Lecture Slides for

Machine Learning and

Web Scraping
LP BDB
April 2023
 CHAPTER 2

Supervised Machine Learning

Supervised Machine Learning
• Machines are trained using well "labelled" training data, and on basis of that data, machines predict the
output. The labelled data means some input data is already tagged with the correct output.
• The training data provided to the machines work as the supervisor that teaches the machines to predict the
output correctly. It applies the same concept as a student learns in the supervision of the teacher.
Supervised learning is a process of providing input data as well as correct output data to the machine learning
model. The aim of a supervised learning algorithm is to find a mapping function to map the input variable(x)
with the output variable(y).
In the real-world, supervised learning can be used for Risk Assessment, Image classification, Fraud
Detection, spam filtering, etc.
 How Supervised Learning Works?

Suppose we have a dataset of different types of shapes which includes square, rectangle, triangle, and Polygon.
Now the first step is that we need to train the model for each shape.
•If the given shape has four sides, and all the sides are equal, then it will be labelled as a Square.
•If the given shape has three sides, then it will be labelled as a triangle.
•If the given shape has six equal sides then it will be labelled as hexagon.
Now, after training, we test our model using the test set, and the task of the model is to identify the shape.
The machine is already trained on all types of shapes, and when it finds a new shape, it classifies the shape on
the bases of a number of sides, and predicts the output.
Steps Involved in Supervised Learning:
•First Determine the type of training dataset
•Collect/Gather the labelled training data.
•Split the training dataset into training dataset, test dataset, and validation dataset.
•Determine the input features of the training dataset, which should have enough knowledge so that the model
can accurately predict the output.
•Determine the suitable algorithm for the model, such as support vector machine, decision tree, etc.
•Execute the algorithm on the training dataset. Sometimes we need validation sets as the control parameters,
which are the subset of training datasets.
•Evaluate the accuracy of the model by providing the test set. If the model predicts the correct output, which
means our model is accurate.
Types of supervised Machine learning Algorithms:
Supervised learning can be further divided into two types of problems:
1. Regression
Regression algorithms are used if there is a relationship between the input variable and the output variable. It is
used for the prediction of continuous variables, such as Weather forecasting, Market Trends, etc. Below are some
popular Regression algorithms which come under supervised learning:

•Linear Regression
•Regression Trees
•Non-Linear Regression
•Bayesian Linear Regression
•Polynomial Regression

2. Classification
Classification algorithms are used when the output variable is categorical, which means there are two classes
such as Yes-No, Male-Female, True-false, etc.
Spam Filtering,
•Random Forest
•Decision Trees
•Logistic Regression
•Support vector Machines
Advantages of Supervised learning:
•With the help of supervised learning, the model can predict the output on the basis of prior experiences.
•In supervised learning, we can have an exact idea about the classes of objects.
•Supervised learning model helps us to solve various real-world problems such as fraud detection, spam
filtering, etc.

Disadvantages of supervised learning:

•Supervised learning models are not suitable for handling the complex tasks.
•Supervised learning cannot predict the correct output if the test data is different from the training dataset.
•Training required lots of computation times.
•In supervised learning, we need enough knowledge about the classes of object.
 CHAPTER 2

Unsupervised Machine Learning

Unsupervised Machine Learning
Unlike supervised machine learning techniques, there may be many cases in which we do not have labeled data and need to
find the hidden patterns from the given dataset. So, to solve such types of cases in machine learning, we need unsupervised
learning techniques.
What is Unsupervised Learning?
Machine learning technique in which models are not supervised using training dataset. Instead, models itself find the hidden
patterns and insights from the given data. It can be compared to learning which takes place in the human brain while
learning new things. It can be defined as:
Unsupervised learning is a type of machine learning in which models are trained
using unlabeled dataset and are allowed to act on that data without any
supervision.
Unsupervised learning cannot be directly applied to a regression or classification problem because unlike supervised
learning, we have the input data but no corresponding output data. The goal of unsupervised learning is to find the
underlying structure of dataset, group that data according to similarities, and represent that dataset in a
compressed format.
Example: Suppose the unsupervised learning algorithm is given an input dataset containing images of different types of cats
and dogs. The algorithm is never trained upon the given dataset, which means it does not have any idea about the features
of the dataset. The task of the unsupervised learning algorithm is to identify the image features on their own. Unsupervised
learning algorithm will perform this task by clustering the image dataset into the groups according to similarities between
images.
Why use Unsupervised Learning?
Below are some main reasons which describe the importance of Unsupervised Learning:
•Unsupervised learning is helpful for finding useful insights from the data.
•Unsupervised learning is much similar as a human learns to think by their own experiences, which makes it
closer to the real AI.
•Unsupervised learning works on unlabeled and uncategorized data which make unsupervised learning more
important.
•In real-world, we do not always have input data with the corresponding output so to solve such cases, we need
unsupervised learning.
Working of Unsupervised Learning
Working of unsupervised learning can be understood by the below diagram:
Here, we have taken an unlabeled input data, which means it is not categorized and corresponding outputs are also
not given. Now, this unlabeled input data is fed to the machine learning model in order to train it. Firstly, it will
interpret the raw data to find the hidden patterns from the data and then will apply suitable algorithms such as k-
means clustering, Decision tree, etc.
Once it applies the suitable algorithm, the algorithm divides the data objects into groups according to the similarities
and difference between the objects.
Types of Unsupervised Learning Algorithm:
The unsupervised learning algorithm can be further categorized into two types of problems:
•Clustering: Clustering is a method of grouping the objects into clusters such that objects with most
similarities remains into a group and has less or no similarities with the objects of another group. Cluster
analysis finds the commonalities between the data objects and categorizes them as per the presence and
absence of those commonalities.
•Association: An association rule is an unsupervised learning method which is used for finding the
relationships between variables in the large database. It determines the set of items that occurs together in
the dataset. Association rule makes marketing strategy more effective. Such as people who buy X item
(suppose a bread) are also tend to purchase Y (Butter/Jam) item. A typical example of Association rule is
Market Basket Analysis.

Unsupervised Learning algorithms:

Below is the list of some popular unsupervised learning algorithms:
•K-means clustering
•KNN (k-nearest neighbors)
•Hierarchal clustering
•Anomaly detection
•Neural Networks
•Principle Component Analysis
•Independent Component Analysis
•Apriori algorithm
•Singular value decomposition
Advantages of Unsupervised Learning
•Unsupervised learning is used for more complex tasks as compared to supervised learning because, in unsupervised
learning, we don't have labeled input data.
•Unsupervised learning is preferable as it is easy to get unlabeled data in comparison to labeled data.

Disadvantages of Unsupervised Learning

•Unsupervised learning is intrinsically more difficult than supervised learning as it does not have corresponding output.
•The result of the unsupervised learning algorithm might be less accurate as input data is not labeled, and algorithms do not
know the exact output in advance.
Supervised Learning Unsupervised Learning
Supervised learning algorithms are trained using labeled data. Unsupervised learning algorithms are trained using unlabeled data.
Supervised learning model takes direct feedback to check if it is Unsupervised learning model does not take any feedback.
predicting correct output or not.
Supervised learning model predicts the output. Unsupervised learning model finds the hidden patterns in data.
In supervised learning, input data is provided to the model along In unsupervised learning, only input data is provided to the model.
with the output.
The goal of supervised learning is to train the model so that it can The goal of unsupervised learning is to find the hidden patterns and
predict the output when it is given new data. useful insights from the unknown dataset.
Supervised learning needs supervision to train the model. Unsupervised learning does not need any supervision to train the
model.
Supervised learning can be categorized Unsupervised Learning can be classified
in Classification and Regression problems. in Clustering and Associations problems.
Supervised learning can be used for those cases where we know Unsupervised learning can be used for those cases where we have
the input as well as corresponding outputs. only input data and no corresponding output data.
Supervised learning model produces an accurate result. Unsupervised learning model may give less accurate result as
compared to supervised learning.
Supervised learning is not close to true Artificial intelligence as in Unsupervised learning is more close to the true Artificial Intelligence
this, we first train the model for each data, and then only it can as it learns similarly as a child learns daily routine things by his
predict the correct output. experiences.
It includes various algorithms such as Linear Regression, Logistic It includes various algorithms such as Clustering, KNN, and Apriori
Regression, Support Vector Machine, Multi-class Classification, algorithm.
Decision tree, Bayesian Logic, etc.
Supervised Learning
Regression Analysis in Machine learning
Regression analysis is a statistical method to model the relationship between a dependent (target) and
independent (predictor) variables with one or more independent variables. More specifically, Regression
analysis helps us to understand how the value of the dependent variable is changing corresponding to
an independent variable when other independent variables are held fixed. It predicts continuous/real
values such as temperature, age, salary, price, etc.
We can understand the concept of regression analysis using the below example:
Example: Suppose there is a marketing company A, who does various advertisement every year and
get sales on that. The below list shows the advertisement made by the company in the last 5 years and
the corresponding sales:
Now, the company wants to do the advertisement of $200 in the year 2019 and wants to know the
prediction about the sales for this year. So to solve such type of prediction problems in machine learning,
we need regression analysis.

Regression is a supervised learning technique which helps in finding the correlation between variables and
enables us to predict the continuous output variable based on the one or more predictor variables. It is mainly
used for prediction, forecasting, time series modeling, and determining the causal-effect relationship
between variables.
In Regression, we plot a graph between the variables which best fits the given datapoints, using this plot, the
machine learning model can make predictions about the data. In simple words, "Regression shows a line or
curve that passes through all the datapoints on target-predictor graph in such a way that the vertical
distance between the datapoints and the regression line is minimum." The distance between datapoints and
line tells whether a model has captured a strong relationship or not.
Some examples of regression can be as:
•Prediction of rain using temperature and other factors
•Determining Market trends
•Prediction of road accidents due to rash driving.
Terminologies Related to the Regression Analysis:
•Dependent Variable: The main factor in Regression analysis which we want to predict or understand is called
the dependent variable. It is also called target variable.
•Independent Variable: The factors which affect the dependent variables or which are used to predict the
values of the dependent variables are called independent variable, also called as a predictor.
•Outliers: Outlier is an observation which contains either very low value or very high value in comparison to
other observed values. An outlier may hamper the result, so it should be avoided.
•Multicollinearity: If the independent variables are highly correlated with each other than other variables, then
such condition is called Multicollinearity. It should not be present in the dataset, because it creates problem while
ranking the most affecting variable.
•Underfitting and Overfitting: If our algorithm works well with the training dataset but not well with test dataset,
then such problem is called Overfitting. And if our algorithm does not perform well even with training dataset,
then such problem is called underfitting.
Why do we use Regression Analysis?
As mentioned above, Regression analysis helps in the prediction of a continuous variable. There are various
scenarios in the real world where we need some future predictions such as weather condition, sales prediction,
marketing trends, etc., for such case we need some technology which can make predictions more accurately.
So for such case we need Regression analysis which is a statistical method and used in machine learning and
data science. Below are some other reasons for using Regression analysis:
•Regression estimates the relationship between the target and the independent variable.
•It is used to find the trends in data.
•It helps to predict real/continuous values.
•By performing the regression, we can confidently determine the most important factor, the least important
factor, and how each factor is affecting the other factors.
Types of Regression
There are various types of regressions which are used in data science and machine learning. Each type has its
own importance on different scenarios, but at the core, all the regression methods analyze the effect of the
independent variable on dependent variables. Here we are discussing some important types of regression which
are given below:
•Linear Regression
•Logistic Regression
•Polynomial Regression
•Support Vector Regression
•Decision Tree Regression
•Random Forest Regression
•Ridge Regression
•Lasso Regression:
Linear Regression:
•Linear regression is a statistical regression method which is used for predictive analysis.
•It is one of the very simple and easy algorithms which works on regression and shows the relationship between
the continuous variables.
•It is used for solving the regression problem in machine learning.
•Linear regression shows the linear relationship between the independent variable (X-axis) and the dependent
variable (Y-axis), hence called linear regression.
•If there is only one input variable (x), then such linear regression is called simple linear regression. And if there
is more than one input variable, then such linear regression is called multiple linear regression.
•The relationship between variables in the linear regression model can be explained using the below image. Here
we are predicting the salary of an employee on the basis of the year of experience.
•Below is the mathematical equation for Linear regression:
Y= aX+b
Here, Y = dependent variables (target variables),
X= Independent variables (predictor variables),
a and b are the linear coefficients
Some popular applications of linear regression are:
•Analyzing trends and sales estimates
•Salary forecasting
•Real estate prediction
•Arriving at ETAs in traffic.
 Logistic Regression:
•Logistic regression is another supervised learning algorithm which is used to solve the classification problems.
In classification problems, we have dependent variables in a binary or discrete format such as 0 or 1.
•Logistic regression algorithm works with the categorical variable such as 0 or 1, Yes or No, True or False, Spam
or not spam, etc.
•It is a predictive analysis algorithm which works on the concept of probability.
•Logistic regression is a type of regression, but it is different from the linear regression algorithm in the term how
they are used.
•Logistic regression uses sigmoid function or logistic function which is a complex cost function. This sigmoid
function is used to model the data in logistic regression. The function can be represented as:

•f(x)= Output between the 0 and 1 value.

•x= input to the function
•e= base of natural logarithm.
When we provide the input values (data) to the function, it gives the S-curve as follows:
•It uses the concept of threshold levels, values above the threshold level are rounded up to 1, and values below
the threshold level are rounded up to 0.
There are three types of logistic regression:
•Binary(0/1, pass/fail)
•Multi(cats, dogs, lions)
•Ordinal(low, medium, high)
 Polynomial Regression:
•Polynomial Regression is a type of regression which models the non-linear dataset using a linear model.
•It is similar to multiple linear regression, but it fits a non-linear curve between the value of x and corresponding
conditional values of y.
•Suppose there is a dataset which consists of datapoints which are present in a non-linear fashion, so for such
case, linear regression will not best fit to those datapoints. To cover such datapoints, we need Polynomial
regression.
•In Polynomial regression, the original features are transformed into polynomial features of given degree
and then modeled using a linear model. Which means the datapoints are best fitted using a polynomial line.
•The equation for polynomial regression also derived from linear regression equation that means Linear
regression equation Y= b0+ b1x, is transformed into Polynomial regression equation
•Y= b0+b1x+ b2x2+ b3x3+.....+ bnxn.
•Here Y is the predicted/target output, b0, b1,... bn are the regression coefficients. x is
our independent/input variable.
•The model is still linear as the coefficients are still linear with quadratic
Support Vector Regression:
Support Vector Machine is a supervised learning algorithm which can be used for regression as well as
classification problems. So if we use it for regression problems, then it is termed as Support Vector Regression.
Support Vector Regression is a regression algorithm which works for continuous variables. Below are some
keywords which are used in Support Vector Regression:
•Kernel: It is a function used to map a lower-dimensional data into higher dimensional data.
•Hyperplane: In general SVM, it is a separation line between two classes, but in SVR, it is a line which helps to
predict the continuous variables and cover most of the datapoints.
•Boundary line: Boundary lines are the two lines apart from hyperplane, which creates a margin for datapoints.
•Support vectors: Support vectors are the datapoints which are nearest to the hyperplane and opposite class.
In SVR, we always try to determine a hyperplane with a maximum margin, so that maximum number of datapoints
are covered in that margin. The main goal of SVR is to consider the maximum datapoints within the
boundary lines and the hyperplane (best-fit line) must contain a maximum number of datapoints. Consider
the below image:
Here, the blue line is called hyperplane, and the other two
lines are known as boundary lines.