Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences

PHYSICS II
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

LECTURE NOTES
PROF. DR. FAHRETTİN GÖKTAŞ

ELECTRIC FORCE AND FIELD

REFERENCE TEXT BOOKS

1. Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics, Raymond A. Serway and John W. Jewett,
Cengage Learning, Inc, 2015
2. University Physics with Modern Physics, Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Pearson, 2015
3. Principles of Physics, David Halliday, Robert Resnick, Jearl Walker, John Wiley & Sons, 2014
4. Physics: Principles with Applications, Douglas C. Giancoli, Prentice-Hall, 2016

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Electricty Magnetism

Charge Current

Electric Force Electric Field Magnetic Field Magnetic Force

Potential Electric
Energy Potential

Capacitor Resistor Inductor

DC and AC
Circuts

Energy&Power EM Waves Applications

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ELECTRICITY AND CHARGE

Electricity and magnetism is very important concept and it is all around us. We

have electric lights, electric clocks, mobile phones, computers, televisions, and so

on. Light itself is an electromagnetic phenomenon. Cars, trains, planes can only run

because of electricity. Muscle construction requires electricity. Your nerve

system is driven by electricity. Atoms, molecules, all chemical reactions exist

because of electricity. You could not see without electricity. Your hearth will not

beat without electricity. So the electricity is one of the most important concept of

our life.

The phenomenon of electricity has been known since ancient times. In 600 B.C.

people discovered that rubbing amber with fur could cause it to attract bits of

light material. The amber is Greek word for “electricity”.

Experiments done by French scientist Charles du Fay in the early 18th century

showed that there were two types of electricity: one he called “vitreous”, acquired

by glass when rubbed with silk; and the other he called “resinous”, acquired by

amber when rubbed with fur. He also discovered that two objects with vitreous

charge repelled each other, but that a vitreous-charged object and resinous

charged object attracted each other.

American scientist Benjamin Franklin held the view that electricity was a fluid, and

that the two types of electricity were actually an excess of electric fluid in one

material and a deficiency of fluid in the other. Franklin called the vitreous charge

“positive”, and the resinous charge “negative”, believing these to be an excess and

deficiency of electric fluid (respectively).

To verify that there are two types of charge, suppose a hard rubber rod that has

been rubbed with fur and a glass rod has been rubbed with silk. By this process

both the rubber and glass rods are electrified. Consider the rubber rod is

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suspended by a sewing thread, as shown in Figure. When the glass rod that has

been rubbed with silk is brought near the rubber rod, the two rods attract each

other. On the other hand, if two charged rubber rods (or two charged glass rods)

are brought near each other, as shown in Figure, the two repel each other.

This observation shows that the rubber and glass have two different types of
charge on them. Using the convention suggested by Franklin, the electric charge on
the glass rod is called positive charge and that on the rubber rod is called negative
charge. On the basis of these observations, we conclude that charges of the same
sign repel one another and charges with opposite signs attract one another.

Therefore, any charged object attracted to a charged rubber rod (or repelled by a
charged glass rod) must have a positive charge, and any charged object repelled by
a charged rubber rod (or attracted to a charged glass rod) must have a negative
charge.
Another important aspect of electricity that arises from experimental
observations is that electric charge is always conserved in an isolated system. That
is, when one object is rubbed against another, charge is not created in the process.

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The electrified state is due to a transfer of charge from one object to the other.
One object gains some amount of negative charge while the other gains an equal
amount of positive charge.

When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, negative

charge is transferred from the glass to the silk.
Glass rod adds negative charge to the silk and an
equal positive charge is left on the rod.

When a rubber rod is rubbed with fur, negative

charge is transferred from the fur to the rubber
rod. The fur adds negative charge on rubber rod
and an equal positive charge is left on the fur.

As a result of these experiments:

1- An electric charge has a polarity; that is, it is either positive or negative.
Like charge repel each other, and opposite charges attract.
2- An electric charge is conserved.

Modern view of Atom

Electrons were discovered by J. J. Thomson in 1897. Protons were discovered by

Ernest Rutherford in 1919 and Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in
1932. In modern view, an atom has a nucleus with positive charge in the center
(nucleus has positively charged protons and neutrons with no charge) and is
surrounded by electrons with negative charge.

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The size of nucleus (10-12 m) is very small compared to the size of atom (10-8 m). If
6 Billion of nuclei are lined up touching each other then it will just take 60 cm. In
nature, atoms are normally found with equal numbers of protons and electrons, so
they are electrically neutral. However, if an electron is removed from an atom, the
atom is positively charged and called positive ion. If an electron is added to the
atom then the atom is negatively charged and is called negative ion.

In 1909, Robert Millikan discovered that an electron has a charge of

e = -1.60210×10-19C and the proton has a charge of equal magnitude. The neutron,
on the other hand, has no net charge. Negative charges are the type possessed by
electrons and Positive charges are the type possessed by protons. Millikan found
that the charge always occurs as some integral multiple of a fundamental amount
of charge e. In modern terms, the electric charge q is said to be quantized, where
q is the standard symbol used for charge as a variable. That is, electric charge
exists as discrete “packets,” and we can write

q=Ne
where N is some integer.

Symbol Charge(C) Mass (kg)

Electron e -1,6x10-19 9,10953x10-31

Proton p +1,6x10-19 1,6726x10-27

Neutron n 0 1,6749x10-27

The basic unit of charge in the MKS system is the coulomb(C). But 1 C is a huge

amount of the charge. Therefore we usually deal with charges amount of µC

(1 µC = 10-6 C).

Example: Calculate the number of electrons in 1 C of the charge

𝑞 1
𝑁= = = 6.25𝑥10"$ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑒 1.6𝑥10!"#

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Conductors: Electrical conductors are materials in which some of the electrons are

free electrons.

• Free electrons are not bound to the atoms.

• These electrons can move relatively freely through the material
• Examples of good conductors include copper, aluminum and silver
• When a good conductor is charged in a small region, the charge readily
distributes itself over the entire surface of the material.

Insulators: Electrical insulators are materials in which all of the electrons are

bound to atoms

• These electrons cannot move relatively freely through the material

• Examples of good insulators include glass, rubber and wood
• When a good insulator is charged in a small region, the charge is unable to
move to other regions of the material.

Semiconductors: The electrical properties of semiconductors are somewhere

between those of insulators and conductors. They are insulators that can be
coaxed into giving up a conduction electron under the right conditions, such as a
sufficiently strong electric field. Common semiconductors are the elements silicon
and germanium.

Superconductors: Superconductors are exotic materials that form a special class

of conductor. While ordinary conductors always offer some sort of resistance to
the flow of electrons, superconductors offer no such resistance. This means, for
example, that if you form a superconductor into a ring and start electrons flowing
in it, they will continue flowing forever. Traditional superconductors are made by
cooling an ordinary conductor like mercury down to very low temperatures; below
some critical temperature, the material suddenly shows a transition from an
ordinary conductor to a superconductor.

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COULOMB LAW (Electric Force)

Charles Coulomb (1736–1806) measured the magnitudes of the electric forces

between charged objects using the torsion balance equipment, which he invented.
Coulomb confirmed that

n The electric force between two small charged spheres is inversely

proportional to the square of the separation r between the particles and
directed along the line joining them
1
𝐹∝
𝑟%

n The force is proportional to the product of the charges, q1 and q2, on the
two particles
𝐹 ∝ |𝑞" || 𝑞% |

n The force is attractive if the charges are of opposite sign

n The force is repulsive if the charges are of like sign

n The force is a conservative force

By combining the experimental results: The electrical force between two charges
at rest is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the charges.

𝑞! 𝑞"
𝐹⃗ = 𝑘 𝑟̂
𝑟"

where 𝑟̂ is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2 and k is called Coulomb constant.

Coulomb constant may be expressed as
1
𝑘=
4𝜋𝜀#

where ε0 is the permittivity of free space.

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Superposition Principle:

If there are more than two charges, the Coulomb force between two charges is not
affected by the other charges around. Therefore, the net force exerted on q1 by
q2 and q3 is vector sum of F12 and F13.

𝐹⃗" = 𝐹⃗"% + 𝐹⃗"&

Example 1:

In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the electron is in orbit about the nuclear
proton at a radius of 5.29x10-11 m.
a- Compare the magnitudes of the electrical and gravitational forces between
electron and proton.
b- Calculate the speed of the electron assuming that the gravitational force is
negligible.

The electrical force:

𝑞$ ∙ 𝑞% &
1.6 × 10'!& ∙ 1.6 × 10'!&
𝐹$ = 𝑘 = 9 × 10 = 8.2 × 10'( 𝑁
𝑟" (5.29 × 10'!! )"

The gravitational force

𝑚$ ∙ 𝑚% '!!
9.11 × 10'*! ∙ 1.67 × 10'"+
𝐹) = 𝐺 "
= 6.67 × 10 '!! "
= 3.6 × 10',+ 𝑁
𝑟 (5.29 × 10 )

𝐹$
The ratio of the electric force to the gravitational force is =𝐹 = 2 × 10*& .
)

The gravitational force may be ignored as compared to electrical force.

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a) If we chancel the gravitational force, then the electrical force leads to

centripetal acceleration

𝑣"
𝐹$ = 𝑚
𝑟

𝐹$ 𝑟 8.2 × 10'( ∙ 5.29 × 10'!!

𝑣=? = ? = 2.18 × 10- 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 9.11 × 10 '*!

Example 2: Three charges are located on x-y plane as seen. Calculate the

magnitude and the direction of the force exerted on q3.

Solution 2: The resultant force exerted on q3 is

the vector sum of F13 and F23. The magnitude of

F23:

𝑞" ∙ 𝑞* &
2 × 10'- ∙ 5 × 10'-
𝐹"* =𝑘 = 9 × 10
𝑎" 0.1"
= 9 𝑁

The magnitude of the force F13 exerted by q1 on q3 is

𝑞! ∙ 𝑞* 5 × 10'- ∙ 5 × 10'-
𝐹!* = 𝑘 =9× 10& = 11 𝑁
(√2𝑎)" 2 ∙ 0.1"

Combining F13 with F23 by the rules of the vector addition we arrive at the x and y

components of the resultant force acting on q3

𝐹*. = 𝐹!*. + 𝐹"*. = 7.9 − 9 = −1.1 N

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𝐹*/ = 𝐹!*/ + 𝐹"*/ = 7.9 + 0 = 7.9 𝑁

We can also express the resultant force acting on q3 in unit vector form as

𝐹⃗* = −1.1𝚤̂ + 7.9𝚥̂

The magnitude of the force

𝐹* = H(−1.1)" + (7.9)" = 8 𝑁
The direction of the resultant force
𝐹
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛'! L /M𝐹 N = 𝑡𝑎𝑛'! O7.9=−1.1P = 980
.

Example 3: The atomic mass of Cu is 64 g/mol and the charge of a single Cu atom

is 4.6x10-16 C. Calculate the charge on a cupper coin of mass m=3.1 g.

Solution 3:

The number of Cu atoms in 1 mol of the cupper (M g) is Avogadro number (N0).

!"! %.'×)×'*"#
N = = = 2.9𝑥10,, 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
$ )+

Thus the charge on coin:

Q= q N = 2.9x1022x4.6x10-16 C

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Example 4: Three charges are located on x-y plane as seen. Calculate the

magnitude and the direction of the force exerted on q1.

Q1=-1x10-6 C

Q2 =3x10-6 C

Q3=-2x10-6 C

r12=15 cm, r13= 10 cm, q=30o

The resultant force exerted on q3 is the vector sum of F12 and F13. The magnitude

of F12:

𝑄" 𝑄% #
1𝑥10!' 𝑥3𝑥10!'
𝐹"% = 𝑘 = 9𝑥10 = 1.2 𝑁
𝑟"% % 0.15%

The magnitude of F13

𝑄" 𝑄& #
1𝑥10!' 𝑥2𝑥10!'
𝐹"& = 𝑘 = 9𝑥10 = 1.8 𝑁
𝑟"& % 0.1%

F1x=F12x+F13x= F12+F13 sin θ = 2.1 N

F1y=F12y+F13y= 0 - F13 cos θ = -1.6 N

The magnitude of the force

𝐹 = @(2.1)% + (−1.6)% = 2.6 𝑁

The direction of the resultant force

𝐹
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛!" F (G𝐹 H = 𝑡𝑎𝑛!" I−1.6J2.1K = −37*
)

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Example 5:

Three point charges lie along the x axis as shown in Figure. The positive charge q1 =
15 µC is at d = 2 m, the positive charge q2 = 6 µC is at the origin, and the
resultant force acting on q3 is zero. What is the x coordinate of q3?

𝑞" 𝑞& 𝑞% 𝑞&

𝐹"& = 𝑘 𝐹%& = 𝑘
(2 − 𝑥)% 𝑥%
For the resultant force on q3 to be zero,
F23 must be equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to F13. Setting the
magnitudes of the two forces equal, we
have :

- - -" -#
$ #
𝑘 (,/0) " = 𝑘 0"
Þ (2 − 𝑥)" |𝑞" | = 𝑥 " |𝑞! |

By solving above equation we get x = 0.775 m.

Example 6:

Two identical small charged spheres, each having a mass of 3x10-2 kg, hang in
equilibrium as shown. The length of each string is 0.15 m, and the angle θ is 5.0°.
Find the magnitude of the charge on each sphere.

Because the sphere is in equilibrium, the forces in the horizontal and vertical
directions must separately add up to zero:

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M 𝐹) = 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝐹+ = 0

M 𝐹( = 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0

From these equations we get

1∙1
𝑘 3"
= 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔/𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑞 = 4.4 × 10'( 𝐶

Example: a positive charge Q1 = +Q is located a distance d along the y-axis from

the origin. A second positive charge Q2 = +Q is located at the origin and a negative
charge Q3 = -2Q is located on the x-axis a distance 2d away from Q1. Calculate the
net electrostatic force on Q1 due to the other two charges.

! ! !
F = F2 + F3
! qq ( +Q )( +Q ) ˆ Q2 ˆ
F2 = k 12 2 ˆj = k j=k 2 j
r12 d2 d

!
F3 = F3x ˆi + F3y ˆj

!
F3 = F3 cos q ˆi - F3 sin q ˆj

! qq qq
F3 = k 12 3 cos q ˆi - k 12 3 sin q ˆj
r13 r13
! ( +Q )( -2Q ) 3 ˆ ( +Q )( -2Q ) 1 ˆ
F3 = k i -k j
( 2d ) ( 2d )
2 2
2 2

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! 2Q 2 3 ˆ 2Q 2 1 ˆ
F3 = k i - k j
4d2 2 4d2 2

! ( +Q )( -2Q ) 3 ˆ ( +Q )( -2Q ) 1 ˆ
F3 = k i -k j
( 2d ) ( 2d )
2 2
2 2

! 3 kQ 2 ˆ 1 kQ 2 ˆ
F3 = i- j
4 d2 4 d2

! ! ! Q2 3 kQ 2 ˆ 1 kQ 2 ˆ
F = F2 + F3 = k 2 ˆj + i- j
d 4 d2 4 d2

! 3 kQ 2 ˆ 3 kQ 2 ˆ
F= i+ j
4 d2 4 d2

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ELECTRIC FIELD

Coulomb's Law quantifies the interaction between charged particles.

𝑞! 𝑞"
𝐹⃗ = 𝑘 𝑟̂
𝑟"

Charged particles exert forces on each other over great distances.

How does a charged particle "know" another one is “there?”
We use the concept of an electric field to explain this interaction. Here's the
idea…

1- Electric Field of Point Charges:

The idea of a field is required in order to explain the "action of electric force at a
distance." Recall the idea of gravitational field.

m
Fg

In this view, Earth creates a force on the mass m. But the Earth isn’t even
touching the mass. So we introduce the idea of a gravitational field.
m
Fg
g

Now we take the view that the field due to Earth, g, is exerting the gravitational
force on the mass. Since the force is 𝐹⃗, = 𝑚𝑔⃗, the gravitational field is defined as,

3⃗𝒈
𝑭
00⃗ =
𝒈 .
𝒎

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Faraday used the same approach for the electric force. He stated that:

1- Every charged object creates an electric field around itself. The electric
field lines of a positive charge are away from the center of the charge while
those of a negative charge toward to the center of charge. The field lines
leaving a positive charge terminate on a negative charge around.

2- If another charge (test charge) enters to this field, it experiences an

electric force.

Instead of thinking of Q exerting the force on q0, we think of Q creating a field

and the field exerting the force on q0. Mathematically, we can write 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞# 𝐸X⃗
which gives the definition of the electric field as
S⃗
𝑭
S𝑬⃗ = The Definition of Electric Field
𝒒𝟎

Consider q0=1 C than we get E=F. Note that the field is the force felt by each
Coulomb of charge (the force felt by unit charge). The electric force is a field
force. Field forces can act through space: the effect is produced even with no
physical contact between objects

From above equations, we may say that a point charge (source charge) creates
electric field around itself and if a second charge point enters this field a force
acts on it due to the field.

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If we substitute the Coulomb force in this equation we get the electric field of a
point charge at distance r.
𝒒 ∙ 𝒒𝟐
𝒌 𝒓] 𝒒
X𝑬
X⃗ = 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒌 𝟐 𝒓]
𝒒𝟐 𝒓
2- Superposition principle

At any point P, the total electric field due to a group of source charges
equals the vector sum of electric fields of all the charges

"𝑬⃗ = "𝑬⃗𝟏 + 𝑬
"⃗𝟐 + 𝑬
"⃗𝟑

q2
P Thus the field due to all charges:

𝐪𝒊
X⃗ = 𝐤 `
𝐄 𝐫]
𝐫𝒊 𝟐 𝒊
𝒊

q1 q3

Example:

A charge q1 = 7 µC is located at the

origin, and a second charge q2 = -5 µC is

located on the x axis, 0.3 m from the

origin as shown. Find the electric field

at the point P, which has coordinates

(0, 0.4) m.

Solution:

The magnitude of the electric field at P due to each charge.

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In vector form the electric fields are

𝐸S⃗" = 3.9𝑥10. 𝚥̂ 𝑁/𝐶 and 𝐸S⃗% = 1.1𝑥10. 𝚤̂ − 1.4𝑥10. 𝚥̂ 𝑁/𝐶

Thus the total field vector at point P is given as

𝐸S⃗/ = 1.1𝑥10. 𝚤̂ + 2.5𝑥10. 𝚥̂ 𝑁/𝐶

Example:

An electric dipole is defined as a positive charge q

and a negative charge -q separated by a distance

2a.

For the dipole shown in Figure, find the electric

field E at the point A due to the dipole.

Solution:

At P, the magnitudes of the electric fields due to charges are equal because P is
equidistant from the charges.

𝑞 𝑞
𝐸" = 𝐸% = 𝑘 %
=𝑘 %
𝑟 𝑦 + 𝑎%

The y components of E1 and E2 cancel each other, and the x components are both in
the positive x direction and have the same magnitude.

𝐸S⃗ = 𝐸S⃗" + 𝐸S⃗% = 2 𝐸" 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝚤̂

The magnitude of the electric field is given as

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where P = q(2a) is called electrical dipole. Electrical dipole is a vector and its
direction is from negative charge toward positive charge. Thus the electrical field
of a dipole is

𝑝
𝐸=𝑘
(𝑦 " + 𝑎" )*/"

Example 4: Find the electric field felt by the charge on the bottom-left corner of
the square shown below.

Using the field due to a point charge, the magnitude of each field vector.

Adding up the vector components,

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The magnitude and direction of the electric field

Example 3: Calculate the electric field felt by the electron in a hydrogen atom.

r = 0.052nm and qp = 1.6 x 10-19C

Using the definition of electric field

Ep = 5.3 x 1011N/C

3- The Electric Field Due to Continuous Charge Distributions

So far we have seen how to calculate the electric field of a point charge and also a

group of charge in a point in space. If the distances between charges are negligible

small, this group of charges is considered a solid system of continuously

distributed charge. The charge distribution may be along some line, over some

surface, or throughout some volume. In this section we shall calculate the electric

field of a solid object with uniform charge distribution at a point in space.

The solid object is composed of infinity

numbers of point charges (charge element) of
∆q.

The electric field at P due to one charge

element carrying charge ∆q is

∆𝒒
S⃗𝒊 = 𝒌
∆𝑬 𝒓o
𝒓𝟐
where r is the distance from the charge
element to point P and 𝒓o is a unit vector
directed from the element toward P.

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From the superposition principle we know that the electric field due to all charge
elements is the vector sum of the electric fields of each charge element.
∆𝒒
S⃗ = ∆𝑬
𝑬 S⃗𝟏 + ∆𝑬
S⃗𝟐 + ∆𝑬
S⃗𝟑 + ⋯ = 𝒌 M 𝒓o
𝒓𝒊 𝟐 𝒊
𝒊

Because the charge distribution is modeled as continuous, the total field at P in the
limit ∆𝑞 → 0 is
∆𝒒 𝒅𝒒
S𝑬⃗ = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 M o
𝒓 𝒊 = 𝒌 u 𝒓o
∆𝒒→𝟎 𝒓𝒊 𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝒊

where the integration is over the entire charge distribution.

As it may be seen from the figure that when the charge element is changed the
distance to P is also changed. Therefore, in order to evaluate the integral we need
to calculate ∆𝑞 in terms of r. In order to calculate ∆𝑞 in terms of r, it is convenient
to use the concept of a charge density along with the following notations:

• If a charge Q is uniformly distributed throughout a volume V, the volume

charge density 𝜌 is defined by
𝑄
𝜌=
𝑉
The charge element is the calculated as ∆𝑞 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉.

• If a charge Q is uniformly distributed on a surface are A, the surface charge

density s is defined by
𝑄
𝜎=
𝐴
The charge element is the calculated as ∆𝑞 = 𝜌𝑑𝑆.

• If a charge Q is uniformly distributed along a line length L, the linear charge

density l is defined by
𝑄
𝜆=
𝐿
The charge element is the calculated as ∆𝑞 = 𝜌𝑑𝐿.

Example:

A rod of length 𝑙 has a uniform positive charge per unit length l and a total charge
Q. Calculate the electric field at a point P that is located along the long axis of the
rod and a distance a from one end.

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In order to calculate the total field at P, the rod is divided to many segments of
length dx. The charge on each segment is dq. The linear charge density l is

𝑄
𝜆=
𝑙

Thus the charge element is 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥. The electric field due to dq is given as

∆𝒒 𝝀𝒅𝒙
𝚫𝑬 = 𝒌 𝟐
=𝒌 𝟐
𝒙 𝒙

The total field at P due to all segments of the rod, which are at different
distances from P, is given integrating this equation over all segments.
𝒂8𝒍
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝒂8𝒍 𝑸
𝐄 = u 𝚫𝑬 = 𝒌𝝀 u 𝟐
= 𝒌𝝀 ƒ− … =𝒌
𝒂 𝒙 𝒙𝒂 𝒂(𝒍 + 𝒂)

where Q=ll is used.

Example:
A thin rod of length 𝑙 and uniform charge per unit length l lies along the x axis, as
shown in Figure. Calculate the magnitude of the electrical field at point P.

The charge element is 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥 with 𝜆 = 𝑄/𝐿

The field due to dq is

𝑑𝑞 𝜆𝑑𝑥
Δ𝐸 = 𝑘 =𝑘 %
𝑟 % (𝑥 + 𝑏 % )

The x and y componets of Δ𝐸

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:) ) ):)
Δ𝐸) = Δ𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑘𝜆 () ! 8<! ) = 𝑘𝜆 () ! 8<!)"/!
>() ! 8< ! )

:) < <:)
Δ𝐸( = Δ𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑘𝜆 () ! 8<!) = 𝑘 () ! 8<!)"/!
>() ! 8< ! )

'/&
𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝐸# = ( Δ𝐸# = 𝑘𝜆 ( $/&
=0
2
+𝑥2 + 𝑏 ,
('/&

'/&
𝑑𝑥 𝑞
𝐸) = ( Δ𝐸) = 𝑘𝜆𝑏 ( $/&
=𝑘
2 &
('/&
+𝑥2 + 𝑏 , /+𝐿, + 𝑏&
2

Example:

A ring of radius a carries a uniformly distributed positive total charge Q. Calculate

the electric field due to the ring at a point P lying a distance x from its center
along the central axis perpendicular to the plane of the ring.

The charge element is 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥.

The field due to dq is

𝑑𝑞 𝜆𝑑𝑥
Δ𝐸 = 𝑘 =𝑘 %
𝑟 % (𝑥 + 𝑎% )

The x and y components of Δ𝐸

:) ) )@:) ):A
Δ𝐸) = Δ𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑘𝜆 () ! 8?! ) = 𝑘 () ! 8?!)"/! = 𝑘 () ! 8?! )"/!
>() ! 8? ! )

:) ? ?:)
Δ𝐸( = Δ𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑘𝜆 () ! 8?! ) = 𝑘 () ! 8?! )"/!
>() ! 8? ! )

𝐸) = ∫ Δ𝐸) = 0 due to symmetry

,
*
𝑥𝑑𝑞 𝑥 𝑥𝑄
𝐸# = ( Δ𝐸# = 𝑘 ( $/&
=𝑘 $/&
( 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑘 $/&
+ 4𝑥 2 + 𝑎 2 5 4𝑥2 + 𝑎2 5 + 4 𝑥2 + 𝑎2 5

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 Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences

𝑥𝑄
𝐸- = 𝐸# = 𝑘 $/&

4𝑥 2 + 𝑎 2 5

Example:

A disk of radius R has a uniform surface charge density 2. Calculate the electric
field at a point P that lies along the central perpendicular axis of the disk and a
distance x from the center of the disk.

The best charge element (dq) for body given is

ring of radius r and thickness dr.

The charge element is 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝑠 where

𝑄
𝜎=
𝜋𝑟𝑅%

𝑑𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟

The electric field due to charge element

𝑑𝑞 𝜎2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
Δ𝐸 = 𝑘 =𝑘 %
𝑟′ % (𝑟 + 𝑥 % )

𝒓𝒅𝒓 𝒙 𝒓𝒅𝒓
𝚫𝑬𝒙 = 𝚫𝑬 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟐𝝅𝝈𝒌 = 𝟐𝝅𝝈𝒌 𝟐
(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒓 ) @(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒓𝟐 )
𝟐 (𝒙 + 𝒓𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐

𝒓𝒅𝒓 𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒓
𝚫𝑬𝒙 = 𝚫𝑬 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝟐𝝅𝝈𝒌 𝟐 = 𝟐𝝅𝝈𝒌 𝟐
(𝒙 + 𝒓𝟐 ) @(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒓𝟐 ) (𝒙 + 𝒓𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐

𝐸) = ∫ Δ𝐸) = 0 due to symmetry

3 ./. 4 4
𝐸# = ∫ Δ𝐸# = 2𝜋𝜎𝑘 ∫+ !/# = 2𝜋𝜎𝑘𝑥 : $/# − 5<
0𝑥2 +𝑟2 2 2
0𝑥2 +𝑅 2

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Example :

A uniformly charged insulating rod of length

14 cm is bent into the shape of a semicircle
as shown in Figure. The rod has a total charge
of -7.5 µC.
Find the magnitude and direction of the
electric field at O, the center of the
semicircle.

𝒅𝒒 = 𝝀𝒅𝒔
𝒅𝒔
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒅𝜽 = ⟹ 𝒅𝒔 = 𝒓𝒅𝜽
𝒓

𝒅𝒒 = 𝝀𝒅𝒔 = 𝝀𝒓𝒅𝜽

𝒅𝒒 𝝀𝒓𝒅𝜽 𝝀𝒅𝜽
𝒅𝑬 = 𝒌 = 𝒌 = 𝒌
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝒓

Due to symmetry 𝑬𝒚 = ∫ 𝒅𝑬𝒚 = 𝟎

𝑬𝒙 = m 𝒅𝑬 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

𝒌𝝀 𝝅 𝒌𝝀 𝒌𝝀
𝑬𝒙 = m 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 = (−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)|𝝅𝟎 = 𝟐
𝒓 𝟎 𝒓 𝒓

𝟐𝒌𝝀𝒒𝝅 𝟐 ∙ 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 ∙ 𝟕. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎'𝟔 ∙ 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒

𝑬𝒙 = =
𝑳𝟐 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟐

𝐄𝐱 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑵/𝑪

The electric field vector is

XX⃗ = −𝟐. 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 ~̂ 𝑵/𝑪

𝑬

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THE MOTION IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELDS

1- Motion of a Charge in Electric Field.

The electric field of a point charge is

𝒒
XX⃗ = 𝒌
𝑬 𝒓]
𝒓𝟐
The electric field is a vector. If point charge is positive the electric field points
out in the direction of 𝒓o (Electric field lines are always directed away from positive
charges). If the point charge is negative than the electric field in opposite
direction to 𝒓o (the field is directed toward to the negative source charge).

The lines must begin on a positive charge and terminate on a negative charge. No
two field lines can cross. The electric field lines close to the point charge are close
to each other, but when moving away from the charge the electric field line are
separated from each other. That is, the electric field is not uniform.

The # of field lines Same # of field lines Two lines leave the +2q
leaving the +q equals the from each charge for each line that
# of lines terminating terminates on the –q.
on the –q

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The electric field lines of a charged rod of finite length are non-uniform but
those of infinity length rod are uniform.

When a particle of charge q and mass m is placed in an

electric field E, the electric force exerted on the charge

is

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸S⃗

If this is the only force exerted on the particle, it must be the net force and
causes the particle to accelerate according to Newton’s second law. Thus,

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸S⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗

The acceleration of the particle is therefore

𝑞𝐸?⃗
𝑎⃗ =
𝑚

If the electric field is uniform (that is, constant in magnitude and direction), then
the acceleration is constant. If the particle has a positive charge, its acceleration
is in the direction of the electric field. If the particle has a negative charge, its
acceleration is in the direction opposite the electric field.

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Example

A positive point charge q of mass m is released from rest in a uniform electric field
E directed along the x axis, as shown in Figure. Describe its motion.

The acceleration is constant and is given by q E/m.

The motion is simple linear motion along the x axis.
Therefore, we can apply the equations of kinematics
in one dimension
1
𝑥 = 𝑣D 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 %
2
𝑣 = 𝑣D + 𝑎𝑡

,67⃗
Since 𝑣D = 0 and 𝑎⃗ = 9
we get the position and the
velocity of the charge as

" AE AE AE %F)
𝑥 = % F 𝑡 % and 𝑣 = F
𝑡, 𝑣 = F
˜ AE

" %AE
and the kinetic energy 𝐾 = % 𝑚 š F
› 𝑥 = 𝑞𝐸𝑥

The electric field in the region

between two oppositely charged
flat metallic plates is
approximately uniform. Suppose
an electron of charge -e is
projected horizontally into this
field from the origin with an
initial velocity 𝑐 at time t = 0.

The gravitational effect is ignored. Because the electric field E is in the positive y
direction, the acceleration of the electron is in the negative y direction. That is,

𝑒
𝑎⃗ = − 𝐸 𝚥̂
𝑚

Because the acceleration is constant, we can apply the equations of kinematics in

two dimensions.

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X direction Y direction

+E
𝑣D) = 𝑣G and 𝑎) = 0 𝑣D( = 0 and 𝑎( = − F
𝑒𝐸
𝑣) = 𝑣G 𝑡 𝑣( = − 𝑡
𝑚
1 𝑒𝐸 %
𝑦=− 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑣G 𝑡 2𝑚

From last two equations we get

1 𝑒𝐸 𝑥 %
𝑦=−
2 𝑚 𝑣G

This equation shows the deflection of electron from its initial trajectory when it
leaves the plates. The idea is used in old televisions, Oscilloscopes, inkjet printers.

Example:
An electron enters the region of

a uniform electric field of 200

N/C as shown in Figure, with 𝑣G =

3x10' m/s. The horizontal length

of the plates is 0.1 m.

a) Find the acceleration of the electron while it is in the electric field.

𝑒𝐸 1.6𝑥10$%& ∙ 200
𝑎=− =− = 3.51𝑥10%' 𝑚/𝑠 (
𝑚 9.11𝑥10$'%

b) If the electron enters the field at time t =0, find the time at which it leaves
the field.
𝑙 0.1
𝑡= = = 3.33𝑥10$+ 𝑠
𝑣) 3x10*

c) What is vertical position of electron when it leaves the field?

1 𝑒𝐸 (
𝑦=− 𝑡 = −1.95 𝑐𝑚
2𝑚

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Example :

The Earth has an electric field of about 150 N/C

pointed downward. A 1 µm radius water droplet is
suspended in calm air (the density of water is 1000
kg/m3) F
e

a) Find the mass of the water droplet,

E
F
b) Find the charge on the water droplet and g
c) Find the number of excess electrons on the
droplet.

a) Use the definition of density and the volume of a sphere,

m
rº Þ m = r (vol ) = r 4 pr 3 = (1000) 4 p(1.00 x10 -6 ) 3 = 4.19 x10 -15 kg
vol 3 3

b) The forces on the droplet are its weight and the electric force. Using
Newton’s Second Law,

SF = 0 Þ Fe - Fg = 0 Þ Fe = Fg

Using the definitions of the electric and gravitational fields,

mg (4.19 x10 -15 )(9.80)

qE = mg Þ q = = = 2.74 x10 -16 C
E 150

q 2.74 x10 -16

c) Since charge is quantized, q = Ne Þ N = = = 1710 electrons
e 1.60 x10 -19
Example:

A proton is projected in the positive x direction into a region of a uniform electric

field E=-6x105i N/C at t =0. The proton travels 7 cm before coming to rest.
Calculate the acceleration of the proton, its initial speed, and the time at which
the proton comes to rest.
𝑒𝐸 1.6𝑥10'!& ∙ 6𝑥10E
𝑎= = = 5.76𝑥10!* 𝑚/𝑠 "
𝑚 1.67𝑥10'"+

𝑣 " = 𝑣#" − 2𝑎𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑣# = √2𝑎𝑥 = H2 ∙ 5.76𝑥10!* ∙ 0.07 = 2.8𝑥10- 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣# 2.8𝑥10-
𝑣 = 𝑣# + 𝑎𝑡 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 = = !*
= 4.9𝑥10F 𝑠
𝑎 5.76𝑥10

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Example:

A small, 2 g plastic ball is suspended by a

20 cm long string in a uniform electric field

as shown in Figure. If the ball is in

equilibrium when the string makes a 15°

angle with the vertical, what is the net

charge on the ball?

qE
+

mg

∑ 𝐹. = 0, 𝑞𝐸 − 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0

𝑚𝑔
` 𝐹/ = 0, 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 ⇒ 𝑇 = = 2.03𝑥10'" 𝑁
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑇 sin 150 2.03𝑥10'" sin 150

𝑞= = = 5.25𝑥10'- 𝐶 = 5.25 𝜇𝐶
𝐸 1𝑥10*

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Example:

Two small spheres, each of mass 2 g, are

suspended by light strings 10 cm in length.

A uniform electric field is applied in the x

direction. The spheres have charges equal

to -5x10-8 C and +5x10-8 C. Determine the

electric field that enables the spheres to

be in equilibrium at an angle θ=10°.

Fe qE
+

mg

A!
∑ 𝐹) = 0, 𝑞𝐸 − 𝑘 − 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
(%HIGJK)!

𝑚𝑔
M 𝐹( = 0, 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 ⇒ 𝑇 = = ⋯𝑁
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑞%
𝑘 + 𝑚𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
(2𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)%
𝐸 = = 4.4 × 10. 𝑁/𝐶
𝑞

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Example:

A charged cork ball of mass 1.00 g is

suspended on a light string in the
presence of a uniform electric field as
shown. When an electric field of 𝐸S⃗ =
(3𝚤̂ + 5𝚥̂)𝑥10. N/C, the ball is in equilibrium
at θ= 37°.

a) Find the charge on the ball

b) Find the tension in the string.

T
𝑞𝐸S⃗

mg

∑ 𝐹0 = 0, 𝑞𝐸0 − 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0

` 𝐹/ = 0, 𝑞𝐸/ 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0

By using these two equations we get

The tension in the cord is

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2- Motion of an Electric Dipole in Electric Field.

The electric dipole moment for a pair of opposite charges of magnitude q is

defined as the magnitude of the charge times the distance between them and the

defined direction is toward the positive charge. It is a useful concept in atoms

and molecules where the effects of charge separation are measurable, but the

distances between the charges are too small to be easily measurable. It is also a

useful concept in dielectrics and other applications in solid and liquid materials.

A dipole in a constant electric field as shown

above feels no net force because the two forces
on it caused by the field are equal and opposite.
However, the dipole does feel a net torque. From
a reference point located on negative charge, the
torque acting on positive charge is

𝜏⃗ = 𝑑⃗ × 𝐹⃗

The magnitude of the torque is

𝜏 = 𝑑𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑑𝑞𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

In vector form

𝜏⃗ = 𝑃S⃗ × 𝐸S⃗

We already know from previous term that the negative of the work done by a
conservative force is equal to the change in potential energy.

∆𝑈 = −𝑊L

If dipole is rotated by torque from 𝜃0 to 𝜃, the work done is given as

K K
𝑊 = u 𝜏 𝑑𝜃 = u 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = − 𝑃𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑃𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃D
K$ K$

If the dipole is initially located vertically to the field (𝜃DM 𝜋J2) the work is then

𝑊 = −𝑃𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Then the change in the potential energy of the dipole is

∆𝑈 = −𝑊 = 𝑃𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑃S⃗ ∙ 𝐸S⃗

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