ALPHA TERM SCHEME OF WORK FOR SS2

GEOGRAPHY
WEEKS TOPICS
1 REVISION OF LAST TERM’S WORK
2 Soil
3 Soil Continues
4 Earthquake
5 Volcanicity
6 Action of underground water
7 Weathering
8 Action of running water
9. Action of wind
10 Action of wave
11 REVISION
12 EXAMINIATION

WEEK ONE
REVISION OF S S 1 WORK

WEEK TWO
TOPIC: SOIL
Soil is the thin, outer layer of the earth which supports the growth of plants. It is also referred to
as the outer layer or the upper most layer of the earth’s crust on which plants grow and from
where they derive their nutrients. Soil is defined as the topmost layer of the earth crust on which
plants grow.
Soil is made up of mineral inorganic particles (sand, soil and clay) and organic matter (humus)
derive form decomposed remains of plants and animals. It is also made up of air, water and living
organisms (earth worms, bacteria, fungi).
Soil as we know being the layer of the earth is made up of a mixture of minerals, air and water
(formed from the underlying rocks and plants and animal material by various physical, chemical
and biological processes.
COMPOSITION/COMPONENTS OF THE SOIL

The soil is made up of five components:

1. Mineral matter/inorganic matter

2. Organic matter
3. Air
 4. Water
5. Living organisms

1. ORGANIC MATTER: this is made up of remains of decayed plant and animals that form humus
soil and provides essential nutrients for the plants.

2. INORGANIC MATTER: these mineral matter represents small rock fragments of the soil. The
inorganic matter from the bulk of about 45% of the total volume of the soil. The mineral matter
consists of gravels, stones, sand, salt and clay.

IMPORTANCE OF INORGANIC MATTER

i. It forms the solid part of the soil which brings about the firmness of plants
ii. It acts or stands as the habitat/homes of animals
iii. It is the source of plant nutrients
iv. It moderates the soil temperature
v. It holds water for both plant and animal activities.

IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC MATTER

i. Organic matter are rich soil nutrient

ii. It is an habit for micro-organism
iii. It prevents leading in soil
iv. It controls soil erosion and evaporation
v. It regulates soil temperature
vi. It improves the structure of the soil
vii. It encourages water holding capacity of the soil

3. SOIL WATER: this is the water in the soil which is obtained either from rain or irrigation
activities. This water represents, 25% of the total volume of water in the soil and usually found in
the soil within the pore spaces when there is too much water in the soil. It makes the soil to be
water logged.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL WATER

i. It serves as agent of weathering

ii. It helps in dissolving plant nutrients
iii. Soil water is an important raw materials for photosynthesis
iv. The presence of water is soil encourages tillage of the soil
v. Water in the soil is needed for germination of seed
vi. It protects plants from injurious high temperature

4. SOIL AIR: it can be referred to as the gases present in the soil pore spaces found between the
soils particles.
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL AIR

i. Soil air is required carbon and nitrogen cycles

ii. Soil organisms required oxygen or respiration
iii. Soil air is needed for germination of seed
iv. It also encourages weathering processes in the rock

5. LIVING ORGANISMS: these can be referred to as micro-organisms, plants and animals that assist
in the formation of soil. They range from microscopic organisms to bigger organisms. Plants and
animals which inhabit the soil either through borrowing or through the root of plants gaining
entrance into rocks assist greatly in breaking down the rocks into pieces which lead to the
formation of soil.

IMPORTANCE OF LIVING ORGANISMS

i. They help to decompose organic matter

ii. The microorganisms provide acidic materials which help to break down rocks
iii. Living organisms improve the structure of the soil
iv. Microorganisms like bacteria help to fix nutrient into the soil
v. These living organisms assist percolation of water
vi. Pests and parasite causes diseases of the crops and these are part of living organisms
that aid the formation of soil.

WEEK THREE
TOPIC: SOIL CONTINUES
TYPES OF SOILS
Broadly speaking, there are three types of soils based on properties that differentiate one from
the other. They are sandy soils, clayey soils and loamy soils.
SANDY SOILS:
A soil is said to be sandy if the proportion of sand particles in a sample soil is very high. The grains
of this type of soil are coarse, each measuring 0.2 to 2mm. The soil is loose and structure less
because of the absence of colloids which bind soil together.

The pore spaces are very wide, thereby allowing air and water to run through very quickly. Sandy
soils are thus both porous and highly permeable. Sandy soil is not good for farming because it is
poor in nutrients.

PROPERTIES OF SANDY SOIL

1. Sandy soil is coarse grains and gritty

2. It is loose with large pore spaces
3. It is well aerated and cannot hold water
4. Percolation is high but capillarity is low
 5. It is not sticky when wet.

CLAYEY SOIL

Soil is said to be clayey if the proportion of clay in a sample of soil is very high. In this type of soil,
the particle of soil is less than 0.02mm in diameter predominate, it has a good structural
arrangement of soil particles tightly bound together by colloids. It is heavy soil thus it is very
difficult to work on or cultivate.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLAYEY SOIL

i. Clay soil is tightly packed with little pore spaces

ii. It is poorly aerated and can hold water
iii. It is fine grained and smooth
iv. It is sticky when wet and hard when dry
v. Percolation is low and capillarity is high

LOAMY SOIL

Loamy soil is formed from the combination of sand and clay with a high proportion of organic
matter. This type of soil is very fertile, hence the areas are often extensively cultivated used for
agricultural purpose.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LOAMY SOIL

i. It contains a lot of organic matter

ii. It is loose and moist in nature
iii. It is well aerated and can hold water
iv. It does not support erosion and water logging
WEEK FOUR

TOPIC: EARTHQUAKES

An earthquake is a violent tremor in the earth crust which send out a series of vibrating waves in
all directions.

These are sudden movement or vibrations of in the earth crust. They occur as a result of
disturbances within and below the earth crust.

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

Most earthquakes one caused by sudden movement within the earth crust particularly where
there are fractures of faults, stress is built up within the earth crust when a certain point of
tension or intensity is reached, cracked or ships occurs within the earth crust. This produce the
shock effect that sands but vibrations.

The point at which the shock originates is caved in a nut shell earthquakes are caused by the
development of faults or cracksin the crust which results from the collision between the tectonic
plains.

The movement of molten rock below or within crust or the sudden release or stress which are
slowly built up along the plain. The point at which the shuck originates is called Origin or Focusand
the point on the earth surface directly above the focus or where the shock waves first meet the
surface with Intensity of earthquake is called seismograph. This instrument records the vibration
produced by an earthquake. The effect produced by the earthquakes is referred to as Intensity.
The magnitude of shock of the earthquake which refers to the total amount of energy released is
measured according to Richter’s scale.

When earthquakes occur on the seafloor for example, it sets up huge waves called tsunamis. This
waves at times more than 10m high invade adjacent costal lands drowning people and livestock
and pull down structure. For example on December 27, 1939 an earthquake and accompanying
waves killed 50,000 people and destroy 100,000 homes in Turkey.

POPULAR EXAMPLES OF DISASTROUS EARTHQUAKES

Africa is generally free from earthquake except along the edge (Morocco, Algeria and Egypt)
where some earthquake have been recorded.

In East Africa, some major earthquakes have occurred in the rift valley zone e.g. Tanzania, near the
shore of Tanganyika in the December 1910 and in Kenya in January 1928. The Accra region of
Ghana is the only part of West Africa that has not experienced tremors since the second half of
the 18th century.

Major tremors occurs in 1867, 1906 and 1937. In the last few years, minor earth tremors have
been recorded in the basement complex areas in Nigeria particularly in Oyo and Ogun state.

In 1964, earthquake measuring 8.5am struck Alaska, capital anchored was severally damaged even
though the epicentre was 120km away.

THE EARTHQUAKE PROCESS

The point in the interior of the earth from where the vibration or earthquake waves originates is
called the focus of the earthquake. The waves radiate upwards incomes of waves known as
underground body waves. They arrive the surface in concentric circles where they are celled the
surface waves. The vertically above the focus which is the same as the centre of the earthquakes.
The epicentre is the point in the point on the earth surface directly above the focus or where the
shock waves first hit the surface.

The instrument used in measuring the intensity of earthquake is caked seismography. The
instrument records the vibration by an earthquake.

TYPES OF SHOCK WAVES

There are two type of waves which are: (i) Body waves (ii) Surface waves

1. BODY WAVES: this waves travel through the crust. There are two types of body wave.
a. Primary Waves: this causes the coastal rocks to move backwards and forward in the direction of
the wave movement.

b. Secondary waves: this cause the coastal make to move from side to side i.e. at right angles to
the direction of the wave movement.

2. SURFACE WAVES: this travel through the surface rocks. They are of two types

a. Love waves: this causes the surface to move from side to side at right angel to the direction of
the wave movement

b. Rayleighwaves: this causes the surface rocks to have a vertical circular movement.

WEEK FIVE

TOPIC: VOLCANICITY

Volcanicity is the ejection of solid, liquid or gaseous materials from some deep-seated reservoir of
molten magma beneath the earth crust to the earth surface.

Volcanicity is defined as the rising of molten magma or other gaseous materials beneath to the
surface of the earth or within the earth crust.

Volcalnicity can be referred to as all various processes associated with the ejection of magma and
relates the material from the depth below onto the earth crust.

PROCESS OF VOLCANICITY

Volcanicity is formed when molten magma or mobile rock forces its way into the place of
weakness or vent of the earth crust to escape quickly or explosively to the surface. Molten magma
naturally escape through areas that have experienced mountain building process of compression
and tension. The magma while moving through the vent to the earth surface may cool and solidify
within the earth crust before getting to the surface of the earth as plutonic rock leading to
intrusive land form.
On the other hand, when the magma reaches the surface of the earth, it cools and solidifies as
volcanic rock and results in extensive land form. Rocks formed by either volcanic activities or
plutonic activities are referred to as igneous rocks.

INTRUSIVE VOLCANICITY/INTRUSIVE LAND FORMS

The intrusive land form of volcanicity include:

i. Dyke
ii. Sill
iii. Batholith
iv. Phacolith
v. Lopolith
vi. Loccolith
vii. Volcanic rock and dyke neck

DYKE

This is a discordant volcanic intrusion which is formed when magma solidifies within vertical
faults. Dyke results when an intension of magma is made vertical within the sedimentary layers.
Example of dyke include, dyke in England, develand in Scotland.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DYKE

1. A dyke is a rock form lying vertical or inclined across the bedding planes (discordant)

2. It is a narrow wall – like features that is rarely prominent in the landscape.

3. at times when exposed, a dyke forms shallow trenches

4. A dyke is a resistance rock

5. It may be circular in shape e.g. ring dyke in Jos and very extrusive in length

6. Sometimes, adyke gives rise to water polls or rapids and constitutes oil tap or water tap e.g.
clave land dyke of Yorkshire, ring dyke in Jos.

SILL

Sill unlike dyke as a sheet of solidified magma which lies cordantly to the bedding of sedimentary
rocks, sill, it react when an intrusion of magma is horizontally along the bedding place of
sedimentary rock.

Examples are: Northumberland in England and little and great Farrons in South Africa.

BATHOLITHS
It is a huge mass igneous rock usually granite which after removal of the overlaying rock forms a
massive and resistant upland region, such as Wick low mountain of Ireland. The upland of Britain,
France and the main ranges of Malaysia.

Formation of Batholiths have been attributed to the shrinking and the resistant melting and the
incorporation of large block of surrounding areas rocks into the molten magma which may later
solidify.

LACCOLITH

Laccolith is a large baster or igneous mould with a dome-shaped upper surface and a level base
fed by a pipe-like conduct from below (this is by local accumulation of molten magma). If arches
up overlying strata of sedimentary rocks e.g. the laccolith of the Henry mountains in vtah USA.

LOPPOLITH

Loppolith is another variety of igneous intrusion with a saucer shape. Example are the Bashreld
loppolith of Tranovaal, South Africa examples area also found in England and Scotland and Sierra
Leone peninsula.

PHACOLITH

Phacolith is a lens-shaped mass of igneous rocks occupying the crest of an anticline or the bottom
of a syncline and being jed by a conduct from beneath. An example of phacolith is London Hill in
Shropshire England.

VOLCANIC NECKS

They result from solification of larva invents of volcanoes. They resist erosion better than volcanic
cones themselves e.g. Dumberyan Rocks, Scotland Devils, Tower in Wyoming USA.

DYKE RIDGES

They are steep-sided sharp ridges of volcanic origin. They are usually larger than volcanic rocks
e.g. (i) crazy mountains of Montana (ii) the great Dyke of Rhodesia.

EXTRUSIVE LANDFORMS

Extrusive landforms are determined by the nature and composition of the larva and other ejected
materials that reach the surface of the earth. When molten magma immerges at the surface of the
earth, it is called larva. The magma could get to the surface of the earth through a vent (hole) or
fissures (cracks). If the larva immerged through a vent, it usually build up a volcano and if through
a fissure, it may build up a larva plane or larva plateau. Some major extrusive landform of
volcanicity include:

i. Composite cone
ii. Larva dome/shield volcanoes
iii. Ash and cinder cone
iv. Caldera

REATURES OF EXTRUSIVE LANDFORMS OF VOLCANICITY

1. COMPOSITE CONES: They are also called strato – volcanoes. These hence, formed some of the
grand-outer mountains of the earth. They are built of alternating layers of lava flows, volcanic
ashes and cinders through several vents on parasitic cone. Volcanoes begin earth emption with a
great explosion and extremely viscous acid larva, domes or plugs. The magmavolumes of dissolved
gases such as water vapour, carbon monoxide, car dioxide, hydrogen sulphate.

CALDERAS

These are huge craters of volcanoes often surrounded by the shattered remain of cone. Caldera
often result from violent eruption of volcanic cone the extent that the huge orator often several
kilometres across. When water accumulates in a Caldera, a lake is formed. Examples of this
include lake Toba in Somalia, Par yen Lake in Pankshro near Jos.

HOT SPRING

Hot springs are thermal springs which emit hot water quietly without any violent eruption. Water
rises up from the rock to the surface without any explosion. Some springs contain dissolved
minerals which may have medicinal value.

Hot springs provide tourist attractions e.g. Ikogosi Hot spring in Ekiti state, Nigeria and those in
Japan and Hawall.

Such springs are common in Iceland some of them have been hampered to heat courses,
swimming pools and for other domestic purposes.

BASIC LAVA CONE (LAVA DOME)

This is made up of very hot lava with temperature of about 100 0C and therefore is in liquid form.
They flow for relatively long distance as soon as they poured out of the volcano. They flow out as
thin mobile sheets of lava for great distances before solidifying. Examples of this cone is Manna in
the pacific.

ASHES AND CINDER CONE

These are volcanic cone which are made up of mainly ash and cinder e.g. (i) Valance defanged in
Guantemeta (2) Ikere one in Ekiti, Nigeria.

Ash and cinder cones are typically small volcanoes occurring in groups, and rarely exceeding 300m
in height other examples include Mt. Nuume in Italy and Mt. Paricilia in Moroco.

GEYSERS

Geysers are not only more violent than springs but emits superheated steams which may spout up
to a height of 46m from the earth beneath the chemo memorare evarated with thermal of
volcanic region in which the water below is heated beyond the boiling point (100 0c). The jet of
water usually emitted with an explosion trigger off by gases seeping out of the heated rocks.

The major geyser are found in (i) Iceland (ii) Northern Ireland of Zealand (iii) Yellow stone of
National park of USA.

WEEK SIX

TOPIC: ACTION OF UNDERGROUND WATER AND LIMESTONE (KARST) REGION

Action of underground water.

Underground water is the water that sinks on to the ground, i.e. the water that enters the rocks.
When it rains, part of the rain that falls evaporate back to the air, part of it flows as run off to
surface water bodies while the rest infiltrates into the ground as GROUND WATER.

Water can enter a rock in two ways:

i. Through the space called pores which normally separates the individual grain of rock
ii. Through the joints or faults in a rock.

1. Through Pore spaces/Porous Rock

A rock which has a pore space into which water can infiltrate is called a porous rock such as
sandstone. Water is easily absorbed by such rocks and may be stored in the pore spaces. Thus,
most porous rocks are also permeable. However, some rocks are porous but impermeable e.g.
clay.

RIVER ACTION AND THE FEATURES IT PRODUCES

Rivers are most important agents of denudation. They are involved in erosion, transportation and
deposition of materials. They carve out channels as they flow and they transport and deposit
materials for very great distance often hundreds or thousands of kilometres.

Factors affecting the velocity of a River

i. The volume of water released

ii. Slope of the river valley
iii. Shape of the river valley
iv. Amount and size of materials.

1. The Volume of Water Released

The higher the volume of water released by a river, the higher the velocity. As the volume
decreases during the dry season, the velocity also decreases.

2. The Slope of the River Valley

The steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the water on the river

3. The Shape of the River Valley

A river uses more energy to flow through a fat – wide valley than through a narrow – deep valley
because the former has a large surface area.

4. Amount and Size of Materials

The greater the stepped of a river, the greater the materials/loads it can carry or move.

ACTIONS OF RIVERS

Rivers perform three types of work:

i. Carving and eroding its valley

ii. Transporting the eroded materials; ad
iii. Depositing the transported loads

In general, the effectiveness of river action depends on a number of factors like the energy of the
river, the nature of the load or materials carried the nature of the channel of the river upon which
friction depends.

Mechanics of River Erosion: the main process of river include:

i. Hydraulic action
ii. Corrosion or Abrasion
iii. Solution
iv. Attrition
a. Hydraulic Action: this is a purely mechanical process whereby the physical impact of the on –
rushing forces of fast-moving water attacks the river banks tearing away weak rock piece from the
valley sides and bottom. This can also refer to the force of the flowing water on the river which
exerts dragging effect upon the bed of the river and erodes poorly consolidated materials, such as
sand, silt and clay. This process accounts to some extent for the hollows known as plunge-pools
below water falls.

b. Corrasion or Abrasion: This is wearing away of the sides and floor of rivers with the aid of the
boulders, pebbles, sand and silt which are being carried or transported. In this case, the rock
pieces that had earlier been torn off the banks are beds of the river valley are used as tools or
chisels to further wear away the bottom and banks of the valley through frictional grinding action.
As these rock materials are dragged along and halted against both valley bottom aids sides, their
constant scrapping effectslead to the widening and deepening of valleys to cause ‘pot-holes’.

c. Solution or Solvent Action: this is the solvent and chemical action of river water on the materials
with which it comes into contact. For example, calcium carbonate in limestone. This takes place in
form of dissolution as the river water dissolves adjacent rocks such as limestone and rock silt
which are soluble. Corrosion can be likened to chemical weathering.

d. Attrition: this is the wearing down of the load itself because of contact with the floor and banks
of the stream and the other material being transported. It can also be seen as the process by
which through constant collision of eroded rock pieces against one another and against the river
banks and bed, the rock pieces become worn down, reduced and rounded.

RIVER TRANSPORTATION/TRANSPORTATION WORK OF RIVER

The load carried by a river is moved down stream in various ways: solution, saltation, suspension
and traction. By far, the amount of river load transported through saltation and traction is lesser
than those transported through solution and suspension.

a. Solution: certain rock pieces are dissolved in water and carried away in solution by the water.
This is what makes river water to be muddy especially during floods.

b. Suspension: this is the process whereby tight particles of rock materials are suspended within
the river water and transported along in that way.

c. Saltation: some rock materials in transit within the rivers are too large for the river to carry in
suspension. These larger particles are therefore moved downstream in a series of hops or jumps
touching the river beds and sizes at intervals as they bounce along.

d. Traction: this is made up of the biggest rock materials like stones and boulders that a river is
capable of carrying. These materials are dragged and rolled along the river bed as traction load or
bed load by the pushing power of the river.
WEEK SEVEN

TOPIC: WEATHERING

Weathering is the disintegration and decay of rocks which is caused by forces of weather such as
frost, rain and temperature changes. It can also be defined as the process by which rocks are
broken down into smaller fragments by weather forces/atmospheric forces.

It is a process of rocks breaking and decaying which are caused by climate factors (frost action,
rain water and temperature) the nature of rock, relief and living organisms.

TYPES OF WEATHERING

There are three types of weathering: physical, chemical and biological weathering.

1. PHYSICAL/MECHANICAL WEATHERING

This is the process by which rocks are broken down by the forces of weather without any change
in chemical composition of the rocks.

It takes place in three major ways:

i. Alternate heating and cooling: this process is more prominent in regions such as desert which
experience daily extremes of temperature. During the day, the rocks are heated intensely by the
scorching sun.

The outer parts which are more intensely heated also expand more and tend to pull away from
the inner part. At night when temperature stops rapidly and contrast more rapidly than the inner.
When rocks are subjected to this kind of daily stress for a long time, three things may happen.

a. The outer parts begin to peel off like onion a process known as Exfoliation which leads to
the formation of rounded features known as Exfoliation domes.
b. Well-joints or bedding-planes. The rocks are then broken into large regular blocks, a
process known as block disintegration.
c. Rocks made up of different minerals e.g. granite made up of quartz, mica and feldspar are
broken up into small pieces in form of large grains, a process known as granular
disintegration.

ii. Alternate wetting and drying: this takes place in tropical regions where heavy rains saturate the
rocks and then the hot sun quickly dries them again. Repeated wetting and drying may also affect
coastal rocks which are subjected to tides and wares. When the rocks are wet, the absorb water
especially the outer layer or part which then expands. When the rocks dry, they contract. If this
process is repeated over a very long time, stresses build up which makes the surface layers to peel
off.

iii. Alternative freezing and thawing: in temperature regime, what is at times called frost action is
more effective in breaking down rocks. When temperature drops sufficiently at night or during
winter, the water in cracks will freeze. As it freezes, it expand by about 10% of its normal volume,
thereby exerting more pressure on the walls of cracks and trying to force the rocks apart. When
the temperature increases sufficiently, the water thaws. Repeated freezing and thawing is capable
of widening and deepen cracks and crevices and leading to the breaking of rocks.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING

This is the decomposition or decay of rocks involving chemical processes or reactions which leads
to the changes in chemical composition and coherence of the affected rocks.

The following are the major chemical weathering processes: (i) Solution (ii) Oxidation (iii)
Hydrolysis (iv) Hydrate (v) Carbonation

Carbonation: rain water passing through the atmosphere absorbs carbondioxide which produces
carbonic acid. This weak acid is capable of dissolving rocks composed of calcium carbonate such as
limestone. The limestone dissolved is removed in solutions by running water or percolating water
passing through joints or dripping through underground caves.

Hydration: certain rocks are capable of absorbing water into their structure. This takes them to
swell, they are therefore weakened and can easily breakdown. The rocks may fracture as internal
stresses are set up within them.
Oxidation: this is the reaction that occurs when additional oxygen is taken up by a mineral
compound. Oxidation occurs when rocks are exposed to oxygen in air or water. The simplest and
most easily recognisable process of oxidation is when iron in a ferrous state is changed by addition
oxygen into a ferric state. The rock or soil which might have been blue or grey in colour is
dissolved into reddish brown. A process better known as rusting (this occur when oxygen
combines with minerals).

Solution: this is a simple chemical process some minerals e.g. rock salt are soluble in water and
simply dissolve when it is applied. The rate of solution or dissolution increases with the degree of
acidity of water. It is the process by which rain water attacks and dissolves rock salts, calcium
carbonate of limestone. Thereby, widening cracks.

Hydrolysis: this process involved by hydrogen combining with certain metals irons that is the
water and the mineral then give rise to the formation of different compound.

BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

This is the weathering process involving the activities of living organisms (plants, animals or even
man himself).

Plants and animals also help in the weather process of rocks breaking. Roots of trees sometimes
grow in cracks and the roots penetrate through. As they grow, they are as wedge and cause piece
of rocks to breakdown from main mass.

Burrowing by animals like earthworm also helps to loosen the soil. The activities of man in read
construction, mining and farming also contribute to biological weathering.

Factors that influence weathering of rocks

The five major factors influencing weathering rocks are:

i. Nature of rocks
ii. Climate
iii. Relief
iv. Vegetation
v. Man’s activity
WEEK EIGHT

TOIPIC: ACTION OF RUNNING WATER

INTRODUCTION

Running water is a very potent agent of erosion in humid regions. The action of running water
which include streams, rivers, and rainfall, have constantly shape the surface of the surface of
earth through erosion and depositional processes.

River (or running water) is one of the most active agent of land form development. The power of a
river is derived from its mass (volume) and its velocity (speed).

STAGES OF RIVER

There are three stages of a river:

1. Upper course/current course/mature stage

2. Middle course/valley course/mature stage
3. Lower course/pain course/old stage

UPPER COURSE
This is found in mountains or hilly regions. The river is flowing through a steep gradient therefore
the velocity is high. The upper course is characterised by numerous small channels or streams
which flow into each other as tributaries until they all eventually converge on the main channel.

The primary work of the river at this stage is erosion especially vertical erosion, otherwise called
down – cutting. This leads to the formation of a v-shaped valley.

Down – cutting may proceed at such a fast rate that the river may flow through a deep narrow
channel which has precipitous or almost vertical sides such a deep narrow, almost vertical,
channel is called gorge. This is similar to a