2

Contents

I MODULE 1 : LASER AND OPTICAL FIBERS 1

1 LASER 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Characteristics of a LASER beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Interaction of radiation with matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Induced Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 Spontaneous Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.3 Stimulated Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Einstein’s A and B co-efficients and expression for energy density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 LASER Action and the Conditions for LASER action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.1 Population Inversion and Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.2 meta-stable state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Requisites of a LASER system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6.1 Energy Source or Pumping Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6.2 Active medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6.3 Resonant cavity (or) LASER cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Semiconductor LASER or Diode LASER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Applications of LASER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8.1 LASER Barcode Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8.2 LASER Printer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8.3 LASER Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Optical Fibers 11
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Total Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Angle of acceptance and Numerical aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.1 Condition for propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Modes of propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 RI Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5.1 Types of optical fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6 Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6.1 Absorption loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6.2 Scattering loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6.3 Geometric effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 Applications of Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.1 Fiber Optic Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.2 Point to point communication using Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.8 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.9 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3
4 CONTENTS

II MODULE 2 : Quantum Mechanics 17

3 Quantum Mechanics 19
3.1 Wave-Particle dualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 de Broglie hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Matter waves and its properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.1 Phase velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.2 Wave packet and Group velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.3 Properties of matter waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4.1 Application of uncertainty principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.5 Principle of Complementarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6 Wave Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.7 Time Independent Schrödinger Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.8 Physical significance of Wave Function : Physical Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.9 Expectation Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.10 Eigen values and eigen functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.11 Applications of schrödinger wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.11.1 Particle in one-dimensional potential well of infinite height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.12 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.13 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

III MODULE 3 : Quantum Computing & Quantum Gates 27

4 Principles of Quantum Information & Quantum Computing 29
4.1 Introduction to Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2 Moore’s law & its end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3 Differences Between Classical and Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.1 Classical Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.2 Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4 Concept of Qubit and its properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4.1 Concept of Qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4.2 Properties of Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.5 Representation of Qubits by Bloch Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.6 Single and Two qubits and Extension to N qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.6.1 Single qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.6.2 Two qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.6.3 Extension to N qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

5 Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations 33

5.1 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2 Matrix Representation of 0 and 1 States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2.1 Identity Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2.2 Pauli Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3 Conjugate of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 Transpose of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.5 The Conjugate Transpose of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.6 Hermitian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.7 Unitary Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.8 Column and Row Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.9 Inner Product - Multiplication of Row and Column Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.10 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.11 Orthogonality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.12 Orthonormality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
CONTENTS 5

6 Quantum Gates 37
6.1 Introduction to Quantum Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2 Single Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2.1 Quantum Not Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2.2 Pauli-X,Y and Z Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2.3 Y Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2.4 Z-Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.2.5 Hadamard Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.2.6 Phase Gate or S Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.2.7 T Gate or 𝜋8 Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.3 Multiple Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.3.1 Controlled Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.3.2 Controlled Not Gate or CNOT Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.3.3 Swap Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.3.4 Controlled Z Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.3.5 Toffoli Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.4 Question Bank and Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.1 Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.2 Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.3 Quantum Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.5 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.5.1 Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.5.2 Quantum Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

IV MODULE 4 : Electrical Properties of Materials 43

7 Classical and Quantum Free Electron Theory of Metals 45
7.1 Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.2 Mobility of conduction electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.3 Concept of Phonon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.4 Mathiesen’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.5 Failures of classical free electron theory of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.5.1 Electronic specific heat of solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.5.2 Dependence of 𝜎 on temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.5.3 Dependence of 𝜎 on 𝑛, the number density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.6 Quantum free electron theory of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.6.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.6.2 Fermi energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.6.3 Density of States (DoS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.6.4 Fermi–Dirac distribution and Fermi factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.6.5 Dependence of Fermi factor on energy and temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

8 Superconductivity 49
8.1 Introduction to Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.2 Meissner’s Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.3 Critical Field and its Temperature Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.4 Types of Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.5 BCS Theory of Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.6 High Temperature Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.7 Quantum Tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.8 AC and DC Josephson Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.8.1 Josephson Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.8.2 DC Josephson Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.8.3 AC Josephson Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.9 DC and RF Squids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.9.1 SQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6 CONTENTS

8.9.2 DC Squid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.9.3 RF (AC) Squid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.10 Applications of Superconductivity in Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.10.1 Charge Qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.10.2 Flux Qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.10.3 Phase Qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.11 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.12 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
 Part I

MODULE 1 : LASER AND OPTICAL

FIBERS

1
Chapter 1

LASER

1.1 Introduction
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stim-
ulated Emission of Radiation. The first LASER was built
by Theodore H Maiman in the year 1960. Thus it finds
various applications starting from industries to communi-
cation.

1.2 Characteristics of a LASER

beam
Figure 1.1: Induced absorption
The LASER beam has the following four characteristics.
1. LASER beam is highly monochromatic.
1.3.2 Spontaneous Emission
2. LASER beam is highly coherent.
3. LASER beam is highly directional. Spontaneous emission is the process of emission of pho-
ton, when an atom transits from higher energy level to
4. LASER is a high intensity beam of light. lower energy level without the influence of any external
energy.
1.3 Interaction of radiation with
matter
The interaction between radiation and matter occurs
through the following three processes.
1. Induced absorption
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission

1.3.1 Induced Absorption Figure 1.2: Spontaneous emission

When a photon of right energy is incident on the atom
then the photon is absorbed This process is induced by the
photon and hence it is called Induced Absorption.
Consider an atom in a lower energy states 𝐸 1 , it will An electron in the higher energy state of an atom makes
excite to higher energy states 𝐸 2 by absorbing the incident a transition to lower energy state without the action of any
photon of energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 . Here 𝐸 1 energy external agency. the energy of the photon emitted is given
of the lower energy state, 𝐸 2 is the energy of the higher by 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 . In this process the emitted photons
energy state, ℎ is the Planck’s constant 𝜈 is the frequency need not travel in the same direction. Thus the light beam
of photon. is not directional.

3
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22

1.3.3 Stimulated Emission 2. Rate of Induced absorption = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈

When a photon of suitable energy interacts with an
atom in the higher energy state then the atom is stimulated Here 𝐵12 is proportionality constant called Einsteins coef-
(Forced) to make transition from higher energy state to a ficient of Induced absorption.
lower energy state with the emission of a photon. Both
the incident photon and the emitted photons are coherent Rate of spontaneous emission:
and travel in the same direction. Thus the process is called
stimulated emission. The number of spontaneous emission per unit volume in
unit time is called rate of spontaneous emission. Rate of
spontaneous emission depends on

Since spontaneous emission is a voluntary process it is

independent of energy density 𝐸 𝜈 . The rate of sponta-
neous emission depends only on the number of atoms in
the higher energy state 𝑁2 . Thus

1. Rate of spontaneous emission ∝ 𝑁2

2. Rate of Spontaneous emission = 𝐴21 𝑁2

Here 𝐴21 is the proportionality constant called Einstein’s

Figure 1.3: Stimulated emission
co-efficient of spontaneous emission.

Rate of stimulated emission

When a photon of energy ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 interacts with
an atom in the higher energy state the stimulated emission The number of stimulated emission per unit volume in unit
takes place with the emission of two photons of same en- time is called rate of stimulated emission. Rate of stimu-
ergy that are highly directional and coherent.Thus stimu- lated emission depends upon,
lated emission could be used to generate a highly coherent
1. Number of atoms in the higher energy state (𝑁2 )
directional beam of light.
2. The energy density (𝐸 𝜈 ).

1.4 Einstein’s A and B co-efficients Hence

and expression for energy den- 1. The Rate of stimulated emission ∝ 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈
sity 2. Rate of stimulated emission = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈

Consider a system containing 𝑁 atoms and is under ther- Here the proportionality constant called 𝐵21 is Einstein’s
mal equilibrium. Let 𝐸 1 and 𝐸 2 be the lower and higher coefficient of stimulated emission.
energy levels that contain 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 number of atoms re- Under Thermal Equilibrium the total Energy of the Sys-
spectively. Let the incident energy density of the radia- tem remains unchanged. Hence Rate of Absorption is
tion be 𝐸 𝜈 . Hence the system absorbs and emits the en- equal to rate of emission.
ergy through the following processes. The energy of the ∴ Rate of Induced Absorption = [Rate of Spontaneous
photons absorbed and emitted by the atoms is 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = emission + Rate of Stimulated Emission]
(𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 ) ∴
𝐵12 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈 (1.1)
Rate of induced absorption
(𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 ) 𝐸 𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2
The rate of induced absorption is defined as the number
of induced absorption per second per unit volume in unit
time. Rate of absorption depends on 𝐴21 𝑁2
𝐸𝜈 = (1.2)
𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2
1. Number of atoms in the lower energy state 𝑁1 .
𝐴21
𝐸𝜈 = (1.3)
2. The incident energy density 𝐸 𝜈 . 𝑁1
𝐵12 𝑁2 − 𝐵21
" #
Hence
𝐴21 1
𝐸𝜈 = (1.4)
1. Rate of Induced absorption ∝ 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈 𝐵21 𝐵12 𝑁1
𝐵21 𝑁2 −1

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According to Boltzmann relation the we have

𝑁2 −ℎ𝜈
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (1.5)
𝑁1
or we can re-write as,
𝑁1 ℎ𝜈
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (1.6)
𝑁2
Here ℎ is the Planck’s constant, 𝑐 is the speed of light in
vacuum, 𝜆 is the wavelength of the photon, 𝑘 is the Boltz-
mann constant and 𝑇 is the absolute temperature. Substi- Figure 1.4: LASER action
𝑁1
tuting for 𝑁2
in equation 1.4
 
𝐴21  1  LASER action could be achieved through the conditions
 
𝐸𝜈 =   ℎ𝜈   (1.7)
𝐵21  𝐵12 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1  population inversion and meta-stable state.
 𝐵21 
 
According to Planck’s radiation law, the equation for en- 1.5.1 Population Inversion and Pumping
ergy density in the frequency domain is given by
If a system is under thermal equilibrium the number of
 
8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1 atoms in excited state is less than the number of atoms in
𝐸𝜈 = (1.8) the lower energy state. For the production of LASER num-
𝑐3 ℎ𝜈
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1
ber of stimulated emission must be more when compared
on comparing equations 1.7 and 1.8 we can get to induced absorption and spontaneous emission. This is
possible only if the number of atoms in the higher energy
𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
= (1.9) state is more than the number of atoms in the lower en-
𝐵21 𝑐3 ergy state and is called population inversion. The means of
and achieving population inversion by supplying energy from
𝐵12 a suitable source is called Pumping. In addition,to have
=1 (1.10)
𝐵21 more stimulated emissions, the life time of atoms in the
or 𝐵12 = 𝐵21 excited state must be longer. Thus the essential conditions
This means that Probability of Induced absorption is for population inversion are
equal to Probability of Stimulated emission. Hence 𝐴21 1. Higher energy state should posses a longer life time.
& 𝐵21 can be replaced by 𝐴 & 𝐵. Thus equation 1.7 could
be written as   2. The number of atoms in the higher energy state must
𝐴 1 be greater than the number of atoms in the lower en-
𝐸𝜈 = ℎ𝜈
(1.11)
𝐵 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1 ergy state.
Hence the expression for energy density in terms of Ein-
stein’s co-efficient 𝐴 and 𝐵. 1.5.2 meta-stable state
The life time of an energy level is of the order of 10−8
1.5 LASER Action and the Condi- second. If an atom posses unusual longer life time in an
energy state such a state is referred to as a meta-stable state.
tions for LASER action Usually the life time of meta-stable state varies from 10−2 s
to 10−3 s. Population inversion could be achieved with the
Consider a LASER system. Let an atom in the excited
help of three energy state with one of them a meta-stable
state is stimulated by a photon of right energy so that atom
state and is as shown in the figure 1.5. The population
makes stimulated emission. Two coherent photons are ob-
inversion is achieved between the state 𝐸 2 and 𝐸 1 as state
tained. These two coherent photons if stimulate two atoms
𝐸 2 is a meta-stable state.
in the exited state to make emission then four coherent pho-
tons are emitted. These four coherent photons stimulate 4 Note : The principles of Laser are
more atoms in the excited state resulting in 8 coherent pho-
tons and so on. As the process continues number of coher- 1. Stimulated Emission
ent photons increases. These coherent photons constitute
an intense beam of LASER. This phenomenon of building 2. Population Inversion
up of number of coherent photons so as to get an intense 3. meta-stable State
LASER beam is called lasing action.
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1.7 Semiconductor LASER or Diode

LASER
Introduction
Semiconductor diode LASER is an LED with heavily
doped P and N sections. First semiconductor LASER was
fabricated in 1962 using 𝐺𝑎 − 𝐴𝑠 by Hall with his co-
workers. It is a low cost and high efficiency LASER.

Figure 1.5: Population inversion, 𝐸 2 is meta-stable state

1.6 Requisites of a LASER system

The three requisites of a LASER system are,

1. Excitation source for pumping action

2. Active medium that supports meta-stable states

3. LASER cavity
Figure 1.6: Semiconductor Diode LASER

1.6.1 Energy Source or Pumping Mecha-

nism Construction

In order to achieve population inversion more and more Construction

atoms are to be moved to higher energy state and is called
pumping. This is achieved by supplying suitable energy The 𝐺𝑎 − 𝐴𝑠 LASER diode belongs to direct band gap
using an energy source. If optical energy is used then the semiconductors. The 𝑛-section is derived by doping the
pumping is called optical pumping and if electrical energy substrate with Tellurium and 𝑝-section is derived by dop-
is used then the pumping is called electrical pumping. ing the substrate with Zinc. The diode used is in the form
of a cube with dimension 0.4 mm. The depletion region is
of thickness 0.1 micrometer and lies horizontal as shown
1.6.2 Active medium in the figure 1.6.The current is passed through the ohmic
Population inversion occurs at certain stage in the ac- contacts provided to the top and bottom faces. The front
tive medium due to the absorption of energy. The active and back faces are polished and made highly parallel to
medium supports meta-stable states. After this stage the each other to have a LASER cavity. The other two faces
active medium is capable of emitting LASER light. are roughened.

1.6.3 Resonant cavity (or) LASER cavity

The LASER Cavity consists of an active medium bound
between two highly parallel mirrors. The reflection of
photons from the mirrors results in multiple traverse of
photons through the active medium inducing more and
more stimulated emissions. Thus amplification of light is
achieved. This also helps to tap certain permissible part
of LASER energy from the active medium.The cavity res-
onates and the output will be maximum when the distance
𝐿 between the mirrors is equal to an integral multiple of 𝜆2 .
Here 𝜆 is the wavelength of incident suitable radiation.the
length of the LASER cavity is expressed as Working

𝑛𝜆 The Diode is forward biased using an external source.

𝐿= (1.12) Therefore electrons and holes flow across junction. Hence
2

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Advantages 3. Explain the terms, (i) Induced absorption, (ii) Sponta-

neous emission, (iii) Stimulated emission, (iv) Popu-
1. Laser printers are generally quiet and fast. lation inversion, (v) Meta-stable state & (vi) Resonant
cavity.
2. Laser printers can produce high quality output on or-
dinary papers. 4. Explain the rates of absorption and emission and
hence derive an expression for energy density using
3. The cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than Einstein’s A and B coefficients.
other printers.
5. Explain requisites of LASER system.
Disadvantages 6. What is Semiconductor LASER? Describe with en-
1. The initial cost of laser printers can be high. ergy band diagram the construction & working of
Semiconductor diode LASER along with applica-
2. Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix tions.
printers and ink-jet printers
7. Discuss the working of LASER barcode reader.
8. With the help of a sketch describe the principle, con-
1.8.3 LASER Cooling
struction and working of the LASER Printer.
Principle of LASER Cooling Laser cooling is the use of
9. Explain LASER Cooling and its application.
dissipative light forces for reducing the random motion and
thus the temperature of small particles, typically atoms or
ions. Depending on the mechanism used, the temperature 1.10 Numerical Problems
achieved can be in the millikelvin, microkelvin, or even
nanokelvin regime. 1. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
LASER if the transition between them produces light
of wavelength 6493 Å, assuming the ambient temper-
ature at 27°C.
2. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
medium at thermal equilibrium, if the wavelength of
light emitted at 291 K is 6928 Å.
3. The ratio of population of two energy levels out of
which one corresponds to metastable state is 1.059 ×
10−30 . Find the wavelength of light emitted at 330 K.
4. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
Figure 1.10: Laser Cooling medium at thermal equilibrium, if the wavelength of
light emitted at 300 K is 10𝜇𝑚. Also find the effec-
tive temperature when energy levels are equally pop-
If an atom is traveling toward a laser beam and absorbs ulated.
a photon from the laser, it will be slowed by the fact that 5. The average power output of a LASER beam of wave-
the photon has momentum 𝑝 = 𝐸𝑐 = 𝜆ℎ . It would take a length 6500 Å is 10 mW. Find the number of photons
large number of such absorptions to cool the atoms to near emitted per second by the LASER source.
0K. The following are the types of laser cooling
6. The average power of a LASER beam of wavelength
• Doppler Cooling. 6328 Å is 5 mW. Find the number of photons emitted
per second by the LASER source.
• Sisyphous Cooling.
7. A pulsed LASER has an average power output 1.5
mW per pulse and pulse duration is 20 ns. The
1.9 Model Questions number of photons emitted per pulse is estimated to
be 1.047 ×108 . Find the wavelength of the emitted
1. What is LASER? Enumerate the Characteristics of a LASER.
LASER Beam.
8. A pulsed LASER with power 1 mW lasts for 10 ns.
2. Discuss the three possible ways through which radia- If the number of photons emitted per pulse is 5 ×107 .
tion and matter interaction can take place. Calculate the wavelength of LASER.

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9. A Ruby LASER emits a pulse of 20 ns duration with

average power per pulse being 100 kW. If the number
of photons in each pulse is 6.981 × 1015 , calculate the
wavelength of photons.
10. In a LASER system when the energy difference be-
tween two energy levels is 2 × 10−19 J, the average
power output of LASER beam is found to be 4 mW.
Calculate number of photons emitted per second.

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Department of Physics 10 A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru

Chapter 2

Optical Fibers

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Total Internal Reflection

Optical fibers are the wires and strands made of trans- Consider a ray of light moving from a denser medium to
parent dielectrics which guide light over longer distances rarer medium. As a result the incident ray of light bends
using the phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection. Many away from the normal. Hence the angle of refraction is
optical fibers are bundled together and are given a protec- greater than the angle of incidence. As the angle of inci-
tive layer of covering using an insulating material. This dence increases the angle of refraction also increases. For
bundle is called Optical Fiber Cable or Fiber Bundle (Bun- a particular angle of incidence 𝜃 𝑐 the refracted ray grazes
dle Fiber). the interface separating the two media. The corresponding
angle of incidence 𝜃 𝑐 is called Critical Angle. If the an-
gle of incidence is greater than the critical angle then all
Construction: The sectional view of a typical optical the light is turned back into the same medium and is called
fiber is as shown in the figure. It has three regions named Total Internal Reflection.
Core, Cladding and Sheath.

1. The innermost light guiding region is called Core.

2. The layer covering core and helps in total internal re-

flection of light is called Cladding or Clad.

3. The outermost protective layer is called Sheath (Coat-

Figure 2.2: Total Internal Reflection
ing). The sheath protects the fiber from mechanical
stress and chemical reactions.

The optical fiber is designed to support total internal re- According to Snell’s law
flection and hence the RI of core𝑛1 is made greater than
the RI of cladding 𝑛2 . A typical fiber will be of the order 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
of few microns.
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 1 = 𝜃 𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝜃 2 = 900
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛900
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐 =
𝑛1
 
−1 𝑛2
𝜃 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2.1)
𝑛1

2.3 Angle of acceptance and Numer-

Figure 2.1: Optical fiber construction
ical aperture
Acceptance angle (𝜃 0 ) is the maximum angle of incidence
with which the ray is sent into the fiber core which allows

11
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22

the incident light to be guided by the core. It is also called 1 p 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (2.4)
as waveguide acceptance angle or acceptance cone half an- 𝑛1
gle. use equation (1.26) in equation (1.24) we have,

In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fiber 𝑛1 1 p 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2
is a dimensionless number that characterizes the range of 𝑛0 𝑛1
angles over which the fiber can accept light. Numerical
aperture represents the light gathering capability of optical 1 p 2
fiber and it is given by 𝑁 𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (2.5)
𝑛0
Numerical aperture 𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0
2.3.1 Condition for propagation
1 p 2
𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (2.6)
𝑛0

If the fiber is in air 𝑛0 = 1 then,

p
𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 (2.7)

Light is transmitted through the fiber only when

𝜃𝑖 ≤ 𝜃0 (2.8)

Figure 2.3: Ray propagation in the fiber

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 (2.9)
Consider an optical fiber with core made of refractive
p
index 𝑛1 & cladding made of material refractive index 𝑛2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 (2.10)
Let 𝑛0 be the refractive index of the surrounding medium.
Let a ray of light 𝐴𝑂 entering into core at an angle of in-
cidence 𝜃 0 w.r.t fiber axis. Then it is refracted along 𝑂𝐵 at 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ 𝑁.𝐴 (2.11)
an angle 𝜃 1 & meet core-cladding interface at critical angle
of incidence (𝜃 𝑐 = 90 − 𝜃 1 ). Then the refracted ray grazes This is the condition for propagation. Light will be trans-
along 𝐵𝐶. On applying Snell’s law at O, we get mitted through the optical fiber with multiple total internal
reflections when the above condition is satisfied.
𝑛0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1
𝑛1
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 (2.2)
𝑛0 2.4 Modes of propagation
On applying Snell’s law at point B, we get
Though optical fiber should support any numbers of rays
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(900 − 𝜃 1 ) = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛900 for propagation practically. But it is found that the opti-
𝑛1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 = 𝑛2 cal fiber allows only a certain restricted number of rays for
𝑛2 propagation. The maximum number of rays or paths sup-
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 = (2.3) ported by the fiber for the propagation of light is called
𝑛1
Modes of propagation. Based on the modes of propaga-
From trigonometric identity tion fibers are classified into Single mode and Multi-mode
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 1 = 1 fibers.
p
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 1
using equation 1.25
2.5 RI Profile
s
 2 The RI profile is a plot of variation of RI of the fiber with
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 1− respect to radial distance from the axis of an optical fiber.
𝑛1 Based on the RI profile fibers are classified into Step index
s and Graded index fibers. In case of Step index fibers RI of
𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 the core is constant. In case of Graded index fibers the RI
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 =
𝑛1 2 decreses radialy outwards.

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Here 𝐿 is the length of the cable in 𝑘𝑚, 𝑃𝑖𝑛 is Power driven devices in a particular physical location. Tradition-
of optical signal at launching end (input power) & 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 is ally copper coaxial cables are used for for LAN.
Power of optical signal at receiving end (output power)

The attenuation in fibers gives is due to the following

three losses
1. Absorption losses
2. Scattering loss (due to Rayleigh Scattering)
3. Geometric Effects (Radiation losses)

2.6.1 Absorption loss

In this type of loss, the loss of signal power occurs due
Figure 2.8: Fiber Optic LAN
to absorption of photons associated with the signal. Pho-
tons are absorbed either by impurities in the glass fiber
or by pure glass material itself. Absorption loss is wave-
length dependent.Thus absorption loss is classified in to
Abbreviations
two types.
1. PON - Passive Optical Network
Extrinsic absorption : Extrinsic loss in an optical fiber
is due to the absorption of light by the impurities such 2. ONT - Optical Network Terminal
as hydroxide ions and transition metal ions such as iron, 3. ODN - Optical Distribution Network
chromium, cobalt and copper.
4. OLT - Optical Line Terminal
Intrinsic absorption Intrinsic loss in fiber is due to the
5. ONU - Optical Network Unit
absorption of light by the material of the fiber glass itself.
The intrinsic losses are insignificant.
Passive Optical LAN
2.6.2 Scattering loss A passive optical network refers to a fiber-optic network
utilizing a point-to-multipoint topology and optical split-
Light traveling through the core can get scattered by im-
ters to deliver data from a single transmission point to mul-
purities or small regions with sudden change in refractive
tiple user endpoints.Passive here refers to the unpowered
index. Rayleigh scattering varies as 𝛼 = 𝜆14 and leads to
condition of the fiber and splitting/combining components.
significant power loss at smaller wavelengths. The scat-
Passive optical LANs are built entirely using Optical fiber
tering results in loss of photons. Rayleigh scattering is re-
cables. The passive optical LAN works on the concept of
sponsible for maximum losses in optical fibers.
optical network terminals (ONT) and passive optical split-
ters. Network switches act as passive splitters and the com-
2.6.3 Geometric effects mercial media converters act as optical network terminals
in a real-time application of passive optical LAN.
These may occur due to manufacturing defects like irregu-
larities in fiber dimensions during drawing process or dur-
ing coating, cabling or insulation processes. The micro- Advantages
scopic bends are the bends with radii greater than fiber di- 1. High speeds and bandwidth
ameter. The microscopic bends couple light between the
various guided modes of the fiber and some of them then 2. Longer distances are possible
leak through the fiber.
3. Less chance of errors

2.7 Applications of Optical Fibers 2.7.2 Point to point communication using

2.7.1 Fiber Optic Networking Optical Fibers
In an optical fiber communication system, the input sig-
Local Area Network
nals (audio, video or other digital data) are used to mod-
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of computer net- ulate light from a source like a LED or a semiconductor
work that interconnects multiple computers and computer- LASER and is transmitted through optical fiber. At the

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receiving end the signal is demodulated to reproduce the 2.8 Model Questions
input signal. If data transfer takes place between only two
devices then, it is called point to point communication. 1. Define the terms: (i) angle of acceptance, (ii) numeri-
cal aperture, (iii) modes of propagation & (iv) refrac-
tive index profile.

2. Obtain an expression for numerical aperture and ar-

rive at the condition for propagation.

3. Explain modes of propagation and RI profile.

4. What is attenuation? Explain the factors contributing

to the fiber loss.

Figure 2.9: Point to point fiber optic communication sys- 5. Discuss the types of optical fibers based on modes of
tem propagation and RI profile.

6. Explain attenuation along with the expression for at-

tenuation co-efficient and also discuss the types of
Optical fiber communication process : The communi- fiber losses.
cation using Optical fiber is as follows. First voice is con-
7. Explain the Fiber Optic Networking and mention its
verted into electrical signal using a transducer. It is digi-
advantages.
tized using a Coder. The digitized signal, which carries the
voice information, is fed to an optical transmitter. The light 8. Discuss point to point optical fiber communication
source in optical transmitter (LED or LASER Diode) emits system and mention its advantages over the conven-
modulated light, which is transmitted through the optical tional communication system.
fiber. At the other end the modulated light signal is de-
tected by a photo detector and is decoded using a decoder. 9. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an opti-
Finally the information is converted into analog electrical cal communication.
signal and is fed to a loud speaker, which converts the sig-
nal to voice (sound).
2.9 Numerical Problems
Advantages
1. Calculate the numerical aperture and angle of accep-
1. Optical fibers can carry very large amounts of infor- tance for an optical fiber having refractive indices
mation in either digital or analog form. 1.563 and 1.498 for core and cladding respectively.
2. The raw material for optical fiber is of low cost and
2. The refractive indices of the core and cladding of a
abundant.
step index optical fiber are 1.45 and 1.4 respectively
3. It has low cost /meter/ channel and its core diameter is 45𝜇𝑚. Calculate its fractional
refractive index change and numerical aperture.
4. Cables are very compact
3. Calculate numerical aperture, acceptance angle and
5. Signals are protected from radiation from lightning or critical angle of a fiber having a core RI 1.50 and
sparking cladding RI 1.45.

6. There is no energy radiation from fiber 4. An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.32. The
refractive index of cladding is 1.48. Calculate the re-
7. No sparks are generated
fractive index of the core, the acceptance angle of the
fiber and the fractional index change.
Disadvantages
5. An optical signal propagating in a fiber retains 85%
1. The optical connectors are very costly of input power after traveling a distance of 500 m in
2. Maintenance cost is high the fiber. Calculate the attenuation coefficient.

3. They cannot be bent too sharply 6. An optical fiber has core RI 1.5 and RI of cladding is
3% less than the core index. Calculate the numerical
4. They under go structural changes with temperature aperture, angle of acceptance critical angle.

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7. The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.2 when

surround by air. Determine the RI of its core, given
the RI of the cladding is 1.59. Also find the accep-
tance angle when the fiber is in water of RI 1.33.
8. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 300
when kept in air. Find the angle of acceptance when
it is in medium of refractive index 1.33.

9. An optical fiber of 600 m long has input power of 120

mW which emerges out with power of 90 mW. Find
attenuation in fiber.

10. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 3.6

dB/km. What fraction of its initial intensity is remains
after i) 1 km and ii) 3 km ?

11. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 2.2

dB/km. What fraction of its initial intensity is remains
after i) 2 km and ii) 6 km ?

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 Part II

MODULE 2 : Quantum Mechanics

17
Chapter 3

Quantum Mechanics

3.1 Wave-Particle dualism and 𝑒, the de Broglie wavelegth is given by the ex-
pression 𝜆 = 12.27
√ Å.
𝑉
The phenomena like Interference, Diffraction and Po-
larization are attributed to the wave properties of radia-
tion. The Quantum theory of radiation and experiments 3.3 Matter waves and its properties
like Photoelectric effect and Compton Effect describe the
particle nature of radiation. Thus radiation behaves like 3.3.1 Phase velocity
waves and like particles under different suitable circum-
The velocity with which a wave travels is called phase
stances. Hence radiation exhibits dual nature.
velocity (𝑣 𝑝 ) and is also called wave velocity. If a point is
marked on the wave representing the phase of the particle
3.2 de Broglie hypothesis then the velocity with which the phase propagates from one
point to another is called phase velocity.
In the year 1924 French physicist Louis de Broglie ex-
𝜔 𝐸 𝑐2
tended wave-particle dualism through a hypothesis stating 𝑣𝑝 = = = (3.1)
If radiant energy could behave like waves in some exper- 𝑘 𝑃 𝑣
iments and particles or photons in others and since na- Here 𝑐 is the velocity of light in vacuum and 𝑣 is the ve-
ture loves symmetry, then one can expect the particles like locity of the matter wave. It is also evident, from the above
protons and electrons to exhibit wave nature under suit- equation 3.1, that the phase velocity is not only greater than
able circumstances. This is well known as de Broglie’s the particle velocity it is also greater than the velocity of
hypothesis. light. Hence there is no physical meaning for phase veloc-
ity of matter waves.
Therefore some sort of waves can be even associated
with moving material particles called Matter waves or de- 3.3.2 Wave packet and Group velocity
Broglie waves and the wavelength associated with matter
waves is called de Broglie wavelength.The wavelength of Since the velocity of matter waves must be equal to that
a photon in-terms of its momentum is given by 𝜆 = ℎ𝑝 . of the particle velocity and since no physical meaning can
Hence by analogy the de Broglie wavelength of matter be associated with phase velocity, the concept of group ve-
waves is given by 𝜆 = ℎ𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 ℎ
. Here 𝑚 is the mass of locity is introduced.
the moving particle and 𝑣 is its velocity.

Note

• For a particle, charged or uncharged, moving with ki-

netic energy 𝐸 the de Broglie wavelength is given by
𝜆 = ℎ𝑝 = √ ℎ .
2𝑚𝐸

• For a charged particle accelerated with a potential

𝑉 volt, the de Broglie wavelength is given by 𝜆 =
√ ℎ .
2𝑚𝑞𝑉

• For an electron accelerated through a potential differ- Figure 3.1: Wave group or wave packet
ence of 𝑉 volt, the de Broglie wavelength is given by
𝜆 = √ ℎ . Further substituting the values of ℎ, 𝑚
2𝑚𝑒𝑉

19
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Matter wave can be considered as a resultant wave due Physical significance : According to Newtonian
to the superposition of many component waves whose ve- physics the simultaneous measurement of position and mo-
locities differ slightly. Thus a wave group or wave packet mentum are exact. But the existence of matter waves in-
is formed. The velocity with which the wave group travels duces serious problems due to the limit to accuracy asso-
is called group velocity which is same as particle velocity. ciated with the simultaneous measurement. Hence the ex-
It is denoted by 𝑣 𝑔 and is as given in the equation 3.2. actness in Newtonian physics is replaced by probability in
quantum mechanics.
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 = (3.2)
𝑑𝑘
3.4.1 Application of uncertainty principle
3.3.3 Properties of matter waves
Non-existence electrons inside the nucleus : Beta rays
The following are the properties associated with the matter are emitted by the nucleus. When it was first observed it
waves was believed that electrons exist inside the nucleus and are
1. Matter waves are associated only with particles in mo- emitted at certain instant. If the electron can exist inside
tion the atomic nucleus then uncertainty in its position must
not exceed the diameter of the nucleus. The diameter of
2. They are not electromagnetic in nature the nucleus is of the order of Δ𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is 10−14 𝑚. Applying
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle for an electron expected
3. Group velocity is associated with matter waves to be inside the nucleus we get
4. As a result of superposition of large number of com-
ℎ
ponent waves which slightly differ in frequency, mat- Δ𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥 Δ𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (3.6)
ter waves are localized. 4𝜋

5. The phase velocity has no physical meaning for mat- ℎ

Δ𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (3.7)
ter waves 4𝜋Δ𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
6. The amplitude of the matter wave at a given point is 6.625 × 10−34
associated with the probability density of finding the Δ𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ = 5.276 × 10−21 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
4 × 3.142 × 10−14
particle at that point. (3.8)
7. The wave length of matter waves is given by 𝜆 = ℎ
𝑚𝑣
Therefore, the electron should possess momentum
3.4 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Princi- 𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≃ Δ𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 5.276 × 10−21 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 (3.9)
ple
Statement: The simultaneous determination of the exact Non-relativistic equation of energy of the electron is
position and momentum of a moving particle is impossible. given by
( 𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 2
𝐸= = 1.53 × 10−11 𝐽 (3.10)
Explanation : According to this principle if Δ𝑥 is the er- 2𝑚 𝑒
ror involved in the measurement of position and Δ𝑝 𝑥 is the
here 𝑚 𝑒 is the rest mass of the electron
error involved in the measurement of momentum during
their simultaneous measurement, then the product of the
corresponding uncertainties is given by 1.53 × 10−11
𝐸 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 95MeV (3.11)
1.6 × 10−19
ℎ
Δ𝑥Δ𝑝 𝑥 ≥ (3.3)
4𝜋 Conclusion : According to experiments, the energy as-
ℎ sociated with the beta ray (electron) emission is around 3
Δ𝐸Δ𝑡 ≥ (3.4) MeV which is much lesser than the energy of the electron
4𝜋
expected to be inside the nucleus 95 MeV. Hence electrons
ℎ do not exist inside the nucleus.
Δ𝜃Δ𝐿 ≥ (3.5)
4𝜋

The product of the errors is of the order of Planck’s con- Note : Equations 3.4 and 3.5 represent the uncertainty
stant. If one quantity is measured with high accuracy then relationship between the conjugate physical quantities (En-
the simultaneous measurement of the other quantity be- ergy,time) and (Angular displacement, Angular momen-
comes less accurate. tum).

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3.5 Principle of Complementarity 2. It is large in magnitude where is particle or photon is

likely to be found and small else where.
Statement Bohr stated as “In a situation where the wave
aspect of a system is revealed, its particle aspect is con- 3. It will be regarded as describing the behavior of single
cealed; and, in a situation where the particle aspect is re- particle or photon and not statistical distribution of
vealed, its wave aspect is concealed. Revealing both si- number of quanta.
multaneously is impossible; the wave and particle aspects
are complementary.”
3.7 Time Independent Schrödinger
Explanation We know that the consequence of the un-
Wave Equation
certainty principle is both the Wave and particle nature of The wave equation which has variations only with respect
the matter can not be measured simultaneously. In other to position and describes the steady state is called Time In-
words, we can not precisely describe the dual nature of dependent Schrodinger wave equation. Consider a particle
Light. of mass 𝑚 moving with velocity 𝑣 along +ve x–axis. The
de Broglie wave length 𝜆 is given by
• If an experiment is designed to measure the particle
nature of the matter,during this experiment, errors of ℎ
measurement of both position and the time coordi- 𝜆= (3.13)
𝑚𝑣
nates must be zero and hence the momentum, energy
and the wave nature of the matter are completely un- The wave equation for one dimensional propagation of
known. waves is given by

• Similarly, if an experiment is designed for measuring 𝜕2𝜓 1 𝜕2𝜓

= (3.14)
the wave nature of the particle, then the errors in the 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2
measurement of the energy and the momentum will
The wave function is given by
be zero, whereas the position and the time coordinates
of the matter will be completely unknown. unknown. 𝜓 = 𝜓0 𝑒 𝑖 (𝑘 𝑥− 𝜔𝑡 ) (3.15)

here 𝜓0 is the amplitude at the point of consideration, 𝜔 is

From the above explanation, we can conclude that, when
angular frequency and 𝑘 is the wave number. Differentiat-
the particle nature of the matter is measured or displayed,
ing 𝜓 twice with respect to 𝑡, we get
the wave nature of the matter is necessarily suppressed and
vice versa. 𝜕2𝜓
= −𝜔2 𝜓0 𝑒 𝑖 (𝑘 𝑥− 𝜔𝑡 ) (3.16)
𝜕𝑡 2
3.6 Wave Function 𝜕2𝜓
= −𝜔2 𝜓 (3.17)
𝜕𝑡 2
According to the de Broglie’s hypothesis the relation be-
tween momentum and wavelength is found to be experi- substituting equation 3.17 in equation 3.14
mentally valid for both photons and particles. The quanta
𝜕2𝜓 1
of matter or radiation can be represented in agreement with 2
= 2 (−𝜔2 𝜓) (3.18)
uncertainty principle by wave packets. Thus it suggests 𝜕𝑥 𝑣
that concentrated bunches of waves might be used to de- substituting for 𝜔 and 𝑣 we get
scribe localized particles and quanta of radiation. The vari-
𝜕2𝜓 1
ations of which make up the matter wave is called wave
2
= (−(2𝜋 𝑓 ) 2 𝜓) (3.19)
function. Hence we shall consider a wave function that 𝜕𝑥 ( 𝑓 𝜆) 2
depends on space (x, y and z) and time(t) and is denoted 𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2
by 𝜓(𝑟, 𝑡). The wave function for a wave packet moving = − 𝜓 (3.20)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆2
along +ve x axis is given by substituting for 𝜆 from equation 3.13

𝜓 = 𝜓0 𝑒 𝑖 (𝑘 𝑥− 𝜔𝑡 ) (3.12) 𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2
= − 𝜓 (3.21)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ 2
( 𝑚𝑣 )
The quantity 𝜓 is assumed to have the following three
𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2 (𝑚𝑣) 2
basic properties = − 𝜓 (3.22)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
1. It can interfere with itself so that it can account for 𝜕2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚( 12 𝑚𝑣 2 )
diffraction experiments. = − 𝜓 (3.23)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

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𝜕2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈) 3.9 Expectation Value

= − 𝜓 (3.24)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
here In quantum mechanics The expectation value is the
1 2 probabilistic expected value of the result (measurement)
𝑚𝑣 = 𝐸 − 𝑈 (3.25) of an experiment. It can be thought of as an average of
2
here 𝐸 is the total and 𝑈 is potential energy of the particle. all the possible outcomes of a measurement as weighted
by their likelihood. Expectation value as such it is not the
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈) most probable value of a measurement. In the real sense
+ 𝜓=0 (3.26) the expectation value may have zero probability of occur-
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
ring. Let us consider a particle moving along the x axis.
This can be extended to three dimension
𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈) The result of a measurement of the position x is a con-
+ + 2 + 𝜓=0 (3.27) tinuous random variable. Consider a wave function 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡).
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 ℎ2
The |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| 2 value is a probability density for the position
8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈) observable and |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| 2 𝑑𝑥 is the probability of finding the
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓=0 (3.28) particle between 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 at time t. Thus, if a measure-
ℎ2
ment of position is repeated many times in an identical way
here the operator ∇2 is given by on an identical particle in identical circumstances, many
possible outcomes are possible and the expectation value
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = + 2+ 2 (3.29) of these outcomes is, according to the following equation
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∫ +∞
Hence the Time Independent Schrodinger equation. h𝑥i = 𝑥 |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| 2 𝑑𝑥 (3.33)
−∞

3.8 Physical significance of Wave 3.10 Eigen values and eigen func-
Function : Physical Interpreta- tions
tion The Schrodinger wave equation is a second order differ-
ential equation. Thus solving the Schrodinger wave equa-
The wave function 𝜓 just as itself has no direct physical
tion to a particular system we get many expressions for
meaning. It is more difficult to give a physical interpreta-
wave function (𝜓). However,all wave functions are not ac-
tion to the amplitude of the wave. The amplitude of the
ceptable. Only those wave functions which satisfy certain
wave function 𝜓 is certainly not like displacement in wa-
conditions are acceptable. Such wave functions are called
ter wave or the pressure wave nor the waves in stretched
Eigen functions for the system. The energy values corre-
string. It is a very different kind of wave. The quantity
sponding to the Eigen functions are called Eigen values.
squared absolute value of the amplitude gives the proba-
The wave functions are acceptable if they satisfy the fol-
bility of finding the particle per unit volume at the given
lowing conditions.
location in space and is referred to as probability density.
This is also referred to as Born interpretation. It is given 1. 𝜓 must be finite everywhere (Cannot be infinite)
by
2. 𝜓 must be single valued which implies that solution
𝑃(𝑥) = |𝜓| 2 (3.30) is unique for a given position in space.
Thus, in one dimension the probability of finding a particle 3. 𝜓 and its first derivatives with respect to its variables
in the width 𝑑𝑥 of length 𝑥 must be continuous everywhere.

𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = |𝜓| 2 𝑑𝑥 (3.31)

3.11 Applications of schrödinger
Similarly, in three dimension, the probability of finding
a particle in a given small volume 𝑑𝑉 of volume 𝑉 is given wave equation
by
𝑃 𝑑𝑣 = |𝜓| 2 𝑑𝑣 (3.32) 3.11.1 Particle in one-dimensional potential
well of infinite height
here 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 and 𝑃 is the probability of finding
the particle at given location per unit volume and is called Consider a particle of mass 𝑚 bouncing back and forth be-
Probability Density.Since 𝜓 is a complex quantity |𝜓| 2 = tween the walls of one dimensional potential well as shown
𝜓𝜓 ∗ and the product is a real number. 𝜓 ∗ is the complex in figure 3.2. The particle is said to be under bound state.
conjugate of 𝜓. Let the motion of the particle be confined along the 𝑥-axis

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in between two infinitely hard walls at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝑎. here 𝑘 is a constant for a given value of energy 𝐸. The
Since the walls are infinitely hard, no energy is lost by the general solution for equation 3.37 is given by
particle during the collision with walls and the total energy
remains constant. 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥 (3.39)

Here in the above equation A and B are arbitrary constants

which can be evaluated by applying boundary conditions.

Applying Boundary Conditions

1. The first boundary condition is, at 𝑥 = 0, 𝜓(𝑥) = 0.
Applying this to equation 3.39, we get 0 = 𝐴 sin 0 +
𝐵 cos 0 =⇒ 𝐵 = 0 hence equation 3.39 reduces to

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 (3.40)

2. The second boundary condition is,at 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝜓(𝑥) = 0.

Applying this to equation 3.40, we get 0 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑎.
Since 𝐴 ≠ 0 then sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0. This results in 𝑘𝑎 = 𝑛𝜋
which further could be written as 𝑘 = 𝑛𝑎𝜋 . 𝑛 can take
integer values. Hence equation 3.40 could be written
as  𝑛𝜋𝑥 
Figure 3.2: One dimensional potential well of infinite 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin . (3.41)
height 𝑎
also from equation 3.38

𝑛2 𝜋 2 8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸 𝑛
𝑘2 = = (3.42)
The description of the potential well is as follows. In 𝑎2 ℎ2
between walls i.e. 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎, the potential 𝑉 = 0. Beyond
𝑛2 ℎ 2
the walls i.e. 𝑥 ≤ 0and 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎, the potential 𝑉 = ∞. 𝐸𝑛 = (3.43)
8𝑚𝑎 2

Beyond the walls or outside the potential well

Quantization of Energy States
Since the particle is unable to penetrate the hard walls
it exists only inside the potential well. Hence 𝜓 = 0 and Substituting for 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4, .. in the above equa-
the probability of finding the particle outside the potential tion Energy Eigen Values are obtained. The lowest
well is also zero. energy state corresponds to lowest integral value of
𝑛 = 1 which is also called as Zero Point Energy is
ℎ2
In between the walls or inside the potential well given by 𝐸 1 = 8𝑚𝑎 2 . The energy values of a bound
particle in one dimensional potential well are quan-
The Schrodinger wave equation is given by tized (discrete) and are represented by the equation
𝐸 𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝐸 1 .
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈)
+ 𝜓=0 (3.34)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
Normalization of wave function
Since the potential inside the well 𝑉 = 0, hence potential
The wave function for a particle in one dimensional po-
energy 𝑈 = 0, the Schrodinger wave equation becomes
tential well of infinite

height is given by the equation 3.41
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 0) 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑛 𝑎𝜋 𝑥 . In this equation 𝐴 is an arbitrary con-
+ 𝜓=0 (3.35) stant and it can take any value. The process of determi-
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
nation of value of the arbitrary constant is called Normal-
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸 ization of wave function. The particle has to exist some
+ 𝜓=0 (3.36) where inside the potential the probability of the finding the
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
particle inside the potential well is given by
𝜕2𝜓 ∫ 𝑎 ∫ 𝑎
+ 𝑘 2𝜓 = 0 (3.37)
𝜕𝑥 2 |𝜓(𝑥)| 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑃𝑑𝑥 = 1 (3.44)
0 0
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
𝑘2 = (3.38) Substituting for the wave function in the integral
ℎ2

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∫ 𝑎  𝑛𝜋𝑥  phenomenon. Wein and Rayleigh-Jeans were able to ex-

2
𝐴 sin2
𝑑𝑥 = 1 (3.45) plain the black-body radiation spectrum in the lower and
0 𝑎 higher wavelength region respectively. Planck’s radiation
from trigonometry sin2 𝜃 = 21 (1 − cos 2𝜃). There fore law, based on discrete energy packet ’Quanta’ or ’Photon’,
the above equation could be written as is able to explain the energy distribution in the black body
radiation spectrum completely. Several experiments and
∫ 𝑎 2   
𝐴 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 theories were put forward to understand the particle and
1 − cos 𝑑𝑥 = 1 (3.46) wave nature of radiations. This proved dual nature of ra-
0 2 𝑎
diation. Further, based on analogy, Louis de Broglie ex-
integrating the above equation we get
tended the same concept to moving particles and proposed
   𝑎 a hypothesis which indicates the wave nature of moving
𝐴2 𝑎 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑥− sin =1 (3.47) particles. Diffraction experiments prove the wave nature
2 2𝑛𝜋 𝑎 0
of moving particles. Attempts were successful in knowing
r
2 the different quantities related to the wave associated with
=⇒ 𝐴 = (3.48) particles called matter waves. Irwin Schrodinger set up
𝑎
a differential equation for the moving particle implement-
Substituting this in equation 3.41 the normalized wave ing de Broglie hypothesis. The Schrodinger wave equation
function or eigen function for a particle in one dimensional is set up for a bound particle and free particles. Subse-
potential well of infinite height is given by quent solutions prove that the energies of bound particles
r  𝑛𝜋𝑥  are quantized and that of free particles is continuous.
2
𝜓(𝑥) = sin . (3.49)
𝑎 𝑎
The wave functions and the probability densities for the 3.12 Model Questions
first three values of 𝑛 are as shown in fig 3.3
1. State and Explain de Broglie hypothesis.

2. What are matter waves and mention the properties.

3. Derive the relation between Phase velocity and Group

velocity.

4. Derive the relation between Group velocity and Parti-

cle velocity.

5. State and Explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

Mention its physical significance.

6. Explain why electron cannot exist inside the nucleus?

7. State and Explain the Principle of Complementarity.

Figure 3.3: Wave function and Probability density for n = 8. Define wave function? Mention its basic properties.
1,2,3
9. Derive Time independent Schrodinger wave equation
for a particle moving in three dimension.

Thus for ground state (𝑛 = 1). The probability of find- 10. Discuss the physical interpretation of wave function?
ing the particle at the walls is zero and at the center 𝑎2 is
maximum. The first excited state has three nodes and the 11. Elucidate expectation value.
second excited state has four nodes.
12. Describe Eigen functions and Eigen values.

Summary 13. Discuss the motion of a particle in one dimensional

potential well of infinite height.
Black Body radiation spectrum posed challenges during
the early 19th century. Many experiments were con- 14. Discuss the energies of a free particle using time in-
ducted and theories were put forward to understand the dependent schrodinger equation.

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3.13 Numerical Problems 17. The position and momentum of 1 keV electron are
simultaneously determined. If it position is located
1. Calculate the momentum of the particle and the de within 1Å, find the uncertainty in the determination
Broglie wavelength associated with an electron with of its momentum.
a kinetic energy of 1.5𝑘𝑒𝑉.
18. A spectral line of wavelength 4000 Å has a width of
2. Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron 8 × 10−5 Å. Evaluate the minimum time spent by the
having kinetic energy 100𝑒𝑉. electrons in the upper energy state between the exci-
tation and de-excitation processes.
3. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with elec-
tron carrying energy 2000𝑒𝑉. 19. The inherent uncertainty in the measurement of time
spent by Iridium 191 nuclei in the excited state is
4. Find the energy of the neutron in 𝑒𝑉 whose de Brogle found to be 1.4 × 10−10 𝑠. Estimate the uncertainty
wavelength is 1 Å. that results in its energy in eV in the excited state.
5. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with neu- 20. An electron is bound in one dimensional potential
1 𝑡ℎ
tron of mass 1.674 × 10−27𝑘𝑔 with 10 part of speed well of width 0.18𝑛𝑚. Find the energy value in 𝑒𝑉
of light. of the second excited state.

6. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with elec- 21. The first excited state energy of an electron in an in-
trons whose speed is 0.01 part of the speed of light. finite well is 240𝑒𝑉. What will be its ground state
energy when the width of the potential well is dou-
7. What is the de Broglie wavelength of a proton whose bled?
energy is 3𝑒𝑉 given mass of proton is 1.67×10−27 𝑘𝑔.
22. A quantum particle confined to one–dimensional box
8. Find the kinetic energy and group velocity of an elec- of width 𝑎 is in its first excited state. What is the
tron with de Broglie wavelength of 0.2𝑛𝑚. probability of finding the particle over an interval of
2 marked symmetrically at the center of the box.
𝑎
9. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of particle of
mass 0.65 𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑐2
has a kinetic energy 80𝑒𝑉.

10. Find de Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass

0.58 𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑐2
has a kinetic energy 90𝑒𝑉, Where 𝑐 is speed
of light.

11. A particle of mass 940 𝑀𝑒𝑉𝑐2

has kinetic energy
0.5𝑘𝑒𝑉. Find it de Broglie wavelength, where 𝑐 is
speed of light.

12. Find the de Broglie wavelength of an electron acceler-

ated through a potential difference of 182𝑉 and object
of mass 1𝑘𝑔 moving with a speed of 1𝑚𝑠 −1 . Compare
the results and comment.

13. The position and momentum of an electron with en-

ergy 0.5𝑘𝑒𝑉 are determined. What is the minimum
percentage uncertainty in its momentum if the uncer-
tainty in the measurement of position is 0.5Å.

14. The speed of electron is measured to with in an un-

certainty of 2.2 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1 in one dimension. What
is the minimum width required by the electron to be
confined in an atom?

15. Estimate the time spent by an atom in the excited state

during the excitation and de-excitation processes,
when a spectral line of wavelength 546𝑛𝑚 and width
10−14 𝑚 is emitted.

16. An electron is confined to a box of length 10−9 𝑚, cal-

culate the minimum uncertainty in its velocity.

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 Part III

MODULE 3 : Quantum Computing &

Quantum Gates

27
Chapter 4

Principles of Quantum Information &

Quantum Computing

4.1 Introduction to Quantum Com-

puting
Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on
developing computing methods based on the principle of
quantum theory. Quantum computing is based on the prin-
ciple of quantum superposition. In Quantum computing,
the information is encoded in quantum system such as
atoms, ions or quantum dots. One quantum rule in par-
ticular creates an enormous incentives to apply quantum
mechanics to computing.

The algorithms are also written based on quantum prin- the micro scale realm causing problems for current micro-
ciples in which, Shor’s algorithm for factorization and electronics. The most typical effects are electron tunneling
Grover’s search algorithm are basic. (Grover is an Indian among the circuit lines. Thus Quantum Computation is the
born Physicist working in Bell Labs). The process of com- option for the further generation.
putation is incredibly fast but it has to be done by the help
of quantum computers which are yet to be realized in prac-
tice. It is expected that 140 digit log number could be fac-
tored a billion (109 ) times faster that is possible with clas-
sical computation. It is so powerful that a search engine
can search every part of internet in half an hour.

4.2 Moore’s law & its end

In the year 1965, Gordon Moore observed increasing per-
formance in the first few generations of the integrated-
circuit (IC) technology. Moore predicted that it would
continue to improve at an exponential rate with the per-
formance per unit cost increasing by a factor or two every
18 months are so. The computer industry has followed this
4.3 Differences Between Classical
prediction since then. But actually the doubling was oc- and Quantum Computing
curring im every 24 months or 2 years. The following plot
shows the 50 years of Moore’s law. 4.3.1 Classical Computing
The question that arises is how long can Moore’s law
continues to hold and what are the ultimate limitations?. 1. Used by large scale,multipurpose and devices.
According to the semiconductor size data the size has 2. Information is stored in bits.
reached 5 nanometer in 2021. The Demise of the Transis-
tor in the quantum scale could be expected as the dimen- 3. There is a discrete number of possible states. Either 0
sions decrease further. Quantum effects can cascade into or 1.

29
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4. Calculations are deterministic. This means repeating 4.5 Representation of Qubits by

the same inputs results in the same output.
Bloch Sphere
5. Data processing is carried out by logic and in sequen-
tial order. The pure state space qubits (Two Level Quantum Me-
chanical Systems) can be visualized using an imaginary
6. Operations are governed by Boolean Algebra. sphere called Bloch Sphere. It has a unit radius.
7. Circuit behavior is defined by Classical Physics.

4.3.2 Quantum Computing

1. Used by high speed, quantum mechanics-based com-
puters.
2. Information is based on Quantum Bits.
3. The is an infinite, continuous number of possible
states. They are the result of quantum superposition.
4. The calculations are probabilistic, meaning there are
multiple possible outputs to the same inputs.
5. Data processing is carried out by quantum logic at
parallel instances.
6. Operations are defined by linear algebra by Hilbert
Space.
The Arrow on the sphere represents the state of the
7. Circuit behavior is defined by Quantum Mechanics. Qubit. The north an south poles are used to represent the
basis states |0i and |1i respectively. The other locations
are the superpositions of |0i and |1i states and represented
4.4 Concept of Qubit and its proper- by 𝛼 |0i + 𝛽 |1i with 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 = 1. Thus a Qubit can be any
ties point on the Bloch Sphere.

4.4.1 Concept of Qubit

The Bloch sphere allows the state of the qubit to be rep-
The counterpart of a classical bit in quantum computing is resented unit spherical co-ordinates.They are the polar an-
Qubit. It’s the basic unit in which of information in a quan- gle 𝜃 and the azimuth angle 𝜙. The block sphere is repre-
tum computer. Superposition, Entanglement, and Tunnel- sented by the equation
ing are all special properties that define a qubit.
𝜃 𝜃
|𝜓i = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 |0i + 𝑒 𝑖 𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 |1i (4.1)
4.4.2 Properties of Qubits 2 2
1. A qubit can be in a superposed state of the two states here 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 and 0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 2𝜋. The normalization
0 and 1. constraint is given by
2. If measurements are carried out with a qubit in super-  2  2
   
posed state then the results that we get will be prob- 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃  + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃  = 1 (4.2)
   2
abilistic unlike how it’s deterministic in a classical 2
computer.
3. Owing to the quantum nature, the qubit changes its 4.6 Single and Two qubits and Ex-
state at once when subjected to measurement. This
means, one cannot copy information from qubits the tension to N qubits
way we do in the present computers and is known as
"no cloning principle". 4.6.1 Single qubit
A Qubit can be physically implemented by the two states A Single Qubit has two computational basis states |0i and
of an electron or horizontal and vertical polarizations of |1i. the pictorial representation of the single qubit is as
photons as |↓i and |↑i follows. 𝛼 |0i + 𝛽 |1i

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Chapter 5

Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations

5.1 Linear Algebra 5.2.2 Pauli Matrices

Linear Algebra is the study of vector spaces and operations Pauli Matrices and Their operation on |0i and |1i
on vector spaces. The Standard quantum mechanical no- States
tation for a quantum state 𝜓 in a vector space is |𝜓i. The There are four extreamly useful matrices called Pauli Ma-
notation |i indicates that the object is a vector rand is called trices. The Pauli matrices of the following form
a ket vector. The examples of ket vectors are |𝜓i, |𝜙i and
|𝑢i etc.  
1 0
𝜎0 = 𝐼 = (5.3)
0 1
This is an identity matrix.
5.2 Matrix Representation of 0 and 1
 
States 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑋 =
0 1
(5.4)
1 0
The wave function could be expressed in ket notation as  
𝛼 0 −𝑖
|𝜓i (ket Vector), 𝜓 is the wave function. The |𝜓i = 1 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝑌 = (5.5)
𝛼 𝑖 0
  2
1
The matrix for of the states |0i and |1i. |0i = and  
0 1 0
  𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑧 = 𝑍 = (5.6)
0 0 −1
|1i =
1
Pauli Matrices operating on |0i and |1i States
5.2.1 Identity Operator     
1 0 1 1
  1. 𝜎0 |0i = = = |0i.
1 0 0 1 0 0
    
The operator of type 𝐼 = is called identity oper- 1 0 0 0
0 1 𝜎0 |1i = = = |1i.
ator. When an identity operator acts on a state vector its 0 1 1 1
keeps the state intact. By analogy we study identity opera-      
tor as an identity matrix. 0 1 1 0
2. 𝜎𝑥 |0i = = = |1i
1 0 0 1
     
0 1 0 1
Let us consider the operation of Identity operator on |0i 𝜎𝑥 |1i =
1 0 1
=
0
= |0i.
and |1i states. As per the principle of identity operation
𝐼 |0i = |0i and 𝐼 |1i = |1i     
0 −𝑖 1 0
     3. 𝜎𝑦 |0i = = = 𝑖 |1i
𝑖 0 0 𝑖
1 0 1 1     
𝐼 |0i = = (5.1) 0 −𝑖 0 −𝑖
0 1 0 0 𝜎𝑦 |1i = = = −𝑖 |0i.
𝑖 0 1 0
          
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
𝐼 |1i = = (5.2) 4. 𝜎𝑧 = . = = |0i
0 1 1 1 0 −1 0 0
     
1 0 0 0
Thus the operation of identity matrix(operator) on |0i and 𝜎𝑧 = . = = − |1i.
0 −1 1 −1
|1i leaves the states unchanged.

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5.3 Conjugate of a Matrix  

3 3+𝑖
𝐴= (5.13)
Conjugate of a Matrix It is possible to find the conjugate 3−𝑖 2
for a given matrix by replacing each element of the matrix The conjugate of 𝑈 is given by
with its complex conjugate.for example consider a matrix
 
𝐴 as given below. 3 3−𝑖
𝐴∗ = (5.14)
  3+𝑖 2
𝑖 1
𝐴= (5.7)
0 2 − 3𝑖 The transpose of 𝑈 ∗ is given by
 
The conjugate of the matrix 𝐴 is given by † 3 3+𝑖
  𝐴 = (5.15)
3−𝑖 2
∗ −𝑖 1
𝐴 = (5.8)
0 2 + 3𝑖 Hence 𝐴† = 𝐴
Thus 𝐴∗ is the conjugate of 𝐴
5.7 Unitary Matrix
5.4 Transpose of a Matrix A matrix is said to be Unitary if the condition 𝑈 †𝑈 = 𝐼 is
The transpose of a matrix is found by interchanging its satisfied. Thus an operator is said to be Unitary if each of
rows into columns or columns into rows. The Transpose its matrix representations are unitary. Consider an operator
of a matrix 𝐴 is denoted by using the superscript as 𝐴𝑇 . in matrix form 𝑈.
Consider a matrix 𝐴 as given below.  √1 √1 
 (2) (2) 
  𝑈 =  𝑖 (5.16)
𝑖 1  √ (2) √−𝑖 
𝐴= (5.9)  (2) 
0 2 − 3𝑖
Then
The Transpose of the matrix 𝐴 is given by  √1 √−𝑖 
 (2)
† (2) 
  𝑈 =  1 (5.17)
∗ 𝑖 0  √ (2) √ 𝑖 
𝐴 = (5.10)  (2) 
1 2 − 3𝑖

Thus 𝐴𝑇 is the Transpose of 𝐴  √1

 (2) √−𝑖   √1 √1 
† (2)   (2) (2) 
𝑈 𝑈 =  1 (5.18)
 √ (2) √ 𝑖   √ 𝑖 √−𝑖 
 (2)   (2) (2) 
5.5 The Conjugate Transpose of a
Thus  
Matrix 1 0
𝑈 †𝑈 = =𝐼 (5.19)
0 1
The complex conjugate transpose of a matrix interchanges
the row and column index for each element, reflecting the Hence 𝑈 is unitary.
elements across the main diagonal. The operation also
negates the imaginary part of any complex numbers. It
is denoted by a † symbol as a super script. 5.8 Column and Row Matrices
  The Column Vectors are called ket Vectors denoted by |𝜓i
𝑖 1
𝐴= (5.11) and are represented by Column Matrices. The Row Vec-
0 2 − 3𝑖
tors are called Bra Vectors denoted by h𝜙| and are rep-
The Transpose of the matrix 𝐴 is given by resented by Row Matrices. Let us consider a ket vector
  represented in the form of a column matrix.
−𝑖 0
𝐴† = ( 𝐴∗ ) 𝑇 = (5.12)  
1 2 + 3𝑖 𝛼
|𝜓i = 1 (5.20)
𝛽1
Thus 𝐴† is the Conjugate-Transpose of 𝐴.
The Row Matrix is represented as
 
5.6 Hermitian h𝜓| = 𝛼1∗ 𝛽1∗ (5.21)
The matrix that is equal to its conjugate-transpose is Here  †
called Hermitian. Thus If 𝐴† = 𝐴 then it is called Her- 𝛼1  
mitian or Self-Adjoint matrix. = 𝛼1∗ 𝛽1∗ (5.22)
𝛽1

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Thus the Bra is the complex conjugate of ket and vice- Using equation 5.31 the inner product h𝜓|𝜓i is given by,
versa. For example  
  𝛼
 † h𝜓|𝜓i = 𝛼∗ 𝛽∗ = 𝛼𝛼∗ + 𝛽𝛽∗ (5.35)
1   𝛽
= 1 −𝑖 (5.23)
𝑖
Thus
Flipping between kets and bras is called "Taking the 𝛼𝛼∗ + 𝛽𝛽∗ = |𝛼| 2 + |𝛽| 2 (5.36)
Dual". This could also be written as

Thus for |0i state the corresponding h0| is given by |𝜓| 2 = 𝜓𝜓 ∗ (5.37)
 
1 Thus the above equation represents Probability Density.
|0i = (5.24) As per the principle of Normalization
0
  |𝜓| 2 = 𝜓𝜓 ∗ = h𝜓|𝜓i = 1 = |𝛼| 2 + |𝛽| 2 (5.38)
h0| = 1 0 (5.25)
and similarly for and |1i states we have h1| as follows. Thus it implies |𝜓i is normalized.
 
0
|1i = (5.26) 5.11 Orthogonality
1
  Two states |𝜓i and |𝜙i are said to be orthogonal if their
h1| = 0 1 (5.27)
inner product is Zero. Mathematically

5.9 Inner Product - Multiplication of h𝜙|𝜓i = 0 (5.39)

Row and Column Matrices The two states are orthogonal means they are mutually ex-
clusive. Like Spin Up and Spin Down of an electron.
Let us consider two states |𝜓i and |𝜙i as follows
  Consider h0|1i
𝛼
|𝜓i = 1 (5.28)  
𝛽1   0
  h0|1i = 1 0 = (0 + 0) = (0) (5.40)
1
𝛼
|𝜙i = 2 (5.29)
𝛽2
here
5.12 Orthonormality
 
h𝜓| = 𝛼1∗ 𝛽1∗ (5.30) The states |𝜓i and |𝜙i are said to be orthonormal if
The multiplication of the |𝜓i and |𝜙i is possible only by
1. |𝜓i and |𝜙i are normalized.
taking the inner product and is given by h𝜓|𝜙i
  2. |𝜓i and |𝜙i are orthogonal to each other.
 ∗  𝛼2
h𝜓|𝜙i = 𝛼1 𝛽1 ∗
(5.31)
𝛽2

h𝜓|𝜙i = 𝛼1∗ 𝛼2 + 𝛽1∗ 𝛽2 (5.32)

The inner product always results in a scalar product.

5.10 Probability
Let us consider a Quantum State

|𝜓i = 𝛼 |0i + 𝛽 |1i (5.33)

The above equation represents the Quantum Superposition

of states |0i and |1i.
     
1 0 𝛼
|𝜓i = 𝛼 +𝛽 = (5.34)
0 1 𝛽

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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22

6.4 Question Bank and Numerical 8. Distinguish between single qubit and multiple qubit
gates.
Problems
9. Describe Quantum Gates with three examples.
6.4.1 Principles of Quantum Information
and Quantum Computing 10. Discuss the functioning of Hadamard gate with ma-
trix representation and truth table.
1. Describe briefly the Quantum Computing and its im-
portance. 11. Explain the working of T gate with its matrix and
truth table.
2. Elucidate the differences between classical and quan-
tum computing.
6.5 Numerical Problems
3. Define a bit and qubit and explain the differences be-
tween them. Mention the properties of Qubit. 6.5.1 Dirac Representation and Matrix Op-
4. Discuss the representation of qubit by Bloch Sphere. erations
5. Explain single, two qubits and extension to N qubits. 1. A Linear Operator ’𝑋’ operates such that 𝑋 |0i = |1i
and 𝑋 |1i = |0i. Find the matrix representation of
’𝑋’.
6.4.2 Dirac Representation and Matrix Op-  
0 −𝑖
erations 2. Given 𝐴 = , Prove that 𝐴† = 𝐴.
𝑖 0
1. Mention the matrix representation of |0i and |1i states
and apply the Identity operator to show there is no  √1
 (2) √1 
(2) 
change in states. 3. Show that the Matrix 𝑈 =  𝑖 is Unitary.
 √ (2) √−𝑖 
 (2) 
2. State the Pauli matrices and apply Pauli matrices on
the states |0i and |1i. 4. Find the inner product of states |1i 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |0i and draw
3. Explain conjugate and Transpose of a matrix. conclusions on the result.
   
𝛼1 𝛽1
4. Describe unitary matrix and along with an example. 5. Given |𝜓i = and |𝜙i = Prove that
𝛼2 𝛽2
∗
5. Describe row and column matrices and the inner h𝜓|𝜙i = h𝜙|𝜓i
product.
6. Discuss probability and quantum superposition.
6.5.2 Quantum Gates
7. Explain the conditions for orthogonality and or-
1. Using Matrix multiplication show that on applying
thonormality.
Hadamard gate twice to a |0i results in its original
state.
6.4.3 Quantum Gates
1. Illustrate the principle and working of Quantum Not 2. Using two X-gates in series show that two not gates
Gate. in series are equivalent to a quantum wire.
2. Discuss the Pauli X,Y and Z gates and their opera-
tions on quantum states. 3. Show the Hadamard Gate is Unitary.
3. Describe the Phase gate along with matrix represen- 4. Two Qubits are passed through CNOT gate.If the first
tation and truth table. qubit is the control qubit then what is the output for
the following initial states 1. |00i, 2. |01i, and 3.|11i.
4. Discuss the CNOT gate and its operation on four dif-
ferent input states.
5. Show that S gate can be formed by connecting two T
5. explain the matrix form and operation of Toffoli gate.
gates in Series.
6. Describe the Swap gate with the matrix and truth ta-
ble.
7. Elucidate the working of controlled-Z gate mention-
ing its matrix representation and truth table.

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 Part IV

MODULE 4 : Electrical Properties of

Materials

43
Chapter 7

Classical and Quantum Free Electron Theory

of Metals

7.1 Electrical Conductivity and Re- part of solid state physics. The phonon plays an important
role in many of the physical properties of solids such as the
sistivity thermal conductivity and the electrical conductivity. The
Consider a conductor carrying electric current 𝐼 with the conduction electrons in a metal collide against lattice
area of cross section 𝐴 perpendicular to the current. The ions during the motion. The interaction is considered to be
current density 𝐽 is defined as the ration of current 𝐼 to the of type phonon exchange.This results in non-radioactive
area of cross section 𝐴. Hence transitions.

𝐼
𝐽= (7.1) 7.4 Mathiesen’s Rule
𝐴
It is observed that the current density is proportional to A Metal consists of lattice ions and impurity atoms that
the applied electric field in a conductor. And hence are held together by free electrons. Free electrons wander
inside the crystal. During the motion electrons undergo
𝐽∝𝐸 (7.2) scattering by lattice ions and impurity atoms. The resistiv-
ity 𝜌 of a conductor is mainly attributed to two reasons
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 (7.3)
1. Scattering of electrons with the vibrating lattice ions.
The constant of proportionality 𝜎 is called Electrical Con-
The resistivity of the metal due to electron lattice ion
ductivity of the conductor. The Electrical Resistivity 𝜌 =
scattering is given by
𝜎 of the material is the reciprocal of the Electrical Con-
1

ductivity of the material and is the property of the mate- 𝜌 𝑝ℎ =

𝑚
(7.5)
rial by the virtue of which it opposes the flow of current 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝑝ℎ
through it.
2. Scattering of electrons by the presence of impurities
present in the metal. The scattering also occurs from
7.2 Mobility of conduction electrons the lattice dislocations and grain boundaries. The re-
sistivity of the metal due to such scattering is given
It is found that the drift velocity depends on the applied by
field strength and is mathematically given by 𝑣 𝑑 = 𝜇𝐸. 𝜌𝑖 = 2
𝑚
(7.6)
Here 𝜇 is called the mobility of the free electrons. It is de- 𝑛𝑒 𝜏𝑖
fined as the drift velocity acquired by the conduction elec-
Thus net resistivity of the conductor is given by
trons per unit field strength.
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 𝑑 𝑒𝜏 𝜎 1 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑝ℎ + 𝜌𝑖 = + (7.7)
𝜇= = = = 𝑚 2𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1 (7.4) 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝑝ℎ 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝑖
𝐸 𝑚 𝑛𝑒 𝜌𝑛𝑒
The above equation is called Matthiessen’s Rule, Which
7.3 Concept of Phonon states that the net resistivity of conductor is equal to the
sum of the resistivity due to the phonon scattering which is
A Phonon is a quantum of lattice vibration, the collective temperature dependent and resistivity due to the presence
motion of atoms constituting a crystal. The Energies and of impurity which is temperature independent. Graphically
Momenta of Phonons are quantized. It is often character- the variation of resistance with temperature and impurity is
ized as Heat Energy. The study of phonon is an important as follows.

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7.6 Quantum free electron theory of

metals
The failures of classical free electron theory led to the
rise of Quantum Free electron theory and was proposed by
Sommerfield in the year 1928. The quantum free electron
theory is based on the following assumptions.

7.6.1 Assumptions
7.5 Failures of classical free electron 1. Unlike classical free electron theory, in quantum free
theory of metals electron theory, energy values of free electrons are
quantized. The energy values of free electrons are dis-
Classical free electron theory of metal is successful in crete since their motion is confined within the bound-
explaining the certain experimentally observed facts of aries of the metal.
electronic conduction in solids and thermal conductivity.
2. Thus in a metal there exists large number of closely
This theory fails to explain certain other experimental ob-
spaced energy levels for free electrons which form a
servations. The following are the failures of classical free
band.
electron theory of metals.
3. The distribution of free electrons in the energy levels
7.5.1 Electronic specific heat of solids is as per the Pauli’s exclusion principle. Only a max-
imum of two electrons can occupy a given an energy
According to the Classical Free Electron Theory Metals level. This also suggests the availability of two energy
the electronic specific heat is given by states for free electrons in an energy level correspond-
3 ing to spin up and spin down states.
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 = 12.5𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 −1 𝐾 −1 (7.8)
2 4. The potential setup by the lattice ions is assumed to
The experimental value of electronic specific heat is be constant throughout the metal.
𝐶𝑣 = 10−4 𝑅𝑇. It is very small and also temperature depen- 5. The mutual repulsion between electrons and the at-
dent Hence Classical theory fails to explain the electronic traction between electrons and lattice ions are ne-
specific heat of solids. glected.

7.5.2 Dependence of 𝜎 on temperature 7.6.2 Fermi energy

According to classical free electron theory of metals For a metal consisting of 𝑁 atom there exists 𝑁 num-
the electrical conductivity 𝜎√is inversely proportional to ber of energy levels in each band. These energy levels are
square root of temperature ( 𝑇). But experiments reveal very closely spaced. The energy levels in bands fillup as
that electrical conductivity (𝜎) is inversely proportional to per Pauli’s exclusion principle. Thus free electrons in a
temperature (𝑇). Hence classical free electron theory fails metal start filling up the available energy levels from the
to explain dependence of electrical conductivity (𝜎) on the lower most level of the valence band. The highest filled
temperature (𝑇). energy level in a metal at absolute zero by free electrons
is called Fermi Level and the corresponding energy is
7.5.3 Dependence of 𝜎 on 𝑛, the number called Fermi Energy (𝐸 𝐹 ). Thus, at absolute zero and
density with no electric field applied, all levels below Fermi level
are completely filled and above Fermi level are empty.
The theory predicts the direct dependence of electrical
conductivity (𝜎) on number of free electrons per unit vol-
ume (𝑛) called number density. But experiments have re- 7.6.3 Density of States (DoS)
vealed different with 𝜎𝐶𝑢 > 𝜎𝐴𝑙 even though the the num- According to band theory Energy bands are formed in
ber densities 𝑛𝐶𝑢 < 𝑛 𝐴𝑙 . . Hence it fails to explain the de- solids and in a band the spacing between two successive
pendence of electrical conductivity 𝜎 on the number free energy levels decreases with increase in energy.
electrons per unit volume 𝑛. The experimental observa-
tions are as in the table below. The Density of States is defined as the number of en-
Metal 𝜎(Ω−1 𝑚 −1 ) 𝑛(𝑚 −3 ) ergy states available per unit volume of the material in
Copper 5.88 × 107 8.45 × 1028 the unit energy range in the valence band of the mate-
Aluminium 3.65 × 107 18.06 × 1028 rial. It is mathematically a continuous function denoted

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Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 < 𝐸 𝐹

and at T = 0K
The Fermi factor or Fermi function is given by

1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓
(7.11)
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
+1
Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓 is negative. Substituting the value for 𝑇 = 0
Figure 7.1: Energy Band diagram and Fermi Energy
1 1 1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸  = = =1
𝑓 𝑒 −∞ +1 0+1
𝑒 𝑘∗0
+1
by 𝑔(𝐸). The number of energy levels in the energy range There fore 𝑓 (𝐸) = 1. Hence, at 𝑇 = 0𝐾, all energy levels
𝐸 and 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 per unit volume of the material is given by below the Fermi level are completely filled.
𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸.
√ !
8 2𝜋𝑚 3/2 1
Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 > 𝐸 𝐹
𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸 − 2 𝑑𝐸 (7.9) and at T = 0K
ℎ3
The Fermi factor or fermi function is given by Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓
The variation of 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 as a function of 𝐸 is given by is positive. Substituting the value for 𝑇 = 0

1 1 1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸  = = =0
𝑓 𝑒∞ +1 ∞+1
𝑒 𝑘∗0
+1
There fore 𝑓 (𝐸) = 0. Hence, at 𝑇 = 0𝐾, all energy levels
above the Fermi level are empty.

Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐹

Figure 7.2: Density of states function vs Energy and at T > 0K
Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓 = 0. Substituting the values

1 1 1
𝑓 (𝐸) = 0
= = = 0.5 (7.12)
7.6.4 Fermi–Dirac distribution and Fermi 𝑒 ( 𝑘𝑇 ) +1 1 + 1 2
factor
Thus for all temperatures above 0 𝐾 the probability of
The occupation of energy levels by free electrons in the occupation of Fermi level is ½. Thus the variation of Fermi
valence band of a metal is according to Pauli’s exclusion factor with temperature is as shown in the graph 7.3
principle. This distribution of electrons is not random.
It follows a certain universal rule of distribution called
Fermi-Dirac Statistics. The probability of occupation of
an energy level of energy (𝐸) at temperature (𝑇) un-
der thermal equilibrium is evaluated using an expression
called Fermi Factor.
1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓
(7.10)
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
+1

7.6.5 Dependence of Fermi factor on energy

and temperature
As described, the Fermi factor is a function of energy and Figure 7.3: Variation of 𝑓 (𝐸) as a function of Temperature
temperature. This dependence could be explained for en- and Energy
ergy levels below and above Fermi level at absolute zero
and higher temperatures.

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Numerical Problems
1. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an
energy level 0.02𝑒𝑉 above the Fermi level at 200𝐾
and 400𝐾.
2. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an
energy level 0.02𝑒𝑉 below the Fermi level at 400𝐾.

3. The Fermi level for silver is 5.5𝑒𝑉. What is the en-

ergy for which probability of occupancy at 300𝐾 is
0.01
4. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability
that a state with an energy 0.5eV above Fermi energy
is occupied.
5. Find the probability that an energy level at 0.2𝑒𝑉 be-
low Fermi level being occupied at temperature 300𝐾
and 1000𝐾

6. Calculate the probability that an electron occupies an

energy level 0.02 eV above Fermi level at 300 K.

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Chapter 8

Superconductivity

8.1 Introduction to Superconductiv- exhibit superconducting property, are called superconduc-

tors.
ity
Discovery : Lord Kamerlingh Onnes discovered the Above critical temperature material is said to be in nor-
phenomenon of superconductivity in the year 1911. When mal state and offers resistance for the flow of electric cur-
he was studying the temperature dependence of resistance rent. Below critical temperature material is said to be in
of Mercury at very low temperature he found that resis- superconducting state. Thus 𝑇𝑐 is also called as transition
tance of Mercury decreases with temperature with the de- temperature.
crease in temperature up to a particular temperature 𝑇𝑐 =
4.15K . Below this temperature the resistance of mercury
abruptly drops to zero. Between 4.15𝐾 and 0𝐾 Mercury 8.2 Meissner’s Effect
offered no resistance for the flow of electric current. This
In 1933, Meissner and Ochsenfeld showed that when a su-
phenomenon is reversible and material becomes normal
perconducting material is placed in a magnetic field it al-
once again when temperature was increased above 4.15K.
lows magnetic lines of force to pass through, if it’s tem-
This phenomenon is called superconductivity and material
perature is above 𝑇𝑐 . If the temperature is reduced below
which exhibits the property is named superconductor.
the critical temperature Tc then it expels all the flux lines
completely out of the specimen and exhibits perfect dia-
Definition : Thus the Superconductivity is defined as magnetism. This is known as Meissner’s effect. Since
“The phenomenon in which resistance of certain metals, superconductor exhibits perfect diamagnetism below the
alloys and compounds drops to zero abruptly, below cer- critical temperature Tc, magnetic flux density inside the
tain temperature is called superconductivity material is zero.

Variation of Resistivity with Temperature The varia-

tion of the resistivity of a superconductor,pure and impure
metals with temperature is as shown below.

The expression for magnetic flux density is given by

Critical Temperature : The temperature, below which 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝑀 + 𝐻) (8.1)
materials exhibit superconducting property is called crit-
ical temperature, denoted by 𝑇𝑐 . Critical temperature 𝑇𝑐 Here 𝐵 is Magnetic Flux Density, 𝑀 is Magnetization and
is different for different substances. The materials, which 𝐻 is the applied magnetic field strength. For a supercon-

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ductor, 𝐵 = 0 at 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑐 . Thus we get Type I Superconductors

𝑀 = −𝐻 (8.2) paragraph Type I superconductors exhibit complete Meis-
sener’s Effect and posses a single value of critical field .
Thus Meissner’s Effect signifies the negative magnetic mo- The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as
ment associated with superconductors. shown in the Fig.8.1. As the field strength increases the
material becomes more and more diamagnetic until 𝐻 be-
comes equal to 𝐻𝑐 . Above 𝐻𝑐 the material allows the flux
8.3 Critical Field and its Tempera- lines to pass through and exhibits normal conductivity. The
ture Dependence value of 𝐻𝑐 is very small for soft superconductors. There-
fore soft superconductors cannot withstand high magnetic
Critical field We know that when superconductor is placed fields. Therefore they cannot be used for making super-
in a magnetic field it expels magnetic flux lines completely conducting magnets. Ex. Hg, Pb and Zn.
out of the body and exhibits a perfect diamagnetism. But
if the strength of the magnetic field is further increased, it
is found that for a particular value of the magnetic field,
material looses its superconducting property and becomes
a normal conductor. The value of the magnetic field at
which the transition occurs from the Superconducting state
to Normal Conducting state is called Critical Field or
Critical Magnetic Field and is denoted by 𝐻𝑐 . It is found
that by reducing the temperature of the material further su-
perconducting property of the material could be restored.
Thus, critical field does not destroy the superconducting
property of the material completely but only reduces the
critical temperature of the material.

The variation of Critical field with temperature below Figure 8.1: Type1 Superconductor
the critical temperature is given by
 
𝑇2
𝐻 𝑐 = 𝐻0 1 − 2 (8.3) Type II Superconductors
𝑇𝑐
paragraph Superconducting materials, which can with-
Here 𝐻𝑐 is the Critical field at any temperature 𝑇 less than stand high value of critical magnetic fields, are called Hard
𝑇𝑐 , 𝐻0 is the Critical field at 𝑇 = 0𝐾. Superconductors.

Figure 8.2: Type2 Superconductor

The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as

8.4 Types of Superconductors shown in the Fig.8.2. Hard superconductors are character-
ized by two critical fields 𝐻𝑐1 and 𝐻𝑐2 . When applied
Superconductors are classified into two types magnetic field is less than 𝐻𝑐1 material exhibits perfect
1. Type I Superconductor or Soft Superconductor diamagnetism. Beyond 𝐻𝑐1 partial flux penetrates and the
material is said to be Vortex State. Thus flux penetra-
2. Type II Superconductor or Hard Superconductor tion occurs through small-channelized regions called fila-

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ments. As the strength of the field increases further, more Below the critical temperature the dense cloud of
and more flux fills the body and thereby decreasing the Cooper pairs form a collective state and the motion all
diamagnetic property of the material. At 𝐻𝑐2 flux fills the Cooper pairs is correlated resulting in zero resistance of
body completely and material losses its diamagnetic prop- the material.
erty as well as superconducting property completely.

8.6 High Temperature Supercon-

ductivity
Superconducting materials which exhibit superconduc-
tivity at relatively higher temperatures are called high
temperature superconductors. Thus high temperature su-
perconductors posses higher value of critical temperature
compared to conventional superconductors. Most of the
high temperature superconductors are found to fall into the
category of ceramics. In 1986 George Bednorz and Alex
Muller discovered a compound containing Lanthanum,
The value of 𝐻𝑐2 is hundreds of times greater than Hc Barium, Copper and Oxygen having 𝑇𝑐 =30K was devel-
of soft superconductors. Therefore they are used for mak- oped. In 1987 scientists developed a compound which is
ing powerful superconducting magnets. Examples:𝑁 𝑏𝑇𝑖, an oxide of the form 𝑌 𝐵𝑎 2 𝐶𝑢 3 𝑂 7 which is referred to as
𝑁 𝑏 3 𝑆𝑛 1-2-3 compound with 𝑇𝑐 > 90𝐾 was discovered.

All high temperature superconductors are oxides of cop-

8.5 BCS Theory of Superconductiv- per and bear Perovskite crystal structure characterized by
large number of copper-oxygen layers. It was found that
ity addition of extra copper-oxygen layer pushes the critical
temperature 𝑇𝑐 to higher values. The super currents are
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer explained the phe- strong in the copper-oxygen layer and weak in the direc-
nomenon of superconductivity in the year 1957. The tion perpendicular to the planes. Following is the list of
essence of the BCS theory is as follows. High Temperature Superconductors.

Consider an electron approaching a positive ion core and

suffers attractive coulomb interaction. Due to this attrac-
tion ion core is set in motion and thus distorts that lattice.
Let a second electron come in the way of distorted lattice
and interaction between the two occurs which lowers the
energy of the second electron. The two electrons there-
fore interact indirectly through the lattice distortion or the
phonon field which lowers the energy of the electrons. The
above interaction is interpreted as electron - Lattice - elec-
tron interaction through phonon field.
It was shown by Cooper that, this attractive force be-
comes maximum if two electrons have opposite spins and
momentum. The attractive force may exceed coulombs re-
pulsive force between the two electrons below the critical
temperature, which results in the formation of bound pair
of electrons called cooper pairs.

8.7 Quantum Tunneling

In classical mechanics, when a particle has insufficient
energy, it would not be able to overcome a potential bar-
rier. In the quantum world the particles can often behave

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