Dept.

of ECE, AJIET, Mangaluru Introduction to Electronics [21ESC143]

Module – 2 ( Part - 2 )

Operational Amplifiers
Syllabus: Opamp Characteristics – Both Ideal Opamp and Practical Opamp.
Applications of Op-Amp - Inverting amplifier, Non-Inverting amplifier, Summer,
Voltage follower, Integrator, Differentiator.

Introduction
 Op-Amp (operational amplifier) is basically an amplifier available in the IC form.
 The word “operational” is used because the amplifier can be used to perform a variety of
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation etc.
 Fig.3.1 shows the symbol of an op-amp.

Fig.3.1: Symbol of Op-Amp

 It has two inputs and one output. The input marked "-" is known as Inverting input and
the input marked "+" is known as Non-inverting input.
 If two different voltages V1 and V2 are applied to an ideal Op-Amp then output voltage V o
is equal to the voltage difference between the input terminals.
V 0= A ( V 2−V 1 )
where A is the voltage gain, Hence an Op-Amp is a differential amplifier.
 If a voltage Vi is applied at the inverting input (keeping the non-inverting input at
ground) as shown fig.3.2 than the output voltage V o = -AVi is out of phase with respect to
the input signal by 1800.

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Fig.3.2: Op-amp in inverting mode

 If a voltage Vi is fed at the non-inverting input (keeping the inverting input at ground) as
shown in fig.3.3 than the output voltage Vo= AVi is in phase with the input signal.

Fig.3.3: Op-Amp in Non-inverting mode

Characteristics of an Ideal Op-Amp

 Consider an ideal Op-Amp shown in the fig.3.4. It has two inputs V1 and V2 applied to
the inverting and noninverting terminals. This Op-Amp is said to be ideal Op-Amp if it
has following characteristics.

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Dept. of ECE, AJIET, Mangaluru Introduction to Electronics [21ESC143]

Fig.3.4: Ideal Op-Amp

1. Infinite voltage gain ( ie AV = ∞)
2. Infinite input impedance (Zi = ∞ Ω)
3. Zero output impedance(Zo = 0 Ω)
4. Infinite Bandwidth (B.W. = ∞ Hz)
5. Infinite Common mode rejection ratio (ie CMRR = ∞)
6. Infinite slew rate (ie S = ∞ V/s)
7. Zero offset voltage(i.e when the input voltages are zero, the output voltage will
also be zero)
8. Perfect balance (i.e the output voltage is zero when the input voltages at the two
input terminals are equal)
9. The characteristics are temperature independent.

Op-Amp Input Modes

Single ended mode: 
 In the single ended mode the input signal is applied only to one of the input terminal and
other input terminal is connected to ground.
 When the input signal is applied to inverting terminal as shown in the fig.3.5.(a) an
inverted amplified signal appears at the output.
 When the input signal is applied to non inverting terminal as shown in the fig.3.5.(b) a
non inverted amplified signal appears at the output.

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Fig.3.5: Single ended mode

Differential Mode:
 In the differential mode two opposite polarity (out of phase) signals are applied to the
inputs as shown in the fig.3.6.
 The amplified difference between the two inputs appears at the output.

Fig.3.6: Differential mode

Common Mode:
 Two signal voltages of the same phase, frequency, and amplitude are applied to the two
inputs, as shown in the fig.3.7.
 When equal input signals are applied to both inputs, they tend to cancel, resulting in a
zero output voltage.

Fig.3.7: Common mode

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Operational amplifier parameters :

Open-loop voltage gain:

The open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to
input voltage measured with no feedback applied.

 Typically, this value is exceptionally high (typically greater than 100,000) but is liable to
considerable variation from one device to another.

 Open-loop voltage gain may thus be thought of as the ‘internal’ voltage gain of the device,
thus:

where AV(OL) is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT and VIN are the output and input voltages,
respectively, under open-loop conditions.

 The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio

Closed-loop voltage gain:

The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage
to input voltage measured with a small proportion of the output fed-back to the input (i.e. with
feedback applied).

 The effect of providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop voltage gain to a value that is
both predictable and manageable.

 Practical closed-loop voltage gains range from one to several thousand but note that high
values of voltage gain may make unacceptable restrictions on bandwidth.

 Closed-loop voltage gain is once again the ratio of output voltage to input voltage but with
negative feedback applied, hence,

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 where AV(CL) is the closed-loop voltage gain, VOUT and VIN are the output and input voltages,
respectively, under closed-loop conditions.

 The closed-loop voltage gain is normally very much less than the open-loop voltage gain

Numerical 1.10

An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback produces an output voltage of 2 V

when supplied with an input of 400 μV. Determine the value of closed-loop voltage gain.

Solution:

Input resistance:
The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input
current expressed in ohms.

 It is often assumed that the input of an operational amplifier is purely resistive, though this is
not the case at high frequencies where shunt capacitive reactance may become significant.  The
input resistance of operational amplifiers is very much dependent on the semiconductor
technology employed.

 In practice values range from about 2 MΩ for common bipolar types to over 1012 Ω for FET
and CMOS devices.

Numerical 1.11

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An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2 MΩ. Determine the input current when an
input voltage of 5 mV is present.

Solution:

Output resistance:
The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of open-circuit output
voltage to short-circuit output current expressed in ohms.

 Typical values of output resistance range from less than 10 Ω to around 100 Ω, depending
upon the configuration and amount of feedback employed.

where ROUT is the output resistance (in ohms), VOUT(OC) is the open-circuit output voltage
(in volts) and IOUT(SC) is the short-circuit output current (in amps).

Input offset voltage: An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero output voltage when
0V difference is applied to its inputs.

Full-power bandwidth:
The full-power bandwidth for an operational amplifier is equivalent to the frequency at which the
maximum undistorted peak output voltage swing falls to 0.707 of its low-frequency (d.c.) value
(the sinusoidal input voltage remaining constant).

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Slew rate: The slew rate of an operational amplifier is the rate of change of output voltage
with time in response to a perfect step-function input. Hence:

Numerical 1.12

A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input of an operational amplifier. If it takes 4 μs for
the output voltage to change from –5 V to +5 V, determine the slew rate of the device.

Solution:

The slew rate can be determined from:

Numerical 1.13

A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate of 15 V/μs. If the amplifier is used in a circuit
with a voltage gain of 20 and a perfect step input of 100 mV is applied to its input, determine the
time taken for the output to change level

Solution:

Operational amplifier characteristics:

(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).
(b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).
(c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).
(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.
(f) Input offset should be as small as possible

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Virtual ground
 If two terminals are physically shorted then the voltages at both the terminals are same.
 For an Op-Amp when output voltage Vo = 0, we can say that both the input voltages are
equal i.e. V1 = V2
 If both voltages are same then we can say that a virtual short exists between the inputs
terminals of Op-Amp.

 Since the input impedances of an ideal Op-Amp is infinite (Z i = ∞). There is no current
flow into the terminals.
 Hence when one terminal (say V 2) is connected to ground (i.e. V 2 = 0) then because of
virtual short V1 will also be zero. This virtual short is called as virtual ground.

Applications of Op-Amp
 An Op-Amp can be used as

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1. Inverting Amplifier
2. Non-Inverting Amplifier
3. Voltage follower
4. Adder ( Summer)
5. Subtractor
6. Integrator
7. Differentiator

Inverting Amplifier
 An inverting amplifier shown in the fig.3.9 is one whose output is amplified and is out of
phase by 1800 with respect to the input.
 The input signal vi is applied to the inverting terminal through a resistor R1 and non
inverting terminal is grounded.
 Feedback from the output terminal to the input terminal is provided through the resistor
Rf.

Fig.3.9: Inverting Amplifier

 Non inverting terminal of Op-amp is grounded, therefore V B = 0. Due to virtual short, the
inverting and non inverting terminals are at the same potential
V A =V B =0
 Current i1 is defined by
V i−V A V i
i 1= =
R1 R1

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Dept. of ECE, AJIET, Mangaluru Introduction to Electronics [21ESC143]

 Current if is defined by
V A −V o −V o
if = =
Rf Rf
 Due to high input resistance, the current flowing into inverting input terminal is zero.
Therefore
i f =i
−V o V i
=
Rf R1
Vo −R f
= A=
Vi R1

V o =−
( )
Rf
V
R1 i
−R f
Where A= is the gain of the amplifier and negative sign indicates that the output is
R1
inverted with respect to the input.

Non- Inverting Amplifier

 A non-inverting amplifier shown in the fig.3.10 is one whose output is amplified and is
in-phase with the input.

Fig.3.10: Non Inverting Amplifier

 Feedback from the output terminal to the input terminal is provided through the resistor
Rf.
 Input signal is applied to non inverting terminal of Op-amp, therefore V B = Vi. Due to
virtual short, the inverting and non inverting terminals are at the same potential

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V A =V B =V i
 Due to zero output resistance, the output current flows through R f and then to ground
through R1. Therefore
i f =i
 Current i1 is defined by
V A−0 V A V i
i 1= = =
R1 R1 R 1
 Current if is defined by
V o−V A V o −V i
if = =
Rf Rf
 On equating both currents we get
V o−V i V i
=
Rf R1
V o−V i Rf
=
Vi R1
Vo Rf
−1=
Vi R1
Vo R
= A=1+ f
Vi R1

( )
V o = 1+
Rf
V
R1 i
Rf
Where A=1+ is the gain of the amplifier and positive sign indicates that the output is
R1
in phase with respect to the input.

Voltage follower
 Voltage follower shown in the fig.3.11 is a circuit in which output voltage V o follows
input voltage Vi. i.e. output voltage Vo is equal to input voltage Vi

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Fig.3.11: Voltage follower

 The voltage follower configuration is obtained from non-inverting amplifier by short
circuiting Rf and open circuiting R1.
 For non-inverting op-amp output voltage is given by

( )
V o = 1+
Rf
V
R1 i
When Rf = 0 (short circuiting)
R1= ∞ (open circuiting) we get

( ∞0 ) V
V o = 1+ i

V o =V i
 The closed loop gain is given by
Vo
A= =1
Vi
 Therefore the output voltage will be equal and in-phase with the input voltage. Thus
voltage follower is nothing but a non-inverting amplifier with a voltage gain of unity.

Summing circuit
 Summing circuit is shown in the fig.3.12 is a circuit in which the output voltage is equal
to the negative of the sum of the input voltages.

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Fig.3.12: Op Amp Summer

 Non inverting terminal of Op-amp is grounded, therefore vB = 0. Due to virtual short, the
inverting and non inverting terminals are at the same potential
v A =v B =0

v o=−
[ Rf
R1
Rf Rf
v 1 + v 2+ v 3
R2 R3 ]
 If R f =R1 =R 2=R3 then
v o=−[ v 1+ v 2+ v 3 ]
 Therefore the output voltage is equal to the negative of the sum of the input voltages and
hence summing circuit is also called as inverting summer

Subtractor
 Subtractor circuit is shown in the fig.3.13 is a circuit in which the output voltage is equal
to the difference of the input voltages.

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Fig.3.13: Subtractor
 The input voltages are applied to inverting and non inverting terminals of the op-amp
circuit.
Rf
v o= ( v −v )
R1 2 1
 If Rf = R1 then
v o=v 2−v 1
 Hence the output voltage is the difference of the input voltages.

Integrator
 Op-Amp integrator has a capacitor in the feedback path as shown in the fig.3.16 and its
output voltage is the integration of the input voltage.

Fig.3.16: Op-amp Integrator

 Non inverting terminal of Op-amp is grounded, therefore v 2 = 0. Due to virtual short, the
inverting and non inverting terminals are at the same potential
v1 =v 2=0
−1
RC ∫ i
v o= v dt

 Hence the output voltage is the integration of the input voltage.

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Differentiator
 Op-Amp differentiator can be obtained from Op-Amp integrator by interchanging the R
and C as shown in the fig.3.17 and its output voltage is the differentiation of the input
voltage.

Fig.3.17: Op-amp differentiator

 Non inverting terminal of Op-amp is grounded, therefore v 2 = 0. Due to virtual short, the
inverting and non inverting terminals are at the same potential
v1 =v 2=0
d vi
v o=−RC
dt
 Hence the output voltage is the derivative of the input voltage.

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Problems
1. For an inverting amplifier R1 = 100KΩ and Rf = 600KΩ. What is the output voltage
for an input of -3V?
Output voltage is given by,

v o=−
( )
Rf
v
R1 i

v o=− ( 600
100 k )
k
∗(−3)

v o=18 V

2. Design an inverting amplifier for output voltage of -10V and an input voltage of 1V.
Output voltage of the inverting amplifier is given by,

v o=−
( )
Rf
v
R1 i
Rf −v o −−10
= = =10
R1 vi 1
R f =10 R1
Assume R1=1 kΩ therefore,
R f =10 kΩ

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Question Bank

1. What is op-amp? List the characteristics of an ideal Op-Amp

2. Derive the output voltage for the following
a. Inverting amplifier
b. Non-Inverting amplifier
c. Integrator
d. Differentiator
e. Summing amplifier
f. Subtractor
3. Explain voltage follower with neat circuit and necessary equations
4. Obtain the expression for voltage gain of an Inverting amplifier
5. Obtain the expression for voltage gain of an Non-Inverting amplifier
6. Calculate the output of the three input summing amplifier, given R1 = 200kΩ, R2 =
250kΩ, R3 = 500kΩ, Rf = 1MΩ, V1 = -2V, V2 = -1V and V3 = 3V
7. A non-inverting amplifier circuit has an input resistance of 10KΩ and feedback resistance
60KΩ with load resistance of 47KΩ. Draw the circuit. Calculate the output voltage,
voltage gain, load current when the input voltage is 1.5V.

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