DIODE RATINGS AND SPECIFICATION SHEETS

Data on specific semiconductor devices are normally provided by the manufacturer in one of two
forms.
There are specific pieces of data that must be included for proper use of the device. They include:
• 1. The forward voltage V F (at a specified current and temperature)
• 2. The maximum forward current I F (at a specified temperature)
• 3. The reverse saturation current I R (at a specified voltage and temperature)
• 4. The reverse-voltage rating [PIV or PRV or V(BR), where BR comes from the term
• “breakdown” (at a specified temperature)]
• 5. The maximum power dissipation level at a particular temperature
• 6. Capacitance levels
• 7. Reverse recovery time trr
• 8. Operating temperature range
Breakdown Voltage Rating, VBR usually designated as I . Exceeding the
O

The reverse breakdown voltage diode’s I rating will destroy the diode.
O

rating is extremely important since Maximum Forward-Surge Current

the diode is usually destroyed if Rating, IFSM
this rating is exceeded. The The maximum forward-surge current
(I ) rating is the maximum
FSM
breakdown voltage, V , is the
BR
instantaneous current the diode can 𝑹𝑹 = 𝑽𝑹 Τ𝑰𝑹
voltage at which avalanche occurs. handle safely from a single pulse.
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑽Τ𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝝁𝑨
This rating can be designated by Diodes are often connected to large
= 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝛀 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝑮𝛀
any of the following: peak inverse electrolytic capacitors in power
voltage (PIV); peak reverse voltage supplies, as shown in the next section.
(PRV); breakdown voltage rating When power is first applied, the initial
charge current for the capacitor can be It should be emphasized that the
(V ); or peak reverse voltage
BR

very high. Exceeding the I rating will maximum ratings of a diode should
maximum (V ). There are other
RRM
FSM

never be exceeded under any

destroy the diode.
ways to designate the breakdown circumstances. If any maximum ratings
Maximum Reverse Current, IR
voltage rating, however; those are exceeded, there is a good chance
Almost all data sheets list at least one
most commonly used are listed value of reverse current, I , for a
R
the diode will fail and need to be
here. Breakdown voltage ratings specified amount of reverse-bias replaced.
are maximum ratings and should voltage. For example, the data sheet of
never be exceeded. a 1N4002 silicon diode specifies a
Average Forward-Current Rating, IO typical I of 0.05 A for a diode junction
R

This important rating indicates the temperature, TJ, of 258C and a reverse
maximum allowable average current voltage, VR, of 100 V. With these data,
that the diode can handle safely. The the reverse resistance, RR, of the diode
average forward-current rating is can be calculated:
 POWER SUPPLY
• A circuit that converts the AC power-line voltage to the required DC value is called a power supply
• Most of electrical and electronics devices that we use daily run on DC voltage.
• The hydroelectric generators at Yonki hydro-power plant produces 50Hz AC voltage which is necessary
to be supplied through long distances.
• To connect your laptop to a GPO which runs on DC voltage, you need an AC/DC adapter.
• Your AC/DC adapter contains a circuit that rectifies (‘corrects’) the 240V AC voltage from the GPO and
turns it into 20V DC.
• Basically the rectification of AC to DC is achieved by use of diodes in a circuit with other components
such as transformers, capacitors, resistors and or inductors.
• The most important components in power supplies are rectifier diodes, which convert AC line voltage
to DC voltage
 ALTERNATING VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION

• The process of converting AC power-line voltage to DC is called rectification. The

derivation of this word is from the Latin word rectus, meaning “straight” which
describe exactly what the process does to an AC waveform: it straightens it out.
• Diodes are able to produce a DC output voltage because they are unidirectional
devices allowing current to flow through them in only one direction.
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

Half-wave rectifier. (a) Circuit. (b) Secondary voltage,

VS. (c) Output waveform, Vout.
Half-wave rectifier circuit showing D1 reverse-biased during
negative alternation of secondary voltage. D1 must withstand
the peak secondary voltage VS(pk) of 42.42 V.
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
Full-wave rectifier with center tap in the transformer
secondary. (a) Circuit. (b) Top half of secondary voltage, V1.
(c) Bottom half of secondary voltage, V2. (d ) Output voltage
produced when D1 conducts. (e) Output voltage produced
when D2 conducts. (f ) Combined output voltage produced by
D1 and D2 conducting during opposite alternations of
secondary voltage.
Full-wave rectifier circuit showing D2 reverse-biased during positive
alternation of secondary voltage. Both diodes D1 and D2 must withstand a
peak inverse voltage that is 0.7 V less than the peak value of the full
secondary voltage.
FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
Full-wave bridge rectifier.

• Converts AC to DC
•
POSITIVE-HALF CYCLE
• Form the
Transformer,
Current flows
through Diode
2, through the
Load and, then
through Diode
4 and then
back to the
transformer.
NEGATIVE-HALF CYCLE

• From the
transformer,
current flows
through Diode
3, then through
the Load, then
through Diode
1 then back to
the transformer.
RECTIFIED WAVE FORMS OF DIODES 1, 2, 3 & 4
FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER SHOWING DIODES D1 AND D4 REVERSE-BIASED DURING POSITIVE
ALTERNATION OF SECONDARY VOLTAGE

Each diode in the bridge must

withstand a peak inverse
voltage that is 0.7 V less than
the peak value of the full
secondary voltage.

𝑽𝑨𝑲(𝑫𝟏) = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑺(𝒑𝒌)
= 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽 − 𝟒𝟐. 𝟒𝟐 𝑽
= − 𝟒𝟏. 𝟕𝟐 𝑽

𝑽𝑨𝑲(𝑫𝟒) = −𝑽𝑺(𝒑𝒌) + 𝑽𝑩
= − 𝟒𝟐. 𝟒𝟐 𝑽 + 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽
= − 𝟒𝟏. 𝟕𝟐 𝑽
The PIV for each diode in a
bridge rectifier will always be
0.7 V less than the peak value
of the full secondary voltage.
 EXAMPLE
If the turns ratio N : N 5 3 : 1 in the figure below, calculate the
P S

following: V , I , I , PIV for each diode, and f .

DC L diode out
CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER
Half-wave rectifier with capacitor input filter. (a) Circuit. (b)
• A capacitor can be used to Output ripple voltage.

smooth out or filter the

pulsating DC voltage
outputted by the rectifier.
• It can be connected in
parallel before the load
resistor.
• The filter capacitors used in
this application are
electrolytic capacitors with
values typically larger than
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝁𝑭.
 Half wave rectifier with capacitor Input Filter

• To calculate the peak voltage to which C charges, we must first calculate the peak
secondary voltage:

VS(peak) =VS × 1.414

• To calculate the peak-to-peak ripple voltage we use Formula:

−𝒕
𝑽𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆 = 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕(𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌) 𝟏 − 𝒆𝑹𝑳 𝑪

• A more accurate calculation for the DC voltage includes the ripple voltage, Vripple . This is
shown in Formula:
Vripple
VDC = Vout(peak) −
𝟐
 Full-Wave Rectifier Filtering

• The ripple voltage at the output of the Full-wave rectifier with capacitor input filter. (a)
full-wave rectifier in the figure below can Circuit. (b) Output ripple voltage.
also be calculated using Formula ( the
same formula used for calculating the
ripple voltage of half-wave rectifier:

−𝒕
𝑽𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆 = 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 (𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌) 𝟏 − 𝒆𝑹𝑳 𝑪

• To get an accurate calculation of the DC

voltage at the output, use Formula (the
same formula also used for half wave
rectifier:

𝑽𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆
𝑽𝑫𝑪 = 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕(𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌) −
𝟐
 EXAMPLE
Assume the transformer turns ratio NP : NS = 4:1 in Fig. 1 A and 2:1 in Fig.1B.
Compare Vripple and VDC if C = 500 µF and RL = 250 Ω.

1A 1B
 SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES
• Apart from the pn diode used for rectification, there are other diodes made to
function in a certain way, hence having it’s own specialty. Each one is used in
applications that can take advantage of its behavior and characteristics. Some of
them are listed below:

• Zener Diodes
• Light emitting Diodes (LEDs)
• Laser Diodes
• Photo-diode
• Schottky Diodes
• Varactor Diodes
• Tunnel Diode
• Shockley Diode
ZENER DIODE
The zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that differs from the rectifier diode in that it
is designed for operation in the reverse breakdown region.

A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor

device that is designed to operate in the reverse direction. When the voltage across the
terminals of a Zener diode is reversed, and the potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee
voltage), the junction breaks down, and the current flows in the reverse direction. This
effect is known as the Zener Effect.

There are two types of breakdowns for a Zener Diode: Avalanche Breakdown and Zener
Breakdown

Zener diodes are used for voltage regulation, as

reference elements, surge suppressors, and in
switching applications and clipper circuits.
 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric current flows
through it. When current passes through an LED, the electrons recombine with holes emitting light in the
process. LEDs allow the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse
direction.

Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the semiconductor material used and the
amount of doping, an LED will emit colored light at a particular spectral wavelength when forward biased.
As shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted light can come
out.

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent
from p → n while the minority holes are sent from n → p. At the
junction boundary, the concentration of minority carriers increases.
The excess minority carriers at the junction recombine with the
majority charges carriers.

The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. In standard diodes, the energy is
released in the form of heat. But in light-emitting diodes, the energy is released in the form of photons.
LASER DIODE
A laser diode is a semiconductor that uses a p-n junction for producing coherent radiation
with the same frequency and phase, which is either in the visible or infrared spectrum. It is
also called an injection laser diode and the technology is similar to that found in LED.
The laser diode is forward-biased by an external voltage source. As electrons move through the
junction, recombination occurs just as in an ordinary diode. As electrons fall into holes to recombine,
photons are released. A released photon can strike an atom, causing another photon to be released
and this leads to the avalanche effect.

The term laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Laser light is
monochromatic, which means that it consists of a single color and not a mixture of colors.

There is a highly reflective surface at one

end of the pn junction and a partially
reflective surface at the other
end, forming a resonant cavity for the
photons. External leads provide the
anode and cathode connections.
 PHOTO-DIODE
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into current. The current is generated
when photons are absorbed in the photodiode. A small amount of current is also produced when
no light is present. Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or
small surface areas. Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface area
increases. The common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large
area photodiode.
They are also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and a photo-sensor. Photodiodes are
designed to work in reverse bias condition. Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium
and Indium gallium arsenide.
A photodiode is subjected to photons in the form of light which affects the generation
of electron-hole pairs. If the energy of the falling photons (hv) is greater than the energy
gap (Eg) of the semiconductor material, electron-hole pairs are created near the depletion
region of the diode. The electron-hole pairs created are separated from each other
before recombining due to the electric field of the junction. The direction of the electric
field in the diode forces the electrons to move towards the n-side and consequently the
holes move towards the p-side. As a result of the increase in the number of electrons on
the n-side and holes on the p-side, a rise in the electromotive force is observed. Now
when an external load is connected to the system, a current flow is observed through it.
 SCHOTTKY DIODE
The Schottky diode is a type of metal – semiconductor junction diode, which is also known
as hot-carrier diode, low voltage diode or Schottky barrier diode. The Schottky diode is
formed by the junction of a semiconductor with a metal. Schottky diode offers fast switching
action and has a low forward voltage drop. As we are aware that in a PN junction diode, p-
type and n-type are joined together to form a PN junction. Whereas, in a Schottky diode
metals like platinum or aluminum are used instead of P type semiconductors

The Schottky diode operates only with majority carriers. There are no minority carriers and thus no
reverse leakage current as in other types of diodes. The metal region is heavily occupied with
conduction-band electrons, and the n-type semiconductor region is lightly doped. When forward-
biased, the higher energy electrons in the n region are injected into the metal region where they
give up their excess energy very rapidly. Since there are no minority carriers, as in a conventional
rectifier diode, there is a very rapid response to a change in bias. The Schottky is a fast-switching
diode, and most of its applications make use of this property. It can be used in high-frequency
applications and in many digital circuits to decrease switching times.
VARACTOR DIODE
Varactor diode is a type of diode whose internal capacitance varies with respect to the
reverse voltage. It always works in reverse bias conditions and is a voltage-dependent
semiconductor device. Several names know varactor diode as Varicap, Voltcap, Voltage
variable capacitance, or Tunning diode.

The function of the varactor diode is to store charges, so it is always operated in reverse
bias conditions. When a forward bias voltage is applied, the electric current flows. As a
result, the depletion region becomes negligible, which is undesirable.

The junction capacitance of a p-n junction diode is inversely proportional to the width of the
depletion layer. In other words, if the width of the depletion layer is less, then the
capacitance is more, and vice versa. So if we need to increase the capacitance of a
varactor diode, the reverse bias voltage should be decreased. It causes the width of the
depletion layer to decrease, resulting in higher capacitance. Similarly, increasing the
reverse bias voltage should decrease the capacitance. This ability to get different values of
capacitances just by changing the voltage applied is the biggest advantage of a varactor
diode compared to a normal variable capacitor.
TUNNEL DIODE
A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor that is capable of very fast operation,
well into the microwave frequency region, made possible by the use of the quantum
mechanical effect called tunneling.

The tunnel diodes basically a pn junction with heavy doping of p type and n type
semiconductor materials .tunnel diode is doped 1000 times as heavily as a conventional diode
Heavy doping results in large no of majority carriers. Because this large no of carriers, most
are not used during initial recombination that produces depletion layer. It is very narrow.
Depletion layer of tunnel diode is 100 times narrower. Operation of tunnel diode depend son
the tunneling effect

Some of the applications of Tunnel diode are:

• Tunnel diodes are used as very high speed switches
• Used as high frequency micro wave oscillator