CONTENTS

Fig No Title Page No.

1 1
INTRODUCTION
2 CONSTRUCTION OF SUBSTATION 2
3 CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION 4
4 SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM 6
5 INSTRUMENTS OF SUBSTATION 8
6 EARTHING 11
7 TYPES OF CONTROL 15
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION :

The present-day electrical power system is A.C. i.e. electric power is

generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating current. The electric
power is produced at the power stations which are located at favourable places,
generally quite away from the consumers. It is delivered to the consumers through a
large network of transmission and distribution. At many places in the line of the
power system, it may be desirable and necessary to change some characteristic (e.g.
voltage, A.C. to D.C., frequency, Power factor etc.) of electric supply.

This is accomplished by suitable apparatus called sub-station. For example,

generation voltage (11KV or 6.6KV) at the power station is stepped up to high
voltage (say 220KV or 132KV) for transmission of electric power. The assembly of
apparatus (e.g. transformer etc.) used for this purpose is the sub-station. Similarly,
near the consumer’s localities, the voltage may have to be stepped down to utilization
level. This job is again accomplished by a suitable apparatus called ‘substation.
1.2 CONSTRUCTION OF A SUBSTATION

At the time of constructing a substation, we have to consider some factors

which affect the substation efficiency like selection of site.

1.2.1 SELECTION OF SITE:

Main points to be considered while selecting the site for EHV Sub-Station are
as follows:

i) The site chosen should be as near to the load centre as possible.

ii) It should be easily approachable by road or rail for transportation of equipments.
iii) Land should be fairly levelled to minimize development cost.
iv) The source of water should be as near to the site as possible. This is because water
is required for various construction activities;
(Especially civil works,), earthing and for drinking purposes etc.
v) The sub-station site should be as near to the town / city but should be clear of
public places, aerodromes, and Military / police installations.
vi) The land should be have sufficient ground area to accommodate substation
equipments, buildings, staff quarters, space for storage of material, such as store yards
and store sheds etc. with roads and space for future expansion.
vii) Set back distances from various roads such as National Highways, State
Highways should be observed as per the regulations in force.
viii) While selecting the land for the substation preference to be given to the Govt.
land over Private land.
ix) The land should not have water logging problem.
x) The site should permit easy and safe approach to outlets for EHV lines.
 CHAPTER 2
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATIONS

There are several ways of classifying sub-stations. However, the two most
important ways of classifying them are according to (1) service requirement and (2)
constructional features.

2.1 ACCORDING TO THE REQUIREMENT:

A sub-station may be called upon to change voltage level or improve power
factor or convert A.C. power into D.C. power etc. According to the service
requirement, sub-stations may be classified into:

(i) Transformer sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change the voltage

level of electric supply are called transformer sub-stations. These sub-stations receive
power at some voltage and deliver it at some other voltage. Obviously, transformer
will be the main component in such sub-stations. Most of the sub-stations in the
power system are of this type.
(ii) Switching sub-stations: These sub-stations do not change the voltage level
i.e. incoming and outgoing lines have the same voltage. However, they simply
perform the switching operations of power lines.
(iii) Power factor correction sub-stations: Those sub-stations which improve
the power factor of the system are called power factor correction sub-stations. Such
sub-stations are generally located at the receiving end of transmission lines. These
sub-stations generally use synchronous condensers as the power factor improvement
equipment.
(iv) Frequency changer sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change the
supply frequency are known as frequency changer sub-stations. Such a frequency
change may be required for industrial utilization.

(v) Converting sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change A.C. power into
D.C. power are called converting sub-stations. These sub-stations receive A.C. power
and convert it into D.C. power with suitable apparatus (e.g. ignitron) to supply for
such purposes as traction, electroplating, electric welding etc.

(vi)Industrial sub-stations:- Those sub-stations which supply power to individual

industrial concerns are known as industrial sub-stations.

2.2 ACCORDING TO THE CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES:

A sub-station has many components (e.g. circuit breakers, switches, fuses,

instruments etc.) which must be housed properly to ensure continuous and reliable
service. According to constructional features, the sub-stations are classified as:
· Indoor sub-station
· Outdoor sub-station
· Underground sub-station
· Pole-mounted sub-station

(i) Indoor sub-stations:- For voltages up to 11KV, the equipment of the sub-
station is installed indoor because of economic considerations. However, when the
atmosphere is contaminated with impurities, these sub-stations can be erected for
voltages up to 66 KV.
(ii) Outdoor sub-stations:- For voltages beyond 66KV, equipment is invariably
installed out-door.

It is because for such voltages, the clearances between conductors and the
space required for switches, circuit breakers and other equipment becomes so great
that it is not economical to install the equipment indoor.

(iii) Underground sub-stations:- In thickly populated areas, the space available

for equipment and building is limited and the cost of land is high. Under such
situations, the sub-station is created underground.

(iv) Pole-Mounted sub-stations:- This is an outdoor sub-station with equipment

installed over-head on H-pole or 4-pole structure. It is the cheapest form of sub-
station for voltages not exceeding 11KV (or 33 KV in some cases). Electric power is
almost distributed in localities through such sub-station.

Fig: 2.1 CONSTRUCTION OF THE SUBSTATION.

 CHAPTER 3
SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM (SLD)

A Single Line Diagram (SLD) of an Electrical System is the Line Diagram of

the concerned Electrical System which includes all the required electrical equipment
connection sequence wise from the point of entrance of Power up to the end of the
scope of the mentioned Work. As in the case of 132KV Substation, the SLD shall
show Lightening Arrestor, C.T/P.T Unit, Isolators, Protection and Metering P.T &
C.T. Circuit Breakers, again Isolators and circuit Breakers, Main Power Transformer,
all protective devices/relays and other special equipment like CVT, GUARD RINGS,
etc as per design criteria. And the symbols are shown below. There are several
feeders enter into the substation and carrying out the power. As these feeders enter
the station they are to pass through various instruments.
3.1 FEEDER CERCUIT:
1. Lightening arrestors; 2. CVT; 3. Wave trap; 4. Isolators with earth switch
5. Current transformer; 6. Circuit breaker; 7. Feeder Bus isolator
8. BUS; 9. Potential transformer in the bus with a bus isolator
3.2 TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT:
i) HV side:
1. Transformer bus Isolator 3. Current transformer
2. Circuit breaker 4. Lightning Arrestors
5. Auto Transformer 100MVA (220/132KV)
ii) LV side:
1. Lightening arrestors 5. Bus
2. Current transformer 6. Potential transformer with a bus isolator
3. Circuit breaker 7. A capacitor bank attached to the bus
4. Bus Isolator.
3.3 AUXILIARY SUPPLY:
220V.Battery system: To control and protect the substation equipment the
220 volts DC battery system is necessary. It is provided in the main control room. It
will be discussed below.

Fig: 3.1 SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF A 220/132KV SUBSTATION

WARANGAL.
 CHAPTER 4
BRIEF DISCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS IN THE
SUBSTATION
4.1 LIGHTENING ARRESTORS:

4.1.1 Lightening Arrestors:

Lightening arrestors are the instruments that are used in the incoming feeders
so that to prevent the high voltage entering the main station. This high voltage is very
dangerous to the instruments used in the substation. Even the instruments are very
costly, so to prevent any damage lightening arrestors are used. The lightening
arrestors do not let the lightening to fall on the station. If some lightening occurs the
arrestors pull the lightening and ground it to the earth. In any substation the main
important is of protection which is firstly done by these lightening arrestors. The
lightening arrestors are grounded to the earth so that it can pull the lightening to the
ground.

The lightning arresters or surge diverters provide protection against such

surges. A lightning arrester or a surge diverter is a protective device, which conducts
the high voltage surges on the power system to the ground.
4.2 EARTHING:
The earthing practice adopted at generating stations, sub-stations and lines
should be in such a manner as to provide:
a) Safety to personnel
b) Minimum damage to equipment as a result of flow of heavy fault currents
c) Improve reliability of power supply
4.2.1 The primary requirements are:
The impedance to ground (Resistance of the earthing system) should be as low as possible
and should not exceed,

Large sub-stations -1 ohm

Small sub-stations -2 ohms

Power stations -0.5 ohms
Distribution transformer stations- 5 ohms
4.2.1.1 All exposed steel earthing conductors should be protected with bituminous
paint.
4.2.1.2 PLATE EARTHING:
i) EHT Substation - 1.3 M x 13 M.Ms cast iron plates 25mm thick Plates are
to be buried vertically in pits and surrounded by finely divided coke, crushed coal or
char coal at least 155 mm all round the plates. Plates should not be less than 15 m
apart and should be buried to sufficient depth to ensure that they are always
surrounded by moist earth.

4.2.1.3 PIPE EARTHING:

a) EHT substations Cast iron pipes 125 mm in diameter 2.75 m long and not less than
9.5 mm thick pipes 50.8mm in dia and 3.05m long. Pipes are to be placed vertically at
intervals of not less than 12.2 m in large stations surrounded by finely broken coke
crushed coal and charcoal at least 150 mm around the pipe on the extra depth.
a) Peripheral or main earth mat- 100 x 16 m MS flat
b) Internal earth mat- 50 x 8m MS flat to be placed at 5m apart
c) Branch connections- Cross section not less than 64.5 square meters
 Joints are to be kept down to the minimum number. All joints and
connections in earth grid are to be brazed, riveted, sweated, bolted or welded. For rust
protection the welds should be treated with barium chromate. Welded surfaces should
be painted with red lead and aluminium paint in turn and afterwards coated with
bitumen. Joints in the earthing conductor between the switch gear units and the cable
sheaths, which may require to subsequently broken should be bolted and the joint
faces tinned. All joints in steel earthing system should be made by welding except the
points for separating the earthing mat for testing purposes which should be bolted.
These points should be accessible and frequently supervised.

4.2.1.4 In all sub-stations there shall be provision for earthing the following:
a) The neutral point of earth separate system should have an independent
earth, which in turn should be interconnected with the station grounding mat

b) Equipment frame work and other non-current carrying parts (two

connections)

c) All extraneous metallic frame work not associated with equipment (two
connections)

d) Lightning arrestors should have independent earths which should in turn be

connected to the station grounding grid.

e) Over head lightning screen shall also be connected to the main ground mat.

drum. It is connected to the main incoming feeder so that it can trap the
waves which may be dangerous to the instruments in the
substation. Generally it is used to exclude unwanted frequency
components, such as noise or other interference, of a wave.
Note: Traps are usually unable to permit selection of unwanted
or interfering signals.
 Fig: 4.5.1 ISOLATOR WITH EARTH SWITCH.

Air break isolators or disconnecting switches are not intended to break load
though these are meant for transfer of load from one bus to another and also to isolate
equipment for maintenance. These are available mainly in two types vertical break
type and horizontal break type. The later type requires larger width. However the
space requirement can be reduced in the horizontal break isolators by having double
break with a centre rotating pillar.
Pantograph and semi-pantograph disconnects involve vertical movements of
contact arm and therefore require less separation between phases and thereby require
less separation between phases and thereby help in reducing the sub-station area to a
larger extent. The isolators could be operated mechanically or hydraulically or
pneumatically or by electric motor. Earthing facility shall be provided wherever
required.

4.5. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS:

“Instrument Transformers are defined as the instruments in which the
secondary current or voltage is substantially proportional to the primary current or
voltage and differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero for an
appropriate direction of connection”.

Basic Function of Instrument Transformers:

 Direct measurement of current or voltage in high voltage system is not
possible because of high values and insulation problems of measuring instruments
they cannot be directly used for protection purposes.

Therefore an instrument transformer serves the purpose and performs the

following function:

 Converts the higher line voltages or line currents into proportionally reduced
values by means of electromagnetic circuit and thus these values can be
measured easily.

 Protects measuring instruments and distribution systems by sensing the

abnormalities and signals to the protective relay to isolate the faulty system.

Types of Instrument Transformers:

Instrument transformers are of two types:

 Current
Transformers

 Voltage
Transformers

4.6.1 Current transformers:

Current transformer is a current measuring device used to measure

the currents in high voltage lines directly by stepping down the currents to
measurable values by means of electromagnetic circuit.

4.6.1.1 Basic Design Principle of Current Transformers:

The basic principle induced in designing of current transformers

is Primary ampere turns = Secondary ampere turns

Ip  Np = Is  Ns

Where, Ip - Primary current

Np - Primary Winding Turns

Is - Secondary Current; Ns - Secondary Winding Turns

 S

·
4.6.2 Potential Transformers (PT):

An instrument transformer in which the secondary voltage, in normal

conditions of use, is substantially proportional to the primary voltage and
differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero for an
appropriate direction of the connections.

4.6.2.1 Simple Line Diagram of Voltage Transformer:

Fig: 4.6.2.1 LINE DIAGRAM OF VT.

Fig: 4.6.2.2 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER.

 CIRCUIT BREAKER

The circuit breakers are used to break the circuit if any fault occurs in any of
the instrument. These circuit breaker breaks for a fault which can damage other
instrument in the station. For any unwanted fault over the station we need to break the
line current. This is only done automatically by the circuit breaker.
These are load switches. It is able to make or break the normal load current as
well as the fault currents. The basic construction of any circuit breaker requires the
separation of contacts in an insulating fluid, which serves two functions. It
extinguishes the arc drawn between contacts when the CB opens and it provides
adequate insulation between the contacts and from each contact to earth. For
successful operation of the circuit breaker, two functions are to be performed.
a) Operating mechanism function, b) Arc quenching function.
There are

BUS:

The bus is a line in which the incoming feeders come into and get into the
instruments for further step up or step down. The first bus is used for putting the
incoming feeders in la single line. There may be double line in the bus so that if any
fault occurs in the one the other can still have the current and the supply will not stop.
The two lines in the bus are separated by a little distance by a conductor having a
connector between them. This is so that one can work at a time and the other works
only if the first is having any fault.
4.8 TRANSFORMERS:
Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling
transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of
tons used to interconnect portions of national power grids. All operate with the same
basic principles, although the range of designsis wide. While new technologies have
eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still
found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage.
Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission, which makes long
distance transmission economically practical.

Fig: 4.9.1.1 ELECTRICAL TRANSFORMER.

Fig: 4.9.3 THREE PHASE 100MVA AUTO TRANSFORMER.

4.9 CAPACITOR BANK ATTACHED TO THE BUS:
The capacitor banks are used across the bus so that the voltage does not get
down till at the require place. A capacitor bank is used in the outgoing bus so that it
can maintain the voltage level same in the outgoing feeder.

Fig: 4.10.1 CAPACITOR BANK IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM.

Capacitor Control is usually done to achieve the following goals:
Reduce losses due to reactive load current; Reduce KVA demand, decrease customer
energy consumption, Improve voltage profile, and increase revenue.
Indirectly capacitor control also results in longer equipment lifetimes because of
reduced equipment stresses.
Experience shows that switched feeder capacitors produce some of the fastest
returns on equipment investment Sources of Energy Loss. Energy losses in
transmission lines and transformers are of two kinds: resistive and reactive. The
former are caused by resistive component of the load and cannot be avoided. The
latter, coming from reactive component of the load, can be avoided. Reactive losses
come from circuit In the case of concentrated industrial loads, there should be a bank,
sized to almost equal the reactive load current, located as close to each load as
possible (Fig. 5.10).
 CHAPTER 5

TYPES OF

CONTROL

VAR control is the natural means to control capacitors because the latter adds
a fixed amount of leading VARs to the line regard less of other conditions, and loss
reduction depends only on reactive current. Since reactive current at any point along a
feeder is affected by downstream capacitor banks, this kind of control is susceptible
to interaction with downstream banks. Consequently, in multiple capacitor feeders,
the furthest downstream banks should go on-line first and off-line last. VAR controls
require current sensors.

Current control is not as efficient as VAR control because it responds to total line
current, and assumptions must be made about the load power factor. Current controls
require current sensors. Voltage control is used to regulate voltage profiles; however
it may actually increase losses and cause instability from highly leading currents.
Voltage control requires no current sensors.

Fig: 5.1 TYPES OF CONTROL

 Temperature control is based on assumptions about load characteristics.
Control effectiveness depends on how well load characteristics are known. Not useful
in cases where those characteristics change often. Temperature control does not
require any current sensors. Time control is based on assumptions about load
characteristics. Control effectiveness depends on how well load characteristics are
known. Not useful in cases where those characteristics change often. Time control
does not require any current sensors.

Power factor control is not the best way to control capacitor banks because
power factor by itself is not a measure of reactive current. Current sensors are needed.

Combination control using various above methods is usually the best choice.
If enough current, and/or other sensors are available, a centrally managed
computerized capacitor control system taking into account the variety of available
input parameters can be most effective, though expensive to implement.

5.1 CAPACITORS:

a) Before commissioning a capacitor bank, capacitance of each capacitor shall be

measured with a capacitance meter. These shall be compared with the value
obtained by calculation using the formula,
C = KVAR x 109 Micro Farads
2 ∏f (V) 2
Where V is the rated voltage of capacitor and KVAR is the rated KVAR of capacitor.
As per IS the tolerance in the capacitance value for a capacitor unit is + 10% to – 5%.
b) In the event of failure of one capacitor unit (say in R-phase) it is observed that
balancing is done by removing one capacitor each from Y and B-phases.
c) It is therefore necessary that number of capacitor units connected in parallel in
each series group in all the three phases on one star bank shall be same.