Social media

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Social media are interactive technologies that facilitate the creation

and sharing of information, ideas, interests, and other forms of
expression through virtual communities and networks.[1][2] While
challenges to the definition of social media arise[3][4] due to the
variety of stand-alone and built-in social media services currently
available, there are some common features:[2]

1. Social media are interactive Web 2.0 Internet-based

applications.[2][5] Social media app icons on a
2. User-generated content—such as text posts or smartphone screen
comments, digital photos or videos, and data generated
through all online interactions—is the lifeblood of social
media.[2][5]
3. Users create service-specific profiles for the website or app that are designed and
maintained by the social media organization.[2][6]
4. Social media helps the development of online social networks by connecting a user's profile
with those of other individuals or groups.[2][6]

The term social in regard to media suggests that platforms are user-centric and enable communal activity.
As such, social media can be viewed as online facilitators or enhancers of human networks—webs of
individuals who enhance social connectivity.[7]

Users usually access social media services through web-based apps on desktops or download services that
offer social media functionality to their mobile devices (e.g. smartphones and tablets). As users engage with
these electronic services, they create highly interactive platforms in which individuals, communities, and
organizations can share, co-create, discuss, participate, and modify user-generated or self-curated content
posted online.[8][6][1] Additionally, social media are used to document memories, learn about and explore
things, advertise oneself, and form friendships along with the growth of ideas from the creation of blogs,
podcasts, videos, and gaming sites.[9] This changing relationship between humans and technology is the
focus of the emerging field of technological self-studies.[10] Some of the most popular social media
websites, with more than 100 million registered users, include Twitter, Facebook (and its associated
Messenger), WeChat, ShareChat, Instagram, QZone, Weibo, VK, Tumblr, Baidu Tieba, and LinkedIn.
Depending on interpretation, other popular platforms that are sometimes referred to as social media services
include YouTube, QQ, Quora, Telegram, WhatsApp, Signal, LINE, Snapchat, Pinterest, Viber, Reddit,
Discord, TikTok, Microsoft Teams, and more. Wikis are examples of collaborative content creation.

Social media outlets differ from traditional media (e.g. print magazines and newspapers, TV, and radio
broadcasting) in many ways, including quality,[11] reach, frequency, usability, relevancy, and
permanence.[12] Additionally, social media outlets operate in a dialogic transmission system (i.e., many
sources to many receivers) while traditional media outlets operate under a monologic transmission model
(i.e., one source to many receivers). For instance, a newspaper is delivered to many subscribers, and a radio
station broadcasts the same programs to an entire city.[13]

Since the dramatic expansion of the Internet, digital media or digital rhetoric can be used to represent or
identify a culture. Studying the rhetoric that exists in the digital environment has become a crucial new
process for many scholars.

Observers have noted a wide range of positive and negative impacts when it comes to the use of social
media. Social media can help to improve an individual's sense of connectedness with real or online
communities and can be an effective communication (or marketing) tool for corporations, entrepreneurs,
non-profit organizations, advocacy groups, political parties, and governments. Observers have also seen
that there has been a rise in social movements using social media as a tool for communicating and
organizing in times of political unrest.

Social media can also be used to read or share news, whether it is true or false.

History of social media

Early computing

The PLATO system was launched in 1960 after being developed at

the University of Illinois and subsequently commercially marketed
by Control Data Corporation. It offered early forms of social media
features with 1973-era innovations such as Notes, PLATO's
message-forum application; TERM-talk, its instant-messaging
feature; Talkomatic, perhaps the first online chat room; News
Report, a crowdsourced online newspaper, and blog and Access
Lists, enabling the owner of a note file or other application to limit
Front panel of the 1969-era
access to a certain set of users, for example, only friends,
ARPANET Interface Message
classmates, or co-workers.
Processor.
ARPANET, which first came online in 1967, had by the late 1970s
developed a rich cultural exchange of non-government/business
ideas and communication, as evidenced by the network etiquette
(or "netiquette") described in a 1982 handbook on computing at
MIT's Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.[14] ARPANET evolved
into the Internet following the publication of the first Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) specification, RFC 675 (https://datatracker.
ietf.org/doc/html/rfc675) (Specification of Internet Transmission
IMP log for the first message sent
Control Program), written by Vint Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl
over the Internet, using ARPANET.
Sunshine in 1974.[15] This became the foundation of Usenet,
conceived by Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis in 1979 at the University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and Duke University, and
established in 1980.

A precursor of the electronic bulletin board system (BBS), known as Community Memory, appeared by
1973. True electronic BBSs arrived with the Computer Bulletin Board System in Chicago, which first came
online on February 16, 1978. Before long, most major cities had more than one BBS running on TRS-80,
Apple II, Atari, IBM PC, Commodore 64, Sinclair, and similar personal computers. The IBM PC was
introduced in 1981, and subsequent models of both Mac computers and PCs were used throughout the
1980s. Multiple modems, followed by specialized telecommunication hardware, allowed many users to be
online simultaneously. Compuserve, Prodigy, and AOL were three of the largest BBS companies and were
the first to migrate to the Internet in the 1990s. Between the mid-1980s and the mid-1990s, BBSes
numbered in the tens of thousands in North America alone.[16] Message forums (a specific structure of
social media) arose with the BBS phenomenon throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. When the World
Wide Web (WWW, or "the web") was added to the Internet in the mid-1990s, message forums migrated to
the web, becoming Internet forums, primarily due to cheaper per-person access as well as the ability to
handle far more people simultaneously than telco modem banks.

Digital imaging and semiconductor image sensor technology facilitated the development and rise of social
media.[17] Advances in metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) semiconductor device fabrication, reaching
smaller micron and then sub-micron levels during the 1980s–1990s, led to the development of the NMOS
(n-type MOS) active-pixel sensor (APS) at Olympus in 1985,[18][19] and then the complementary MOS
(CMOS) active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in 1993.[18][20]
CMOS sensors enabled the mass proliferation of digital cameras and camera phones, which bolstered the
rise of social media.[17]

Development of social-media platforms

In 1991, when Tim Berners-Lee integrated hypertext software with

the Internet, he created the World Wide Web, marking the
beginning of the modern era of networked communication. This
breakthrough facilitated the formation of online communities and SixDegrees, launched in 1997, is
enabled support for offline groups through the use of weblogs, list often regarded as the first social
servers, and email services. The evolution of online services media site.
progressed from serving as channels for networked communication
to becoming interactive platforms for networked social interaction
with the advent of Web 2.0.[7]

Social media started in the mid-1990s with the advent of platforms like GeoCities, Classmates.com, and
SixDegrees.com.[21] While instant messaging and chat clients existed at the time, SixDegrees was unique
as it was the first online service designed for real people to connect using their actual names. It boasted
features like profiles, friends lists, and school affiliations, making it "the very first social networking site"
according to CBS News.[21][22] The platform's name was inspired by the "six degrees of separation"
concept, which suggests that every person on the planet is just six connections away from everyone
else.[23]

In the early 2000s, and social media platforms gained widespread popularity with the likes of Friendster
and Myspace, followed by Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter, among others.[24]

Research from 2015 shows that the world spent 22% of their online time on social networks,[25] thus
suggesting the popularity of social media platforms, likely fueled by the widespread adoption of
smartphones.[26] There are as many as 4.76 billion social media users in the world (https://datareportal.com/
social-media-users)[27] as of January 2023, equating to 59.4% of the total global population.

Definition and features

The idea that social media are defined simply by their ability to bring people together has been seen as too
broad, as this would suggest that fundamentally different technologies like the telegraph and telephone are
also social media.[28] The terminology is unclear, with some early researchers referring to social media as
social networks or social networking services in the mid-2000s.[6] A more recent paper from 2015 reviewed
the prominent literature in the area and identified four common features unique to then-current social media
services:[2]

Web 2.0 Internet-based applications.[2][5]

1. User-generated content[2][5]
2. User-created self profiles[2][6]
3. Social network formed by connections between profiles,[2][6] such as followers or groups

In 2019, Merriam-Webster defined social media as "forms of electronic communication (such as websites
for social networking and microblogging) through which users create online communities to share
information, ideas, personal messages, and other content (such as videos)."[29]

While the variety of evolving stand-alone and built-in social media services makes it challenging to define
them,[2] marketing and social media experts broadly agree that social media includes the following 13
types:[30]

Blogs (ex. Huffington Post, Boing Boing)

Business networks (ex. LinkedIn, XING)
Enterprise social networks (ex. Yammer, Socialcast)
Forums (ex. Gaia Online, IGN Boards)
Microblogs (ex. Twitter, Tumblr)
Photo sharing (ex. Flickr, Photobucket)
Products/services review (ex. Amazon, Elance)
Social bookmarking (ex. Delicious, Pinterest)
Social gaming (ex. Mafia Wars, World of Warcraft)
Social network sites (ex. Facebook, Google+)
Video sharing (ex. YouTube, Vimeo)
Virtual worlds (ex. Second Life, Twinity)

Some services of other social media subtypes (such as Twitter and YouTube) also allow users to create a
social network, and so are sometimes also included in the social network subtype.[6]

Mobile social media

Mobile social media refers to the use of social media on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet
computers. Mobile social media are useful applications of mobile marketing because the creation,
exchange, and circulation of user-generated content can assist companies with marketing research,
communication, and relationship development.[31] Mobile social media differ from others because they
incorporate the current location of the user (location-sensitivity) or the time delay between sending and
receiving messages.

Social media promotes users to share content with others and display content in order to enhance a
particular brand or product.[32] Social media allows people to be creative and share interesting ideas with
their followers or fans. Certain social media applications such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram are
places where users share specific political or sports content. Many reporters and journalists produce updates
and information on sports and political news. It can truly give users pertinent and necessary information to
stay up to date on relevant news stories and topics. However, there is a downside to it. Users are advised to
exercise due diligence when they are using social media platforms.

According to Andreas Kaplan, mobile social media applications can be differentiated among four types:[31]

1. Space-timers (location and time-sensitive): Exchange of messages with relevance mostly for
one specific location at one specific point in time (e.g. Facebook Places, WhatsApp,
Telegram, Foursquare)
2. Space-locators (only location sensitive): Exchange of messages with relevance for one
specific location, which is tagged to a certain place and read later by others (e.g. Yelp, Qype,
Tumblr, Fishbrain)
3. Quick-timers (only time sensitive): Transfer of traditional social media mobile apps to
increase immediacy (e.g. posting on Twitter or status updates on Facebook)
4. Slow-timers (neither location nor time sensitive): Transfer of traditional social media
applications to mobile devices (e.g. watching a YouTube video or reading/editing a
Wikipedia article)

Elements and function

Viral content

Social media sites are powerful tools for sharing content across networks. Certain content has the potential
to spread virally, an analogy for the way viral infections spread from individual to individual. When content
or websites go viral, users are more likely to share them with their social network, which leads to even
more sharing.

Viral marketing campaigns are particularly attractive to businesses because they can achieve widespread
advertising coverage at a fraction of the cost of traditional marketing campaigns. Nonprofit organizations
and activists may also use social media to post content with the aim of it going viral.

Many social media sites provide specific functionality to help users re-share content, such as Twitter's
"retweet" button or Facebook's "share" option. This feature is especially popular on Twitter, allowing users
to keep up with important events and stay connected with their peers.[33] When certain posts become
popular, they start to get retweeted over and over again, becoming viral. Hashtags can also be used in
tweets to take count of how many people have used that hashtag.

However, it's important to note that not all content has the potential to go viral, and it's difficult to predict
what content will take off. Despite this, viral marketing campaigns can still be a cost-effective and powerful
tool for promoting a message or product.

Bots

Bots are automated programs that operate on the internet,[34] which have become increasingly popular due
to their ability to automate many communication tasks. This has led to the creation of a new industry of bot
providers.[35]

Chatbots and social bots are programmed to mimic natural human interactions such as liking, commenting,
following, and unfollowing on social media platforms.[36] As companies aim for greater market shares and
increased audiences, internet bots have also been developed to facilitate social media marketing.[37] With
the existence of social bots and chatbots, however, the marketing industry has also met an analytical crisis,
as these bots make it difficult to differentiate between human interactions and automated bot
interactions.[38] For instance, marketing data has been negatively affected by some bots, causing "digital
cannibalism" in social media marketing. Additionally, some bots violate the terms of use on many social
media platforms such as Instagram, which can result in profiles being taken down and banned.[39]

'Cyborgs'—either bot-assisted humans or human-assisted bots[40]—are used for a number of different

purposes both legitimate and illegitimate, from spreading fake news to creating marketing buzz.[41][42][43]
A common legitimate use includes using automated programs to post on social media at a specific time.[44]
In these cases, often, the human writes the post content and the bot schedules the time of posting. In other
cases, the cyborgs are more nefarious, e.g., contributing to the spread of fake news and misinformation.[40]
Often these accounts blend human and bot activity in a strategic way, so that when an automated account is
publicly identified, the human half of the cyborg is able to take over and could protest that the account has
been used manually all along. In many cases, these accounts that are being used in a more illegitimate
fashion try to pose as real people; in particular, the number of their friends or followers resemble that of a
real person.[40] Cyborgs are also related to sock puppet accounts, where one human pretends to be
someone else, but can also include one human operating multiple cyborg accounts.

New social media technology

There has been rapid growth in the number of United States patent applications that cover new
technologies that are related to social media, and the number of them that are published has been growing
rapidly over the past five years. As of 2020, there are over 5000 published patent applications in the United
States.[45] As many as 7000 applications may be currently on file including those that have not been
published yet; however, only slightly over 100 of these applications have issued as patents, largely due to
the multi-year backlog in examination of business method patents, i.e., patents that outline and claim new
methods of doing business.[46]

Platform convergence

As an instance of technological convergence, various social media platforms of different kinds adapted
functionality beyond their original scope, increasingly overlapping with each other over time, albeit usually
not implemented as completely as on dedicated platforms.

Examples are the social hub site Facebook launching an integrated video platform in May 2007,[47] and
Instagram, whose original scope was low-resolution photo sharing, introducing the ability to share quarter-
minute 640×640 pixel videos in 2013[48] (later extended to a minute with increased resolution), acting like
a minimal video platform without video seek bar. Instagram later implemented stories (short videos self-
destructing after 24 hours), a concept popularized by Snapchat, as well as IGTV, for seekable videos of up
to ten minutes or one hour depending on account status.[49] Stories have been later adapted by the
dedicated video platform YouTube in 2018, although access is restricted to the mobile apps, excluding
mobile and desktop websites.[50]

Twitter, whose original scope was text-based microblogging, later adapted photo sharing functionality
(deprecating third-party services such as TwitPic),[51] later video sharing with 140-second time limit and
view counter but no manual quality selection or subtitles like on dedicated video platforms, and originally
only available to mobile app users but later implemented in their website front ends.[52][53] Then a media
studio feature for business users, which resembles YouTube's Creator Studio.[54]
The discussion platform Reddit added an integrated image hoster in June 2016 after Reddit users
commonly relied on the external standalone image sharing platform Imgur,[55] and an internal video hoster
around a year later.[56] In July 2020, the ability to share multiple images in a single post (image galleries), a
feature known from Imgur, was implemented.[57] Imgur itself implemented sharing videos of up to 30
seconds in May 2018, later extended to one minute.[58][59]

Starting in 2018, the dedicated video platform YouTube rolled out a Community feature accessible through
a channel tab (which usurps the previous Discussion channel tab), where text-only posts, as well as polls
can be shared. To be enabled, channels have to pass a subscriber count threshold which has been lowered
over time.[60]

Statistics on usage and membership

According to Statista, it is estimated that, in 2022, there are around 3.96 billion people who are using social
media around the globe; up from 3.6 billion in 2020. This number is expected to increase to 4.41 billion in
2025.[61]

Most popular social networking services

The following is a list of the most popular social networking services based on the number of active users
as of January 2022 per Statista.[62]

Social networking services with the most users, January 2022

Number of Users
# Network Name Country of Origin
(in millions)

1 Facebook 2,910 United States

2 YouTube 2,562 United States

3 WhatsApp 2,000 United States

4 Instagram 1,478 United States

5 WeChat 1,263 China

6 TikTok 1,000 China

7 Facebook Messenger 988 United States

8 Douyin 600 China

Usage: Before the COVID-19 pandemic

A study from 2009 suggests that there may be individual differences that help explain who uses social
media and who does not: extraversion and openness have a positive relationship with social media, while
emotional stability has a negative sloping relationship with social media.[63] A separate study from 2015
found that people with a higher social comparison orientation appear to use social media more heavily than
people with low social comparison orientation.[64]
Data from Common Sense Media has suggested that children under the age of 13 in the United States use
social networking services despite the fact that many social media sites have policies that state one must be
at least 13 years old or older to join.[65] In 2017, Common Sense Media conducted a nationally
representative survey of parents of children from birth to age 8 and found that 4% of children at this age
used social media sites such as Instagram, Snapchat, or (now-defunct) Musical.ly "often" or
"sometimes".[66] A different nationally representative survey by Common Sense in 2019 surveyed young
Americans ages 8–16 and found that about 31% of children ages 8–12 ever use social media such as
Snapchat, Instagram, or Facebook.[67] In that same survey, when American teens ages 16–18 were asked
when they started using social media, 28% said they started to use it before they were 13 years old.
However, the median age of starting to use social media was 14 years old.

Usage: During the COVID-19 pandemic

Amount of usage by minors

Social media plays a role in communication during COVID-19 pandemic.[68] In June 2020, during the
COVID-19 pandemic, a nationally representative survey by Cartoon Network and the Cyberbullying
Research Center surveyed Americans tweens (ages 9–12) found that the most popular overall application in
the past year was YouTube (67%).[69] (In general, as age increased, the tweens were more likely to have
used major social media apps and games.) Similarly, a nationally representative survey by Common Sense
Media conducted in 2020 of Americans ages 13–18 found that YouTube was also the most popular social
media service (used by 86% of 13- to 18-year-old Americans in the past year).[70] As children grow older,
they utilize certain social media services on a frequent basis and often use the application YouTube to
consume content. The use of social media certainly increases as people grow older and it has become a
customary thing to have an Instagram and Twitter account.

Apps used by U.S. tweens (ages 9–12), 2019-2020[69]: 39–42 

Platform Overall Boys Girls 9-year-olds 12-year-olds

YouTube 67% 68% 66% 53.6% 74.6%

Minecraft 48% 61% 35% 43.6% 49.9%

Roblox 47% 44% 49% 41.2% 41.7%

Google Classroom 45% 48% 41% 39.6% 49.3%

Fortnite 31% 43% 20% 22.2% 38.9%

TikTok 30% 23% 30% 16.8% 37%

YouTube Kids 26% 24% 28% 32.7% 22.1%

Snapchat 16% 11% 21% 5.6% 22.3%

Facebook Messenger Kids 15% 12% 18% 19.1% 10.4%

Instagram 15% 12% 19% 3% 28.8%

Discord 8% 11% 5% 0.7% 14.4%

Facebook 8% 6% 9% 2.2% 15%

Twitch 5% 7% 2% 1.0% 9.9%

None of the above 5% 6% 5% 9.6% 3.3%

 Social media platforms used by U.S. kids in 2020
(ages 13–18) and 2017 (ages 10–18)[70]
Platform 2020 2017
YouTube 86% 70%

Instagram 69% 60%

Snapchat 68% 59%

TikTok 47% N/A

Facebook 43% 63%

Twitter 28% 36%

Reddit 14% 6%

Another social networking service 2% 3%

Do not use social networking service 4% 6%

Reasons for use by adults

While adults were already using social media before the COVID-19 pandemic, more started using it to stay
socially connected and to get updates on the pandemic.

"Social media have become popularly use to seek for medical information and have fascinated
the general public to collect information regarding corona virus pandemics in various
perspectives. During these days, people are forced to stay at home and the social media have
connected and supported awareness and pandemic updates."[71]

This also made healthcare workers and systems more aware of social media as a place people were getting
health information about the pandemic:

"During the COVID-19 pandemic, social media use has accelerated to the point of becoming a
ubiquitous part of modern healthcare systems."[72]

Though this also led to the spread of disinformation, indeed, on December 11, 2020, the CDC put out a
"Call to Action: Managing the Infodemic".[73] Some healthcare organizations even used hashtags as
interventions and published articles on their Twitter data:[74]

"Promotion of the joint usage of #PedsICU and #COVID19 throughout the international
pediatric critical care community in tweets relevant to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic
and pediatric critical care."[74]
However others in the medical community were concerned about social media addiction, due to it as an
increasingly important context and therefore "source of social validation and reinforcement" and are unsure
if increased social media use is a coping mechanism or harmful.[75]

Timeline of social media (1973–2022)

Year Platform Developer/Founder

1973 Talkomatic Dave Wooly, Douglas Brown

1997 SixDegrees.com Andrew Weinreich

1997 AOL Instant Messenger Barry Appelman, Eric Bosco, Jerry Harris

1999 Yahoo Messenger Jerry Yang, David Filo

1999 MSN Messenger Microsoft

1999 LiveJournal Brad Fitzpatrick

2002 Friendster Jonathan Abrams

2003 LinkedIn Reid Hoffman

2003 Myspace Thomas Anderson

2003 Skype Microsoft

2004 Facebook Mark Zuckerberg

2004 Orkut Orkut Büyükkökten

2005 YouTube Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, Jawed Karim

2005 Reddit Aaron Swartz

2006 Twitter Jack Dorsey

2006 VK Pavel Durov

2008 Nextdoor Nirav Tolia, Sarah Leary, Prakash Janakiraman, David Wiesen
2009 WhatsApp Brian Acton, Jan Koum

2010 Pinterest Ben Silbermann

2010 Instagram Kevin Systrom

2011 Snapchat Evan Spiegel

2011 Google+ Bradley Horowitz

2011 Twitch Justin Kan

2011 WeChat Allen Zhang

2012 Tinder Sean Rad

2013 Google Hangouts Larry Page, Sergey Brin

2014 musical.ly Alex Zhu, Luyu Yang

2015 Discord Jason Citron, Stan Vishnevskiy

2017 TikTok Zhang Yiming

2020 Clubhouse Paul Davison, Rohan Seth

Use at the organizational level

Governments

Governments may use social media to (for example):[76]

inform their opinions to public

interact with citizens
foster citizen participation
further open government
analyze/monitor public opinion and activities
educate the public about risks and public health.[77]

Law enforcement and investigations

Social media has been used extensively in civil and criminal investigations.[78] It has also been used to
assist in searches for missing persons.[79] Police departments often make use of official social media
accounts to engage with the public, publicize police activity, and burnish law enforcement's image;[80][81]
conversely, video footage of citizen-documented police brutality and other misconduct has sometimes been
posted to social media.[81]

In the United States U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement identifies and track individuals via social
media, and also has apprehended some people via social media based sting operations.[82] U.S. Customs
and Border Protection (also known as CPB) and the United States Department of Homeland Security use
social media data as influencing factors during the visa process, and continue to monitor individuals after
they have entered the country.[83] CPB officers have also been documented performing searches of
electronics and social media behavior at the border, searching both citizens and non-citizens without first
obtaining a warrant.[83]

Government reputation management

As social media gained momentum among the younger generations, governments began using it to improve
their image, especially among the youth. In January 2021, Egyptian authorities were found to be using
Instagram influencers as part of its media ambassadors program. The program was designed to revamp
Egypt's image and to counter the bad press Egypt had received because of the country's human rights
record. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates participated in similar programs.[84] Similarly, Dubai
has also extensively relied on social media and influencers to promote tourism. However, the restrictive
laws of Dubai have always kept these influencers within the limits to not offend the authorities, or to
criticize the city, politics or religion. The content of these foreign influencers is controlled to make sure that
nothing portrays Dubai in a negative light.[85]

Businesses

Businesses can use social media tools for marketing research, communication, sales promotions/discounts,
informal employee-learning/organizational development, relationship development/loyalty programs,[31]
and e-Commerce. Companies are increasingly using social-media monitoring tools to monitor, track, and
analyze online conversations on the Web about their brand or products or about related topics of interest.
This can prove useful in public relations management and advertising-campaign tracking, allowing analysts
to measure return on investment for their social media ad spending, competitor-auditing, and for public
engagement. Tools range from free, basic applications to subscription-based, more in-depth tools. Often
social media can become a good source of information and explanation of industry trends for a business to
embrace change. Within the financial industry, companies can utilize the power of social media as a tool for
analyzing the sentiment of financial markets. These range from the marketing of financial products, gaining
insights into market sentiment, future market predictions, and as a tool to identify insider trading.[86]

To properly take advantage of these benefits, businesses need to have a set of guidelines that they can use
on different social media platforms.[5] Social media can enhance a brand through a process called "building
social authority".[87] However, this process can be difficult, because one of the foundational concepts in
social media is that one cannot completely control one's message through social media but rather one can
simply begin to participate in the "conversation" expecting that one can achieve a significant influence in
that conversation.[88] Because of the wide use of social media by consumers and their own employees,
companies use social media[89] on a customer-organizational level; and an intra-organizational level. Social
media, by connecting individuals to new ties via the social network can increase entrepreneurship and
innovation, especially for those individuals who lack conventional information channels due to their lower
socioeconomic background.[90]

Social media marketing

Social media marketing is the use of social media platforms and websites to promote a product or service
and also to establish a connection with its customers. Social media marketing has increased due to the
growing active user rates on social media sites. Though these numbers are not exponential. For example, as
of 2018 Facebook had 2.2 billion users, Twitter had 330 million active users and Instagram had 800 million
users.[91] Then in 2021 Facebook had 2.89 billion users[92] and Twitter had 206 million users.[93] Similar
to traditional advertising, all of social media marketing can be divided into three types: (1) paid media, (2)
earned media, and (3) owned media.[94] Paid social media is when a firm directly buys advertising on a
social media platform. Earned social media is when the firms does something that impresses its consumers
or other stakeholders and they spontaneously post their own content about it on social media. Owned social
media is when the firm itself owns the social media channel and creates content for its followers.[95]

One of the main uses is to interact with audiences to create awareness of the company or organization, with
the main idea of creating a two-way communication system where the audience and customers can interact.
(e.g., customers can provide feedback on the firm's products.)[96] However, since social media allows
consumers to spread opinions and share experiences in a peer-to-peer fashion, this has shifted some of the
power from the organization to consumers, since these messages can be transparent and honest.[97] Or at
least appear so (more on this at influencers).

Social media can also be used to directly advertise; placing an advert on Facebook's Newsfeed, for
example, can provide exposure of the brand to a large number of people. Social media platforms also
enable targeting specific audiences with advertising. Users of social media are then able to like, share, and
comment on the advert; this turns the passive advertising consumers into active advertising producers since
they can pass the advert's message on to their friends.[98] Companies using social media marketing have to
keep up with the different social media platforms and stay on top of ongoing trends. Since the different
platforms and trends attract different audiences, firms must be strategic about their use of social media to
attract the right audience.[5] Moreover, the tone of the content can affect the efficacy of social media
marketing. Companies such as fast food franchise Wendy's have used humor (such as shitposting) to
advertise their products by poking fun at competitors such as McDonald's and Burger King.[99] This
particular example spawned a lot of fanart of the Wendy's mascot which circulated widely online,
(particularly on sites like DeviantArt)[100] increasing the effect of the marketing campaign. Other
companies such as Juul have used hashtags (such as #ejuice and #eliquid) to promote themselves and their
products.[101]

Social media personalities, often referred to as "influencers", who are internet celebrities who have been
employed or sponsored by marketers to promote products online. Research shows that digital endorsements
seem to be successfully attracting social media users,[102] especially younger consumers who have grown
up in the digital age.[103] In 2013, the United Kingdom Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) began to
advise celebrities and sports stars to make it clear if they had been paid to tweet about a product or service
by using the hashtag #spon or #ad within tweets containing endorsements, and the US Federal Trade
Commission has issued similar guidelines.[104] The practice of harnessing social media personalities to
market or promote a product or service to their following is commonly referred to as Influencer Marketing.
In 2019 The Cambridge Dictionary defines an "influencer" as any person (personality, blogger, journalist,
celebrity) who has the ability to affect the opinions, behaviors, or purchases of others through the use of
social media.[105]

Marketing efforts can also take advantage of the peer effects in social media. Consumers tend to treat
content on social media differently from traditional advertising (such as print ads), but these messages may
be part of an interactive marketing strategy involving modeling, reinforcement, and social interaction
mechanisms. A 2012 study focused on this communication described how communication between peers
through social media can affect purchase intentions: a direct impact through conformity, and an indirect
impact by stressing product engagement. This study indicated that social media communication between
peers about a product had a positive relationship with product engagement.[106]

Politics

Social media have a range of uses in political processes and activities. Social media have been championed
as allowing anyone with access to an Internet connection to become a content creator[107] and as
empowering users.[108] The role of social media in democratizing media participation, which proponents
herald as ushering in a new era of participatory democracy, with all users able to contribute news and
comments, may fall short of the ideals, given that many often follow like-minded individuals, as noted by
Philip Pond and Jeff Lewis.[109] Online-media audience-members are largely passive consumers, while
content creation is dominated by a small number of users who post comments and write new
content.[110]: 7 8  Online engagement does not always translate into real-world action, and Howard, Busch
and Sheets have argued that there is a digital divide in North America because of the continent's history,
culture, and geography.[111]

Younger generations are becoming more involved in politics due to the increase of political news posted on
social media. Political campaigns are targeting millennials online via social-media posts in hope that they
will increase their political engagement.[112] Social media was influential in the widespread attention given
to the revolutionary outbreaks in the Middle East and North Africa during 2011.[113][114][115] During the
Tunisian revolution in 2011, people used Facebook to organize meetings and protests.[116] However,
debate persists about the extent to which social media facilitated this kind of political change.[117]

Social-media footprints of candidates for political office have grown during the last decade - the 2016
United States presidential election provided good examples. Dounoucos et al. noted that Twitter use by
candidates was unprecedented during that election cycle.[118] Most candidates in the United States have a
Twitter account.[119] The public has also increased their reliance on social-media sites for political
information.[118] In the European Union, social media have amplified political messages.[120]
Militant groups have begun to see social media as a major organizing and recruiting tool.[121] The Islamic
State of Iraq and the Levant (also known as ISIL, ISIS, and Daesh) has used social media to promote its
cause. In 2014, #AllEyesonISIS went viral on Arabic Twitter.[122] ISIS produces an online magazine
named the Islamic State Report to recruit more fighters.[123] State-sponsored cyber-groups have
weaponized social-media platforms to attack governments in the United States, the European Union, and
the Middle East. Although phishing attacks via email are the most commonly used tactic to breach
government networks, phishing attacks on social media rose 500% in 2016.[124]

Increasing political influence on social media[125] saw several campaigns running from one political side
against another. Often, foreign-originated social-media campaigns have sought to influence political
opinion in another country. For example, a Twitter campaign run in Saudi Arabia produced thousands of
tweets about Hillary Clinton's trending on #HillaryEmails by supporters of Mohammed bin Salman. It also
involved Riyadh's social-marketing firm, SMAAT, which had a history of running such campaigns on
Twitter.[126][127][128] Politicians themselves use social media to their advantage - and to spread their
campaign messages and to influence voters.

Due to the growing abuse of human rights in Bahrain, activists have used social media to report acts of
violence and injustice. They publicized the brutality of government authorities and police, who were
detaining, torturing and threatening many individuals. On the other hand, Bahrain's government was using
social media to track and target rights activists and individuals who were critical of the authorities; the
government has stripped citizenship from over 1,000 activists as punishment.[129]

Hiring

Some employers examine job applicants' social media profiles as part of the hiring assessment. This issue
raises many ethical questions that some consider an employer's right and others consider discrimination.
Many Western-European countries have already implemented laws that restrict the regulation of social
media in the workplace. States including Arkansas, California, Colorado, Illinois, Maryland, Michigan,
Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin have passed legislation that protects
potential employees and current employees from employers that demand that they provide their usernames
and passwords for any social media accounts. Use of social media by young people has caused significant
problems for some applicants who are active on social media when they try to enter the job market. A
survey of 17,000 young people in six countries in 2013 found that one in ten people aged 16 to 34 have
been rejected for a job because of online comments they made on social media websites.[130]

For potential employees, Social media services such as LinkedIn have shown to affect deception in
resumes. While these services do not affect how often deception happens, they affect the types of deception
that occur. LinkedIn resumes are less deceptive about prior work experience but more deceptive about
interests and hobbies.[131]

Science

The use of social media in science communications offers extensive opportunities for exchanging scientific
information, ideas, opinions and publications. Scientists use social media to share their scientific knowledge
and new findings on platforms such as ResearchGate, LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter and Academia.edu.[132]
Among these the most common type of social media that scientists use is Twitter and blogs. It has been
found that Twitter increased the scientific impact in the community. The use of social media has improved
and elevated the interaction between scientists, reporters, and the general public. Over 495,000 opinions
were shared on Twitter related to science in one year (between September 1, 2010, and August 31, 2011),
which was an increase compared with past years.[133] Science related blogs motivate public interest in
learning, following, and discussing science. Blogs use textual depth and graphical videos that provide the
reader with a dynamic way to interact with scientific information. Both Twitter and blogs can be written
quickly and allow the reader to interact in real time with the authors. However, the popularity of social
media platforms changes quickly and scientists need to keep pace with changes in social media.[134] In
terms of organized uses of scientific social media, one study in the context of climate change has shown
that climate scientist and scientific institutions played a minimal role in online debate, while
nongovernmental organizations played a larger role.[135]

Academia

Signals from social media are used to assess academic publications,[136] as well as for different scientific
approaches. Another study found that most of the health science students acquiring academic materials from
others through social media.[137]

School admissions

It is not only an issue in the workplace but an issue in post-secondary school admissions as well. There
have been situations where students have been forced to give up their social media passwords to school
administrators.[138] There are inadequate laws to protect a student's social media privacy, and organizations
such as the ACLU are pushing for more privacy protection, as it is an invasion. They urge students who are
pressured to give up their account information to tell the administrators to contact a parent or lawyer before
they take the matter any further. Although they are students, they still have the right to keep their password-
protected information private.[139]

According to a 2007 journal, before social media[140] admissions officials in the United States used SAT
and other standardized test scores, extra-curricular activities, letters of recommendation, and high school
report cards to determine whether to accept or deny an applicant. In the 2010s, while colleges and
universities still used these traditional methods to evaluate applicants, these institutions were increasingly
accessing applicants' social media profiles to learn about their character and activities. According to Kaplan,
Inc, a corporation that provides higher education preparation, in 2012 27% of admissions officers used
Google to learn more about an applicant, with 26% checking Facebook.[141] Students whose social media
pages include offensive jokes or photos, racist or homophobic comments, photos depicting the applicant
engaging in illegal drug use or drunkenness, and so on, may be screened out from admission processes.

"One survey in July 2017, by the American Association of College Registrars and Admissions
Officers, found that 11 percent of respondents said they had refused to admit an applicant
based on social media content. This includes 8 percent of public institutions, where the First
Amendment applies. The survey found that 30 percent of institutions acknowledged reviewing
the personal social media accounts of applicants at least some of the time."[142]

Court cases

Social media comments and images are being used in a range of court cases including employment law,
child custody/child support and insurance disability claims. After an Apple employee criticized his
employer on Facebook, he was fired. When the former employee sued Apple for unfair dismissal, the court,
after seeing the man's Facebook posts, found in favor of Apple, as the man's social media comments
breached Apple's policies.[143] After a heterosexual couple broke up, the man posted "violent rap lyrics
from a song that talked about fantasies of killing the rapper's ex-wife" and made threats against him. The
court found him guilty and he was sentenced to jail.[143] In a disability claims case, a woman who fell at
work claimed that she was permanently injured; the employer used the social media posts of her travels and
activities to counter her claims.[143]

Courts do not always admit social media evidence, in part, because screenshots can be faked or tampered
with.[144] Judges are taking emojis into account to assess statements made on social media; in one
Michigan case where a person alleged that another person had defamed them in an online comment, the
judge disagreed, noting that there was an emoji after the comment which indicated that it was a joke.[144] In
a 2014 case in Ontario against a police officer regarding alleged assault of a protester during the G20
summit, the court rejected the Crown's application to use a digital photo of the protest that was
anonymously posted online, because there was no metadata proving when the photo was taken and it could
have been digitally altered.[144]

Use by individuals

As a news source

As of March 2010, in the United States, 81% of users look online for news of the weather, first and
foremost, with the percentage seeking national news at 73%, 52% for sports news, and 41% for
entertainment or celebrity news. According to CNN, in 2010 75% of people got their news forwarded
through e-mail or social media posts, whereas 37% of people shared a news item via Facebook or
Twitter.[145] Facebook and Twitter make news a more participatory experience than before as people share
news articles and comment on other people's posts. Rainie and Wellman (2012) have argued that media
making now has become a participation work,[146] which changes communication systems. However, 27%
of respondents worry about the accuracy of a story on a blog.[110] From a 2019 poll, Pew Research Center
found that Americans are wary about the ways that social media sites share news and certain content.[147]
This wariness of accuracy is on the rise as social media sites are increasingly exploited by aggregated new
sources which stitch together multiple feeds to develop plausible correlations. Hemsley and colleagues
(2018) refer to this phenomenon as "pseudo-knowledge" which develop false narratives and fake news that
are supported through general analysis and ideology rather than facts.[148] Social media as a news source
was further questioned as spikes in evidence surround major news events such as was captured in the
United States 2016 presidential election[149] and again during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

As a social tool

Social media are used to fulfill perceived social needs such as socializing with friends and family[4] as well
as romance and flirting,[4] but not all needs can be fulfilled by social media.[150] For example, a 2003
article found that lonely individuals are more likely to use the Internet for emotional support than those who
are not lonely.[151] A nationally representative survey from Common Sense Media in 2018 found that 40%
of American teens ages 13–17 thought that social media was "extremely" or "very" important for them to
keep up with their friends on a day-to-basis.[152] The same survey found that 33% of teens said social
media was extremely or very important to have meaningful conversations with close friends, and 23% of
teens said social media was extremely or very important to document and share highlights from their
lives.[152] Recently, a Gallup poll from May 2020 showed that 53% of adult social media users in the
United States thought that social media was a very or moderately important way to keep in touch with those
they cannot otherwise see in-person due to social distancing measures related to the COVID-19
pandemic.[153]
Sherry Turkle explores this topic in her book Alone Together as she discusses how people confuse social
media usage with authentic communication.[154] She posits that people tend to act differently online and are
less afraid to hurt each other's feelings. Additionally, some online behaviors can cause stress and anxiety,
due to the permanence of online posts, the fear of being hacked, or of universities and employers exploring
social media pages. Turkle also speculates that people are beginning to prefer texting to face-to-face
communication, which can contribute to feelings of loneliness.[154] Nationally representative surveys from
2019 have found this to be the case with teens in the United States[152] and Mexico.[155] Some researchers
have also found that exchanges that involved direct communication and reciprocation of messages
correlated with fewer feelings of loneliness.[156] However, that same study showed that passively using
social media without sending or receiving messages does not make people feel less lonely unless they were
lonely to begin with.

The term social media "stalking" or "creeping" have been popularized over the years, and this refers to
looking at the person's "timeline, status updates, tweets, and online bios" to find information about them
and their activities.[157] While social media creeping is common, it is considered to be poor form to admit to
a new acquaintance or new date that you have looked through his or her social media posts, particularly
older posts, as this will indicate that you were going through their old history.[157] A sub-category of
creeping is creeping ex-partners' social media posts after a breakup to investigate if there is a new partner or
new dating; this can lead to preoccupation with the ex, rumination, and negative feelings, all of which
postpone recovery and increase feelings of loss.[158]

Catfishing has become more prevalent since the advent of social media. Relationships formed with catfish
can lead to actions such as supporting them with money and catfish will typically make excuses as to why
they cannot meet up or be viewed on camera.[159]

As a self-presentational tool

The more time people spend on Facebook, the less satisfied they feel about their life.[160] Self-presentation
theory explains that people will consciously manage their self-image or identity related information in social
contexts.[161] In fact, a critical aspect of social networking sites is the time invested in customizing a
personal profile, and encourage a sort of social currency based on likes, followers, and comments.[162]
Users also tend to segment their audiences based on the image they want to present, pseudonymity and use
of multiple accounts across the same platform remain popular ways to negotiate platform expectations and
segment audiences.[163]

However, users may feel pressure to gain their peers' acceptance of their self-presentation. For example, in
a 2016 peer-reviewed article by Trudy Hui Hui Chua and Leanne Chang, the authors found that teenage
girls manipulate their self-presentation on social media to achieve a sense of beauty that is projected by their
peers.[164] These authors also discovered that teenage girls compare themselves to their peers on social
media and present themselves in certain ways in an effort to earn regard and acceptance. However, when
users do not feel like they reached this regard and acceptance, this can actually lead to problems with self-
confidence and self-satisfaction.[164] A nationally representative survey of American teens ages 13–17 by
Common Sense Media found that 45% said getting "likes" on posts is at least somewhat important, and
26% at least somewhat agreed that they feel bad about themselves if nobody comments on or "likes" their
photos.[152] Some evidence suggests that perceived rejection may lead to feeling emotional pain,[165] and
some may partake in online retaliation such as online bullying.[166] Conversely, according to research from
UCLA, users' reward circuits in their brains are more active when their own photos are liked by more
peers.[167]
Literature suggests that social media can breed a negative feedback loop of viewing and uploading photos,
self-comparison, feelings of disappointment when perceived social success is not achieved, and disordered
body perception.[168] In fact, one study shows that the microblogging platform, Pinterest is directly
associated with disordered dieting behavior, indicating that for those who frequently look at exercise or
dieting "pins" there is a greater chance that they will engage in extreme weight-loss and dieting
behavior.[169]

As a health behavior change and reinforcement tool

Social media can also function as a supportive system for adolescents' health, because by using social
media, adolescents are able to mobilize around health issues that they themselves deem relevant.[170] For
example, in a clinical study among adolescent patients undergoing treatment for obesity, the participants'
expressed that through social media, they could find personalized weight-loss content as well as social
support among other adolescents with obesity.[171][172] Whilst, social media can provide such information
there are a considerable amount of uninformed and incorrect sources which promote unhealthy and
dangerous methods of weight loss.[172] As stated by the national eating disorder association there is a high
correlation between weight loss content and disorderly eating among women who have been influenced by
this negative content.[172] Therefore, there is a need for people to evaluate and identify reliable health
information, competencies commonly known as health literacy. This has led to efforts by governments and
public health organizations to use social media to interact with users, to limited success.[173]

Other social media, such as pro-anorexia sites, have been found in studies to cause significant risk of harm
by reinforcing negative health-related behaviors through social networking, especially in
adolescents.[174][175][176] Social media affects the way a person views themself. The constant comparison
to edited photos, of other individual's and their living situations, can cause many negative emotions. This
can lead to not eating, and isolation. As more and more people continue to use social media for the wrong
reasons, it increases the feeling of loneliness in adults.[177]

During the coronavirus pandemic, the spread of information throughout social media regarding treatments
against the virus has also influenced different health behaviors. For example, People who use more social
media and belief more in conspiracy theory in social media during the COVID-19 pandemic had worse
mental health[178] and is predictive of their compliance to health behaviors such as hand-washing during
the pandemic.[179]

Social media platforms can serve as a breeding ground for addiction-related behaviors, with studies
showing that excessive use can lead to the development of addiction-like symptoms. These symptoms
include compulsive checking, mood modification, and withdrawal when not using social media, which can
result in decreased face-to-face social interactions and contribute to the deterioration of interpersonal
relationships and a sense of loneliness.[180]

For example, adolescents who rely heavily on social media for health information and support may be more
prone to these addiction-like behaviors. In a clinical study among adolescent patients undergoing treatment
for obesity, participants expressed that they could find personalized weight-loss content and social support
among other adolescents with obesity through social media.[181] However, social media also hosts a
considerable amount of uninformed and incorrect sources promoting unhealthy and dangerous methods of
weight loss. The National Eating Disorder Association states that there is a high correlation between weight
loss content on social media and disordered eating among women influenced by this negative content.[181]

Effects on individual and collective memory

News media and television journalism have been a key feature in the shaping of American collective
memory for much of the 20th century.[182][183] Indeed, since the colonial era of the United States, news
media has influenced collective memory and discourse about national development and trauma. In many
ways, mainstream journalists have maintained an authoritative voice as the storytellers of the American past.
Their documentary-style narratives, detailed exposés, and their positions in the present make them prime
sources for public memory. Specifically, news media journalists have shaped collective memory on nearly
every major national event—from the deaths of social and political figures to the progression of political
hopefuls. Journalists provide elaborate descriptions of commemorative events in U.S. history and
contemporary popular cultural sensations. Many Americans learn the significance of historical events and
political issues through news media, as they are presented on popular news stations.[184] However,
journalistic influence has grown less important, whereas social networking sites such as Facebook,
YouTube and Twitter, provide a constant supply of alternative news sources for users.

As social networking becomes more popular among older and younger generations, sites such as Facebook
and YouTube gradually undermine the traditionally authoritative voices of news media. For example,
American citizens contest media coverage of various social and political events as they see fit, inserting
their voices into the narratives about America's past and present and shaping their own collective
memories.[185][186] An example of this is the public explosion of the Trayvon Martin shooting in Sanford,
Florida. News media coverage of the incident was minimal until social media users made the story
recognizable through their constant discussion of the case. Approximately one month after Martin's death,
its online coverage by everyday Americans garnered national attention from mainstream media journalists,
in turn exemplifying media activism.[187]

Negative interpersonal interactions

Social media use sometimes involves negative interactions between users.[188] Angry or emotional
conversations can lead to real-world interactions, which can get users into dangerous situations. Some users
have experienced threats of violence online and have feared these threats manifesting themselves offline.
Related issues include cyberbullying, online harassment, and 'trolling'. According to cyberbullying statistics
from the i-Safe Foundation, over half of adolescents and teens have been bullied online, and about the same
number have engaged in cyberbullying.[189] Both the bully and the victim are negatively affected, and the
intensity, duration, and frequency of bullying are the three aspects that increase the negative effects on both
of them.[190]

Social comparison

One phenomenon that is commonly studied with social media is the issue of social comparison. People
compare their own lives to the lives of their friends through their friends' posts. Because people are
motivated to portray themselves in a way that is appropriate to the situation and serves their best
interests,[164] often the things posted online are the positive aspects of people's lives, making other people
question why their own lives are not as exciting or fulfilling. One study in 2017 found that problematic
social media use (i.e., feeling addicted to social media) was related to lower life satisfaction and self-esteem
scores; the authors speculate that users may feel if their life is not exciting enough to put online it is not as
good as their friends or family.[191]

Studies have shown that self-comparison on social media can have dire effects on physical and mental
health because they give us the ability to seek approval and compare ourselves.[192][193] In one study,
women reported that social media are the most influential sources of their body image satisfaction; while
men reported them as the second most impacting factor.[194]
Social media has allowed for people to be constantly surrounded and aware of celebrity images and
influencers who hold strong online presence with the number of followers they have. This constant online
presence has meant that people are far more aware of what others look like and as such body comparisons
have become an issue, as people are far more aware of what the desired body type is. A study produced by
King university showed that 87% of women and 65% of men compared themselves to images found on
social media.[195]

There are efforts to combat these negative effects, such as the use of the tag #instagramversusreality and
#instagramversusreallife, that have been used to promote body positivity. In a related study, women aged
18–30 were shown posts using this hashtag that contained side-by-side images of women in the same
clothes and setting, but one image was enhanced for Instagram, while the other was an unedited, "realistic"
version. Women who participated in this experiment noted a decrease in body dissatisfaction.[196]

Sleep disturbance

According to a study released in 2017 by researchers from the University of Pittsburgh, the link between
sleep disturbance and the use of social media was clear. It concluded that blue light had a part to play—and
how often they logged on, rather than time spent on social media sites, was a higher predictor of disturbed
sleep, suggesting "an obsessive 'checking'".[197] The strong relationship of social media use and sleep
disturbance has significant clinical ramifications for young adults health and well-being.[198] In a recent
study, we have learned that people in the highest quartile for social media use per week report the most
sleep disturbance. The median number of minutes of social media use per day is 61 minutes. Lastly, we
have learned that females are more inclined to experience high levels of sleep disturbance than males.[199]
Many teenagers suffer from sleep deprivation as they spend long hours at night on their phones, and this, in
turn, could affect grades as they will be tired and unfocused in school.[200] In a study from 2011, it was
found that time spent on Facebook has a strong negative relationship with overall GPA, but it was unclear
if this was related to sleep disturbances.[201] Since blue light has increasingly become an issue smartphone
developers have added a night mode feature that does not cause as much strain to the eyes as a blue light
would.[202]

Emotional effects

One studied emotional effect of social media is 'Facebook depression', which is a type of depression that
affects adolescents who spend too much of their free time engaging with social media sites.[9] This may
lead to problems such as reclusiveness which can negatively damage one's health by creating feelings of
loneliness and low self-esteem among young people.[9] Using a phone to look at social media before bed
has become a popular trend among teenagers and this has led to a lack of sleep and inability to stay awake
during school. Social media applications curate content that encourages users to keep scrolling to the point
where they lose track of time.[198] There are studies that show children's self-esteem is positively affected
by positive comments on social media and negatively affected self-esteem by negative comments. This
affects the way that people look at themselves on a "worthiness" scale.[203] A 2017 study of almost 6,000
adolescent students showed that those who self-reported addiction-like symptoms of social media use were
more likely to report low self-esteem and high levels of depressive symptoms.[204] From the findings on a
population-based study, there is about 37% increase in the likelihood of major depression among
adolescents.[205] In a different study conducted in 2007, those who used the most multiple social media
platforms (7 to 11) had more than three times the risk of depression and anxiety than people who used the
fewest (0 to 2).[206]
A second emotional effect is social media burnout, which is defined by Bo Han as ambivalence,
emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization.[207] Ambivalence refers to a user's confusion about the
benefits she can get from using a social media site. Emotional exhaustion refers to the stress a user has
when using a social media site. Depersonalization refers to the emotional detachment from a social media
site a user experiences. The three burnout factors can all negatively influence the user's social media
continuance. This study provides an instrument to measure the burnout a user can experience when his or
her social media "friends" are generating an overwhelming amount of useless information (e.g., "what I had
for dinner", "where I am now").

A third emotional effect is the "fear of missing out" (FOMO), which is defined as the "pervasive
apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent."[208] FOMO
has been classified by some as a form of social anxiety.[209] It is associated with checking updates on
friends' activities on social media.[208] Some speculate that checking updates on friends' activities on social
media may be associated with negative influences on people's psychological health and well-being because
it could contribute to negative mood and depressed feelings.[210][211] Looking at friends' stories or posts of
them attending parties, music festivals, vacations and other events on various social media applications can
lead users to feel left out and upset because they are not having as much fun as others. This is a very
common issue between young people using certain apps and it continues to affect their personal well-
being.[212]

On the other hand, social media can sometimes have a supportive effect on individuals who use it. Twitter
has been used more by the medical community.[213] While Twitter can facilitate academic discussion
among health professionals and students, it can also provide a supportive community for these individuals
by fostering a sense of community and allowing individuals to support each other through tweets, likes, and
comments.[214]

Social impacts

Disparity

The digital divide is a measure of disparity in the level of access to technology between households,
socioeconomic levels or other demographic categories.[215][216] People who are homeless, living in
poverty, elderly people and those living in rural or remote communities may have little or no access to
computers and the Internet; in contrast, middle class and upper-class people in urban areas have very high
rates of computer and Internet access. Other models argue that within a modern information society, some
individuals produce Internet content while others only consume it,[217][218] which could be a result of
disparities in the education system where only some teachers integrate technology into the classroom and
teach critical thinking.[219] While social media has differences among age groups, a 2010 study in the
United States found no racial divide.[220] Some zero-rating programs offer subsidized data access to certain
websites on low-cost plans. Critics say that this is an anti-competitive program that undermines net
neutrality and creates a "walled garden"[221] for platforms like Facebook Zero. A 2015 study found that
65% of Nigerians, 61% of Indonesians, and 58% of Indians agree with the statement that "Facebook is the
Internet" compared with only 5% in the US.[222]

Eric Ehrmann contends that social media in the form of public diplomacy create a patina of inclusiveness
that covers[223] traditional economic interests that are structured to ensure that wealth is pumped up to the
top of the economic pyramid, perpetuating the digital divide and post-Marxian class conflict. He also voices
concern over the trend that finds social utilities operating in a quasi-libertarian global environment of
oligopoly that requires users in economically challenged nations to spend high percentages of annual
income to pay for devices and services to participate in the social media lifestyle. Neil Postman also
contends that social media will increase an information disparity between "winners" – who are able to use
the social media actively – and "losers" – who are not familiar with modern technologies or who do not
have access to them. People with high social media skills may have better access to information about job
opportunities, potential new friends, and social activities in their area, which may enable them to improve
their standard of living and their quality of life.

Political polarization

According to the Pew Research Center and other research works, a majority of Americans at least
occasionally receive news from social media.[224][225] Because of algorithms on social media which filter
and display news content which are likely to match their users' political preferences (known as a filter
bubble), a potential impact of receiving news from social media includes an increase in political polarization
due to selective exposure.[226] Political polarization refers to when an individual's stance on a topic is more
likely to be strictly defined by their identification with a specific political party or ideology than on other
factors. Selective exposure occurs when an individual favors information that supports their beliefs and
avoids information that conflicts with their beliefs. A study by Hayat and Samuel-Azran conducted during
the 2016 U.S. presidential election observed an "echo chamber" effect of selective exposure among 27,811
Twitter users following the content of cable news shows.[226] The Twitter users observed in the study were
found to have little interaction with users and content whose beliefs were different from their own, possibly
heightening polarization effects.[226][227] Another 2016 study using U.S. elections, conducted by Evans
and Clark, revealed gender differences in the political use of Twitter between candidates.[228] Whilst
politics is a male dominated arena, on social media the situation appears to be the opposite, with women
discussing policy issues at a higher rate than their male counterparts. The study concluded that an increase
in female candidates directly correlates to an increase in the amount of attention paid to policy issues,
potentially heightening political polarization.[229]

Efforts to combat selective exposure in social media may also cause an increase in political
polarization.[230] A study examining Twitter activity conducted by Bail et al. paid Democrat and
Republican participants to follow Twitter handles whose content was different from their political beliefs
(Republicans received liberal content and Democrats received conservative content) over a six-week
period.[230] At the end of the study, both Democrat and Republican participants were found to have
increased political polarization in favor of their own parties, though only Republican participants had an
increase that was statistically significant.[230]

Though research has shown evidence that social media plays a role in increasing political polarization, it
has also shown evidence that social media use leads to a persuasion of political beliefs.[231][232] An online
survey consisting of 1,024 U.S. participants was conducted by Diehl, Weeks, and Gil de Zuñiga, which
found that individuals who use social media were more likely to have their political beliefs persuaded than
those who did not.[231] In particular, those using social media as a means to receive their news were the
most likely to have their political beliefs changed.[231] Diehl et al. found that the persuasion reported by
participants was influenced by the exposure to diverse viewpoints they experienced, both in the content
they saw as well as the political discussions they participated in.[231] Similarly, a study by Hardy and
colleagues conducted with 189 students from a Midwestern state university examined the persuasive effect
of watching a political comedy video on Facebook.[232] Hardy et al. found that after watching a Facebook
video of the comedian/political commentator John Oliver performing a segment on his show, participants
were likely to be persuaded to change their viewpoint on the topic they watched (either payday lending or
the Ferguson protests) to one that was closer to the opinion expressed by Oliver.[232] Furthermore, the
persuasion experienced by the participants was found to be reduced if they viewed comments by Facebook
users which contradicted the arguments made by Oliver.[232]
Research has also shown that social media use may not have an effect on polarization at all.[233] A U.S.
national survey of 1,032 participants conducted by Lee et al. found that participants who used social media
were more likely to be exposed to a diverse number of people and amount of opinion than those who did
not, although using social media was not correlated with a change in political polarization for these
participants.[233]

In a study examining the potential polarizing effects of social media on the political views of its users,
Mihailidis and Viotty suggest that a new way of engaging with social media must occur to avoid
polarization.[234] The authors note that media literacies (described as methods which give people skills to
critique and create media) are important to using social media in a responsible and productive way, and
state that these literacies must be changed further in order to have the most effectiveness.[234] In order to
decrease polarization and encourage cooperation among social media users, Mihailidis and Viotty suggest
that media literacies must focus on teaching individuals how to connect with other people in a caring way,
embrace differences, and understand the ways in which social media has a real impact on the political,
social, and cultural issues of the society they are a part of.[234]

Stereotyping

Recent research has demonstrated that social media, and media in general, have the power to increase the
scope of stereotypes not only in children but people of all ages.[235] Both cases of stereotyping of the youth
and the elderly are prime examples of ageism. The presumed characteristics of the individual being
stereotyped can have both negative and positive connotations but frequently carry an opposing viewpoint.
For example, the youth on social media platforms are often depicted as lazy, immature individuals who
oftentimes have no drive or passion for other activities.[236] For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic,
much of the youth were accused for the spread of the disease and were blamed for the continuous
lockdowns across the world.[237] These misrepresentations make it difficult for the youth to find new
efforts and prove others wrong, especially when a large group of individuals believe that the stereotypes are
highly accurate. Considering the youthful groups that are present on social media are frequently in a new
stage of their lives and preparing to make life-changing decisions, it is essential that the stereotypes are
diminished so that they do not feel invalidated. Further, stereotyping often occurs for the elderly as they are
presumed to be a group of individuals who are unaware of the proper functions and slang usage on social
media.[238] These stereotypes often seek to exclude older generations from participating in trends or
engaging them in other activities on digital platforms.

Effects on youth communication

Social media has allowed for mass cultural exchange and intercultural communication. As different cultures
have different value systems, cultural themes, grammar, and world views, they also communicate
differently.[239] The emergence of social media platforms fused together different cultures and their
communication methods, blending together various cultural thinking patterns and expression styles.[240]

Social media has affected the way youth communicate, by introducing new forms of language.[241]
Abbreviations have been introduced to cut down on the time it takes to respond online. The commonly
known "LOL" has become globally recognized as the abbreviation for "laugh out loud" thanks to social
media and use by people of all ages particularly as people grow up.

Another trend that influences the way youth communicates is the use of hashtags. With the introduction of
social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram the hashtag was created to easily organize
and search for information. Hashtags can be used when people want to advocate for a movement, store
content or tweets from a movement for future use, and allow other social media users to contribute to a
discussion about a certain movement by using existing hashtags. Using hashtags as a way to advocate for
something online makes it easier and more accessible for more people to acknowledge it around the
world.[242] As hashtags such as #tbt ("throwback Thursday") become a part of online communication, it
influenced the way in which youth share and communicate in their daily lives. Because of these changes in
linguistics and communication etiquette, researchers of media semiotics have found that this has altered
youth's communications habits and more.[243]

Social media is a great way to learn about your community and the world around you, but as social media
progressed younger audiences have lowered their ability to effectively communicate. Because of the digital
nature, teens have stopped worrying about the consequences that social media has. They often don't think
about what they are sending and take longer to figure out what to say. In return, during real-life settings, it's
harder for them to carry on conversations. Social media also creates a toxic environment where people
cyberbully each other, so in person they act the same way and don't worry about the consequences. This
can not only affect themselves but people around them.[244]

Social media has offered a new platform for peer pressure with both positive and negative communication.
From Facebook comments to likes on Instagram, how the youth communicate, and what is socially
acceptable is now heavily based on social media.[245] Social media does make kids and young adults more
susceptible to peer pressure. The American Academy of Pediatrics has also shown that bullying, the making
of non-inclusive friend groups, and sexual experimentation have increased situations related to
cyberbullying, issues with privacy, and the act of sending sexual images or messages to someone's mobile
device. This includes issues of sexting and revenge porn among minors, and the resulting legal implications
and issues, and resulting risk of trauma.[246][247][248][249] On the other hand, social media also benefits the
youth and how they communicate.[250] Adolescents can learn basic social and technical skills that are
essential in society.[250] Through the use of social media, kids and young adults are able to strengthen
relationships by keeping in touch with friends and family, making more friends, and participating in
community engagement activities and services.[9]

Criticism, debate and controversy

Criticisms of social media range from criticisms of the ease of use of specific platforms and their
capabilities, disparity of information available, issues with trustworthiness and reliability of information
presented,[251] the impact of social media use on an individual's concentration,[252] ownership of media
content, and the meaning of interactions created by social media. Although some social media platforms,
such as servers in the decentralized Fediverse, offer users the opportunity to cross-post between
independently run servers using a standard protocol such as ActivityPub, the dominant social network
platforms have been criticized for poor interoperability between platforms, which leads to the creation of
information silos, viz. isolated pockets of data contained in one social media platform.[253] However, it is
also argued that social media has positive effects, such as allowing the democratization of the Internet[5]
while also allowing individuals to advertise themselves and form friendships.[254] have noted that the term
"social" cannot account for technological features of a platform alone, hence the level of sociability should
be determined by the actual performances of its users. There has been a dramatic decrease in face-to-face
interactions as more and more social media platforms have been introduced with the threat of cyber-
bullying and online sexual predators including groomers being more prevalent.[255][256] Social media may
expose children to images of alcohol, tobacco, and sexual behaviors.[257] In regards to cyber-bullying, it
has been proven that individuals who have no experience with cyber-bullying often have a better well-
being than individuals who have been bullied online.[258]
Twitter is increasingly a target of heavy activity of marketers. Their actions focused on gaining massive
numbers of followers, include use of advanced scripts and manipulation techniques that distort the prime
idea of social media by abusing human trustfulness.[259] British-American entrepreneur and author Andrew
Keen criticized social media in his 2007 book The Cult of the Amateur, writing, "Out of this anarchy, it
suddenly became clear that what was governing the infinite monkeys now inputting away on the Internet
was the law of digital Darwinism, the survival of the loudest and most opinionated. Under these rules, the
only way to intellectually prevail is by infinite filibustering."[260] This is also relative to the issue "justice"
in the social network. For example, the phenomenon "Human flesh search engine" in Asia raised the
discussion of "private-law" brought by social network platform. Comparative media professor José van
Dijck contends in her book The Culture of Connectivity (2013) that to understand the full weight of social
media, their technological dimensions should be connected to the social and the cultural. She critically
describes six social media platforms. One of her findings is the way Facebook had been successful in
framing the term 'sharing' in such a way that third party use of user data is neglected in favor of intra-user
connectedness. The fragmentation of modern society, in part due to social media, has been likened to a
modern Tower of Babel.[261]

Essena O'Neill attracted international coverage when she explicitly left social media.[262]

Trustworthiness and reliability

There has been speculation that social media has become perceived as a trustworthy source of information
by a large number of people.[263][264] The continuous interpersonal connectivity on social media, for
example, may lead to people regarding peer recommendations as indicators of the reliability of information
sources. This trust can be exploited by marketers, who can utilize consumer-created content about brands
and products to influence public perceptions.[265][266]

Social media has been found to magnify misinformation, particularly in the immediate aftermath of a crisis
event before much information is known about said event. These "information holes" in the wake of a
major disaster become filled by speculation and false information on social media platforms, which are then
shared by other users and sometimes by news organisations, amplifying the spread of said misinformation
in a positive feedback loop.[267] The trustworthiness of information found on social media platforms can be
improved by fact-checking. Some social media has started to employ this.[268][269][270]

Evgeny Morozov, a 2009–2010 Yahoo fellow at Georgetown University, contended that information
uploaded to Twitter may have little relevance to the masses of people who do not use Twitter. In an article
for the magazine Dissent titled "Iran: Downside to the 'Twitter Revolution'", Morozov wrote:

[B]y its very design Twitter only adds to the noise: it's simply impossible to pack much context
into its 140 characters. All other biases are present as well: in a country like Iran it's mostly
pro-Western, technology-friendly and iPod-carrying young people who are the natural and
most frequent users of Twitter. They are a tiny and, most important, extremely untypical
segment of the Iranian population (the number of Twitter users in Iran — a country of more
than seventy million people — was estimated at less than twenty thousand before the
protests).[271]
Professor Matthew Auer of Bates College casts doubt on the conventional wisdom that social media are
open and participatory. He also speculates on the emergence of "anti-social media" used as "instruments of
pure control".[272]

Data harvesting and data mining

Social media 'mining' is a type of data mining, a technique of analyzing data to detect patterns. Social media
mining is a process of representing, analyzing, and extracting actionable patterns from data collected from
people's activities on social media. Google mines data in many ways including using an algorithm in Gmail
to analyze information in emails. This use of the information will then affect the type of advertisements
shown to the user when they use Gmail. Facebook has partnered with many data mining companies such as
Datalogix and BlueKai to use customer information for targeted advertising.[273] Massive amounts of data
from social platforms allows scientists and machine learning researchers to extract insights and build
product features.[274]

Ethical questions of the extent to which a company should be able to utilize a user's information have been
called "big data".[225] Users tend to click through Terms of Use agreements when signing up on social
media platforms, and they do not know how their information will be used by companies. This leads to
questions of privacy and surveillance when user data is recorded. Some social media outlets have added
capture time and Geotagging that helps provide information about the context of the data as well as making
their data more accurate.

On April 10, 2018, in a hearing held in response to revelations of data harvesting by Cambridge Analytica,
Mark Zuckerberg, the Facebook chief executive, faced questions from senators on a variety of issues, from
privacy to the company's business model and the company's mishandling of data. This was Mr.
Zuckerberg's first appearance before Congress, prompted by the revelation that Cambridge Analytica, a
political consulting firm linked to the Trump campaign, harvested the data of an estimated 87  million
Facebook users to psychologically profile voters during the 2016 election. Zuckerberg was pressed to
account for how third-party partners could take data without users' knowledge. Lawmakers questioned him
on the proliferation of so-called fake news on Facebook, Russian interference during the 2016 presidential
election and censorship of conservative media.[275]

Critique of activism

For The New Yorker writer Malcolm Gladwell, the role of social media, such as Twitter and Facebook, in
revolutions and protests is overstated.[276] On one hand, social media makes it easier for individuals, and in
this case activists, to express themselves. On the other hand, it is harder for that expression to have an
impact.[276] Gladwell distinguishes between social media activism and high-risk activism, which brings real
changes. Activism and especially high-risk activism involves strong-tie relationships, hierarchies,
coordination, motivation, exposing oneself to high risks, making sacrifices.[276] Gladwell discusses that
social media are built around weak ties and he argues that "social networks are effective at increasing
participation — by lessening the level of motivation that participation requires." [276] According to him,
"Facebook activism succeeds not by motivating people to make a real sacrifice, but by motivating them to
do the things that people do when they are not motivated enough to make a real sacrifice."[276]
Disputing Gladwell's theory, in the study "Perceptions of Social Media for Politics: Testing the Slacktivism
Hypothesis", Kwak and colleagues (2018) conducted a survey which found that people who are politically
expressive on social media are also more likely to participate in offline political activity.[277]

Ownership of content

Social media content is generated through social media interactions

done by users through the site. There has always been a huge
debate on the ownership of the content on social media platforms
because it is generated by the users and hosted by the company.
Added to this is the danger to the security of information, which
can be leaked to third parties with economic interests in the
platform, or parasites who comb the data for their own
databases.[278] Individuals do not have the
ownership of their own content while
In order for social media platforms such as Facebook (https://www.
using social media.
facebook.com/), Instagram (https://www.instagram.com/), Twitter
(https://twitter.com/), and YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/) to
publish your content online, they must be issued a license from the
copyright owners. A license is a legitimate right that allows them to
carry out a specific task. Simply put, you grant each platform
permission to use your content in accordance with their terms and
conditions even if you control the stuff you submit to social media.
Although each of these licenses differs differently from the others,
they all give the social media sites permission to utilize your
copyrighted work however they see fit. Theoretically, they could
make commercial use of it and even sell or sublicense their license Different types of Social Media
to a third party for that party's use; however, because each license platforms. Facebook is the most
specifically states that it is "royalty free" you would never earn a broad one where individuals from all
share of the revenue. over the world uses it.

After being acquired by Facebook (https://www.facebook.com/) in

2012, Instagram (https://www.instagram.com/) made headlines when it revealed it intended to use user
posts in adverts without seeking permission from or paying their users. To determine if that is still the case,
let's examine the Terms of Service (https://help.instagram.com/478745558852511).[279] Instagram (https://
www.instagram.com/) states: "Instagram does not claim ownership by any Content that you post on or
through the Service. Instead, you herby grant to Instagram a non-exclusive, fully paid and royalty-free,
transferable, sub-licensable, worldwide license to use the Content that you post on or through the Service,
subject to the Service's Privacy Policy (https://help.instagram.com/478745558852511)"Some of the service
is supported by advertising revenue and may display advertisements and promotions, and you herby agree
that Instagram (https://www.instagram.com/) may place such advertising and promotions on the Service or
on, about, or in conjunction with your content. The manner, mode and extent of such advertising and
promotions are subject to change without specific notice to you.[279] Instagram (https://www.instagram.co
m/) expressly disclaims ownership of the images you share in the terms, yet it appears that this practice of
using user content for their own purposes has not stopped. They have a similar provision in their conditions
regarding offering a transferrable and non-exclusive license to use and display your work as Facebook (http
s://www.facebook.com/) and Twitter (https://twitter.com/) do. Instagram (https://www.instagram.com/) is
clear that they may use or remix your content for marketing and advertising without your permission or
prior notification.

Privacy

Privacy rights advocates warn users on social media about the collection of their personal data. Some
information is captured without the user's knowledge or consent through electronic tracking and third-party
applications. Data may also be collected for law enforcement and governmental purposes,[272] by social
media intelligence using data mining techniques.[278] Data and information may also be collected for third
party use. When information is shared on social media, that information is no longer private. There have
been many cases in which young persons especially, share personal information, which can attract
predators. It is very important to monitor what you share and to be aware of who you could potentially be
sharing that information with. Teens especially share significantly more information on the internet now
than they have in the past. Teens are much more likely to share their personal information, such as email
address, phone number, and school names.[280] Studies suggest that teens are not aware of what they are
posting and how much of that information can be accessed by third parties.

There are arguments that "privacy is dead" and that with social media growing more and more, some heavy
social media users appear to have become quite unconcerned with privacy. Others argue, however, that
people are still very concerned about their privacy, but are being ignored by the companies running these
social networks, who can sometimes make a profit off of sharing someone's personal information. There is
also a disconnect between social media user's words and their actions. Studies suggest that surveys show
that people want to keep their lives private, but their actions on social media suggest otherwise. Everyone
leaves a trail when they use social media. Every time someone creates a new social media account, they
provide personal information that can include their name, birthdate, geographic location, and personal
interests. In addition, companies collect data on user behaviors. All of this data is stored and leveraged by
companies to better target advertising to their users.[281]

Another factor is ignorance of how accessible social media posts are. Some social media users who have
been criticized for inappropriate comments stated that they did not realize that anyone outside their circle of
friends would read their posts; in fact, on some social media sites, unless a user selects higher privacy
settings, their content is shared with a wide audience.

According to a 2016 article diving into the topic of sharing privately and the effect social media has on
expectations of privacy, "1.18 billion people will log into their Facebook accounts, 500 million tweets will
be sent, and there will be 95 million photos and videos posted on Instagram" in a day. Much of the privacy
concerns individuals face stem from their own posts on a form of a social network. Users have the choice to
share voluntarily and have been ingrained into society as routine and normative. Social media are a
snapshot of our lives; a community we have created on the behaviors of sharing, posting, liking, and
communicating. Sharing has become a phenomenon which social media and networks have uprooted and
introduced to the world.[282] The idea of privacy is redundant; once something is posted, its accessibility
remains constant even if we select who is potentially able to view it. People desire privacy in some shape or
form, yet also contribute to social media, which makes it difficult to maintain privacy.[283] Mills offers
options for reform which include copyright and the application of the law of confidence; more radically, a
change to the concept of privacy itself.

A 2014 Pew Research Center survey found that 91% of Americans "agree" or "strongly agree" that people
have lost control over how personal information is collected and used by all kinds of entities. Some 80% of
social media users said they were concerned about advertisers and businesses accessing the data they share
on social media platforms, and 64% said the government should do more to regulate advertisers.[284]
According to The Wall Street Journal published on February 17, 2019, According to UK law, Facebook
did not protect certain aspects of the user data.[285]

The US government announced banning TikTok and WeChat from the States over national security
concerns. The shutdown was announced for September 20, 2020. Access to TikTok was extended until 12
November 2020,[286] and a federal court ruling on October 30, 2020, has blocked further implementation
of restrictions that would lead to TikTok's shutdown.[287]

Additionally, in 2019 the Pentagon issued guidance to the US Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast
Guard and other government agencies that identified "the potential risk associated with using the TikTok
app and directs appropriate action for employees to take in order to safeguard their personal
information."[288] As a result, the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, Transportation
Security Administration, and Department of Homeland Security banned the installation and use of TikTok
on government devices, including blacklisting it on intranet services.[289]

Criticism of commercialization

The commercial development of social media has been criticized as the actions of consumers in these
settings have become increasingly value-creating, for example when consumers contribute to the marketing
and branding of specific products by posting positive reviews. As such, value-creating activities also
increase the value of a specific product, which could, according to marketing professors Bernad Cova and
Daniele Dalli (2009), lead to what they refer to as "double exploitation".[290]

As social media usage has become increasingly widespread, social media has to a large extent come to be
subjected to commercialization by marketing companies and advertising agencies.[291] In 2014 Christofer
Laurell, a digital marketing researcher, suggested that the social media landscape currently consists of three
types of places because of this development: consumer-dominated places, professionally dominated places
and places undergoing commercialization.[292] As social media becomes commercialized, this process has
been shown to create novel forms of value networks stretching between consumer and producer[293] in
which a combination of personal, private and commercial contents are created.[294]

Debate over addiction

As one of the biggest preoccupations among adolescents is social media usage, in 2011 researchers began
using the term "Facebook addiction disorder" (F.A.D.), a form of internet addiction disorder.[295] FAD is
characterized by compulsive use of the social networking site Facebook, which generally results in physical
or psychological complications. The disorder, although not classified in the latest Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) or by the World Health Organization, has been the subject of several
studies focusing on the negative effects of social media use on the psyche. One German study published in
2017 investigated a correlation between excessive use of the social networking site and narcissism; the
results were published in the journal PLoS One. According to the findings: "FAD was significantly
positively related to the personality trait narcissism and to negative mental health variables (depression,
anxiety, and stress symptoms)".[296][297]

In 2020, Netflix released The Social Dilemma, which raises concerns about the problematic effects of
social media. In the documentary, mental health experts and former employees of social media companies
explain how social media is designed to be addictive. One example that's shown is when an AI detects that
someone has not visited Facebook for some time, it may choose different notifications that it predicts are
most likely to cause them to re-visit the platform. This AI takes into account everything that each person has
done on that platform.
The documentary also raises concerns about the correlation between child and teen suicides and suicide
attempts and increasing social media usage in the United States, particularly usage on mobile.[298]

Turning off social media notifications temporarily or long-term may help reduce problematic social media
use.[299] In certain cases and for some users, changes in their web browsing environments can be helpful in
compensating for self-regulatory problems. For instance, a study involving 157 online learners on massive
open online courses examined the impact of self-regulatory intervention on learners’ web browsing
behavior. The results showed that, on average, learners spend half of their time online on YouTube and
social media, and Less than 2% of visited websites account for nearly 80% of their time spent online.
Further, the study found that modifying the learners' web environment, specifically by providing support in
self-regulation, was associated with changes in behavior, including a reduction in time spent online,
particularly on websites related to entertainment. This suggests there is a potential for interventions to
improve self-regulatory skills, which may effectively help learners reduce excessive social media usage and
manage their signs of social media misuse more effectively.[300]

Debate over use in academic settings

Having social media in the classroom was a controversial topic in the 2010s. Many parents and educators
have been fearful of the repercussions of having social media in the classroom.[301] There are concerns that
social media tools can be misused for cyberbullying or sharing inappropriate content. As result, cell phones
have been banned from some classrooms, and some schools have blocked many popular social media
websites. Many schools have realized that they need to loosen restrictions, teach digital citizenship skills,
and even incorporate these tools into classrooms. Some schools permit students to use smartphones or tablet
computers in class, as long as the students are using these devices for academic purposes, such as doing
research. Using Facebook in class allows for the integration of multimodal content such as student-created
photographs and video and URLs to other texts, in a platform that many students are already familiar with.
Twitter can be used to enhance communication building and critical thinking and it provides students with
an informal "back channel", and extend discussion outside of class time.

Censorship by governments

Social media often features in political struggles to control public perception and online activity. In some
countries, Internet police or secret police monitor or control citizens' use of social media. For example, in
2013 some social media was banned in Turkey after the Taksim Gezi Park protests. Both Twitter and
YouTube were temporarily suspended in the country by a court's decision. A new law, passed by Turkish
Parliament, has granted immunity to Telecommunications Directorate (TİB) personnel. The TİB was also
given the authority to block access to specific websites without the need for a court order.[302] Yet TİB's
2014 blocking of Twitter was ruled by the constitutional court to violate free speech.[303] More recently, in
the 2014 Thai coup d'état, the public was explicitly instructed not to 'share' or 'like' dissenting views on
social media or face prison. In July of that same year, in response to WikiLeaks' release of a secret
suppression order made by the Victorian Supreme Court, media lawyers were quoted in the Australian
media to the effect that "anyone who tweets a link to the WikiLeaks report, posts it on Facebook, or shares
it in any way online could also face charges".[304] On 27 July 2020, in Egypt, two women were sentenced
to two years of imprisonment for posting TikTok videos, which the government claims are "violating family
values".[305]

Decentralization and open standards

Mastodon, GNU social, Diaspora, Friendica and other compatible software packages operate as a loose
federation of mostly volunteer-operated servers, called the Fediverse, which connect with each other
through the open source protocol ActivityPub. In early 2019, Mastodon successfully blocked the spread of
violent right-wing extremism when the Twitter alternative Gab tried to associate with Mastodon, and their
independent servers quickly contained its dissemination.[306]

In December 2019, Twitter CEO Jack Dorsey made a similar suggestion, stating that efforts would be taken
to achieve an "open and decentralized standard for social media". Rather than "deplatforming", such
standards would allow a more scalable, and customizable approach to content moderation and censorship,
and involve a number of companies, in the way that e-mail servers work.

Deplatforming

Deplatforming is a form of Internet censorship in which controversial speakers or speech are suspended,
banned, or otherwise shut down by social media platforms and other service providers that normally
provide a venue for free expression.[307] These kinds of actions are similar to alternative dispute
resolution.[308]: 4   As early as 2015, platforms such as Reddit began to enforce selective bans based, for
example, on terms of service that prohibit "hate speech".[309] According to technology journalist Declan
McCullagh, "Silicon Valley's efforts to pull the plug on dissenting opinions" have included, as of 2018,
Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube "devising excuses to suspend ideologically disfavored accounts".[310]

Most people see social media platforms as censoring objectionable political views.[311]

Reproduction of class distinctions

According to Danah Boyd (2011), the media plays a large role in shaping people's perceptions of specific
social networking services. When looking at the site MySpace, after adults started to realize how popular
the site was becoming with teens, news media became heavily concerned with teen participation and the
potential dangers they faced using the site. As a result, teens avoided joining the site because of the
associated risks (e.g. child predators and lack of control), and parents began to publicly denounce the site.
Ultimately, the site was labeled as dangerous, and many were detracted from interacting with the site.[312]

As Boyd also describes, when Facebook initially launched in 2004, it solely targeted college students and
access was intentionally limited. Facebook started as a Harvard-only social networking service before
expanding to all other Ivy League schools. It then made its way to other top universities and ultimately to a
wider range of schools. Because of its origins, some saw Facebook as an "elite" social networking service.
While it was very open and accepting to some, it seemed to outlaw and shun most others who did not fit
that "elite" categorization. These narratives propagated by the media influenced the large movement of
teenage users from one social networking service to another.[312]

Use by extremist groups

According to LikeWar: The Weaponization of Social Media (2018) by P.W. Singer and Emerson T.
Brooking, the use of effective social media marketing techniques is not only limited to celebrities,
corporations, and governments, but also extremist groups to carry out political objectives based on extremist
ideologies.[313] The use of social media by ISIS and Al-Qaeda has been used primarily to influence
operations in areas of operation and gain the attention of sympathizers of extremist ideologies. Social media
platforms like YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, and various encrypted-messaging applications have been used
to increase the recruiting of members into these extremist groups, both locally and internationally.[314]
Larger platforms like YouTube, Twitter, and various others have received backlash for allowing this type of
content on their platform (see Use of social media by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant). The use of
social media to further extremist objectives is not only limited to Islamic terrorism, but also extreme
nationalist groups across the world, and more prominently, right-wing extremist groups based out of the
United States.

2021 United States Capitol attack

As many of the traditional social media platforms banned hate speech (see Online hate speech), several
platforms have become popular among right-wing extremists to carry out planning and communication of
thoughts and organized events; these application became known as "Alt-tech". Platforms such as Telegram,
Parler, and Gab were used during the 2021 storming of the US Capitol in Washington, D.C. The use of this
social media was used to coordinate attacks on the Capitol.[315] Several members within these groups
shared tips on how to avoid law enforcement and what their plans were with regards to carrying out their
objectives; some users called for killings of law enforcement and politicians.[316]

Deceased users
Social media content, like most content on the web, will continue to persist unless the user deletes it. This
brings up the inevitable question of what to do once a social media user dies, and no longer has access to
their content.[317] As it is a topic that is often left undiscussed, it is important to note that each social media
platform, e.g., Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, and Pinterest, has created its own guidelines for
users who have died.[318] In most cases on social media, the platforms require a next-of-kin to prove that
the user is deceased, and then give them the option of closing the account or maintaining it in a 'legacy'
status. Ultimately, social media users should make decisions about what happens to their social media
accounts before they pass, and make sure their instructions are passed on to their next-of-kin.
 Guidelines for users who have died, by platform[318]
Platform Guideline
If a user has died, the company will work with an immediate family member to deactivate the
Twitter[319] account. Additionally, Twitter will not give the account to any person, regardless of the
relationship.

Facebook provides users the option of having their account permanently deleted when one dies.
There is also an option for 'legacy contact' which means that the Facebook user can have a
Facebook
family member or friend take over the account once the person has died. The 'legacy contact'
option is under the security tab at the bottom of the page.

There are two options for people who have died. Similar to Facebook, the user can have the
Instagram[320] account memorialized with proof of death. The other option is to have the account deleted.
A family member can request that the account be shut down. The family member must provide
LinkedIn[321] the URL to the account, proof of relationship, the account user's email address, date of death, a
link to the obituary, and the name of the last company the deceased worked for.

To delete the account of someone who has died, one must email the company with the URL of
Pinterest the account. One must also provide a death certificate or provide a link to the obituary as well as
proof of relationship to the deceased.

YouTube provides three capabilities for a deceased user's account: they can close the account,
they can transfer payments from the account to an immediate family member and legal
YouTube[322] representative of the user's estate, and they can provide the data in the account to a family
member. All three capabilities require the requestor's government-issued ID or driver's license,
the decedent's death certificate, and additional supporting documentation.

See also
Attention inequality – Term used to explain List of social networking services
attention distribution across social media Metcalfe's law – Value of a communication
Augmented reality – View of the real world network is proportional the square of the
with computer-generated supplementary number of pairwise connections)
features MMORPG – Video game genre
Citizen media – Journalistic content Networked learning – process of
produced by private citizens who are not developing and maintaining connections
professional journalists with people and information
Coke Zero Facial Profiler – free Facebook New media – Forms of media native to
app computers
Connectivism – Theory of learning in a Online presence management – process of
digital age presenting and drawing traffic to a personal
Connectivity (media) – wrt. media or professional brand online
Culture jamming – Form of protest to Online research community – market
subvert media culture research
Deplatforming – Administrative or political Participatory media
action to deny access to a platform to Social media and the Arab Spring
express opinions
Social media bias – Bias within the mass
Psychological effects of Internet use media
Internet politics – Global system of Social influence bias
connected computer networks
Social media and psychology – Interaction
Landing page – Type of web page between usage of social media and
List of online video platforms psychology of social media users
List of image-sharing websites Digital detox – Process of not using digital
List of social bookmarking websites devices
 Social media mining Social media surgery – gathering at which
Social media optimization – Form of volunteers with expertise in using web
optimization tools, chiefly social media, offer free advice
in using such tools, to representatives of
non-profit organisations, community groups
etc.
The Disinformation Project –
Misinformation research group in New
Zealand

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Further reading
Agozzino, Alisa (2012). "Building A Personal Relationship Through Social Media: A Study Of
Millenial Students' Brand Engagement". Ohio Communication Journal. 50: 181–204.
Al-Rahmi, Waleed Mugahed; Othman, Mohd Shahizan (2013). "The Impact of Social Media
use on Academic Performance among university students: A Pilot Study" (https://www.resear
chgate.net/publication/283723637). Journal of Information Systems Research and
Innovation: 1–10.
Aral, Sinan (2020). The Hype Machine: How Social Media Disrupts Our Elections, Our
Economy, and Our Health—and How We Must Adapt. Currency. ISBN 978-0-525-57451-4.
Benkler, Yochai (2006). The Wealth of Networks. New Haven: Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0-300-11056-2. OCLC 61881089 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61881089).
Beshears, Michael L. (2016). "Effectiveness of Police Social Media Use". American Journal
of Criminal Justice. 42 (3): 489–501. doi:10.1007/s12103-016-9380-4 (https://doi.org/10.100
7%2Fs12103-016-9380-4). S2CID 151928750 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15
1928750).
Blankenship, M (2011). "How social media can and should impact higher education". The
Education Digest. 76 (7): 39. ProQuest 848431918 (https://search.proquest.com/docview/84
8431918).
Fuchs, Christian (2014). Social Media: A Critical Introduction. London: Sage. ISBN 978-1-
4462-5731-9.
Gentle, Anne (2012). Conversation and Community: The Social Web for Documentation
(2nd ed.). Laguna Hills, CA: XML Press. ISBN 978-1-937434-10-6. OCLC 794490599 (http
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External links
Media related to Social media at Wikimedia Commons

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