Motion and energy

8
HAVE YOU EVER
WONDERED…
• why objects speed up as
they fall to the ground?
• why a boomerang comes back?
• why you sometimes feel heavier
than usual when travelling in
a lift?
• why it is hard for a heavy
truck to stop quickly?

After completing this chapter

students should be able to:

• use equipment to gather data and

analyse everyday motions
• apply Newton’s laws to predict how
a balanced or an unbalanced force
affects the motion of an object
• use Newton’s third law to describe
interactions between two objects
• explain that the law of conservation
of energy means that the total energy
is maintained in energy transfer and
transformation
• clarify that an energy transfer or
transformation is never 100% efficient
• compare energy changes in
interactions such as car crashes,
pendulums or lifting and dropping
• use models to describe how energy
is transferred and transformed.

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 Describing motion
8.1

‘Ready, set, go!’ Many

children love to race each
other and see who wins.
This desire also drives
sports people to push
their bodies to the limit.
Vehicles such as aircraft,
racing cars and very fast
trains are designed to
travel as fast as possible.
It is important to be able
to measure aspects of
motion such as speed.
It enables speed limits
to be set for safe driving
and allows us to
estimate travel time.

science fun

Lunchtime marathon Collect this …

How far do you travel during a typical lunch @LZ • pedometer
break and how far do you end up from where • ruler, trundle wheel or tape measure
you started?
Do this …
1 Clip a pedometer onto yourself at school at lunchtime,
or for an hour after school once you get home.
2 Record the number of steps you take in this time.
3 Measure the length of a typical step that you take.
4 Calculate the approximate total distance that you
covered during the trial.
5 Measure the distance between where you started and
where you finished the trial using measuring tape,
trundle wheel or by estimating using pace length.

Record this …
Describe any differences in your answers to steps 4 and 5.
Explain why these were different.

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 Distance and displacement
Using SI units
When planning a trip around parts of Australia, you would
It is easier to compare things such as distance,
need to consider the distance, or how far away places to visit
temperature and speed if people in different parts
are. You would also need to consider the amount of time you
of the world agree to describe these in the same
have. In this case, distance would be measured in kilometres,
units. The International System of Units, called SI
and your time in days or weeks. If considering a trip to the end
units (from the French, Le Système International
of your street, distance would be measured in metres and the
d’Unités), is a standard that was introduced in
time would be measured in minutes or even seconds.
1960. This lists seven key quantities and the
You also need to consider where you will end your journey. standard unit used to measure each. They are
Your displacement is straight-line distance between the shown in Table 8.1.1.
finishing and starting points. If you travel from home to
Table 8.1.1 SI units
the house of a friend who lives 200 km south, then your
displacement is 200 km south. Displacement specifies not only Quantity Standard Unit
the distance from the starting point, but also the direction of unit abbreviation
the end point from your starting point. Length metre m

Distance is a scalar quantity—it has a size but not direction. Mass kilogram kg
Displacement is a vector quantity—it has both a size and Time second s
direction. If travelling on a return trip, you can cover a large Electric current ampere A
distance, but your displacement upon returning home is
Temperature kelvin K
zero. Figure 8.1.1 illustrates a journey that covers a certain
distance, but the displacement is zero. Figure 8.1.2 compares Amount of
substance (used in mole mol
the distance travelled with the displacement of a student who senior chemistry)
walks from their home to school.
Luminous intensity
candela cd
(brightness)
Combinations of these units can be used to produce
SI units for all other quantities. For example, the SI
Home
unit for speed is m/s.

Speed and velocity

Average speed
Speed is a measure of how quickly something moves. Average
speed can be calculated as:
Shop
average speed = distance travelled
time taken
or
v=d
t
Emily and Lucy take their dog, Harry for a walk and where v is speed, d is distance travelled and t is time taken.
Figure stop at a shop for an ice cream before returning home.
8.1.1 An object moves faster when it travels a greater distance in a
The distance they walk is about 600 m, but their
displacement is zero. certain time, or covers a set distance in a shorter time.

Distance Displacement

Converting units
0.5 km

school school The speed of a car is usually measured

in kilometres per hour (km/h).
0.5 km 1.
4
÷ 3.6
0.5 km

km The SI unit for speed is

metres per second (m/s).
speed in speed in
0.5 km home home Speeds can be converted km/h m/s
from m/s into km/h and
km/h into m/s by multiplying × 3.6
Figure Greg walks to school and travels a distance of 2 km.
or dividing by 3.6 as shown here.
8.1.2 His displacement is 1.4 km north-west.

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 Calculating distance
The formula for average speed can be rearranged to calculate
Speed calculations
the distance travelled in a certain time as:
Problem 1 distance = average speed × time
Convert the following speeds into km/h.
or
a 3 m/s
d=v×t
b 12.5 m/s
When driving a car, it is vital to stay alert. If a child runs onto
Solution the road, or a car breaks down in front of you, you need to react
and apply the brakes as quickly as possible. During this reaction
a 3 m/s = 3 × 3.6 km/h = 10.8 km/h
time, the car still moves forwards and travels a distance
b 12.5 m/s = 12.5 × 3.6 km/h = 45 km/h called the reaction distance. When trying to avoid a collision,
this distance is critical. A driver’s reaction time is slowed by
Problem 2
distractions in the car. Distractions could be caused by:
Convert the following speeds into m/s.
• other people
a 54 km/h
• speaking or texting on a mobile phone
b 16.2 km/h • changing the radio station.
Solution Additional factors such as a person’s age, fatigue and the
influence of drugs and alcohol also slow a person’s reaction time.
a 54 km/h = 54 ÷ 3.6 m/s = 15 m/s
Once you have reacted and applied the
b 16.2 km/h = 16.2 ÷ 3.6 m/s = 4.5 m/s
brakes, the car will still cover some
1 8.1
Problem 3 additional distance, called the braking
p259
Theo spent 8 hours travelling 400 km from his home in distance, as it comes to a stop.
Bundaberg to visit his sister in Toowoomba. Calculate
Theo’s average speed for the journey.

Solution Calculating distance

v= d Problem 1
t
Trinh rides her bike with a constant speed of 5 m/s. It takes
= 400 her 3 minutes to get to the milk bar. Calculate how far away
8
it is.
= 50 km/h
Theo’s average speed was 50 km/h. Solution
First, convert the time she took into seconds in order to
state the answer in metres.
t = 3 × 60 = 180 s
Giddy-up?
Trinh has travelled:
Humans appear to be getting faster with
SciFile

every new world record set in athletics. d =v×t

Are animals getting faster? Research of = 5 × 180
data from horse and dog racing has
= 900 m
shown that the top speed of a horse has
not increased since the 1940s and that of The milk bar is 900 m away.
a dog has not increased since the 1970s.
Problem 2
While Trinh is riding, a toddler runs onto the road ahead.
If Trinh took 0.5 second to react, how far does she travel
before hitting the brakes?

Solution
d =v×t
= 5 × 0.5
= 2.5 m
Trinh travels 2.5 m before hitting the brakes. She will then
travel further as she slows to a stop.

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 Instantaneous speed
Average speed is the total distance travelled in a journey,
divided by the total time taken. Average speed does not give any
indication of how slowly or how quickly you may have travelled
in a trip, or how long you were caught in a traffic jam or stopped
at traffic lights. Figure 8.1.3 shows evenly spaced time intervals
of a tennis serve. The racquet moves the greatest distance in
the time interval at the end of the serve and so it is moving the
fastest at this point. Your speed at a particular instant is called
your instantaneous speed. The vehicle shown in Figure 8.1.4
is designed to reach an enormous instantaneous speed. In a
car, this is indicated by the speedometer. If travelling above
the speed limit, you can be caught by a mobile speed camera
(Figure 8.1.5), which measures the instantaneous speed of a car.

Figure Handheld speed cameras measure the

8.1.5 instantaneous speed of a vehicle.

Velocity
You may have heard the term velocity used when someone
is talking about speed. In science, velocity has a slightly
different meaning from speed. Velocity is the rate at which
displacement changes. In other words, velocity is how
displacement changes with time. Displacement is specified
with a size and a direction and so velocity must have a
direction too. A person may ride a bike at a constant speed
of 20 km/h. However, every time they change direction, their
velocity changes too. Velocity is a vector quantity, while speed
is a scalar quantity

Measuring speed
There are different ways of measuring speed. Light gates
can be used to time sporting events such as downhill skiing
(Figure 8.1.6). Light gates use a sensor to trigger an electronic
timing mechanism when an object breaks through a light
beam.

Figure The distance moved by this racquet in each time

8.1.3 interval provides a measure of its instantaneous speed.

The Bloodhound SSC is powered by a jet engine Light gates can be used to measure time to
Figure and a rocket. Its UK designers hope it will reach Figure
the millisecond and produce very accurate
8.1.4 8.1.6
an instantaneous speed of 1600 km/h! measurements of an object’s speed.

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 A motion sensor (Figure 8.1.7) sends out pulses of radiation,
such as ultrasonic sound waves, microwaves or infrared GPS in sport
radiation. The reflection of this radiation from an object Global positioning system (GPS)
provides data about its position and speed. equipment is used by a number of
sporting teams to record real time
data, such as:

SciFile
• distance travelled by a player
• a player’s speed (maximum,
minimum, average)
• intensity of impacts
• heart rate.
The data is relayed to a laptop
computer or handheld device.

motion sensors

Figure Motion sensors on the bumper bar of a car provide the

8.1.7 driver with information about how close they are to a barrier.

A ticker timer is shown in Figure 8.1.8. It consists of a small

electric arm with a pin or hammer on its end. The hammer
vibrates up and down 50 times per second, synchronised
with the alternating current of 50 Hz supplying its power. The
hammer hits a piece of carbon paper that leaves a dot on a
strip of paper threaded below it. When the timer is attached to
an object moving in a straight line, these dots are a record of
its motion (Figure 8.1.9).

Paper ticker tape Vibrating arm: this

arm vibrates at a rate
of 50Hz. It acts as a
hammer, hitting the
tape 50 times every
second.

To AC power
pack

Constant speed: dots are constantly spaced

Accelerating: spacing between dots increases.

Carbon paper
disk Decelerating: spacing between dots decreases.

50 dots are produced every second.

The space between dots therefore
represents one fiftieth of a second (or 0.02 s). start

Analysing the distance between dots recorded on a strip of The spacing of the dots on a ticker tape tells
Figure Figure
ticker tape reveals the speed of the moving object used to you what type of motion it is. Each new dot
8.1.8 8.1.9
produce the trace. represents 0.02 seconds has passed.

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 Graphing motion Speed–time graphs
A speed–time graph shows how an object’s speed changes over
A graph is a useful way of illustrating an object’s motion. Time
time (Figure 8.1.12). An object’s speed may:
is always placed on the horizontal axis.
• be constant, as shown by a flat line
Distance–time graphs • increase, as shown by the graph rising upwards
A distance–time graph shows how far an object travels as time • decrease, as shown by the graph falling downwards.
progresses. A flat line on this graph indicates that the motion The area below a speed–time graph is the distance
2
has stopped. A line with a steep slope indicates that the object the object has travelled up to a given point. This
p260
covers greater distance and is moving faster than a line of can be calculated as shown in Figure 8.1.13.
gentle slope does. The slope is also known as the gradient. The
slope or gradient of a distance–time graph is equivalent to the v v
object’s average speed over a time interval. Figure 8.1.10 shows
the distance–time graph of a cyclist.

The steeper
the gradient,
not moving t t
the faster d fast d slow d
the object Increasing speed Decreasing speed
is moving.
t t t
v
60 Choose 2 points
to calculate the
Distance (m)

50
gradient. Constant speed
40
30 rise = 50 gradient = rise
run
20 50 t
=
4
10
run = 4 = 12.5 m/s Figure The slope of a speed–time graph indicates whether
8.1.12 motion is speeding up, slowing down or constant.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)

The cyclist gradually increases speed as they start to The area under a speed– Area can be calculated by
Figure
pedal. After 2 seconds, the cyclist is travelling at a time graph gives the counting the squares or by
8.1.10
constant speed of 12.5 m/s. distance that the object has using area formulas. The area
travelled up to that point. under the graph here is 6 + 8 =
14. The object has moved 14 m.
Displacement–time graphs
Alternatively, an object’s displacement can be shown on the 5
vertical axis of a graph instead of distance. In this case, the
graph shows how the position of the object changes
compared to where it started. Figure 8.1.11 4
illustrates a displacement–time graph for Mitsu 8.2
Speed (m/s)

walking to and returning from a friend’s house.

3
Mitsu walks 400 m She stays here
to Lachlan’s house another 2 hours.
500 in 2 hours.
Displacement (m)

2 area = 8
400 She returns
home in the area = 6
300 final hour.
1
200

100

1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (hours) Time (s)

Figure This graph indicates that Mitsu has travelled out and then Figure The area below the graph is the distance the object
8.1.11 returned to her starting point. 8.1.13 has travelled.

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 with faulty when the error
mirror was corrected

Use and influence of science

Errors in science Figure Compare the clarity of images of galaxy M100
8.1.14 captured by the Hubble Space Telescope before
and after its mirror was corrected.

• a change in conditions or temperature over the time a

Error is the difference between the set of measurements is recorded
value that is measured with the actual • an error made in the way a person records a
measurement. The smaller this measurement each time.
difference, the higher the accuracy of To eliminate a systematic error, new equipment may
need to be used or the experimental technique may
the measurement. Precision refers to need to change. This type of error is not removed by
how close the measured values are to completing more measurements.
each other.
Random error
A random error is when the measurement differs from an
In 1990, a manufacturing error the size of one-fiftieth the actual value in an unpredictable manner. Some random
width of a human hair on the surface of a mirror led to errors are higher than the actual value while some are
months of costly repair to the Hubble Space Telescope lower. These errors are caused by:
(Figure 8.1.14). Measurements can be precise, but not
• an observer’s error in reading a scale, possibly caused
accurate. This is shown in Figure 8.1.15.
by parallax error as shown in Figure 8.1.16
• human error in reading an incorrect value.

20

Low accuracy High accuracy High accuracy 15

High precision Low precision High precision

10
Figure Measured values can be close together,
8.1.15 but still not accurate.
5 liquid inside tube

When measuring a physical quantity (such as distance,

time or mass) two types of errors can occur. These are 0
systematic and random errors. scale outside tube

Systematic error
Sometimes a set of measurements all differ from the
Figure Parallax error occurs when an observer is above or
actual value by about the same amount. This type of 8.1.16 below the level of the scale they are trying to read.
error is a systematic error. It occurs in the same direction
(up or down) and by the same amount each time.
To eliminate random error, a large number of
A systematic error can be produced by:
measurements should be taken. When the mean (or
• equipment not being correctly zeroed average) of these measurements is calculated, this
• equipment not being correctly assembled or marked should be close to the true value required.

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 Unit review
8.1
Remembering 9 Look at the displacement–time graph of Mitsu walking
from home to Lachlan’s house, as shown in Figure 8.1.11
1 State which unit(s) could be used to measure speed.
on page 255.
A year per metre
a Calculate Mitsu’s average speed (in km/h):
B millimetre per day
i travelling to Lachlan’s house over the first 2 hours
C metre per kilogram
(Hint: Convert metres to kilometres.)
D kilometre per second
ii while returning from Lachlan’s house over the last
2 Recall facts about motion by stating whether the following hour.
statements are true or false. b Explain why Mitsu’s displacement does not change
a Distance is a vector quantity. from 2–4 hours of the journey.
b The SI unit for length is the kilometre. c Explain how you know Mitsu has reached home at the
c Speed can be converted from metres per second to end of the journey.
kilometres per hour by multiplying by 3.6.
10 Copy the following table into your workbook. It shows
d The area below a speed–time graph is the distance
typical top running speeds of a number of animals.
travelled by an object.
Calculate the missing values to complete the table.

Understanding Animal Speed (m/s) Speed (km/h)

3 Jo’s displacement is 100 m north. Explain what this means. Cheetah 102
4 Describe a journey in which your displacement is zero, Red kangaroo 17.5
and another in which it is not zero. Giraffe 56
5 Raj jogs at a constant rate of 5 km/h around the block of Emu 50
streets around his home. Jane thinks that Raj’s speed and
Human 7.5
velocity remain constant. Explain whether Jane is correct.
Elephant 24
6 Explain the difference between a measurement that is
Chicken 4
accurate and a measurement that is precise.
Giant tortoise 0.075
7 The company producing the mirror for the Hubble
Telescope analysed it using different equipment during 11 Calculate the average speed of each of the following in the
manufacture. New equipment indicated that there was units specified in the brackets.
a problem, but the manufacturers ignored these results, a Tim hikes 10 km in 2 hours in the bush (km/h).
believing the original equipment to be more accurate. b A frog leaps 16 m in 4 seconds (m/s).
Explain why it is desirable to use more than one type of c A racing car travels 3 km around a circuit in 6 minutes
measuring device when taking measurements. (km/h).
12 Figure 8.1.18 shows the displacement of six objects over a
Applying time period. Identify which graph/s represent:
8 Calculate the: a a stationary object
i distance travelled b an object moving backwards
ii displacement of each object shown in Figure 8.1.17. c the fastest forward-moving object
d the fastest backward-moving object. Figure
N
8.1.18
a 300 m b A
W E 1 km

200 m 200 m S B
3 km
4 km
Displacement

start end
start C

c 6m end
1 km D

2m
3m end
start Figure
1m F E
8.1.17
2m Time

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 8.1 Unit review

13 The driver of a car travelling at 80 km/h turned a bend

Creating
and saw a broken-down car ahead. He took 0.75 second
18 Catarina is on yard duty collecting litter at school. She
to react, and after he braked the car travelled a further
walks 300 m north, then 100 m west, finally turning to walk
39.2 metres before stopping. Calculate the total distance
300 m south. The journey takes 5 minutes.
taken for the car to stop. (Hint: Convert the speed of the
a State the total distance travelled.
car into m/s.)
b Calculate Catarina’s average speed in m/s.
c Construct a diagram of Catarina’s journey.
Analysing d State her displacement.
14 Compare distance and displacement. e Calculate Catarina’s average velocity.
15 Figure 8.1.19 shows the motion of car A and car B.
Analyse these graphs to determine which car travels Inquiring
further in 20 seconds.
1 a Investigate current road statistics in your state and
select a key area that influences the number of
10 Figure fatalities such as driver distractions, fatigue, speed,
8.1.19
drug or alcohol use.
8 b Create an advertising campaign (billboard, radio
Speed (m/s)

commercial or TV commercial) to raise awareness of

6 this issue.
2 Use a trustworthy website such as the TAC’s ‘How safe is
car A
4 your car?’ to summarise information about the safety of
your family car or of a car in which you sometimes travel.
2 car B 3 The average human reaction time to press a button given a
visual signal is 0.2–0.25 seconds. Search the internet using
terms like ‘reflex tester’ or ‘reaction time’. Test yourself and
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
calculate your average reaction time, based on 20 tests.
Time (s)
4 Design an experiment that uses a video camera
16 Classify the following measuring errors as random or or motion detector to record the motion of a
systematic. number of objects. Examples include:
a Finn always measures his height against the wall • wind-up or battery-operated toys released
wearing his runners. from a starting point
b Asha reads a thermometer scale from above. • a cyclist riding along a street
c Shae miscounted the number of millimetres when • students in a running race.
measuring the length of an antenna. Use your recording to assist you to construct an
d Carl times Min in a running race but his stopwatch approximate distance–time graph for each object.
takes 0.6 second to click off.

Evaluating
17 The problems with the mirror on the Hubble Space
Telescope were caused by incorrect assembly of the device
used to measure the shape of this mirror. This resulted in
the mirror being manufactured too flat near it edge.
a Assess whether the problems were caused by a
systematic or random error.
b Justify your answer.

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 Practical activities
8.1
1 Reaction time
Purpose 5 Tell the driver that when the ruler starts to fall, they need
To simulate a driving experience to ‘hit the brakes’ and stop it with their foot.
and test your reaction time. SAFETY 6 Release the ruler and record the distance it falls before
the driver stops it.
Materials Be careful not to fall
• metre ruler from the chair. Ensure 7 Complete three trials of this test.
• table or bench it is in a stable position 8 Repeat the three trials, but keep talking to the driver
on the table by having a while performing each trial.
• calculator
partner hold it in place.
9 Repeat the three trials again, but ask the driver to read
Procedure
or send a text message from a mobile phone, or to read a
1 Work with two partners. Select a ‘driver’ for this activity. paragraph of printed text out loud.
This person should stop reading or writing from here
and listen to their partners’ instructions.
Results
1 Copy and complete the following table.
2 For the non-drivers, copy the table from the results
section.

Average reaction

Reaction time (s)

Reaction

Test conditions
3 Position a chair on top of a bench or table, close to a wall
distance (cm)

distance (cm)
as shown in Figure 8.1.20.

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3
Figure
8.1.20

No
distractions
Distraction
Hold chair (talking)
in place.
Distraction
(reading
a message)

2 Calculate the average reaction distance from each set of

trials and add them to your table.
3 Calculate the reaction time for each set of results by:
• taking the square root of the reaction distance
5 30 (in cm)
• multiplying your answer by 0.045.
0 25

Discussion
20

1 State the spread, or range, of results of reaction time

15
measured in the first three trials.
10 2 Describe the effect of the distractions on the reaction
5
time.
3 Imagine you were driving at 50 km/h (about 14 m/s) and
0
needed to react quickly to a situation ahead. Calculate
how far your car would travel for each average reaction
time recorded in the table.
4 The driver sits on the chair that is held in position by
another student. The remaining group member holds the 4 Discuss any sources of random or systematic error
ruler (or brake pedal), flat against the wall so that zero on that could exist in this practical activity. Suggest any
the ruler is aligned with the driver’s toes as shown. improvements that could be made to reduce these errors.

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 8.1 Practical activities

2 Measuring the speed of toy cars

Purpose 3 To label the scale of the vertical axis of the graph
To analyse the motion of a toy car using ticker tape or (in mm/s), you need to calculate the average speed of
a motion sensor. each strip of five dots. To do this, copy and complete
the following table.
Materials length of section
Note that average speed of each section =
• AC power supply and ticker timer with tape 0.1
(or motion sensor)

(length of section/0.1)
Time interval of each
• toy car

Average speed of
• sticky tape

section (mm/s)
• ruler

section (mm)
Total time (s)

section(s)
Procedure

Length of
Section
1 Work with a partner. Attach about 1 metre of ticker tape
to the back of a toy car.
2 Carefully thread the tape through a ticker timer. 1 (dots 0–5) 0.1 0.1
3 Place the car on a smooth, flat surface. 2 (dots 5–10) 0.2 0.1
4 Turn on the ticker timer. 3 (dots 10–15) 0.3 0.1
5 Pull the car away in a straight line, varying its speed. 4 (dots 15–20) 0.4 0.1
6 Repeat so that both you and your partner have a 5 (dots 20–25) 0.5 0.1
recorded strip of ticker tape.
6 (dots 25–30) 0.6 0.1
Results 7 (dots 30–35) 0.7 0.1
1 Mark the first clearly seen dot on your tape, and then
4 Complete your table and add a scale to the vertical axis
mark every fifth dot recorded after this. Number each
of your graph.
group of dots as shown in Figure 8.1.21.
2 Cut the tape into seven sections at the points you’ve Discussion
marked. Paste these strips in order on a speed-time 1 Describe the motion of the toy car.
graph as shown in Figure 8.1.22. Each strip represents 2 Explain why a region of tape in which dots are further
0.1 second (as this is five times 0.02 second recorded apart indicates a faster speed than a section in which
for each dot). these are bunched together.
3 Describe the pattern of dots made by constant speed.
4 Identify possible sources of error in this activity and
propose how these could affect the results.

measure in mm

1 3
2
6
Speed (mm/s)

0.1 s
2
5 dots 3 4
measure in mm 1 7
5
4 6 7
5
0.1 s
Figure 5 dots Figure 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
8.1.21 8.1.22 Time (s)

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 Changes in speed
8.2

science fun
From a stationary start, a cheetah can reach
Ups and downs speeds close to 100 km/h in just 3 seconds. This
How does the motion of a ball change as @LZ
change in speed is much faster than the best
it is tossed up into the air and falls down? sports car can manage. Such enormous speeds
Collect this … cannot be sustained for long. This is generally
• video camera or mobile phone with video not a problem because the chase of the cheetah
• tennis ball
is usually over in less than a minute. Changes
Do this …
1 Work with a partner. One of
in velocity are called acceleration.
you tosses a tennis ball about
a metre into the air and tries to
catch it while the other records Calculating acceleration
the motion with the camera.
2 Replay the motion slowly and In everyday language, acceleration is a change in speed.
watch it carefully. When an object speeds up, it has accelerated. When it slows
down, it has decelerated. In science, acceleration is the rate
Record this … of change in velocity. It should be stated with a direction.
Describe the motion of the ball, Like displacement and velocity, acceleration is
including when it got faster and
a vector quantity. A positive acceleration means
when it slowed down.
that something is speeding up in a particular
Explain why you think this happened. 1
direction and a negative acceleration means
p267
it is slowing down in a particular direction.

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 To simplify our ideas of acceleration, we will only consider Table 8.2.1 compares the performance of a number of cars.
motion in a straight line. In this case, average acceleration can The shorter the time a car takes to reach 100 km/h, the greater
be calculated using the formula: its acceleration.
average acceleration = change in speed Table 8.2.1 Time taken for a range of cars to accelerate
time
final speed − initial speed from 0 to 100 km/h
=
time
or Car Time (s)
Nissan GT-R (Figure 8.2.2) 3.5
a= v−u
t
where a is acceleration, v is final speed, u is initial speed and BMW 135i 5.6
t is time taken. Volkswagen Golf GTI 7.3
The formula above can be rearranged to allow the final speed Ford FG Falcon 7.3
of an object to be calculated:
Holden VE Commodore 8.1
final speed = initial speed + (average acceleration × time taken)
Honda Civic 9.8
or
Toyota Tarago 17.7
v = u + at
The SI units for acceleration are m/s/s or m/s2. However, Source: Wheels Magazine May 2009
other units can also be used. A car that increases its speed in
a direction by 12 km/h every second has an acceleration of
12 km/h/s.

Average acceleration and final speed

Problem 1
A car speeds up to 60 km/h from rest in 5 seconds. Calculate
its average acceleration. (Express your answer in km/h/s.)
Solution
a = v−u
t
= 60 − 0
5
= 12 km/h/s

The car increases speed by 12 km/h each second. This is

shown in Figure 8.2.1.

Problem 2
A train initially travelling at 30 km/h accelerates at a constant
rate of 2 km/h/s for 30 seconds. Calculate its final speed.

Solution
v = u + at
= 30 + (2 × 30)
The time taken for a car to accelerate to 100 km/h is one
= 90 km/h Figure
of many factors to consider when buying a car. Fuel
8.2.2
The train is travelling at 90 km/h after 30 seconds. consumption is another factor you might consider.

+12 km/h +12 km/h +12 km/h +12 km/h +12 km/h

0 km/h 12 km/h 24 km/h 36 km/h 48 km/h 60 km/h

0s 1s 2s 3s 4s 5s

Figure
This car has constant acceleration. Its speed has increased by 12 km/h every second.
8.2.1

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 Acceleration due to gravity The friction between the air and a falling body is called air
resistance, and the final velocity is called terminal velocity.
A falling object (like the person in Figure 8.2.3) accelerates Human tolerance of g-forces depends upon how big the forces
towards Earth because of the force of gravity. This means that are, how long they last, the direction in which they act and the
it speeds up as it falls. Acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2, so part of the body they affect. Humans can tolerate horizontal
the speed of an object increases by almost 10 m/s (or 36 km/h) forces much better than vertical forces. Forces experienced in
for every second that it falls. In the first second, the object’s a vertical drop are particularly dangerous as blood flow to the
speed increases from zero to 36 km/h. One second later, it is brain can be disrupted and can cause loss of consciousness
falling at about 72 km/h. After 3 seconds, it is falling at about or death. Your body can withstand high g-forces for a moment
108 km/h. An acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 is called ‘1 g’. You may with no damage but longer durations are deadly. Some typical
think it could reach enormous speeds, but friction between the g-forces are shown in Table 8.2.2.
air and a moving object will reduce this acceleration.
Table 8.2.2 Some typical accelerations

Acceleration Number
Situation
(m/s2) of g’s
Free-fall 9.8 1
Space shuttle at take-off 29.4 3
Typical rollercoaster 29.4 3
A sneeze 29.4 3
Slap on the back 39.2 4
Human in a rocket sled
455.7 46.2
(maximum)
Car accident at 48 km/h with
588 60
airbag (force on chest)
Motorbike accident with no
1470–1960 150–200
helmet (force on head)

Gee-force!
In World War I, pilots diving and looping their
aircraft were observed to lose consciousness.
American Air Force physician John Strapp
SciFile

decided to test the human g-force limits. He

strapped himself into a sled, powered by nine
solid fuel rockets on a railway track. Strapp
accelerated to 1017 km/h in 5 seconds, before
stopping in 1 second. John Strapp’s body
withstood a momentary force of 46.2 g!
Strapp is shown in Figure 8.2.4.

This daredevil is jumping out of a plane wearing a full

Figure body suit, complete with nylon ‘wings’. This person falls
8.2.3 at about 100 km/h, and deploys a parachute to slow their Six images showing John Strapp Figure
fall (decelerate) before reaching the ground. Wings and accelerating then decelerating rapidly. 8.2.4
parachutes increase air resistance and so they decrease
the final terminal velocity of the fall.

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 Super bird!
The peregrine falcon is a raptor that hunts and Interpreting speed–time graphs

SciFile
kills other birds. Its vision is about eight times
stronger than human sight. These raptors knock
their prey unconscious in a vertical dive at speeds 12
Figure
up to 300 km/h. As it pulls out of a dive, the
10 8.2.6
peregrine falcon can withstand forces up to 25 g.

Speed (m/s)
8

2 Section Section Section

A B C

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (s)

Problem
Sanjiv rides his scooter as described by Figure 8.2.6.
a Calculate his acceleration in sections A, B and C of
his journey.
b Describe his motion in sections A, B and C.
c Calculate the distance Sanjiv covers in section A.
Graphing acceleration
Solution
The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the slope
or gradient of a velocity–time graph. Constant acceleration a Sanjiv’s acceleration is the gradient of the graph in
is shown on a velocity–time graph as a line rising upwards. each section:
A vehicle slowing down, or decelerating, at a constant rate is rise
10 − 0
For A: acceleration = run = 4
= 2.5 m/s2
shown by a line sloping downwards. The motion of an object
10 − 10
travelling at a constant velocity (zero acceleration) is shown For B: acceleration = 10 − 4 = 0
by a flat line. Figure 8.2.5 shows how the gradient of a velocity– 0 − 10
For C: acceleration = 20 − 10 = –1 m/s2
time graph changes with different accelerations.
b In A: Sanjiv accelerates at 2.5 m/s2 until reaching a
v
velocity of 10 m/s.
quick acceleration
In B: He travels at a constant velocity of 10 m/s (with
zero acceleration).
slow acceleration
In C: Sanjiv slows down, or decelerates at 1 m/s2 until
t he comes to a stop.

v
c The distance covered is the area under this section of
the graph:
1
deceleration distance = 2 × 4 × 10 = 20 m
(negative acceleration)
Sanjiv travels 20 m while accelerating to 10 m/s in
section A.
t

8.3 2
no acceleration
p268
constant speed

Figure Acceleration is the gradient of a speed–time graph. This may be positive

8.2.5 (speeding up), negative (slowing down) or zero (constant speed).

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 Unit review
8.2
Remembering 11 Figure 8.2.7 illustrates the motion of a leaf floating in a
running stream of water.
1 State the formula used to calculate average acceleration.
2 List two different units used to describe acceleration.
14
Figure
3 List four factors that affect the response of your body to
8.2.7
a g-force. 12
4 State what is represented by the gradient of a
velocity–time graph. 10

Speed (m/s)
8
Understanding
5 Although acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2, in 6
practice, an object dropped from a height on Earth, such
as a ball dropped from a tree, will not accelerate this 4
rapidly. Explain why.
2
6 Explain why your body does not tolerate vertical g-forces,
particularly those downwards, as well as it tolerates
horizontal g-forces. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (s)
7 Explain the difference in motion between a train travelling
at 8 m/s2 and another travelling at –8 m/s2. a Describe its motion over the 12 seconds shown on
the graph.
Applying b Calculate the acceleration of the leaf in the first
8 A toy truck was stationary then rolls down a long ramp 6 seconds.
with a constant acceleration of 0.2 m/s2. Calculate its c Calculate the distance it travelled in this time.
speed after: d Calculate its acceleration between 6 and 8 seconds
a 1 second of its journey.
b 2 seconds
c 3 seconds Analysing
d 10 seconds. 12 Analyse the three distance–time graphs shown in
9 Use Table 8.2.1 on page 262 to calculate the average Figure 8.2.8 to determine which shows an object:
acceleration of each car as it accelerates to 100 km/h in the a speeding up
time stated. Express your answer in km/h/s and round off b slowing down
to one decimal place. c travelling at constant speed.
10 John Strapp accelerated to a speed of 1017 km/h in A B C
5 seconds and then came to a stop in 1 second. Convert
this speed into m/s and calculate his:
Distance

Distance

Distance

a average acceleration in reaching 1017 km/h (in m/s2)

b deceleration in coming to a stop (in m/s2).

0 Time 0 Time 0 Time

Figure
8.2.8

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 8.2 Unit review

13 Table 8.2.1 on page 262 shows that different cars take

Inquiring
different times to accelerate to 100 km/h. There is also
a large difference between the average grams of carbon
dioxide emitted per kilometre by them. Discuss some of
the factors you would consider when purchasing a car.

Creating
14 Table 8.2.3 shows the speed of one cheetah at 5-second
intervals as it chased its prey.
Table 8.2.3 Speed of cheetah chasing its prey

Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(s)
Speed
0 6 14 27 27 27 27 20 12 3 0
(m/s)
a Construct a speed–time graph from this data.
b Identify the time intervals in which the acceleration of
the cheetah is: Figure
Modern mobile phones contain accelerometers.
8.2.10
i zero
ii positive
iii negative. 1 Some handheld devices, such as the phone shown in
Figure 8.2.10, contain an accelerometer. This can detect
15 Construct a short story that could describe the motion
a change in motion when you rotate the device and it
described by Figure 8.2.9.
automatically rotates the visual display to compensate.
List other devices that use accelerometers and describe
their function in each.
5
2 Investigate the g-forces that are experienced on various
rides at theme parks. Compile a table that ranks those you
4
have researched from highest to lowest g-force rides.
Speed (m/s)

3 3 Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher. He believed

that objects fell towards the Earth because of a homing
2
instinct, and that heavier objects fell faster than lighter
objects. These ideas were popular for some 2000 years,
but were challenged by the Italian physicist Galileo Galilei
1
(1564–1642).
a Explain how Galileo’s approach to science differed
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 from that of Aristotle.
Time (s) b Describe experiments Galileo conducted with falling
Figure
bodies.
8.2.9 c State Galileo’s conclusion about falling objects.
4 Research the experiments that Galileo performed
using ball bearings or marbles rolling down
ramps of different inclinations. Repeat some
of the experiments and summarise your
findings.

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 Practical activities
8.2
1 Building and testing an accelerometer
An accelerometer is a device that detects acceleration. One
tape
is shown in Figure 8.2.11. (inside lid)

fill with
water

glass jar

cotton
thread

paper clip

A micromechanic accelerometer, enlarged 30 times.

Figure Tiny movements of the mass on the right are detected Figure The suspended paper clip in this accelerometer reacts
8.2.11 by sensors found on the other side of the thin support 8.2.12 to acceleration.
beam. These devices are used to trigger the release
of an airbag in a car.
Procedure
1 Design your own accelerometer. Figure 8.2.12
Purpose shows an example that may give you some
To design and construct a device that can be used to detect ideas.
acceleration.
2 Construct your device and test its response for positive
Materials and negative acceleration.
• materials of your choice Discussion
1 Describe the design of your accelerometer.
2 Explain how it detects acceleration.
3 Describe how it responded to positive and negative
accelerations.
4 Identify any random or systematic errors that could
occur when using your accelerometer.
5 Discuss any improvements that could be made to
your design.

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 8.2 Practical activities

2 Measuring acceleration
Purpose 5 Repeat the trial so that everyone in your group has a
To determine the acceleration of a trolley rolling down a ramp. strip of ticker tape to analyse.

Materials Results
• ticker timer with power supply and tape (or motion sensor) 1 Mark sequences of five dot intervals on your tape and
• pile of books or bricks to prop up ramp analyse these using the procedure outlined in Practical
• protractor activity 1 on page 267. Record your findings in a table as
shown below.
• slotted masses
• masking tape 2 Construct a speed–time graph by pasting the numbered
sections of ticker tape on a set of axes. Label these axes
• ramp
with a suitable scale.
• trolley
3 Construct a line of best fit through the dots of each strip
• metre ruler
as shown in Figure 8.2.14.
Procedure
1 Set up the ramp at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
2 If your trolley is very light, add a number of slotted Speed (mm/s)
masses to its surface using masking tape.
3 Set up the ticker timer at the top of the ramp. Thread
ticker tape through the ticker timer and attach it to the
back of the trolley (Figure 8.2.13). (Alternatively, set up
motion-sensing equipment.)

Figure
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
8.2.14
Time (s)

4 Calculate the average acceleration of the trolley by

finding the gradient of the speed–time graph.
Discussion
1 Describe the motion of the trolley as it rolled down the
ramp.
Figure
8.2.13 2 Propose one way that the speed of the trolley down the
ramp could have been increased.
4 Turn on the ticker timer and let the trolley roll down 3 Discuss any sources of error that could affect the
the ramp. accuracy of the acceleration you calculated.

Section Total time (s) Length of Time interval of Average speed of strip (mm/s)
section (mm) each section(s) (length of section/0.1)
1 (dots 0–5) 0.1 0.1
2 (dots 5–10) 0.2 0.1
3 (dots 10–15) 0.3 0.1
4 (dots 15–20) 0.4 0.1
5 (dots 20–25) 0.5 0.1
6 (dots 25–30) 0.6 0.1
7 (dots 30–35) 0.7 0.1

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