DISCRETE STRUCTURES

GRAPHS AND TREES

 Graph
A graph G = (V, E) consists of V , a nonempty set of vertices (or
nodes) and E , a set of edges. Each edge has either one or two
vertices associated with it, called its endpoints. An edge is said
to connect its endpoints.

Remark:
• The set of vertices V of a graph G may be infinite.
• A graph with an infinite vertex set or an infinite number of
edges is called an infinite graph, and in comparison, a
graph with a finite vertex set and a finite edge set is called
a finite graph.
 Definitions
• A graph in which each edge connects two different vertices and
where no two edges connect the same pair of vertices is called a
simple graph.
• In a simple graph, each edge is associated to an unordered pair of
vertices, and no other edge is associated to this same edge.
• Graphs that may have multiple edges connecting the same vertices
are called multigraphs.
• When there are m different edges associated to the same unordered
pair of vertices{u, v } then {u, v } is an edge of multiplicity m
Fig: A Computer
Network with Multiple
Links between Data
Centers.
DEFINITIONS
• Edges that connect a vertex to itself are called loops
• Sometimes we may even have more than one loop at a vertex.
• Graphs that may include loops, and possibly multiple edges
connecting the same pair of vertices or a vertex to itself, are
sometimes called pseudographs.
• So far the graphs we have introduced are undirected graphs.
Their edges are also said to be undirected.
 DIRECTED GRAPHS
• A directed graph (or digraph) (V, E) consists of a nonempty set of vertices V and a
set of directed edges (or arcs) E . Each directed edge is associated with an ordered
pair of vertices. The directed edge associated with the ordered pair ( u, v) is said to
start at u and end at v.
• When a directed graph has no loops and has no multiple directed edges, it is called
a simple directed graph.
• Directed graphs that may have multiple directed edges from a vertex to a second
(possibly the same) vertex are used to model such networks. We called such graphs
directed multigraphs.
• When there are m directed edges, each associated to an ordered pair of vertices
(u, v ) , we say that (u, v ) is an edge of multiplicity m .
 DEFINITIONS
• A graph with both directed and undirected edges is called a mixed
graph.
Although the terminology used to describe graphs may vary, three
key questions can help us understand the structure of a graph:
• Are the edges of the graph undirected or directed (or both)?
• If the graph is undirected, are multiple edges present that connect
the same pair of vertices?
• If the graph is directed, are multiple directed edges present?
• Are loops present?
For exercises 3–9, determine whether the graph shown has
directed or undirected edges, whether it has multiple edges,
and whether it has one or more loops. Use your answers to
determine the type of graph in table 1 this graph is.
10. For each undirected graph
in Exercises 3–9 that is not
simple, find a set of edges to
remove to make it simple.
 Graph Terminology and Special Types of Graphs

• Two vertices u and v in an undirected graph G are called adjacent (or

neighbors) in G if u and v are endpoints of an edge e of G . Such an edge e is
called incident with the vertices u and v and e is said to connect u and v.

• The set of all neighbors of a vertex v of G = (V, E) , denoted by N( v ) , is

called the neighborhood of v. If A is a subset of V , we denote by N(A) the
set of all vertices in G that are adjacent to at least one vertex in A .

• The degree of a vertex in an undirected graph is the number of edges

incident with it, except that a loop at a vertex contributes twice to the
degree of that vertex. The degree of the vertex v is denoted by deg ( v ) .
Example1: What are the degrees and what are the neighborhoods of the
vertices in the graphs G and H displayed in figure 1?

• A vertex of degree zero is

called isolated.
• An isolated vertex is not
adjacent to any vertex.
• Vertex g in graph G in
Example 1 is isolated.
• A vertex is pendant iff it
has degree one.
• A pendant vertex is
adjacent to exactly one
other vertex.
• Vertex d in graph G in
Example 1 is pendant.
Example 2: What does the degree of a vertex in the following graph
represent? Which vertices in this graph are pendant and which are
isolated?
THE HANDSHAKING THEOREM: let G = (V, E) be an undirected
graph with m edges. Then

Note: This applies even if multiple edges and loops are present.

EXAMPLE 3: How many edges are there in a graph with 10 vertices each of
degree six?
THEOREM 2: An undirected graph has an even number of vertices of
odd degree.
Definitions

• When (u, v ) is an edge of the graph G with directed edges, u is said to be

adjacent to v and v is said to be adjacent from u. The vertex u is called the
initial vertex of (u, v ) , and v is called the terminal or end vertex of (u, v ).
The initial vertex and terminal vertex of a loop are the same.
• In a graph with directed edges the in-degree of a vertex v, denoted by
deg−(V) , is the number of edges with v as their terminal vertex. The out-
degree of v, denoted by deg+(V) , is the number of edges with v as their
initial vertex.
• Note: A loop at a vertex contributes 1 to both the in-degree and the out-
degree of this vertex.
• EXAMPLE 4: Find the in-degree and out-degree of each vertex in the
graph G with directed edges shown in Figure 2.
 THEOREM:

• The undirected graph that results from ignoring directions of edges is

called the underlying undirected graph.

• A graph with directed edges and its underlying undirected graph have the
same number of edges.
 SOME SPECIAL SIMPLE GRAPHS

EXAMPLE 5:A complete graph on n vertices, denoted by kn, is a simple graph that
contains exactly one edge between each pair of distinct vertices.
The graphs kn, for n = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6, are displayed in figure 3.
A simple graph for which there is at least one pair of distinct vertex not connected by
an edge is called noncomplete.
CYCLES
WHEELS
 n-Cubes

n –Cubes: An n -dimensional hypercube, or n -cube, denoted by Qn, is a

graph that has vertices representing the 2𝑛 bit strings of length n. Two
vertices are adjacent if and only if the bit strings that they represent differ
in exactly one bit position. Q 1, Q 2, and Q 3 are displayed in Figure 6.
BIPARTITE GRAPHS
• A simple graph G is called bipartite if its vertex set V can be partitioned
into two disjoint sets V1 and V2 such that every edge in the graph
connects a vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2 (So that no edge in G connects
either two vertices in V1 or two vertices in V2). When this condition
holds, we call the pair (V1,V2 ) a bipartition of the vertex set V of G .
• C6 is bipartite: Its vertex set can be partitioned into the two sets V1={ v1 ,
v3,v5} and V2={v2 ,v4 ,v6} , and every edge of C6 connects a vertex in V
1 and a vertex in V2.
PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

• Verify whether K3 is bipartite or not.

• Are the graphs G and H displayed in Figure 8 bipartite?
Complete Bipartite Graphs

• A complete bipartite graph 𝑘𝑚,𝑛 is a graph that has its vertex set
partitioned into two subsets of m and n vertices, respectively with an
edge between two vertices if and only if one vertex is in the first subset
and the other vertex is in the second subset. The complete bipartite
graphs 𝐾2,3 , 𝐾3,3 , 𝐾3,5 , and 𝐾2,6 are displayed in figure 9.
DEFINITIONS
 REPRESENTING GRAPHS AND GRAPH ISOMORPHISM
• Sometimes, two graphs have exactly the same form, in the sense that there is a one-to-one
correspondence between their vertex sets that preserves edges.
• In such a case, we say that the two graphs are isomorphic.
• Determining whether two graphs are isomorphic is an important problem of graph theory

Representing Graphs
EXAMPLE 1 Use adjacency lists to describe the simple graph given in Figure 1
EXAMPLE 3 Use an adjacency matrix to represent the graph shown in Figure 3.
 Remark
• An adjacency matrix of a graph is based on the ordering chosen for the vertices.
• Hence, there may be as many as n! different adjacency matrices for a graph with n
vertices, because there are n! different orderings of n vertices.
• The adjacency matrix of a simple graph is symmetric, that is, aij = aji, because both of
these entries are 1 when vi and vj are adjacent, and both are 0 otherwise.
• Furthermore, because a simple graph has no loops, each entry aii, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, is 0.
• Adjacency matrices can also be used to represent undirected graphs with loops and
with multiple edges.
• A loop at the vertex vi is represented by a 1 at the (i, i)th position of the adjacency
matrix.
• When multiple edges connecting the same pair of vertices vi and vj, or multiple loops
at the same vertex, are present, the adjacency matrix is no longer a zero–one matrix,
because the (i, j)th entry of this matrix equals the number of edges that are associated
to {vi, vj}.
• All undirected graphs, including multigraphs and pseudographs, have symmetric
adjacency matrices.
• In particular, we can show that two graphs are not isomorphic if we
can find a property only one of the two graphs has, but that is
preserved by isomorphism.
• A property preserved by isomorphism of graphs is called a graph
invariant.
• For instance, isomorphic simple graphs must have the same number of
vertices, because there is a one-to-one correspondence between the
sets of vertices of the graphs.
• Isomorphic simple graphs also must have the same number of edges,
because the one-to-one correspondence between vertices establishes a
one-to-one correspondence between edges.
• In addition, the degrees of the vertices in isomorphic simple graphs
must be the same.
• That is, a vertex v of degree d in G must correspond to a vertex f (v) of
degree d in H, because a vertex w in G is adjacent to v if and only if f
(v) and f (w) are adjacent in H.
EXAMPLE 9 Show that the graphs displayed in Figure 9 are not isomorphic.
EXAMPLE 10 Determine whether the graphs shown in Figure 10 are isomorphic
EXAMPLE 1
 EULER AND HAMILTON PATHS

• Can we travel along the edges of a graph starting at a vertex and returning to
it by traversing each edge of the graph exactly once?
• Similarly, can we travel along the edges of a graph starting at a vertex and
returning to it while visiting each vertex of the graph exactly once?
Solution:
• The graph G1 has an Euler circuit, for
example, a, e, c, d, e, b, a.
• Neither G2 or G3 has an Euler circuit.
• G3 has an Euler path, namely, a, c, d,
e, b, d, a, b. G2 does not have an
Euler path
Solution:
TREES