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Dr. Kamaran S. Ismail

Torsion
In this chapter we will discuss the effects of applying a
torsional loading to a long straight member such as a shaft or
tube.

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Torsional Deformation of a Circular Shaft

Torque is a moment that tends to twist a member about
its longitudinal axis. We can illustrate physically what
happens when a torque is applied to a circular shaft by
considering the shaft to be made of a highly deformable
material such as rubber. When the torque is applied, the
circles and longitudinal grid lines originally marked on
the shaft tend to distort into the pattern shown in the
figure.
Note that twisting causes the circles to remain circles,
and each longitudinal grid line deforms into a helix that
intersects the circles at equal angles. Also, the cross
sections from the ends along the shaft will remain flat
that is, they do not warp or bulge in or out and radial
lines remain straight during the deformation. From
these observations we can assume that if the angle of
twist is small, the length of the shaft and its radius will
remain unchanged.

If the shaft is fixed at one end and a torque is

applied to its other end, the dark green shaded
plane will distort into a skewed form as shown in
the figure (Left figure).

In order to understand how this distortion

strains the material, we will now isolate a
small element located at a radial distance r
(rho) from the axis of the shaft. Due to the
deformation, the front and rear faces of the
element will undergo a rotation—the back
face by f(x) and the front face by f(x)+Df.
As a result, the difference in these rotations,
causes the element to be subjected to a shear
strain (g) and from the definition of shear
strain:
𝜋
𝛾 = − 𝜃′
2

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This angle, g, can be related to the length of the

element Dx and the angle Df between the shaded
planes by considering the length of arc BD, that is:
𝐵𝐷 = 𝜌∆∅ = 𝛾∆𝑥
𝑙𝑒𝑡 ∆∅ = 𝑑∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑∅
𝛾=𝜌
𝑑𝑥
Since dx and df are the same for all elements
located at points on the cross section at x, then
df/dx is constant over the cross section, and the
above equation states that the magnitude of the
shear strain for any of these elements varies only
with its radial distance from the axis of the shaft.
In other words, the shear strain within the shaft varies linearly along any radial
line, from zero at the axis of the shaft to a maximum at its outer boundary.
𝑑∅ 𝛾 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥
=𝜌=
𝑑𝑥 𝑐
Where c is the radius of the shaft
Then
𝜌
𝛾 = 𝑐 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥

The Torsion Formula

For linear-elastic material, Hooke’s law can be applied, 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾 and
consequently a linear variation in shear strain, as noted in the previous
section, leads to a corresponding linear variation in shear stress along any
radial line on the cross section.
𝜌
𝜏 = 𝑐 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
This equation expresses the shear-stress
distribution over the cross section in terms of
the radial position of the element. Using it,
we can now apply the condition that requires
the torque produced by the stress distribution
over the entire cross section to be equivalent
to the resultant internal torque T at the
section, which holds the shaft in equilibrium

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Each element of area dA, located at r is subjected to a force of 𝑑𝐹 = 𝜏𝑑𝐴. The

torque produced by this force is 𝑑𝑇 = 𝜌𝜏𝑑𝐴. Therefore, for the entire cross
section is:
𝜌
𝑇= 𝜌𝜏𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴 𝑐
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑇= 𝜌2 𝑑𝐴
𝑐 𝐴
The integral depends only on the geometry of the shaft. It represents the polar
moment of inertia of the shaft’s cross-sectional area about the shaft’s longitudinal
axis. We will symbolize its value as J, and therefore the above equation can be
rearranged and written in a more compact form, namely,

where
tmax = the maximum shear stress in the shaft, which occurs at the outer surface
T = the resultant internal torque acting at the cross section. Its value is
determined from the method of sections and the equation of moment equilibrium
applied about the shaft’s longitudinal axis
J = the polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area
c = the outer radius of the shaft

The shear stress at r the intermediate distance can be determined from

The above two equations is often referred to as the torsion formula. Recall that
it is used only if the shaft is circular and the material is homogeneous and
behaves in a linear elastic manner, since the derivation is based on Hooke’s
law.

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Polar Moment of Inertia (J)

Solid Shaft.
If the shaft has a solid circular cross section, the polar moment of inertia J can
be determined as follow:

𝐽= 𝜌2 𝑑𝐴
𝐴
For a differential ring or annulus having a thickness dr
𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝜌𝑑𝜌

Substituting dA in the polar moment of inertia equation

and integrating from 0 to outer radius of the shaft (c):
𝑐
𝐽 = 2𝜋 𝜌3 𝑑𝜌
0

𝜋 4
𝐽= 𝑐 Polar moment of inertia for solid shaft
2

Tubular Shaft

If a shaft has a tubular cross section, with inner radius c0 and outer radius ci
then,

𝜋 4
𝐽= (𝑐 − 𝑐𝑖4 ) Polar moment of inertia for tabular shaft
2 0

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Absolute Maximum Torsional Stress.

If the absolute maximum torsional stress is to
be determined, then it becomes important to
find the location where the ratio Tc/J is a
maximum. In this regard, it may be helpful to
show the variation of the internal torque T at
each section along the axis of the shaft by
drawing a torque diagram, which is a plot of the
internal torque T versus its position x along the
shaft’s length.
As a sign convention, T will be positive if by
the right-hand rule the thumb is directed
outward from the shaft when the fingers curl in
the direction of twist as caused by the torque.
Once the internal torque throughout the shaft is
determined, the maximum ratio of Tc/J can then
be identified.

Example:
The solid shaft of radius c, shown in the figure below, is subjected to a torque
T. Determine the fraction of T that is resisted by the material contained within
the outer region of the shaft, which has an inner radius of c/2 and outer radius c.

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Solution:

𝜌
𝑑𝑇 ′ = 𝜌(𝜏𝑑𝐴) = 𝜌 𝜏 (2𝜋𝜌𝑑𝜌)
𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2𝜋𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐 3
𝑇′ = 𝜌 𝑑𝜌
𝑐 𝑐/2
2𝜋𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 4 𝑐 15𝜋
𝑇′ = 𝜌 𝑐/2 = 𝜏 𝑐3 … … (1)
𝑐 4 32 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑐 2𝑇
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝜋 = 3 … … … (2)
𝐽 𝑐 4 𝜋𝑐
2
Substituting Eq. 2 into Eq. 1 yields
15
𝑇′ = 𝑇
16

Example:
The shaft shown in the figure below is supported by two bearings and is
subjected to three torques. Determine the shear stress developed at points A
and B, located at section a–a of the shaft. Radius of the shaft is 20mm. Point A
located at outer radius and point B is 5mm away from the center of the shaft.

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Solution:
The internal torque at section a–a will be determined from the free-body
diagram of the left segment:
Σ𝑀𝑥 = 0, 4800 − 3400 − 𝑇 = 0
𝑇 = 1400 𝑁. 𝑚
Polar moment of inertia for the shaft:
𝜋 𝜋
𝐽 = 𝑐 4 = × 204 = 251327𝑚𝑚4
2 2

Point A, 𝜌 = 𝑐 = 20𝑚𝑚, then 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑇𝑐 1400 × 103 × 20
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 111.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 251327

Point B, 𝜌 = 5𝑚𝑚

𝑇𝜌 1400 × 103 × 5
𝜏= = = 27.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 251327

Example:
The pipe shown in the figure has an inner diameter of 80 mm and an outer
diameter of 100 mm. If its end is tightened against the support at A using a
torque wrench at B, determine the shear stress developed in the material at the
inner and outer walls along the central portion of the pipe when the 80-N forces
are applied to the wrench.

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Solution:
The internal torque at section a–a will be determined from the free-body
diagram of the left segment:
Σ𝑀𝑦 = 0, −80 × 0.3 − 80 × 0.2 + 𝑇 = 0
𝑇 = 40 𝑁. 𝑚
Polar moment of inertia for the shaft:
𝜋 𝜋
𝐽 = (𝑐04 − 𝑐𝑖4 ) = × (504 − 404 ) = 5796238𝑚𝑚4
2 2

The outside surface of the pipe,

𝜌 = 𝑐 = 50𝑚𝑚, then 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑇𝑐 40 × 103 × 50
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 0.345 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 5796238

The inside surface, 𝜌 = 40𝑚𝑚

𝑇𝜌 40 × 103 × 40
𝜏= = = 0.276 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 5796238

Example:
Determine the maximum shear stress developed in the 40-mm diameter shaft.

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Solution:
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 0 (since the shaft is free to rotate at end A)
𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 6 × 0.15 − 2 × 0.15 = 0.6 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 0 (since the shaft is free to rotate at end D)
Polar moment of inertia for the shaft:
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐽= 𝑐 = × 204 = 251327 𝑚𝑚4
2 2

𝑇𝑐 0.6 × 106 × 20
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 47.7 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 251327

Example:
Determine the maximum shear stress developed in the shaft at section a-a.

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Solution:
𝑇𝐶𝐵 = 600 + 1500 = 2100 𝑁. 𝑚
Polar moment of inertia for the shaft:
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐽= (𝑐 − 𝑐𝑖4 ) = × (404 − 304 ) = 2748894 𝑚𝑚4
2 0 2
𝜌 = 𝑐 = 40𝑚𝑚

𝑇𝑐 2100 × 103 × 40
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 30.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 2748894

Example:
Determine the shear stress developed at point A on the surface of the shaft.
Represent the state of stress on a volume element at this point. The shaft has a
radius of 40 mm.

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Solution:
𝑇𝐴 = 5 × 0.8 = 4 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
Polar moment of inertia for the shaft:
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐽= 𝑐 = × 404 = 4021239 𝑚𝑚4
2 2
Point A, 𝜌 = 𝑐 = 40𝑚𝑚

𝑇𝑐 4 × 106 × 40
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 39.8 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 4021239

Angle of Twist
In this section we will develop a formula for
determining the angle of twist f (phi) of one end of a
shaft with respect to its other end. The shaft is
assumed to have a circular cross section that can
gradually vary along its length. Also, the material is
assumed to be homogeneous and to behave in a
linear-elastic manner when the torque is applied.
Using the method of sections, a differential disk
of thickness dx, located at position x, is isolated
from the shaft. The internal resultant torque is
T(x), since the external loading may cause it to
vary along the axis of the shaft. Due to T(x), the
disk will twist, such that the relative rotation of
one of its faces with respect to the other face is
df. As a result an element of material located at
an arbitrary radius r within the disk will undergo
a shear strain g. The values of g and df are related
by,

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𝜏 𝑇(𝑥)𝜌 𝑇(𝑥)𝜌
𝛾= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛾 =
𝐺 𝐽(𝑥) 𝐽 𝑥 𝐺
Then
𝑇(𝑥)
𝑑∅ = 𝑑𝑥
𝐽 𝑥 𝐺

Integrating over the entire length L of the shaft, we obtain the angle of twist for
the entire shaft:

f = the angle of twist of one end of the shaft with respect to the other end,
measured in radians
T(x) = the internal torque at the arbitrary position x, found from the method of
sections and the equation of moment equilibrium applied about the shaft’s axis
J(x) = the shaft’s polar moment of inertia expressed as a function of position x
G = the shear modulus of elasticity for the material

Constant Torque and Cross-Sectional Area.

When the shaft’s cross-sectional area and the external torque are constant along
the length of the shaft, the angle of twist equation is:

Multiple Torques.
If the shaft is subjected to several different torques, or the cross-sectional area
or shear modulus changes abruptly from one region of the shaft to the next, the
angle of twist equation can be applied to each segment of the shaft where these
quantities are all constant. The angle of twist of one end of the shaft with
respect to the other is then found from the vector addition of the angles of twist
of each segment.

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Sign Convention.
In order to apply this equation, we must develop a sign convention for both the
internal torque and the angle of twist of one end of the shaft with respect to the
other end. To do this, we will use the right-hand rule, whereby both the torque
and angle will be positive, provided the thumb is directed outward from the
shaft when the fingers curl to give the tendency for rotation,

Example:
The gears attached to the fixed-end steel shaft are subjected to the torques
shown in figure below. If the shear modulus of elasticity is 80 GPa and the
shaft has a diameter of 14 mm, determine the displacement of the tooth P on
gear A. The shaft turns freely within the bearing at B.

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Solution:
𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 150 𝑁. 𝑚
𝑇𝐶𝐷 = −130 𝑁. 𝑚
𝑇𝐷𝐸 = −170 𝑁. 𝑚
Polar moment of inertia for the shaft:
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐽= 𝑐 = × 74 = 3771 𝑚𝑚4
2 2

𝑇𝐿 150 × 103 × 400 −130 × 103 × 300 −170 × 103 × 500

∅𝐴 = = + +
𝐽𝐺 3771 × 80000 3771 × 80000 3771 × 80000
= −0.212

𝛿𝑝 = ∅𝐴 𝑟 = 0.212 × 100 = 21.2𝑚𝑚

Example:
The 50mm diameter solid cast-iron post shown in the figure below is buried
610mm in soil. If a torque is applied to its top using a rigid wrench, determine
the maximum shear stress in the post and the angle of twist at its top. Assume
that the torque is about to turn the post, and the soil exerts a uniform torsional
resistance of t N.mm/mm along its 610mm buried length, G = 38GPa.

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Solution:
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 33000 𝑁. 𝑚𝑚
from equilibrium of the entire post
Σ𝑀𝑧 = 0
110 × 300 − 610𝑡 = 0, 𝑡 = 54.1𝑁. 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 54.1𝑥
Polar moment of inertia for the shaft:
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐽= 𝑐 = × 254 = 613592 𝑚𝑚4
2 2

𝑇𝐴𝐵 𝑐 33000 × 25
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 1.34𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 613592

𝐿𝐵𝐶
𝑇𝐴𝐵 𝐿𝐴𝐵 𝑇𝐵𝐶 𝑑𝑥 33000 × 915 54.1 × 6102
∅𝐴 = + = +
𝐽𝐺 0 𝐽𝐺 613592 × 38000 2 × 613592 × 38000
= 0.00173𝑟𝑎𝑑

Example:
The 80-mm-diameter shaft is made of A-36 steel. If it is subjected to the
triangular distributed load, determine the angle of twist of end A with respect
to C. G = 75 GPa

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Solution:

0.6
𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 15 × = 4.5 𝐾𝑁. 𝑚
2
𝑡 15
= , 𝑡 = 25𝑥
𝑥 0.6
𝑥
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 𝑡 = 12.5𝑥 2
2
Polar moment of inertia for the shaft:
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐽= 𝑐 = × 404 = 4021239 𝑚𝑚4
2 2
𝐿𝐴𝐵
𝑇𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑥 𝑇𝐵𝐶 𝐿𝐵𝐶 12.5 × 6003 4.5 × 106 × 400
∅𝐴 = + = +
0 𝐽𝐺 𝐽𝐺 3 × 4021239 × 75000 4021239 × 75000
= 0.00895𝑟𝑎𝑑

Statically Indeterminate Torque-Loaded Members

A torsionally loaded shaft may be classified as statically indeterminate if the

moment equation of equilibrium, applied about the axis of the shaft, is not
adequate to determine the unknown torques acting on the shaft

The necessary condition of compatibility, or the

kinematic condition, requires the angle of twist of one
end of the shaft with respect to the other end to be
equal to zero, since the end supports are fixed.
Therefore,

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Example:
The solid steel shaft shown below has a diameter of 20 mm. If it is subjected to
the two torques, determine the reactions at the fixed supports A and B.

Solution:

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Example:
The shaft shown below is made from a steel tube, which is bonded to a brass
core. If a torque of T=340N.m is applied at its end, plot the shear-stress
distribution along a radial line of its cross-sectional area. Take Gst=78GPa and
Gbr=36GPa

Solution:
340 − 𝑇𝑠𝑡 − 𝑇𝑏𝑟 = 0 … … . (1)
𝜋
𝐽𝑠𝑡 = 254 − 12.54 = 575242.8𝑚𝑚4
2
𝜋
𝐽𝑏𝑟 = 12.54 = 38349.5𝑚𝑚4
2
∅𝑠𝑡 = ∅𝑏𝑟

𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝐿 𝑇𝑏𝑟 𝐿
=
575242.8 × 78000 38349.5 × 36000
𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 32.5𝑇𝑏𝑟 … … . . (2)
Solving Eqs. 1 and 2:
𝑇𝑏𝑟 = 10.15𝑁. 𝑚
𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 329.85𝑁. 𝑚

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Brass core:
𝑇𝑏𝑟 𝑐 10.15 × 103 × 12.5
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 3.31𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 38349.5

Steel tube:
𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝜌 329.85 × 103 × 12.5
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 7.17𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 575242.8
𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝑐 329.85 × 103 × 25
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 14.34𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 575242.8

Solid Noncircular Shafts

Shafts that have a noncircular cross section,

however, are not axisymmetric, and so their cross
sections will bulge or warp when the shaft is
twisted. Evidence of this can be seen from the
way grid lines deform on a shaft having a square
cross section when the shaft is twisted s a
consequence of this deformation the torsional
analysis of noncircular shafts becomes
considerably more complicated

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The results of the analysis for square cross sections, along with other results
from the theory of elasticity, for shafts having triangular and elliptical cross
sections, are reported below. In all cases the maximum shear stress occurs at a
point on the edge of the cross section that is closest to the center axis of the
shaft. In the table, these points are indicated as ―dots‖ on the cross sections.

The 6061-T6 aluminum shaft shown below has a cross-sectional area in the
shape of an equilateral triangle. Determine the largest torque T that can be
applied to the end of the shaft if the allowable shear stress is tallow = 55MPa
and the angle of twist at its end is restricted to fallow = 0.02rad. How much
torque can be applied to a shaft of circular cross section made from the same
amount of material? G=25.5GPa.

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Solution:

20𝑇 55 × 403
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = , 𝑇= × 10−3 = 176 𝑁. 𝑚
𝑎3 20

46𝑇𝐿 0.02 × 404 × 25.5 × 103

∅𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = , 𝑇= × 10−3 = 23.65 𝑁. 𝑚
𝑎4 𝐺 46 × 1200
∴ 𝑇 = 23.65 𝑁. 𝑚
Circular Cross Section
𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 , 𝜋𝑐 2 = 0.5 × 40 × 40 sin 60 , 𝑐 = 14.9𝑚𝑚
𝜋
𝐽= × 14.94 = 77422 𝑚𝑚4
2

𝑇𝑐 55 × 77422
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = , 𝑇= × 10−3 = 285.8 𝑁. 𝑚
𝐽 14.9

𝑇𝐿 0.02 × 77422 × 25.5 × 103

∅𝐴 = , 𝑇= × 10−3 = 32.9 𝑁. 𝑚
𝐽𝐺 1200

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