sinh x, 32.
Z Z Z
2 2
33. sinh x dx = 1
4 sinh(2x) − 1
2 x, 34. cosh x dx = 1
4 sinh(2x) + 1
2 x, 35. sech2 x dx = tanh x,
Z p Z
36. arcsinh x
a dx = x arcsinh x
a − x2 + a2 , a > 0, 37. arctanh xa dx = x arctanh xa + a
2 ln |a2 − x2 |,
 x p
Z  x arccosh − x2 + a2 , if arccosh xa > 0 and a > 0,
38. arccosh xa dx = a
 x arccosh x + x2 + a2 , if arccosh x < 0 and a > 0,
p
a a

dx
Z  p 
39. √ = ln x + a2 + x2 , a > 0,
a2 + x2
dx
Z Z p p 2
1 x
40. 2 2
= a arctan a , a > 0, 41. a2 − x2 dx = x2 a2 − x2 + a2 arcsin xa , a > 0,
a +x
Z p 4
42. (a2 − x2 )3/2 dx = x8 (5a2 − 2x2 ) a2 − x2 + 3a8 arcsin xa , a > 0,
 
dx dx 1 a + x dx x
Z Z Z
x
43. √ = arcsin a , a > 0, 44. 2 2
= ln  , 45. 2 2 3/2
= √ ,
2
a −x 2 a −x 2a  a−x  (a − x ) a a2 − x2
2

dx
Z p p   Z  
2
p p
46. a2 ± x2 dx = x2 a2 ± x2 ± a2 ln x + a2 ± x2  , 47. √ = ln x + x2 − a2  , a > 0,
   
x2 − a2
√ 2(3bx − 2a)(a + bx)3/2
 
dx 1  x 
Z Z
48. 2
= ln , 49. x a + bx dx = ,
ax + bx a  a + bx  15b2
Z √ √
√ √ 
a + bx 1 x 1  a + bx − a 
Z Z
50. dx = 2 a + bx + a √ dx, 51. √ dx = √ ln  √  √  , a > 0,
x x a + bx a + bx 2 a + bx + a 
Z √ 2  a + √a2 − x2 

a − x2 p Z p
52. 2 2
dx = a − x − a ln  , 53. x a2 − x2 dx = − 13 (a2 − x2 )3/2 ,
 
x  x 
 a + √a2 − x2 
 
dx
Z p p Z
4
54. x2 a2 − x2 dx = x8 (2x2 − a2 ) a2 − x2 + a8 arcsin xa , a > 0, 55. √ = − a1 ln  ,
 
2
a −x 2  x 
2
x dx x dx
Z p Z p 2
56. √ = − a2 − x2 , 57. √ = − x2 a2 − x2 + a2 arcsin a, x
a > 0,
2
a −x 2 a 2 − x2
√  √  √
a2 + x2  a + a2 + x2  x2 − a2
Z p Z p
a
58. dx = a2 + x2 − a ln  , 59. dx = x2 − a2 − a arccos |x| , a > 0,
 
x  x  x
 
dx x
Z p Z
x x2 ± a2 dx = 31 (x2 ± a2 )3/2 , = a1 ln 
 
60. 61. √ √ ,
x x2 + a2 a + a2 + x2 
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Calculus Cont. Finite Calculus
√
dx dx x2 ± a2 Difference, shift operators:
Z Z
1 a
62. √ = a arccos |x| , a > 0, 63. √ =∓ ,
x x2 − a2 x2 x2 ± a2 a2 x ∆f (x) = f (x + 1) − f (x),
√
x dx x2 ± a2 (x2 + a2 )3/2 E f (x) = f (x + 1).
Z p Z
64. √ = x2 ± a2 , 65. dx = ∓ ,
x2 ± a2 x4  3a2 x3 Fundamental Theorem:
  √
 2ax + b − b2 − 4ac  X
1 f (x) = ∆F (x) ⇔ f (x)δx = F (x) + C.
√ ln  √  , if b2 > 4ac,

  

dx
Z  2
b − 4ac 2
2ax + b + b − 4ac  b b−1
=

66. X X
ax2 + bx + c  2 2ax + b f (x)δx = f (i).
√ arctan √ if b2 < 4ac,

 , a i=a
4ac − b2 4ac − b2
Differences:

1  √ p 
∆(cu) = c∆u, ∆(u + v) = ∆u + ∆v,
√ ln 2ax + b + 2 a ax2 + bx + c , if a > 0,
  

dx a
Z 
67. √ = ∆(uv) = u∆v + E v∆u,
ax2 + bx + c  1 −2ax − b
√
 arcsin √ , if a < 0, ∆(xn ) = nxn−1 ,
−a b2 − 4ac
∆(Hx ) = x−1 , ∆(2x ) = 2x ,
2ax + b p 2 4ax − b2 dx
Z p Z
x x
ax2 + bx + c dx = √ ∆(cx ) = (c − 1)cx ,



68. ax + bx + c + , ∆ m = m−1 .
4a 8a 2
ax + bx + c
Sums:
√
x dx ax2
+ bx + c b dx
Z Z P P
cu δx = c u δx,
69. √ = − √ ,
2
ax + bx + c a 2a 2
ax + bx + c P P P
(u + v) δx = u δx + v δx,
  √ √ 
−1  2 c ax2 + bx + c + bx + 2c  P P
u∆v δx = uv − E v∆u δx,
 √c ln   , if c > 0,



dx x
Z
 n+1
√ = x δx = xm+1 ,
P n P −1
70. x δx = Hx ,
2
x ax + bx + c   1 bx + 2c
 √ arcsin √
 , if c < 0, P x c x P x

x


−c |x| b2 − 4ac c δx = c−1 , m δx = m+1 .
Z p Falling Factorial Powers:
71. x3 x2 + a2 dx = ( 13 x2 − 15
2 2
a )(x2 + a2 )3/2 ,
xn = x(x − 1) · · · (x − n + 1), n > 0,
0
x = 1,
Z Z
72. xn sin(ax) dx = − a1 xn cos(ax) + n
a xn−1 cos(ax) dx,
1
xn = , n < 0,
Z Z (x + 1) · · · (x + |n|)
n 1 n n n−1
73. x cos(ax) dx = ax sin(ax) − x sin(ax) dx,
a xn+m = xm (x − m)n .
Z
xn eax
Z Rising Factorial Powers:
74. xn eax dx = − n
xn−1 eax dx,
a a xn = x(x + 1) · · · (x + n − 1), n > 0,
 
ln(ax) 1
Z
75. xn ln(ax) dx = xn+1 − , x0 = 1,
n+1 (n + 1)2 1
n+1 xn = , n < 0,
x m
Z Z
(x − 1) · · · (x − |n|)
76. xn (ln ax)m dx = (ln ax)m − xn (ln ax)m−1 dx.
n+1 n+1 xn+m = xm (x + m)n .
Conversion:
x1 = x1 = x1 xn = (−1)n (−x)n = (x − n + 1)n
x2 = x2 + x1 = x2 − x1 = 1/(x + 1)−n ,
x3 = x3 + 3x2 + x1 = x3 − 3x2 + x1 xn = (−1)n (−x)n = (x + n − 1)n
x4 = x + 6x3 + 7x2 + x1
4
= x − 6x3 + 7x2 − x1
4
= 1/(x − 1)−n ,
x5 = x5 + 15x4 + 25x3 + 10x2 + x1 = x5 − 15x4 + 25x3 − 10x2 + x1 Xn  
n k X n
n  
xn = x = (−1)n−k xk ,
k k
x1 = x1 x1 = x1 k=1 k=1
n  
x2 = x + x1
2
x2 = x − x1
2 X n
xn = (−1)n−k xk ,
x3 = x3 + 3x2 + 2x1 x3 = x3 − 3x2 + 2x1 k
k=1
n  
x4 = x4 + 6x3 + 11x2 + 6x1 x4 = x4 − 6x3 + 11x2 − 6x1 n
X n k
x = x .
x5 = x5 + 10x4 + 35x3 + 50x2 + 24x1 x5 = x5 − 10x4 + 35x3 − 50x2 + 24x1 k
k=1
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Series
Taylor’s series: Ordinary power series:
∞
(x − a)2 ′′
′
X (x − a)i ∞
f (x) = f (a) + (x − a)f (a) + f (a) + · · · = f (i) (a).
X
2 i! A(x) = ai xi .
i=0 i=0
Expansions:
1 X∞ Exponential power series:
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + · · · = xi , ∞
xi
1−x
X
i=0 A(x) = ai .
∞ i!
1 X i=0
= 1 + cx + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + · · · = ci xi , Dirichlet power series:
1 − cx i=0
∞ ∞
1
X ai
A(x) = .
X
= 1 + x n
+ x 2n
+ x 3n
+ · · · = xni , ix
1 − xn i=0 i=1
∞ Binomial theorem:
x X
2 3
= x + 2x + 3x + 4x + · · · 4
= ixi , n  
n n−k k
(1 − x)2
X
i=0 (x + y)n = x y .
n   ∞ k
X n k!z k X k=0
= x + 2 n 2
x + 3 n 3
x + 4 n 4
x + · · · = in xi , Difference of like powers:
k (1 − z)k+1 i=0
k=0
∞ n−1
xi
X
xn − y n = (x − y) xn−1−k y k .
X
ex = 1 + x + 21 x2 + 16 x3 + · · · = ,
i=0
i! k=0
∞
X xi For ordinary power series:
ln(1 + x) = x − 12 x2 + 31 x3 − 41 x4 − · · · = (−1)i+1 , ∞
i X
i=1 αA(x) + βB(x) = (αai + βbi )xi ,
∞ i
1 Xx i=0
ln = x + 21 x2 + 31 x3 + 41 x4 + · · · = , ∞
1−x i X
i=1
∞ xk A(x) = ai−k xi ,
X x2i+1
sin x = x − 3! 1 3
x + 5! 1 5
x − 7! 1 7
x + ··· = (−1)i , i=k
(2i + 1)! Pk−1 i ∞
i=0 A(x) − ai x X
∞
x2i
i=0
= ai+k xi ,
xk
X
cos x = 1 − 2! 1 2
x + 4! 1 4
x − 6! 1 6
x + ··· = (−1)i , i=0
i=0
(2i)! ∞
X
X∞
x2i+1 A(cx) = ci ai xi ,
tan−1 x = x − 31 x3 + 51 x5 − 71 x7 + · · · = (−1)i , i=0
i=0
(2i + 1) ∞
∞  
X
n i A′ (x) = (i + 1)ai+1 xi ,
= 1 + nx + n(n−1)
X
(1 + x)n 2 x 2
+ · · · = x,
i=0
i i=0
∞
∞  
1 i+n i
X
xA′ (x) = iai xi ,
X
n+2 2


= 1 + (n + 1)x + 2 x + · · · = x,
(1 − x)n+1 i=0
i i=1
∞ ∞
Bi xi ai−1
Z
x X
xi ,
X
1 1 2 1 4 A(x) dx =
= 1 − 2 x + 12 x − 720 x + · · · = ,
x
e −1 i! i=1
i
i=0
∞
√ ∞
 
1 2 3
X 1 2i i A(x) + A(−x) X
(1 − 1 − 4x) = 1 + x + 2x + 5x + · · · = x, = a2i x2i ,
2x i=0
i+1 i 2 i=0
∞  
1 X 2i i A(x) − A(−x)
∞
√ = 1 + 2x + 6x2 + 20x3 + · · · = x, =
X
a2i+1 x2i+1 .
1 − 4x i=0
i 2
 √ n ∞  i=0
1 − 1 − 4x

1 4+n 2

X 2i + n i Pi
√ = 1 + (2 + n)x + 2 x + · · · = x, Summation: If bi = j=0 ai then
1 − 4x 2x i=0
i
∞ 1
1 1 X B(x) = A(x).
ln 3 2 11 3 25 4
= x + 2 x + 6 x + 12 x + · · · = Hi xi , 1−x
1−x 1−x i=1 Convolution:
2 ∞
Hi−1 xi
  
1 1 X ∞ i
ln = 21 x2 + 43 x3 + 24 11 4
x + ··· = , X X
2 1−x i A(x)B(x) =  aj bi−j  xi .
i=2
∞ i=0 j=0
x X
= x + x 2
+ 2x 3
+ 3x 4
+ · · · = Fi xi ,
1 − x − x2 i=0 God made the natural numbers;
∞
Fn x X all the rest is the work of man.
= F n x + F 2n x 2
+ F 3n x 3
+ · · · = Fni xi .
1 − (Fn−1 + Fn+1 )x − (−1)n x2 – Leopold Kronecker
i=0
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Series Escher’s Knot
Expansions:
∞    −n ∞  
1 1 X n+i i 1 X i
n+1
ln = (Hn+i − Hn ) x, = xi ,
(1 − x) 1−x i=0
i x i=0
n
∞   ∞  
X n i X i n!xi
xn = x, x
(e − 1) n
= ,
i=0
i i=0
n i!
n ∞   ∞
i n!xi (−4)i B2i x2i

1 X X
ln = , x cot x = ,
1−x i=0
n i! i=0
(2i)!
∞ 2i 2i 2i−1 ∞
i−1 2 (2 − 1)B2i x 1
X X
tan x = (−1) , ζ(x) = x
,
i=1
(2i)! i=1
i
∞ ∞
1 X µ(i) ζ(x − 1) X φ(i)
= x
, = ,
ζ(x) i=1
i ζ(x) i=1
ix
Y 1
ζ(x) = , Stieltjes Integration
p
1 − p−x
∞
If G is continuous in the interval [a, b] and F is nondecreasing then
X d(i) Z b
ζ 2 (x)
P
= where d(n) = d|n 1,
xi G(x) dF (x)
i=1 a
∞
X S(i) P exists. If a ≤ b ≤ c then
ζ(x)ζ(x − 1) = where S(n) = d|n d, Z c b c
xi
Z Z
i=1 G(x) dF (x) = G(x) dF (x) + G(x) dF (x).
2n−1
2 |B2n | 2n a a b
ζ(2n) = π , n ∈ N, If the integrals involved exist
(2n)! Z b Z b Z b
∞
x (4i − 2)B2i x2i


X G(x) + H(x) dF (x) = G(x) dF (x) + H(x) dF (x),
= (−1)i−1 , a a a
sin x i=0
(2i)! Z b Z b Z b
√ n ∞



1 − 1 − 4x X n(2i + n − 1)! G(x) d F (x) + H(x) = G(x) dF (x) + G(x) dH(x),
= xi , a a a
2x i=0
i!(n + i)! Z b Z b

Z b
∞ i/2 iπ c · G(x) dF (x) = G(x) d c · F (x) = c G(x) dF (x),
x
X 2 sin 4 i a a a
e sin x = x, b b
i!
Z Z
i=1 G(x) dF (x) = G(b)F (b) − G(a)F (a) − F (x) dG(x).
√
s
∞ a a
1− 1−x (4i)!
If the integrals involved exist, and F possesses a derivative F ′ at every
X
= √ xi ,
x i=0
i
16 2(2i)!(2i + 1)! point in [a, b] then
2 ∞ Z b Z b
4i i!2

arcsin x X
= x2i . G(x) dF (x) = G(x)F ′ (x) dx.
x i=0
(i + 1)(2i + 1)! a a

Cramer’s Rule Fibonacci Numbers

00 47 18 76 29 93 85 34 61 52
If we have equations: 86 11 57 28 70 39 94 45 02 63
a1,1 x1 + a1,2 x2 + · · · + a1,n xn = b1 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, . . .
95 80 22 67 38 71 49 56 13 04
a2,1 x1 + a2,2 x2 + · · · + a2,n xn = b2 59 96 81 33 07 48 72 60 24 15
Definitions:
.. .. .. 73 69 90 82 44 17 58 01 35 26 Fi = Fi−1 +Fi−2 , F0 = F1 = 1,
. . . 68 74 09 91 83 55 27 12 46 30 F−i = (−1) Fi , i−1

an,1 x1 + an,2 x2 + · · · + an,n xn = bn 37 08 75 19 92 84 66 23 50 41

 
14 25 36 40 51 62 03 77 88 99
Fi = √15 φi − φ̂i ,
Let A = (ai,j ) and B be the column matrix (bi ). Then 21 32 43 54 65 06 10 89 97 78 Cassini’s identity: for i > 0:
there is a unique solution iff det A 6= 0. Let Ai be A
with column i replaced by B. Then
42 53 64 05 16 20 31 98 79 87
Fi+1 Fi−1 − Fi2 = (−1)i .
det Ai Additive rule:
xi = . The Fibonacci number system:
det A Every integer n has a unique Fn+k = Fk Fn+1 + Fk−1 Fn ,
representation F2n = Fn Fn+1 + Fn−1 Fn .
Improvement makes strait roads, but the crooked n = Fk1 + Fk2 + · · · + Fkm , Calculation by matrices:
roads without Improvement, are roads of Genius. where ki ≥ ki+1 + 2 for all i,
   n
Fn−2 Fn−1 0 1
– William Blake (The Marriage of Heaven and Hell) 1 ≤ i < m and km ≥ 2. = .
Fn−1 Fn 1 1