1873.] Prof. Clifford on Biquaternions.

381

Preliminary Sketch of Biquaternions. By Prof. CLIFPOED, M.A.

[Bead June 12th, 1873.]

I. •
The vectors of Hamilton are quantities having magnitude and direc-
tion, but no particular position; the vector AB being regarded as
identical with the vector CD when AB is equal and parallel to CD
and in the same sense. The translation of a rigid body is an example
of such a quantity; for since all particles of the body move through equal
distances along parallel straight lines in the same sense, the motion is
entirely specified by a straight line of the given length and direction
drawn through any point whatever. A couple, again, may be adequately
represented by a vector; since the axis of a couple is any line of length
proportional to its moment drawn perpendicular from a given face of
its plane.
. For many purposes, however, it is necessary to consider quantities
which have not only magnitude and direction, but position also. The
rotational velocity of a rigid body is about a certain definite axis, and
equal rotations about two parallel axes are not equivalent to one
another. A force acting upon a solid has a definite line of action, and
equal forces acting along parallel lines differ by a certain couple. The
difference between the two kinds of quantities is clearly seen when we
consider the geometric calculus which is used for the study of each.
In studying the motions of a particle or the composition of couples, the
only construction required is that of the "force-polygon," and the
theory involved is that of the addition of vectors ; but in the static or
kinematic of solids we require in addition the construction of the "link-
polygon," and there is involved the theory of the involution of lines in
space, or of the linear complex.
The name vector may be conveniently associated with a velocity of
translation, as the simplest type of the quantity denoted by it. In
analogy with this, I propose to use the name rotor (short for rotator)
to mean a quantity having magnitude, direction, and position, of which
the simplest type is a velocity of rotation about a certain axis. A rotor
will be geometrically represented by a length proportional to its magni-
tude measured upon its axis in a certain sense. The rotor AB will be
identical with CD if they are in the same straight line, of the same
length, and in the same sense; i. e., a vector may move anywise
parallel to itself, but a rotor only in its own line.
The addition of rotors will proceed by the rules which govern the
composition of forces and rotations. Here, however, we come upon a
very important break in the analogy between rotors and vectors. While
382 Prof. Clifford on Biquaternions. [June 12,
the sum of any number of vectors is always a vector, it will only
happen in special cases that the sum of a number of rotors is a rotor.
In fact, the composition of two forces whose lines of action do not
intersect, or of two rotation-velocities whose axes do not intersect,
gives rise to a system of forces on the one hand, and the most general
velocity of a rigid body on the other. These still more complex
quantities have been studied, and the theory of their addition or com-
position completely worked out, by Dr. Ball.
A system of forces may be reduced in one way to a single force P,
and a couple Gr whose plane is perpendicular to the line of action of the
force, or central axis. Dr. Ball speaks of the system of forces as a
wrench about a certain screw; the axis of the screw being the central
axis, and the pitch being the ratio — of the couple to. the force.
Similarly the velocity of a rigid body may be represented in one way
only as a rotation-velocity w about a certain axis combined with a
translation-velocity v along that axis. Dr. Ball speaks of this velocity
as a twist-velocity about a certain screw ; the axis of the screw being
the axis of rotation, and its pitch the ratio — of the translation to the
rotation. A screw is here a geometrical form resulting from the com-
bination of an axis or straight line given in position with a pitch which
is a linear magnitude. A wrench is the association with this geo-
metrical form of a magnitude whose dimensions are those of a force; a
tivist-velocity the association of a magnitude whose dimensions are
those of an angular velocity. The extreme convenience of this
nomenclature is well exemplified in the remarkable memoir above
referred to.
Just as a vector (translation-velocity or couple) is magnitude asso-
ciated with direction, and as a rotor (rotation-velocity or force) is
magnitude associated with an axis; so this new quantity, which is the
sum of two or more rotors (twist-velocity or wrench) is magnitude
associated with a screw. Following up the analogy thus indicated, I
propose to call this quantity a motor; the simplest type of it being the
general motion of a rigid body. And we shall say that in general the
sum of rotors is a motor, but that in particular cases it may degenerate
into a rotor or a vector.
n.
A quaternion is the ratio of two vectors, or the operation necessaiy
to make one into the other. Let the vec- _
tors be AB and AC, as they may both be
made to start from any arbitrary point A.
Then AB is made into AC by turning it _
round an axis through A perpendicular to
the plane BAC until its direction coincides with that of AC, and then
1873.] Prof. Clifford on Biquaternions. 383
magnifying or diminishing it until it is of the same length as AC. The
ratio of two vectors then is the combination of an ordinary numerical
ratio with a rotation; or, as Hamilton expresses it, a quaternion is the
product of a tensor and a versor. Since the point A is perfectly arbi-
trary, this rotation is not about a definite axis; but is completely
specified when its angular magnitude and the direction of its axis are
given.
This quaternion* -r^ = g, then, is an operation which, being per-
formed on AB, converts it into AC, so that q. AB = AC. The axis of
the quaternion is perpendicular to the plane BAC ; and it is clear that
the quaternion operating upon any other vector AD in this plane will
convert it into a fourth vector AE in the same plane, the angle DAE
being equal to BAC and the lengths of the four lines proportionals.
But a quaternion can only operate upon a vector which is perpendicular
to its axis. If AF be any vector not in the plane BAC, the expression
q. AF is absolutely unmeaning. A meaning is indeed subsequently
given to an analogous expression in which the signification of AF is dif-
ferent. But it is very important to remark that so long as AF means
a vector not perpendicular to the axis of q, the expression £.AF has no
meaning at all.
Let us now consider what is the operation
necessary to convert one rotor, into another. There
is one straight line which meets at right angles
the axes of any two rotors, and part of which con-
stitutes the shortest distance between them. Let
AC be the shortest distance between the rotors
AB and CD. Then AB may be converted into CD
by a process consisting of three steps. First, turn
AB about the axis AC into the position AB', parallel
to CD. Then slide it along this axis into the position CD'. Lastly,
magnify or diminish it in the ratio of CD' to CD. The first two opera-
tions may be regarded as together forming a twist about a screw whose
axis is AC and whose pitch is
AC
circ. meas. of BAB''
The ratio of two rotors, then, is the combination of an ordinary
numerical ratio with a twist. This twist is associated with a perfectly

* Professor Cayloy, by a very convenient notation, distinguishes ——» and .-r-jj';

.AJJI LA.XJ

I AC ACI • X.
viz., AB I—-i = 1, but r p ^ A B = 1. I t should, I think, be a convention that — is
always to mean .--.J, viz., the operation which converts Y into X, or which, coming
after the operation Y, is equivalent to the operation X.
884 Prof. Clifford on B[quaternions. [June 12,
definite screw, and is only specified when its angular magnitude and
the screw (involving direction, position,.and pitch) are given. We
may say also that just as the rotation (versor) involved in a quaternion
is the ratio of two directions, so the twist involved in the ratio of two
rotors is really the ratio of their axes.
Here again a remark must be made about the range of this operation.
Using the expression tensor-twist to mean the ratio of two rotors
(which is in fact a twist multiplied by a tensor), we may say that a
tensor-twist can operate upon any rotor which meets its axis at right
angles. Let t denote the operation which converts AB into CD, so
that t = ^ - , and t. AB = CD j then if EF be any other rotor which
meets AC at right angles, the expression t. EF will have a definite
meaning, viz., it will mean a rotor obtained by sliding EF along a
distance equal to AC, turning it about AC as axis through an angle
equal to BAB', and altering its length in the ratio AB : CD. But if
EF be a rotor not meeting AC, or meeting it at any other than a right
angle, the expression t. EF will.have no meaning whatever.
We have now defined the ratio of two rotors, and shown that like a
quaternion it has a restricted range of operation. The question
naturally arises, what now is the operation which converts one motor
into another ? We can answer this question very easily in the case in
which the two motors have the same pitch ; for in this case their ratio
is a teusor-twist whose tensor in the ratio of their magnitudes and
whose twist is the ratio of their axes. We are led to this by con-
sidering each motor as the sum of two rotors which do not intersect.
Let a and /3 be two such rotors, t a tensor-twist whose axis meets them
both at right angles; then ta is a rotor, say y, and tfl is another rotor,
say S. If therefore we assume the distributive law, we have
t(nia+nfi) = my+nS,
4 _ »«y + «£
or * v
Wia + up
It is a mere translation of known theorems to say that the axis of t
meets at right angles the axes of the motors vut+nfl and my+nS, and
that one of these axes is converted into the other by the same twist
that makes a into y or /3 into $.
The solution of this problem in the general caso in which the pitches
are different, in not so easy. In the first place, we must remember that
every motor consists of a rotor part and a vector part, and that its
pitch is determined by the ratio of these two parts. By combining a
suitable vector with a motor, therefore, we may make the pitch of it
anything we like, without altering the rotor part. Now let it be re-
quired to find the operation which will convert a motor A into a motor
1873.] Prof. Clifford on Biquaternions. 385
B. Let B' be a motor having the same rotor part as B, and the same
pitch as A ; and let B = B' + /3, where /3 is a vector parallel to the
T> TV n TV

axis of B. Then the ratio -r- = -r- + 4 - ; but — is a tensor-twist,

A A A A
say t, and we may write — = < + —,
A A
where it now only remains to find an operation which will convert a
motor A into a vector /3.
In order,to do this, we must introduce a symbol whose nature and
operation will at first sight appear completely arbitrary, but will bo
justified in the sequel. The symbol to, applied to any motor, changes it
into a vector parallel to its axis and proportional to the rotor part of it.
That is to say, it changes rotation about any axis into translation
parallel to that axis, and a force into a couple in a plane perpendicular
to its line of action. But if the rotation is accompanied by translation
or the force by a couple, the symbol takes no account whatever of these
accompaniments ; and if made to operate directly on a vector, reduces
it to zero. It follows from this that if it be made to operate twice upon
a motor, it reduces it to zero; or to2A = 0 always. The portion of any
expression which involves CJ must therefore be treated as an infini-
tesimal of the first order; all higher orders being uniformly neglected.
Since then wA = a, a vector, and the ratio — is a quaternion q so
that qa = /3, we may write successively
fi = qa = qwA,

and then - - = /-)- qtot

A.
or the ratio of two motors may be expressed as the sum of two parts, one of
which is a tensor-twc^, and the other is u> multiplied by a quaternion.
The same ratio may be expressed in another form. Let an arbitrary
point 0 be assumed as the origin; then every motor may be expressed
in one way as the sum of a rotor passiug through 0 and a vector.
NQW the theory of rotors passiug through a fixed point is exactly the
same as that of vectors in general, and the ratio of any two of them is
a tensor-twist whose pitch is zero, or what is tho samo thing, a qua-
ternion whoso axis is constrained to pass through tho fixed point. If
we use cursive Greek letters (as n, /3) in general to represent rotors
through the origin, we may distinguish vectors from thorn by prefixing
tho symbol w; thus am denotes a vector parallel and proportional to
the rotor a. The ratio — will then.bo a quaternion </, which is also tho
a
VOL. IV. —NO. 6 5 . CO
386 Prof. Clifford on Biquaternions. [June 12,
ratio ---•* The genei-al expression for a motor is then a +w/3. Let it
now be required to find the ratio of two motors a-j-wfi, or the
y-f- wS
value of the expression

First, let — = q; then = y + wqp*.

The symbol g>/3 has at present no geometrical meaning; for in general
the rotors a, /3, y will not be coplanar, and cannot therefore be operated
on by the same quaternion q. If however (as in the Calculus of Qua-
ternions) we consider all these quantities as expressed in terms of three
rectangular unit rotors through the origin, —*— will be a perfectly
definite quaternion r. The equation
ra = b—qP
is, like the equation q (a -f w/3) = y + wqfi,
at present purely literal and devoid of meaning. Yet if (remembering
the properties of the symbol w) we add to times the first equation to the
second and assume the distributive law, we obtain
(q + ur) (a + w/3) = y + wd.
In this way the ratio "^-^ n is expressed in the form q + <tr, which
J
a + top
expression may conveniently be called a liquaternion.f Thefinalequa-
tion, however, is not susceptible of interpretation in the same sense as
the equation qn = y. The expression q + wr does not denote the sum
of geometrical operations which can be applied to the motor a + w/3 as
a whole ; and the ratio of two motors is only expressed by a symbol aa
the sum of two parts, each of which separately has a definite meaning
in curtain other cases, but nut in the case in point. In following sec-
tions this difficulty will be partly overcome by showing that the system
here sketched is the limit of another in which it does not occur.
The preceding remarks may however explain, and be illustrated by,
the following table :—
G E O M I TllICAL FOUM QUANTITY EXAMPLE .RATIO

SCIIHB on at. lino Vector on Bt. line Addition or Subtraction Signed ltatio
Pimitidii in plant1 Vector in plane Complex quantity Complex Ratio
Direction in bpaco Vector in space Tranalation, Couplo Quaternion
Axis Rotor Kotation-Velocity, Force Twist
Screw Motor Twist-Velocity, System Biquaternion
of Forces

• I t follmvs from this that wtj=tju, or w is commutativa with quaternions.

f Hamilton'B /litjtititcnn'o/i m a quaternion with complex coefficients; but it is con-
vt:nit at (as 1'iuf. l'iun.-u remarks) to Buppoao from tho beginning that all sculare may
be complex. Ab the word in thus no longer wanted in its old meaning, I have made
bold to UHU it in a new one.
1873.] Prof. Clifford on Biquaterniona. 387
III.
That geometry of three - dimensional space which assumes the
Euclidian postulates has been called by Dr. Klein the parabolic geo-
metry of space, to distinguish it from two other varieties, which assume
uniform positive and negative curvature respectively, and which he
calls the elliptic and hyperbolic geometry of space. The investigations
which follow involve the postulates of elliptic geometry. As, however, the
postulate of uniform positive curvature is not sufficient to define this, ifc
may be worth while to devote a short space to an explanation of its nature.
Space of three dimensions is that the points of which may be asso-
ciated with systems of values of three variables x, yt z. It is not in
general possible, however, so to make this association that to every
system of values there shall correspond in general one point, and to
every point in general one system of values. When this is the case,
the space is called imicursal. An algebraic space is one in which the
position of a point may be uniquely defined by a set of values of
periodic algebraic integrals, without exceptions which form a part of
the space. Thus, unicursal spaces are a particular case of algebraic.
Attending now to unicursal spaces only, we must observe that there are
in general exceptions to the unique correspondence of points and value-
systems ; namely, there are cerjtain points to each of which correspond
an infinite number of values. of the coordinates satisfying a certain
equation or equations; and there are certain value-systems to which
correspond, not points, but loci in the space. The assignment of these
point-equations and loci-values and of their relations with one another
serves to determine the projective-connection of the space; and when once
these are known, the whole of its protective geometiy may be worked
out. The point-equations and loci-values may or may not involve ima-
ginary values of the variables or their coefficients ; but in all cases they
must be taken into account. The points which correspond to real
systems of values are called real points; those which correspond to
imagiuary systems, imaginary points : the study of these latter, which
does not strictly belong to that of three-dimensional space, is under-
taken only for the sake of the former.
Loci which correspond to linear equations between tho coordinates
may at present be called planes, and their intersections lines; this is a
purely protective definition, and these loci are not necessarily yfuJ plunca
and straight lines in the metrical sense. Points, lines, and planes are
included in the namo elcnmnts.
The metric geometry of spaco* is the theory of tho protective relations
of certain fixed geometrical forms with nil other geometrical forms, or
of tho invariant relations of certain fixed algebraic forms with all other
• This theory of metric geometry is duo to Prof. Cayloy: Sixth Memoir on
Qualities, Phil. Trans., 1859.
cc2
388 Prof. Clifford on Bi'quaternions. [June 12,
algebraic forms. The word power will be explained as much as is
wanted in the sequel; meanwhile it may be said that these fixed forms
(called all together the absolute) are given when we know the points,
the lines, and the planes of the absolute, or say the elements of the
absolute ; and that the power of an element of the absolute in regard
to any arbitrary element is infinite. In other words, we require in
general equations of the absolute in point-, line-, and plane-coordinates
respectively.
A unicursal space the points of which may be represented uniquely
by value-systems of the coordinates x, y, z, without the exception of
any point-equations or loci-values, is called a linear space. This is
merely a projcctive definition, and leaves the absolute, therefore the
whole of metric geometry, undetermined.
There is a particular determination of the absolute in a linear space
which is of the utmost importance. It is that in which the points of
the absolute are those of a certain quadric surface, while the lines and
planes of the absolute are those which touch this surface ; or in which
the three equations of the absolute are of the second degree. There are
three cases* to be considered, as being fhe only ones of which observed
space can form a part:—
(1) Elliptic geometry; all the elements of the absolute are ima-
ginary.
(2) Hyperbolic geometry; the absolute contains no real straight
lines, and surrounds us. In this case, real points situate on
the other side of the surface are called ideal.
(3) Parabolic geometry; the surface degenerates into an imaginary
conic in a real plane. The points of the absolute are points
in the (real) plane of this conic; the lines and planes are the
imaginary lines and planes which meet and touch the conio
respectively.
The first of these suppositions will be made in what follows. It may
be well here to set down in what it consists.
(1) The space to be considered is such that there is one point of it
for every set of values of the coordinates x, y, z, and one set of values
for every point, without any exception whatever.
(2) There is a certain quadric surfaco, called the absolute, all whose
points and tangent planes are imaginary. If the lino joining two points
a, b meet the absolute in i,j, the quantity
ah
, ;V , , =ab}
v/(<u • aj. bi. bj)
(which is a function of anharmonic ratios, and therefore an invariant,)
is called Ihe power of the points a, b in regard to one another, or of
• On thin division BOO T>r. Klein, " Ucbnr dio iso-gonannte Nicht-Eulriidisiho Goo-
meiiio," Math. Annalcn, l$d. 4. The second caao is the geometry of Louatschowsky
and liolyai.
.1873.] Prof. Clifford on Biquaternions. 389

either in regard to the other. The distance of these two points is an

angle 0 such that sin 0 = ab.
Similarly, if through the line of intersection of the planes A, B there
be drawn the tangent planes- I, J to tho absolute, the power of the
planes A, B in regard to one another is the quantity
AB. IJ = X B

and the angle between them is an angle <f> such that

sin 0 = AB.
(3) If two points are conjugate in regard to the absolute, they are
distant a quadrant from one another ; if two lines or planes are con-
jugate in regard to the absolute, they are at right angles. Thus all the
points at a quadrant distance from a given point are situate on its
polar plane in regard to the absolute, and eveiy plane through it cuts
this polar plane at right angles. Every line has a polar line in regard
to the absolute, such that every point on the polar line is distant a
quadrant from every point on the line; and every line which is at
right angles to either meets the other. Through an arbitrary point
can in general be drawn one line perpendicular to a given plane;
namely, the line joining the point to the pole of the plane. If, how-
ever, the point is the pole of the plane, every line through it is perpen-
dicular to the plane. Similarly, from a point not on the polar of a
given line can be drawn one and only one perpendicular to the liue ;
namely, the lino through the point which meets the given line and its
polar.
(4) In general, two lines can he drawn so that each meets two given
lines at rigid angles, and these are polars of one another. One line may
therefore be converted into another by rotation about two polar axes.
These axes are determined as the lines which meet the two given lines
and their polars. If we travel continuously along one of these lines
and draw perpendiculars on the other, one of these axes determines the
shortest distance between the lines, and the other the longest. If then
these two are equal, the lines are equidistant along their whole length.
Thus there is a case of exception in which two lines and their pulars
belong to the same set of generators of a hyperboloid; the lines are then
equidistant along their whole length, and meet the same tivo generators
of one system of the absolute. I shall use the word parallel to denote
two lines so situated; and they shall be called right parallel or left
parallel according as one is converted into tho other by a right-handed
or left-handed twist. Through an arbitrary point can be drawn ono
right parallel and one loft parallel to a given line ; the angle between
them is twico the distance of the point from the line. There are many
points of analogy between the parallels here defined and those of para-
bolic geometry. Thus, if a line meet two parallel lines, it makes equal
390 Prof. Clifford on Biquatermona. [June 12,
angles with them ; and a series of parallel lines meeting a given lino
constitute a ruled surface of zero curvature. The geometry of this
surface is the same as that of a finite parallelogram whose opposite
sides are regarded as identical.
(5) A twist-velocity of a rigid body must be regarded as having two
axes. For a motion of translation along any axis is the same thing as
a rotation about the polar axis, and vice versd. Hence a twist-velocity
is compounded of rotation-velocities about two polar axes; say these
are 0, <j>. Then the motion may be regarded either as a twist-velocity
about a screw whose pitch is -^ and whose axis is the first axis, or
a
about a screw whose pitch is — and whose axis is the polar axis. In
general, then, a motor has two axes, and is expressible in one way only
as the sum of two polar rotors. There is, however, one case of excep-
tion in which the axes of a motor are indeterminate; that, namely, in
which the magnitudes of the two polar rotors are equal.* If a rigid
body receive at the same time a rotation about an axis and an equal
translation along it, all the points of the body will describe parallel
straight lines; and the motion of the body is at the same time a rota-
tion about any one of these lines combined with an equal translation
along it. Such a motion may be adequately represented by a line of
given length drawn through any point whatever parallel to a given
line. A motor of pitch unity, or which is its own polar, may therefore
be regarded as having the nature of a vector, and shall in future be
denoted by that name. For we may define a vector as a motor whose
axes are indeterminate; and the case we are now considering is the
only case of such indetermination which occurs in elliptic geometry.
Vectors will be called right or left according as the twist of them is
right- or left-handed.
Prop.: Every motor is the sum of a right and a left vector. For let A
be a motor, and A' the polar motor; then we have A = ^ ( A + A ' )
•+•£ (A—A'). Now A+A' and A—A' are both motors of pitch unity,
but one right-handed and the other left-handed.
IV.
A fixed point being chosen as origin, let three lines perpendicular to
one another bo drawn through it, and let three unit-rotors having these
lines as axes be denoted by the symbols i, j , h. Then eveiy rotor
through the origin will be denoted by an expression of the form
ix+jy + Jcz, where x, y, z are scalar quantities, or the ratios of magni-
tudes. The symbols i, j , h shall have also another meaning; viz., each
• This motion is described in another connection by Drs. Klein and Lie, Math.
Annalcn, Bd. 4; it is a transformation of the absoluto into itself in •which two
generators remain unaltered.
1873.] Prof. Clifford on Biqunterniona. 391

shall signify the rotation through a right angle about its axis of any
rotor which meets that axis at right angles. When they are performed
on rotors passing through the origin, these operations satisfy the
equations %l = / 2 = 7c3 = ijk = — 1, by the ordinary rules of quater-
nions ; and it is easy to see that the same equations hold good when
the operations are performed on rotors not passing through the origin.
The compound symbol ix+jy + kz is also to have an analogous second-
ary meaning; viz., a rectangular rotation about the axis of the rotor
which it previously denoted, combined with a tensor x/^x'+if+z1).
It can operate only on a rotor which meets its axis at right angles.
This being so, the ratio of any two rotors through the origin is a
quaternion of the form q = w-{-ix+jij + Jcz~w + p, say. The axis p of
this quaternion is perpendicular to the plane of the two rotors. If a be
a rotor through the origin and q a quaternion, the product qa can be
formed according to the Hamiltonian rules of multiplication, and is in
general a quaternion r. In this general case the equation qa = r can
only be interpreted by giving to a its secondary meaning; and the
translation of this statement into words is as follows :—If a rotor be
capable of being successively operated upon by the rectangular versor o
and the quaternion q, the final result will be the same as if it had been
originally operated upon by the quaternion r. If, however, the axes of
q and a are at right angles, the scalar part of r will be wanting, and
we may write the equation qa=p. This equation is now susceptible
of a, primary interpretation; viz., the quaternion q operating on the
rotor o produces the rotor p; although the secondary interpretation
does not cease to be true.
With such conventions, the two sides of the equation
(q + r) 8 = qs+rs
(in which q, r, 8 are quaternions) have always the same meaning when
both are interpretable; which is what is meant by saying that the dis-
tributive law holds good for these symbols.
The ratio of two rotors which do not meet is a twist which in general
has perfectly definite axes. But when the rotors are polars of one
another, the axes of the twist are indeterminate; for any line meeting
both meets them at right angles, and will serve for an axis. It is
therefore always possible to find a twist which shall simultaneously
convert two given rotors into their polars; and any two rectangular
twists with pitch 1 or —1 have a pair of common rotors on which they
can operate, and which they convert into one another. Henco we may
consider that
All rectangular tivists of pitch 1 are equivalent to one another; and all
rectangular hoists of pitch —1 are equivalent to one another.
The rectangular twist of pitch 1 shall bo denoted by the symbol w ;
the expression ma will denote the rotor polar to a and equal to it in
magnitude, 6btained from it by a left-handed twist. During the
892 Prof. Clifford on Biquaternions, [June 12,
operation of this twist, every point of the rotor describes a straight
line; if therefore the twist be continued through two right angles, the
rotor will be replaced iu its original position, not reversed; we have
therefore wa = l.
Every motor can be expressed as the sum of two rotors, one passing
through the oi'igin and the other being polar to a rotor through the
origin. The general expression for a motor is therefore
a + wjG.
This will represent a rotor if the two rotor constituents intersect, or
if each is perpendicular to the polar of the other; or if Sa/3 = 0.
T , .1+01 1—hi
Let now 4= -~, v = -y ;
then 1
1++ 2 0 , 4 - ^
4 4
2—2o>
* 4 ~ 4 ~ *
In = — 4j — = 0.
Any motor a + u>f3 can also be expressed in the form £y + t)S. It is
clear that £y is the right vector part of this motor, and that ijS is the
left vector part. If we multiply £y + »?5 by £, the result is merely ly;
so the effect of multiplying a motor by £ is merely to pick out the right
vector part of it. The symbols I, tj are thus in a certain sense selective
symbols, and are analogous to the S and V of quaternions.
Ratio of two motors.—We can find immediately now the operation
which converts a motor £y+i]5 into a motor Za + rifi. For if we per-
form the operation u— + n y J (ty+>73),
remembering the laws of multiplication of 4, 17, we obtain the result
£a + IJ/3, If then — = q, ^- = r, we may write
y
y o

y 8
and the latter may be written in the form

+w.
showing that the ratio of two motors is a hiquaternion.
The motor Za + tjp will be a rotor if
S(«+/3)(a-/3)=O,
or if Ta = T/3 ;
and it is easy to see from this that the biquaternion f^ + ijr willbe a
twist, or the ratio of two rotors, if Tq = Tr.
1873.] Prof. Clifford on Biquakraions. 393

V.
1. Position-Rotor of a Point.—The coordinates of a point in regard to
a quadrantal tetrahedron 1234 being xu x2f x3, sr4, the equation to the
absolute is 2a?* = 0. The rotor from the origin (the point 4) to the
point x is represented by »i—+ »» — + *»—, or Si*— (k = 1,2,3),
Xt *4 »4 Xt
where i\, i2, it are rotors along the edges of the tetrahedron from the
origin to the middle points of the edges. The tensor of this rotor is
the tangent of the angular distance from the origin to the point it re-
presents. For if p = h^ + h
r
xt t t

fr + fr + x* = tan' ox, where o is the origin.

»4
The angular distance from the origin to a point has an infinite
number of values, which differ by multiples of ir. If therefore a rotor
be considered to have this angular distance as its length, the rotor of a
point can only be defined by such an equation as p~a (mod. «-.). To
obviate this indetermination, there is required a one-valued unicursal
function having the period v; the tangent of the angular distance is
hereby completely singled out.

2. Equation of a Straight Line,—Let OM be the perpendicular from

the origin 0 upon the straight line MP; and
let ON be a line perpendicular to OM in the
plane MOP. Then from the triangle MOP
we have * a n °^M = cos MOP;
tan OP
or if OM = a, OP = P, ON = /3,
Ta = Tp cos MOP ;
so that a is the component of p in the direction *
OM, and we have p = a +fix, where x is some scalar.
By varying x, then, we get all the points in the lino MP. But if ai
is any particular value of p, the equation may just as well be written
p = ax+/3a5,
where now ai is not necessarily perpendicular to /3.
This form may be reduced to the preceding as follows :
To find the perpendicular from 0, put 3Tp = 0 ; this gives
332 O
and the equation becomes p = c^—/3 S -^- — /fo,

where ai—-/3S-^- = o of the former equation.

394 Prof. Clifford on Biquaternions. [June 12,
3. Rotor along Straight Line whose Equation is given.
Let OR be the rotor through the origin
which has right parallelism with MP. Then
Z NOR = OM. Let OK be perpendicular
to ON and OM, and of such length that
{ S l ° | = . tan NOB. The-, tfy-OK,

OR = (S + y. Now ^ = Ta, and

Uy = Ua/3, since y is perpendicular to a
and j3. Hence y = a/3; and if R be a
rotor along MP, m a scalar,
right vector of R = £R = mi (ft + y) = m
so left vector of R = »?R = mr](j3—y) = m»/(/3—a/3) ;
therefore R = wi(/3 + wa/3).
Now if R have the same length as /3, we have
j32 = R2 = wj2(/32+a£J) =
therefore R=

Conversely, equation to axis of rotor y+w£ is

P = — + y».
This finds the rotor in the case in which p = a+flx, where Sa/3 = 0.
But in the general case we have only to write the equation in the form

whence R =

4. Botor ah joining Points whose Position'Rotors are a, /3.

The equation of this rotor is

whence mR = /3—a+wVa/3.
Now if ai, 02, a3) at; 6^ 52, 63, 64 are the coordinates of the points, we

have - tan2 ab -
- tan ab (i_ S a /3) 2
1873.] Prof. Clifford on Biyuaternions. 895

therefore R := ——-—=—-^——.
1—bap
COR.—If p be the rotor of a variable point
on a carve, d\ a rotor along the tangent of
length equal to the arc of the curve between p
and p + dp, we have
~ _ dp + wVpdp

5. Rotor parallel to'fi through Point whose Position-Rotor is o.

The general equation to a line through the point a is p z= a + Xa>,
where X is any rotor through the origin. A rotor along this line is
X+wVaX; if this is right parallel to /3, we have

or \ + V a \ = |3.
Operating by Sa, we have, since S. aVa\ = 0,
Sa\ = Sa/3,
whence, by addition, X + o\ = /3 -}- Sa/3,
and X = (l + a)- (/3 + Sa/3) = / 3 - ( l + a)"1Vai3.
1

The rotor required is X + wV«X, o r x - j - ^ ^ — X), This becomes, then,

/3-(H-a)- 1 Va i 3 +wCl + ^-'Va/S = /3-2i?(l + a)- 1 Va/3.
Instead of operating by Sa on the equation

we might have operated with Va, and got

VaX + aYa\ = Va/3, since V. aVaX = aVa\
therefore VaX = (1 + a) ' l Va/3,
and X = /3-VaX = / 3 - ( l + a)-1Va/3.
Similarly, we have for the rotor left parallel to /3,
X
and the rotor is
X + a>(X-/3) =