4/18/2023

FLOW MEASUREMENT

Industrial Instrumentations
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

 Slides are developed from the following references:

Nakra B.C. and Chaudhry K.K., “Instrumentation, Measurement and

4/18/2023

Analysis”, II Ed., Tata McGraw Hill.
 Andrew W.G., “Applied Instrumentation in the Process Industries”, Vol. I–III,
3rd E., Gulf Publishing Company.
 Liptak B.G., “Process Control & Optimization”, Vol. II, 4th Ed., Taylor and
Francois.
 Webster J.G., “Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook”, CRC
Press 1999”
 WIKIPEDIA

2
LINKS FOR VIDEOS

4/18/2023
 Pitot tube – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D6sbzkYq3_c
 Orifice – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUd4WxjoHKY&feature=related

 Vortex – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GmTmDM7jHzA&feature=related

 Electromagnetic –
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f949gpKdCI4&feature=related
CONTENTS

4/18/2023
1) Introduction
2) Types of Flows
3) Basic Requirements for Flow Measurement
4) Definition of Quantities to be Measured
5) Types of Measurement
6) Types of Flow Meters
7) Selection of Flow Meters
8) Flow Measurement Information
INTRODUCTION
 Flow measurement is an essential variable in plant operation.

4/18/2023
 Measured primarily for determining the amount of fluid flowing.

 Fluid flow types encountered in industrial processes are:

 Less or highly viscous
 Clear or dirty/opaque
 Clean or dirty
 Wet or dry
 Erosive or corrosive,
 Single phase or multiphase,
 Vacuum to very high pressures
FLUID FLOW TYPE

 Stream line / viscous / laminar

4/18/2023
 Turbulent

 Combined viscous / turbulent

Or

ѵs = Mean Fluid Velocity,

η - (Absolute) Dynamic fluid Viscosity
v = Kinematics Fluid Viscosity (ν = η/ρ)
ρ = Fluid Density
L = Characteristic Length (Equal to diameter, 2r if a Cross Section is Circular)
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR FLOW MEASUREMENT
✓ Ability to Calibrate

4/18/2023
✓ Ability to Integrate Flow Fluctuation
✓ Easy Integration with Piping System
✓ High Accuracy
✓ Low Cost
✓ Low Sensitivity to Dirt Particles
✓ Low Pressure Loss
✓ No Moving Parts
✓ Resistant to Corrosion and Erosion
DEFINITION OF QUANTITIES TO BE MEASURED
VOLUME FLOW RATE

4/18/2023
The definition of volume flow rate is the volume of fluid that flows past a given
cross sectional area per second. Therefore,
V = Av
V = Volume Flow Rate
A = Cross Section Area
v = Velocity of Fluid
Standard SI Unit is m3/hr
Other Common Units :
1L/s = 103 cm3/s = 10-3 m3/s
1gal/s = 3.788 L/s = 0.003788 m3/s
1cf/min = 4.719x10-4 m3/s
DEFINITION OF QUANTITIES TO BE MEASURED
MASS FLOW RATE

4/18/2023
The definition of mass flow rate is the number of kilograms of mass flow that
flows past a given cross sectional area per second. Therefore,
m = ρV = ρAѵ
m = Mass Flow Rate
ρ = Specific Density
V = Volume Flow Rate
A = Cross Section Area
v = Velocity of Fluid
Standard SI Unit is kg/hr
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
1. Correlation Method 13. Rotary Vane

4/18/2023
2. Corriolis 14. Swirl
3. Elbow Tap “Elbow Meter” 15. Target
4. Electro-Magnetic 16. Thermal Dispersion
5. Flow Nozzles 17. Turbine
6. Flow Tube 18. Ultrasonic Doppler
7. Nutating Disk 19. Ultrasonic Transit Time
8. Orifices 20. Variable Area
9. Oval Gear 21. Venturi Tube
10. Pitot Tube 22. Vortex
11. Positive Mass 23. Weir & Flume
10
12. Reciprocating Piston
 TYPES OF MEASUREMENT

Primary devices or quantity meters (Direct

4/18/2023
flow measurement)
• Quantity measurement*, by mass or volume, accomplished
by counting successive isolated portions.
Secondary device or inferential or rate
meters (Indirect flow measurement)
• Measurement are inferred from effects of flow rate on
pressure, force, heat transfer, flow area, etc.
*Quantity meters are used for the calibration of rate meters.
 PRIMARY QUANTITY METERS
 Quantity or total flow measurement signifies the amount of

4/18/2023
fluid in terms of mass or volume that flows past a given point in
a definite period of time.
 It is simple, economical and accurate.
PRIMARY QUANTITY METERS
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS

4/18/2023
 The flow measuring device is so designed that the metered fluid is
repeatedly filled and emptied from a space of known volume.

 Principle – the fluid flows through a meter and moves the

measuring element that seals the measuring chamber into a series
of measuring compartments each holding a definite volume.

 They are used in low flow rate metering applications where high accuracy
and repeatability under steady flow conditions are required.
PRIMARY QUANTITY METERS
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS – NUTATING DISC METERS

4/18/2023
 They have simple and rugged construction, low pressure drop, low cost, and
a good accuracy of the order of  1%.
 It can meter wide variety of fluids (mostly used as domestic water meter).
PRIMARY QUANTITY METERS
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS – NUTATING DISC METERS

4/18/2023
 Nutating disc meters consists of an eccentrically mounted disc
which nutates or wobble in the metering chamber which has
spherical sides.
 Liquid enters from left side of the meter, alternately above and
below the disc, forcing it to rock (nutate or wobble) in a circular
path while rotating about its own axis.
 A simple spindle is attached to the sphere, traces a circular path
and is used to drive the mechanical or electronic counter.
PRIMARY QUANTITY METERS
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS – SLIDING-VANE-TYPE METER

4/18/2023
 They have low pressure drops.
 The accuracy is of the order of  0.2%.
 They are used as positive displacement pumps, therefore acting both for flow and
measurement simultaneously.
 They are widely used for filling petrol/diesel or compressed natural gas in the fuel
filling stations.
PRIMARY QUANTITY METERS
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS – SLIDING-VANE-TYPE METER

4/18/2023
 Sliding-vane-type meter have a rotor with four evenly spaced slots which
form the guide for the vane.
 The metered liquid entering the inlet revolves the rotor and the vanes
around a cam causing the vanes to move radially.
 The vane nearest to the inlet port begins to move outwards and becomes
fully extended at point A.
 The vane ahead at point B is already fully extended and thus a measuring
chamber of known volume is formed between the two vanes and the meter
body.
 A continuous series of chambers at the rate of four per revolution is formed
which delivers the flow at the outlet.
PRIMARY QUANTITY METERS
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS – LOBBED IMPELLER METER

4/18/2023
 The operating flow rate range varies from 10 to 10000 m3/h and can operate for pressures up to 60
atm.
 The accuracy is 1% over a range of 10–100 % of the rated capacity.
 They have low pressure drop (of the order of 50 mm of Hg at the rated capacity).
 They are very expensive and limited to very clean fluids (e,g., gases or refined petroleum products).
PRIMARY QUANTITY METERS
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS – LOBBED IMPELLER METER

4/18/2023
 Lobbed impeller meter consist of two rotors mounted on separate parallel shafts.
 The rotor is lobbed and revolve in opposite directions in a close fitting chamber.
 The rotor lobes have cylcloidal or involute shape which ensures accurate mating.
 The incoming fluid is trapped between the two rotors and is conveyed to the outlet
as a result of the rotation of the rotors.
 For each rotation of each rotor, the swept volume corresponding to twice the area
A is passed through the meter.
 Therefore the number of revolutions of the rotor gives an indication of the
volumetric flow.
 The revolution of the lobbed impeller can be picked by magnetic or photo-electric
pick-up or counted by connecting them to mechanical registers.
PRIMARY QUANTITY METERS
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS

4/18/2023
PRIMARY QUANTITY METERS
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS

4/18/2023
 They are easy to install and maintain and have moderate cost.

 Have moving part, therefore accuracy can be altered by the wear of the
components.

 They are suitable only to the clean fluids.

 They do not give instantaneous rate of flow as they are flow totalizers.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS

4/18/2023
 They do not measure flow directly instead they measure another
physical quantity which is related to the flow.
 Indirect measuring techniques are employed using different working
principles, such as:
 Differential pressure,
 Force on bodies in the flow,
 Heat transfer,
 Corriolis force,
 Magneto-inductive,
 Frequency of vortices,
 Ultrasonic, etc.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
TYPES OF FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
Flow rate meters Velocity meters

Variable head meter Variable head meter

Variable area meter Target flow meter

Variable head and area meter Turbine/propeller type flow meter

Constant head meter Ultrasonic flow meter

Electromagnetic flow meter

Hot wire/film anemometer

Laser Doppler anemometer

SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
TYPES OF FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
• Obstruction type flow meter
Variable head meter • Reduction in the flow pressure

• Change in area causes change in the drag force of

Variable area meter a body placed in the flowing fluid.

Variable head and • A specified shaped restriction is placed in the

path of the flow which causes a rise in the
area meter upstream liquid level, which is a function of flow.

• A constant head is applied to cause a laminar

Constant head device flow in the capillary tube.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
TYPES OF VELOCITY METERS

4/18/2023
Variable head • Difference between the stagnation
pressure head and the static head gives
meter the dynamic head.

• Flowing fluid impinging on the target is

Target flow meter brought to rest. The pressure increases by
the velocity head term, V2/2g.

• The fluid flow causes rotation of the curved

Turbine/propeller vanes and its rotational speed is
type meter proportional to the average flow velocity
passing through the vanes.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
TYPES OF VELOCITY METERS

4/18/2023
Ultrasonic flow • The transit time of the ultrasonic pulse between
the transmitter and the receiver is obtained
meter which is a function of the average velocity.

Electromagnetic • A magnetic field is applied on the moving

conducting fluid, which results in the production
flow meter of emf.

Hot wire/film • The resistance of a thin heated wire changes

due to the cooling effect of the flowing fluid
anemometer stream.

Laser Doppler • A laser beam get scattered due to the presence

anemometer of particle in a flowing fluid.
 SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VARIABLE HEAD METERS

4/18/2023
 These devices are also termed as obstruction meters.
 An obstacle is placed in the path of the fluid, causing localized changes in
the velocity.
 The change in the velocity results into change in pressure and correlated
with the rate of flow of fluid.
 A loading error is introduced in the measured value as obstruction
introduces extra resistance in the flow system.
 Different variable head meters are venturi, orifice and nozzle meters.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUd4WxjoHKY
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VARIABLE HEAD METERS - VENTURI METER

4/18/2023
 Best accuracy, least head loss as
compared to orifice and nozzle
meters.
 Not affected by the wear and
abrasion from dirty fluid.
 Low losses resulted into high
coefficient of discharge.
 Expensive and occupies
substantial space
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VARIABLE HEAD METERS - ORIFICE METER

4/18/2023
 Thin orifice plate clamped between two
pipe flanges.
 Low in cost, easy to install, takes
almost no space.
 Suffers high head loss (of the order of
30 – 40%).
 Susceptible to high inaccuracies
resulting from erosion, corrosion,
clogging, etc. due to flow of dirty fluids.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VARIABLE HEAD METERS - NOZZLE METER

4/18/2023
 Advantages are similar to the
venturi meter, however,
 occupies less space.
 difficult to install, and
 limited to moderate pipe sizes.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VARIABLE HEAD METERS – BASIC EQUATIONS

4/18/2023
v = Fluid Velocity
Q = Volume Flow Rate
A = Cross Sectional Area of Pipe
m = Mass Flow Rate
k = Constant
h = Differential Pressure
 = Density of Fluid
The (lateral) pressure exerted by an incompressible
fluid varies inversely with the square of the speed of
the fluid.
NOZZLE METER DESIGN

4/18/2023
 A nozzle is fitted in a horizontal pipe diameter 15 cm, carrying a gas of density
1.15 kg/m3, for the purpose of flow measurement. The differential pressure head
indicated by a U-tube manometer containing oil of specific gravity 0.8 is 10 cm.
if the coefficient of discharge and the flow rate of gas through the nozzle flow
meter are 0.8 and 58.4 l/s, respectively, determine the diameter of nozzle.
VENTURI METER DESIGN

4/18/2023
 The inlet and the throat diameters of a horizontal venturimeter used for
measuring the rate of flow of water are 30 cm and 10 cm, respectively. At a
certain flow rate, the pressure intensity at the inlet and throat was found to be
13.734 N/cm2 and 37 cm of Hg (vacuum), respectively. Assuming that 4% of head
loss occurs between the inlet and throat, determine (i) the coefficient of
discharge and (ii) the rate of flow of water through the venturimeter.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VARIABLE AREA METERS - ROTAMETER

4/18/2023
 Rotameter

Cd (At − A f ) Vf (.  −  ff )
Qactual =
f
2g
1 − (At − A f ) A Af  ff
2 2
t

If variation in Cd with the float position

is slight and (At – Af)/At << 1 then,

Qactual = K (At − A f )


At = (Di + y tan  )2 =  Di2 +  yDi tan 
4 4 2
  
Qactual = K yDi tan  + K  Di2 − A f  = K1 y + K 2
4 4 
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VARIABLE AREA METERS - ROTAMETER

4/18/2023
 Rotameter tubes and floats are made of different materials
depends on process condition and fluids (liquid or gas)
 In case of gases a small sphere can be used in a narrow bore tube, which
requires no guiding in the tube.
 In case of liquids floats are kept central by guiding wires or internal ribs
in the tube.
 Rotameter tube is made of high strength borosilicate tubing.
 For high pressure operations tube is made of metals and the float
position is detected either magnetically or electrically (by using a
suitable displacement transducer).
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VARIABLE AREA METERS - ROTAMETER

4/18/2023
 Advantages
 They give direct visual indication on a linear scale.
 Capacities ranges from 0.1 ml/min to several 100 liter/min.
 Accuracy is within 1% of the maximum flow rates.
 They can handle a wide variety of fluids including corrosive ones.

 Limitation
 They must be mounted vertically and they are subjected to the pulsation
in the fluid.
PROBLEMS

4/18/2023
 A rotameter is calibrated for measuring a liquid of density 1000 kg/m3 and has a
scale ranging from 1 to 100 l/min. It is intended to use this meter for metering the
flow of gas density 1.25 kg/m3 with a flow range between 20 and 2000 l/min.
Determine the density of the new float, if the original one has a density of 2000
kg/m3.
 Assumption: the shape and volume of both the floats is same.

Cd (At − Af ) Vf (.  −  ff )
Qactual =
f
2g
1 − (At − Af ) A Af  ff
2 2
t
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VARIABLE HEAD AND AREA METERS
 Measurement of large volumes of liquids in open channels.

4/18/2023
 Principle – if a restriction of a specified shape and form is placed in the path of the flow,
a rise in the upstream liquid level occurs which is a function of the rate of flow through
the restricted section.

Used to measure large flow Used to measure smaller flow rates

SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
CONSTANT HEAD METERS

4/18/2023
 Linear Resistance Element Flow Meters – are used to measure very small flow rates
or highly viscous flows.
 Principle – Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow

D 4
Q= ( p1 − p1 )
128L

Q is the flow rate

D is the inside diameter of tube
L is the length of the tube
 is the coefficient of viscosity
(p1 – p2) pressure drop along the
length of the tube.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
CONSTANT HEAD METERS

4/18/2023
 Advantage
 Flow rate is directly proportional to the pressure drop.
 Give accurate measurements of pulsating flow because of good damping
ability of the device.
 It can measure reversed flow with out any difficulty.

 Disadvantage
 Metering element is subject to plugging if the metered fluid is not clean.
 These units are relatively expensive and associated with high pressure
losses of the metered flows.

A single capillary flow meter has a capillary tube of 2 mm bore and 30 cm length. Determine
the amount of discharge in 100 s if the flow of oil of sp. gravity and coefficient of viscosity  =
0.006 N-s/m2 gives a pressure differential of 20 cm of oil in a capillary length of 30 cm.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VORTEX-SHEDDING FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
 If a bluff body or an obstacle is placed in a fluid stream, vortices are shed alternately
on each side of the bluff body.
 The wake behind the bluff body (Karman Vortex street), consisted of separated flow
containing the eddies/vortices alternately shed from each side of the bluff body .
 Measure of vortex shedding frequency is the measure of the average flow velocity of
the fluid flow.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GmTmDM7jHzA&feature=related
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VORTEX-SHEDDING FLOW METERS
• A dimensionless number “Strouhal number” is used as calibration factor to fs D

4/18/2023
characterize various bluff bodies. St =
V
• The value of the Strouhal number is determined experimentally, and is generally
found to be constant over a wide range of Reynolds numbers. St = Strouhal Number

• The Strouhal number represents the ratio of the interval between vortex shedding (l) f = Vortex Shedding Frequency
and bluff body width (d), which is about six. D = Width of the Bluff Body
• If their Strouhal number is the same, then two different bluff bodies will perform and V = Average Fluid Velocity
behave similarly.

42
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VORTEX-SHEDDING FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
fs D
V= = (1.136 D) f s = Kf s
0.88
  
Q = D 2Vu =  D 2 − hD Vd
4 4 
 
Q = (1.136 Df s ) D 2 − hD 
4 
St = Strouhal Number
f = Vortex Shedding Frequency
d = Width of the Bluff Body
A = Cross Sectional Area
V = Average Fluid Velocity
B = Blockage Factor
K = Meter Coefficient
43
Strouhal number for triangular-wedge shaped body is varied from 0.88  0.01 over a wide range of Reynolds
number ranging from 10,000 to 5,000,000.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VORTEX-SHEDDING FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
Vortex Precession 44
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VORTEX-SHEDDING FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
 Advantages
 It has no moving parts and causes very low pressure loss in the metered
fluid.
 The calibration constant remains constant in the wide range of Reynolds
numbers.
 The calibration constant remains same for all fluids including hazardous
or corrosive liquids/gases, slurries or cryogenic liquids or two phase flow.
 The accuracy and precision is of the order of 0.5% and 0.1%,
respectively.

 Disadvantage
 The device is not accurate for Reynolds number < 1000 or > 10,000,000.
 SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS
The operation of magnetic flow meters is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic

4/18/2023
induction.
Magflow meters can detect the flow of conductive fluids only.
Early magflow meter designs required a minimum fluidic conductivity of 1-5 microsiemens
per centimeter for their operation.
The newer designs have reduced that requirement a hundredfold to between 0.05 and 0.1.
E = CBLV
E = Induced Voltage in volts
C = dimensionless constant
B = Magnetic field (weber/m2)
L = length of conductor (m)
V = velocity of the conductor (m/s) 46

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f949gpKdCI4&feature=related
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
Q = Av=(/4)d2v

EA
Q= = KE
CBL
47
A
where K =
CBL
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS
The magnetic flow meter’s coil can be powered by either alternating or direct current.

4/18/2023
In AC excitation, line voltage is applied to the magnetic coils and as a result, the flow
signal (at constant flow) will also look like a sine wave. The amplitude of the wave is
proportional to velocity. Addition to the flow signal, noise voltages can be induced in the
electrode loop. Out-of-phase noise is easily filtered, but in-phase noise requires that the
flow be stopped (with the pipe full) and the transmitter output set to zero. The main
problem with ac magflow meter designs is that noise can vary with process conditions
and frequent re-zeroing is required to maintain accuracy.

And as for DC excitation designs, a low frequency (7-30 Hz) dc pulse is used to excite the
magnetic coils. When the coils are pulsed on the transmitter reads both the flow and
noise signals. In between pulses, the transmitter sees only the noise signal. Therefore,
the noise can be continuously eliminated after each cycle.

48
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS
DC excitation is used in about 85% of installations while AC types claim the other 15% when

4/18/2023
justified by the following conditions:

• When air is entrained in large quantities in the process stream.

• When the process is slurry and the solid particle sizes are not uniform.
• When the solid phase is not homogeneously mixed within the liquid.
• When the flow is pulsating at a frequency under 15 Hz.

49
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
E = Induced Voltage
B = Magnetic Field Strength
D = Inner Diameter of Pipe
V = Average Velocity
C = Constant

E = BDV/C
C is a constant to take care of the engineering proper units

50
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
 Advantages
 It causes no obstruction in the flow lien
of the metered fluid.
 Device is very accurate and has a wider
linear range with good transient
response.

 Disadvantages
 Device is very expensive,
 Use is limited to the fluid having
conductivity at least of the order of 1 x
10-6 /cm. 51
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
CORIOLIS FLOW METER

4/18/2023
 When no fluid flows from the tubes, the vibration of the two tubes is
symmetrical.

 Fluid flow is led through two parallel tubes.

 An actuator induces a vibration of the tubes.
 The two parallel tubes are counter-vibrating, to make the measuring
device less sensitive to outside vibrations.
 The actual frequency of the vibration depends on the size of the mass
flow meter, and ranges from 80–1000 vibrations/second.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XIIViaNITIw
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
CORIOLIS FLOW METER

4/18/2023
 When there is mass flow, there is some twisting of the tubes.
 The arm through which fluid flows away from the axis of rotation must
exert a force on the fluid to increase its angular momentum, so it is
lagging behind the overall vibration.
 The arm through which fluid is pushed back towards the axis of
rotation must exert a force on the fluid to decrease the fluid's angular
momentum again, hence that arm leads the overall vibration.
 The inlet arm and the outlet arm vibrate with the same frequency as
the overall vibration, but when there is mass flow the two vibrations
are out of sync, the inlet arm is behind, the outlet arm is ahead.
 The two vibrations are shifted in phase with respect to each other, and
the degree of phase-shift is a measure for the amount of mass that is
flowing through the tubes.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
CORIOLIS FLOW METER

4/18/2023
 The mass flow of a u-shaped coriolis flow meter is given as:

K u − I u 2
Q 2

2Kd
where
Ku is the temperature dependent stiffness of the tube,
K is the shape-dependent factor,
d is the width,
 is the time lag,
 is the vibration frequency, and
Iu is the inertia of the tube.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VELOCITY METERS – PITOT-STATIC TUBE

4/18/2023
 The pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow.
 As this tube contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the moving fluid is brought to
rest (stagnates) as there is no outlet to allow flow to continue.
 This pressure is the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total pressure
or (particularly in aviation) the pitot pressure.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D6sbzkYq3_c
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VELOCITY METERS – PITOT-STATIC TUBE

4/18/2023
 Bernollis equation for Pitot tube:

P + ½ρѵ2 + ρgh = Constant

If no change in the elevation, ρgh = 0 = z

And point 2 is stagnation point, i.e. ѵ2 = 0

P = Static Pressure
ρ = Density of Fluid
v = Velocity of Fluid
g = Gravitational Acceleration (9.81m/s2) 56
h = Height
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
VELOCITY METERS – PITOT-STATIC TUBE

4/18/2023
 Advantages
 simple and low cost device
 no appreciable pressure loss in the flow stream
 easily inserted through a small hole into the pipe or duct,

 Disadvantages
 not suitable for measuring low velocities,
 it is sensitive to misalignment of the probe with respect to free stream velocity,
 not suitable for measuring highly fluctuating velocities.

A submarine moves horizontally in the sea and has its axis much below the surface of sea water.
A pitot tube properly placed just in front of the submarine is connected to a differential
pressure gauge. The pressure differential between the pitot pressure and static pressure was
found to be 20 kN/m2. Find the speed of the submarine if the density of sea water is 1026 kg/m3.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
TARGET FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
 An obstruction of suitably shaped body is inserted into the flow stream.
 The drag force on the body becomes the measure of the flow rate.

1
Fd = Cd gV 2 A
2
Cd is the drag coefficient
A is the cross-section
area
 is the fluid density
V is the fluid velocity
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
TARGET FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
 The drag force of the body is measured by attaching the drag body
to a suitable force measuring device (cantilever beam arrangement
with bonded strain gauge).

 Advantages
 have very good dynamic response
 overall accuracy of the instrument is 0.5% and repeatability within
0.1%.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
TURBINE FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
 Multi-vane rotor driven by the metered fluid
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
TURBINE FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
Working Principle
Reluctance
The coil is a permanent magnet and the turbine blades are made of ferrous materials. As each blade passes the coil, a
voltage is generated in the coil. Each pulse represents a discrete volume of liquid. The number of pulses per unit
volume is called the meter's K-factor.
Inductance
A permanent magnet is embedded in the rotor, or the blades of the rotor are made of permanently magnetized
material. As each blade passes the coil, it generates a voltage pulse. In some designs, only one blade is magnetic and
the pulse represents a complete revolution of the rotor.
Capacitive
Capacitive sensors produce a sine wave by generating an RF signal that is amplitude-modulated by the movement of
the rotor blades.
Hall-Effect
Hall-effect transistors change their state when they are in the presence of a very low strength (on the order of 25 61
gauss) magnetic field.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
TURBINE FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
62
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
TURBINE FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
Turbine flow meter has linear relationship between volume
flow rate and the angular velocity of the rotor

Q=Kn

where
Q is the volume flow rate
n is the rotor angular velocity (rad/s)
K is constant for any given meter and is
independent of the fluid properties at high
flow rates.

63
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
TURBINE FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
Turbine flow meters are commercially available with full-scale flow rates ranging from 0.5
to 150 000 l/min for liquids and 5 – 100 000 l/min for air.

The accuracy of the instrument is 1.0% over the design range. 64

Bearing maintenance is a problem and accuracy drops of greatly at low flow rates.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
THERMAL FLOW METERS – HEAT TRANSFER FLOWMETERS

4/18/2023
 This type of flow meters measures the rise in temperature of the
fluid after a known amount of heat has been added to it.

Q = WC p (T2 − T1 )
• Easily damaged by corrosion or
Q erosion as temperature sensor and
W=
C p (T2 − T1 ) heaters are placed in flow stream.
• For high flow rate, large power input
is required.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YfQSf2NBGqc
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
THERMAL FLOW METERS –HOT-WIRE ANEMOMETER

4/18/2023
 It is used to measure the mean and fluctuating velocities in the
fluid flows.
 The flow sensing element, of 5 m diameter, made of platinum-
tungsten wire welded between two prongs of the probe and heated
electrically as a part of Wheatstone bridge.
 When the probe is introduced in the fluid stream, it tends to get
cooled by the instantaneous velocity and consequently there is a
decrease in current.
 The velocity can be measure by hot wire anemometer with two
ways:
 Constant current method
 Constant resistance or temperature method
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
THERMAL FLOW METERS –HOT-WIRE ANEMOMETER

4/18/2023
Basic governing equations
 King’s law for convective heat transfer:
1/ 2
hD  VD 
= 0.30 + 0.5  for Re  10 2
k   
h = C1 + C2 V

 For equilibrium conditions:

 Electrical energy input = convective heat transfer in the fluid

𝐼 2 𝑅𝑊 = 𝐾𝑐 ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾𝑐 𝐴 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑓 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑉

 Change in resistance from temperature of fluid (Tf) to hot wire temperature (Tw) is
directly proportional to the temperature difference for the platinum and tungsten
material
Rw − R f = C3 (Tw − T f )
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
THERMAL FLOW METERS –HOT-WIRE ANEMOMETER

4/18/2023
 Measures the effect of the flowing fluid on a hot body.
E is the voltage generated
I is the current flowing in the wire
C1, C2, C3, A2, B2 are constants
k is the thermal conductivity of fluid
I 2 RwC3 Kc is the conversion factor from electrical to
= C1 + C2 V
K c A(Rw − R f ) thermal power
Cp is the specific heat of fluid,
E 2 = A2 + B2 V = E02 + B2 V d is the diameter of heated thermocouple wire,
V is the velocity of fluid,
 is the density of flowing fluid,
Rw and Rf are the resistances.
• Thermal flow meters are used to measure the flow of liquids and gases in the range from
0.5 cm3/min to 18,000 kg/hr.
• Its accuracy is about 2% of full scale
• It can be designed to work with pressure upto 8.3 MPa.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
THERMAL FLOW METERS –HOT-WIRE ANEMOMETER
 Advantages:

4/18/2023
 The output is electrical so the readout can be analog or digital.
 The time constant of the instrument is 10-4 to 10-6 s. Therefore it has excellent
dynamic characteristics.
 Good accuracy of the order of 0.1% in the measurement of mean velocities and
2.0% in the measurement of turbulence level.
 It can measure velocities from very low to supersonic velocities.
 Very small probe so does not cause any disturbance in the flow.

 Disadvantage:
 Good for clean fluid only.
 Suitable for gas flow measurement, however for liquids hot film probes are used,
coated with thin layer of epoxy, and are made of gold, platinum or nickel.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
 Principle – the apparent change in the velocity of propagation of
sound pressure pulses in a fluid with a change in velocity of the
fluid.
 These devices measure flow by measuring the time taken for ultrasonic
wave to transverse a pipe section, both with and against the flow of
liquid within the pipe.
 Applications – measurement of ocean currents, vessel speeds, water flow
in large conduits, flow of various biomedical and industrial fluids.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bx2RnrfLkQg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iwVBUo11UAU
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
 Two transducers, A and B,
inserted in the pipeline.
 Both transducers acts as
transmitter and receiver.
 The ultrasonic waves are
transmitted from transducer A
to transducer B and vice versa.
 An electronic oscillator is
connected to supply ultrasonic 2lV
t  2
waves alternately to A or B. Vs
 The detector measures the where l is the distance between transmitter
transit time from upstream to and receiver
downstream transducers and Vs is the velocity of sound in the
vice versa. fluid 71
V is the fluid velocity
t = t2 – t1, is the travel time difference
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS

4/18/2023
 Advantages  Disadvantages
 Offers negligible resistance to the  High cost (high accuracy
metered fluid system. is required during
 Accuracy is of the order of 2% of the manufacturing).
full scale.
 Linear relationship between the
velocity and output.
 Suitable for both liquids and gases.
 The readout can easily be either
analog or digital.

72
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
LASER-DOPPLER ANEMOMETER

4/18/2023
 Also known as optical type of velocity meters.
 Principle – Doppler shift in frequency of the light scattered by
an object moving relative to the radiating source.
 Focusing laser beam at the point in the fluid where the velocity to be
measured.
 At this focal point, the laser light scattered from the fluid or fluid
particles entrained in the fluid is sensed by a photo-detector.
 Signal processing of the photo-detector output yields the magnitude
of Doppler frequency shift which is directly proportional to the
instantaneous velocity of the flow.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
LASER-DOPPLER ANEMOMETER

4/18/2023
 The basic configuration of an
LDA consists of :
 A continuous wave laser
 Transmitting optics, including a
beam splitter and a focusing lens
 Receiving optics, comprising a
focusing lens, an interference filter
and a photodetector
 A signal conditioner and a signal
processor.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
LASER-DOPPLER ANEMOMETER

4/18/2023
 Materials suitable for production of laser beams:
 ruby (aluminum oxide crystal doped with a small amount of chromium),
 neodymium-glass,
 neodymium-YAG,
 carbon dioxide gas,
 neon gas,
 ionized argon gas, and
 semiconductor crystal gallium arsenide.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
LASER-DOPPLER ANEMOMETER

4/18/2023
 The velocity of the fluid is given by:
f .
V
2 sin( / 2)
where f is the difference between transmitted and received frequencies (or Doppler shift in the
frequency)
 is the wavelength of laser in the fluid,
 is the angle of transmitter and receiver crystal with respect to the pipe axis, and
v is the velocity of fluid

 A laser Doppler anemometer employs a He-Ne laser ( = 632.8 nm) to measure the velocity of flow at a
point in dusty gas. A 160 mm focusing lens having  = 120 is used to operate the LDA in the dual beam
mode. Estimate the velocity of flow if the average Doppler shift in frequency was found to be 1.62 MHz.
SECONDARY OR RATE OR INFERENTIAL METERS
LASER-DOPPLER ANEMOMETER

4/18/2023
Advantages Disadvantages

 Velocity output relation is  It involves transparent

linear. channels.
 Non-contact type of instrument.
 Measurement techniques is
 Very high accuracies of the not suitable for clean fluids.
order of 0.2%.
 Equipment is very expensive
 Measurement can be possible
and requires experience for
with miniature size of volume
(0.2 mm side cube), handling.
 Suitable in measurement for
both gases and liquids. 77
CALIBRATION OF FLOW METERS
LIQUIDS

4/18/2023
In-situ
•insertion point velocity methods,
calibration •dilution gauging/tracer methods
methods

•master meter method,

Laboratory •volumetric method,
methods •gravimetric method,
•pipe prover method.
CALIBRATION OF FLOW METERS
LIQUIDS – IN-SITU CALIBRATION METHODS
Insertion point velocity methods

4/18/2023


 It utilizes point measuring velocity device where calibration device chosen

is positioned in the flow stream adjacent to the flow meter being calibrated
and such that mean flow velocity can be measured.

 Dilution gauging/tracer methods

 A pulse of tracer material may be added to the flow stream and the time
taken for the tracer to travel a known distance and reach a maximum
concentration is a measure of the flow velocity.
CALIBRATION OF FLOW METERS
LIQUIDS – LABORATORY CALIBRATION METHODS
Master meter method

4/18/2023

 A meter of known accuracy is used as a calibration
standard.
 The meter to be calibrated and the master meter are
connected in series (therefore follows similar flow
regime).
 Volumetric method
 The flow of liquid through the meter being calibrated is
diverted into a tank of known volume.
 Gravimetric method
 The flow of liquid through the meter being calibrated is
diverted into a tank and is weighed either continuously
or after a predetermined time.
 The weight of the liquid is compared with the registered
reading of the flowmeter being calibrated.
CALIBRATION OF FLOW METERS
GASES
In-situ
Laboratory

4/18/2023
calibration
methods
methods

Insertion point Soap-film

velocity burette
methods method

Dilution Water
gauging/tracer displacement
method method

Gravimetric
method
CALIBRATION OF FLOW METERS
GASES – LABORATORY CALIBRATION METHODS

4/18/2023
 Soap-film burette method
 Used for calibrating gas flow in the range
of 10-7 to 10-4 m3/s.
 Gas flow from the meter on test is passed
through a burette mounted in the vertical
plane.
 As the gas enters the burette a soap film
is formed across the tube and travels up in
it as the same velocity as the gas.
 By measuring the time of transit of the
soap film between graduations of the
burette it is possible to determine the flow
rate.
CALIBRATION OF FLOW METERS
GASES – LABORATORY CALIBRATION METHODS

4/18/2023
 Water displacement method
 A cylinder closed at one end is inverted
over a water bath.
 As the cylinder is lowered into the bath a
trapped volume of gas is developed.
 This gas can escape via a pipe connected
to the cylinder out through the flow-
meter being calibrated.
 The time of fall of cylinder with the
knowledge of the volume/length
relationship leads to the determination of
the amount of gas displaced which can be
compared with that measured by the
flow-meter under calibration.
CALIBRATION OF FLOW METERS
GASES – LABORATORY CALIBRATION METHODS

4/18/2023
 Gravimetric method
 Gas is diverted via the meter under test into gas-collecting vessel over
a measured period of time.
 By weighing the collecting vessel before diversion and again after
diversion the difference will be due to the enclosed gas, and flow can be
determined.
 This flow can be measured with that measured by the flow-meter.
PROBLEMS

4/18/2023

4/18/2023
THANKS
87