Adjacent: a 2 nodes are adjacent if they

Parentheses show scope ∃x∈N.(...)Pick arbitrary rational numbers a and b. We want to show that a²+b² is rational. Since a is
If n is an even number, then n² is even share and edge {u,v} ∈ E.
e.g. ∀n.(n∈N→(Even(n)↔Even(n²)))rational, we know there exist integers p and q such that a=p/q, and q≠0. Similarly, since b
Antecedent Consequent Walk in a graph G=(V,E) is a sequence
∃ is paired with ∧ and ∀ is pairedis rational, we know there exist integers s and t such that b=s/t, and t≠0. We can
Proposition: a statement that is either with → ¬(A→B) = A ∧ ¬B substitute these into the sum of ▢s of and as follows: a²+b²= (p²t²+s²q²) / q²t². So we see of ≥1 nodes v₁,v₂… so that any 2
true or false. e.g. n is an integer ¬(A↔B) = ¬A↔B or A↔¬B a²+b² can be written as c/d, where c=p²t²+s²q² and d=q²t². We further observe because consecutive nodes in the sequence are
Negation of a proposition that is always Remember DOT after ∀x. or ∃x ∈ S. p,q,s,t ∈ Z, and integers are closed under addition and multiplication, then . Finally, adjacent. (arbitrarily long)
true whenever X if false & false when SETS: ¬∀x. A = ∃x. ¬A because q≠0 and t≠0, d≠0. So a²+b² is rational. length of the walk v₁,...,vₙ is n-1.
x is true. (e.g. N(x<3) = x≥3. Negation of ¬∃x. A = ∀x. ¬A An elem may be a set, might need to take elem of elem x. where x ∈ A. closed walk: a walk from a node back to
Existential Statements: universal statement. ¬∀x ∈ S. A = ∃x ∈ S. ¬A Thm: For all sets A and B, if A ⊆ B, then ℘(A ∪ B) ⊆ ℘(B). Prf: Pick arbitrary sets A and itself. (Convention: cannot have length
(there is no P that is Q) ∃ ¬∃x ∈ S. A = ∀x ∈ S. ¬A B where A ⊆ B. We want to show ℘(A ∪ B) ⊆ ℘(B). First, we will show since A ⊆ B, A ∪ 0)
Universal Statements: existential p ↔ q: (p^q) ∨ ¬(p ∨ q) ⊤: ⊥→⊥ B = B. By the definition of the union operator, every element of B is an element of A ∪ B. path: a walk that doesn’t repeat nodes
statement. (there is a P that is not p ∨ q: ¬(¬p ^ ¬q) ¬p: p→⊥ Now, we show every element of A∪B is an element of B. Consider an arbitrary element x cycle:closed walk that doesn’t repeat
Graph: a math structure for representing
Q that disproves it) ∀ p ∧ q: (p→q→⊥)→⊥ R is REAL NOs ∈ A∪B. There are 2 possibilities: Case 1: x∈A. Since A ⊆ B, x ∈ B. Case 2: x ∈ B. In any nodes/edges except the first/last relationships. (Directed vs undirected)
Implication: For every x, if P(x) is All rational numbers: p/q where q≠0 either case, x ∈ B, so (A ∪ B) ⊆ B. Since (A ∪ B) ⊆ B and B ⊆ (A ∪ B), we see A ∪ B node.
Assume undirected.
true, then Q(x) is T. (there is an x The Aristotelian Forms: = B. Thus, ℘(A ∪ B) = ℘(B). Since every set is a subset of itself, ℘(A ∪ B) ⊆ ℘(B), as req. node v is reachable from a node u if Undirected graph: an unordered pair
where P(x) is T and Q(x) is F) “All As are Bs” : ∀x. (A(x)→B(x)) Thm: Let G=(V,E) be an arbitrary graph with the property "every node in G is adjacent to there is a path from u to v. G=(V,E) where V is a set of nodes and E is
Proof by contrapositive: “Some As are Bs” : ∃x. (A(x)∧B(x)) at least one other node in G. Prove that if I is an Independent set in G, then V-I is a graph G is called connected if all pairs a set of edges, which are unordered pairs
P->Q : ¬Q -> ¬P “No As are Bs” : ∀x. (A(x)→¬B(x)) dominating set in G. Prf: ... Assume that I is an IS in G. We want to show that V-I is a DS of distinct nodes in G are reachable. of nodes from V. Unordered pair is a set
Biconditional: P if and only if Q “Some As aren’t Bs”: ∃x. (A(x)∧¬B(x)) in G. Let x∈V where x∉V-I, ∴ x∈I.We want to show there exists a node adjacent to x in connected component (CC) of G is a {a,b} of 2 elements a≠b.
P->Q and Q->P must be proven “Every person loves someone else” the set V-I. Since x∈V, we know it must be adjacent to ≥1 node in G. Since no 2 adjacent maximal set of mutually reachable Directed graph: an unordered pair G=(V,E)
Proof by Contradiction: assume ∀p. (Person(p)→ elems can be in I, we know n∉I. Finally, since n∈V but n ∉ I, we know n∈(V-I), as req. nodes where V is a set of nodes and E is a set of
consequent is false, show that ∃s. (Person(s) ∧ (s≠p) ∧ Loves(p,s))) Thm: If I is a maximal independent set in G(V,E), then I is a dominating set of G. Prf: complement of undirected G is the edges, which are ordered pairs of nodes
is not possible. Conclude we “There is a person everyone else loves” Assume for the sake of contra that for some I, I is a maximal IS in G(V,E) and I is not a graph Gᶜ = (V,Eᶜ), where Eᶜ = { {u,v} | from V. (digraph)
it’s true. (¬p→⊥) → p ∃p. (Person(p) ∧ (∀q. (Person(s) ∧ DS of G. Since I is not a DS, there exists a v∈V such that v∉I and v is not adjacent to any u∈V, v∈V, u≠v, and {u,v} ∉ E} Self-Loops: generally not allowed in
(q≠p) → Loves(q,p))) ) elem in I. Consider the set I' = I U {v}. It suffices to show I' is an IS and I⊆I'. For any The Pigeonhole Principle: If m objects undirected g’s.
“Empty set exists”∃S. (Set(S) ∧ ∀x. arbitrary elems a,b on I', if both a and b are elems of I, there does not exist an edge are distributed into n bins and m>n, ∃u ∈ V. ∀v ∈ V. {u,v} ∈ E. Look at
(x∉S))¬(p∧q) = p→¬q ¬(p→q) = p∧¬q between them. Considering the case where one of a and b is v, assume without loss of then at least one bin will contain at least negation ∀u ∈ V. ∃v ∈ V. {u,v}∉E. -
Negate there exists a puppy who’s cute generality that a=v. We see that there is no edge between a=v and b, since b is an elem 2 objects Always T for v=u.
Operator Precedence highest ¬(∃x. (Puppy(x) ∧ Cute(x))) = of I, ∴I’ is independent.Now that we have shown I' is indepedent, we show that I⊆I'. degree of node v in a graph is the no. of Vertex Covers: (undirected) a set C⊆V so
¬, ∧, ∨, →, ↔ to lowest ∀x. (Puppy(x)→¬Cute(x)) (If puppy, Since v∈I’ and v∉I, I≠I’. For any elem x of I, x∈I’, so I⊆I'. Thus, I must not be a maximal nodes that v is adjacent to. ∀x∈V. ∀y∈V. ({x,y}∈E → (x∈C ∨
“p if q” = q→p. “but” = “and” cannot be cute) easier to read than IS. We have reached a contra, our assumptions ... ∴if I is a maximal IS set in G(V,E), Generalized pigeonhole principle: if you y∈C))
De Morgan’s Law: ∀x. (¬Puppy(x)∨¬Cute(x)). then I is a DS of G.■ distribute m objects into n bins, then “Every edge has at least one endpoint in
¬(p→q) = p∧¬q; (p→q) = ¬p∨q Y(p,q,r): T,T,F,…,F,T: Thm: There exists a set C, where for all sets of sets S, C is a Center of S. Prf: Let C=∅. We some bin will have at least ⌈m/n⌉, and C”. Independent Sets: (undirected) a set
First-order Logic Y(p,q,r) = (p∧q) ∨ (¬p∧¬q∧¬r) want to show that for all sets of sets S, C is a Center of S. Pick an arbitrary set of sets S, and some bin will have at most ⌊m/n⌋ I⊆V ∀u∈I. ∀v∈I. {u,v} ∉ E. “No 2 nodes
predicates: describe props of ¬p = Y(⊥,⊥,p) p→q=Y(Y(⊥,⊥,p) , pick arbitrary A,B∈S where A≠B. We want to show that C⊆A∩B. Since empty set is a subset objects in it. in I are adjacent”.
objects (func that returns bool) Y(⊥,⊥,p) ,Y(⊥,⊥,q)) of all sets, we have that ∅⊆A∩B, which is what we wanted to show.
"No 2 robots love exactly the same set of cats." = Every 2 robots have at least
funcs: objects to object CHECK RIGHT ASSOCIATIVE one cat one likes and the other does not ∀a. ∀b. ( ( Robot(a) /\ Robot(b) /\ (a ≠
Quantifiers allow us to reason ¬(p→q→r) = ¬(p→(q→r)) !!! b) ) → (∃c. ( Cat(c) /\ ((Loves(a,c) /\ ¬Loves(b,c)) \/ (¬Loves(a,c) /\ Loves(b,c)))
about multiple objects p ∧ ¬(q→r) = p ∧ q ∧ ¬r )))
Connections work on predicates ¬(A∧B) = A →¬B Thm: Let G=(V,E) be a graph and let C⊆V be a set. Then C is a vertex
(∧,¬,→,...) Negate Biconditional Thm: If m objects are distributed into n>0 bins, then some bin will contain at least ⌈m/n⌉ objects. cover of G if and only if V-C is an independent set in G. Lemma1: Let
Equality: (a special predicate) ¬( ((p∧q)∨r) ↔ ((q∨r)→p)) Prf: We will prove that if m objects are distributed into n bins, then some bin contains at least G=(V,E) be a graph and let C⊆V be a set. If C is a vertex cover of G,
states whether 2 objects are Bi: ¬A↔B and A↔¬B. m/n objects. Since the number of objects in each bin is an integer, this will prove that some bin must
equal to one another. Negate easier (~p and ~q) or then V-C is an independent set in G.
contain at least ⌈m/n⌉ objects.To do this, we proceed by contra. Suppose that, for some m and n, there is a
Expressing Uniqueness: (q and p) ((p∧q)∨r)↔(q∨r)∧¬p way ) to distribute m objects into n bins such that each bin contains fewer than m/n objects. Number the bins Prf: Assume C is a vertex cover of G. We need to show V-C is an
∃a. ((Cute(a) ∧ ¬(∃b. (Cute(b) “There is a set S where every 1,...n and let xᵢ denote the number of objects in bin i. Since there are m objects in total, we know that independent set of G. Pick any nodes x,y ∈ V-C; we’ll show {x,y} ∉ E.
∧ (a≠b)))) = ∃w. ((Cute(a) ∧ elem of Sis also a subset of S”: m=x₁+x₂+...+xₙ.Since each bin contains fewer than m/n objects we see that xᵢ < m/n for each i. ∴, we have Assume for …contra. {x,y} ∈ E. Because x,y ∈ V-C, we know that x ∉ C
∀x. (Cute(b) → (a=b)) ) ∅. because ∀x (x∈ S→x⊆S). that m= x₁+x₂+...+xₙ, m < m/n + … + m/n (n times). m < m is impossible. Contra… ∴,If m objects are and y ∉ C. However, since C is a VC of G and {x,y} ∈ E, we see x ∈ C or
Equality can only be applied to Satisfied as F->F=T. distributed into n bins, some bin must contain at least ⌈m/n⌉ objects.■ y ∈ C, contradicting … ∴, we have {x,y} ∉ E, as req. Lemma2: Let
objects; to state 2 propositions And {∅}, {∅, {∅}} INDUCTION Thm: Consider a 6-clique in which every edge is colored either red or blue. Then there must be a △ of G=(V,E) be a graph and let C⊆V be a set. If C is not a vertex cover of G,
are equal, use <-> Larger->Smaller Clique;
red deges, a triangle of blue edges, or both. Prf: We need to show that the colored 6-clique contains a red then V-C is not an independent set in G.
Mathematical Induction: Let P S->Larger Squares eg
be some predicate. If P(0) is true With squares the quantifier is ∃, △ or a blue △. Let x be any node in the 6-clique. It is incident to 5 edges and there are 2 possible colors Prf: Assume C is not a vertex cover of G. We need to show V-C is not an
and ∀k ∈ N (P(k)→P(k+1)) for cliques ∀.Build up with ∃, Buildfor those edges. ∴ , by the generalised PHP, at least ⌈5/2⌉ = 3 of those edges must be the same color. independent set of G. Since C is not a vertex cover of G, we know there
then ∀n ∈ N P(n). down with ∀ Math Induction: Prf Without loss of generality, assume those edges are blue.Let r,s, and t be 3 of the nodes adjacent to node exists nodes x,y ∈ V where {x,y} ∈ E, where x ∉ C and y ∉ C. ∴, we
REGULAR vs COMPLETE Base, Assume P(k) holds. Prove x along a blue edge. If any of the edges {r,s}, {r,t}, or {s,t} are blue then one of those edges plus the 2 know x ∈ V-C and y ∈ V-C. This means that {x,y} ∈ E, that x ∈ V-C,
INDUCTION. P(k+1). Complete Induction: Prf edges connecting back to node x for a blue △. Otherwise, all 3 of those edges are red and they form a
and y∈V-C, so V-C is not an independent set as x and y are adjacent in
Moving ± c vs moving at Base. Pick an arbitrary k and red triangle. Overall, this gives a red △ or a blue △ as req.■
arbitrary c1,c2,... V-C, as req.■
assume P(0)...P(k) are all true.
Thm: If G = (V,E) is a graph, then at least one of G and Gᶜ is connected.Prf: Let G Thm: In any graph with at least 2 nodes, there are at least 2 nodes of the
MIDTERM PREDICTION: Prove P(k+1), Conclude P(n) holds.
= (V,E) be an arbitrary graph and assume that G is not connected. We need to
Show 2 sets are equal. Show Contradiction Sandwich: 1. Assume, for the sake of same degree.Prf: Let G be a graph with n ≥ 2 nodes. There are n
show that Gᶜ = (V,Eᶜ) is connected. To do so, consider any 2 distinct nodes u,v ∈
A⊆B and B⊆A contradiction that the thm is F. 2. Prove the thm using a possible choices for the degrees of nodes in G, namely, 0,1,...,n-1.We
V. We need to show that there is a path from u and v in Gᶜ. We consider 2 cases:
direct proof. 3. contradicts that the theorem is F, so the claim that G cannot simultaneously have a node u of degree 0 and a
Set of all committees you can make Case 1: u and v are in different connected components of G. This means that {u,v}
theorem is T.
from Stanford students and faculty ∉ E. , since otherwise the path u,v would make component of G. ∴, we see that node v of degree n-1: if there were such nodes, then node u would be
that contain at least one student and {u,v} ∈ Eᶜ, and so there is a oath (namely, u, v) from u to v in Gᶜ.Case 2: u and v adjacent to no other nodes and node v would be adjacent to all other
at least one faculty member. You can are in the same connected component of G. Since G is not connected, there are at nodes, including u. We ∴ see that the possible options for degrees of
assume no one is both a student and least 2 connected components of G. Pick any node z that belongs to a different nodes in G are either drawn from 0,1,...,n-2 or from 1,2,...,n-1. In either
a faculty member: ℘ (S ∪ F ) \ (℘ (S) connected component of G than u and v. Then by reasoning from Case 1 we know case, there are n nodes and n-1 possible degrees, so by the pigeonhole
∪ ℘ (F )) that {u, z} ∈ Eᶜ and {z, v} ∈ Eᶜ.This gives a path u, z, v in Gᶜ from u to v.In either
case, we find a path from u to v in Gᶜ, as req.■ principle two nodes in G must have the same degree.■
 Rules for funcs: Thm: If f:A→B is injective and g:B→C is injective, then g•f:A→C is injective. Prf: Let Thm: For all natural numbers n that if ⌊n/2⌋·⌈n/2⌉ is odd, then Thm: For all integers n, if n is odd, then n² is odd. Prf: Pick
∀a ∈ A. ∃b ∈ B. f(a) = b (Domain/co f:A→B and g:B→C be arbitrary injections. We will prove the func g•f:A→C is also n is even. Prf: We will prove the contrapositive of this an odd integer n. We want to show n² is odd. Since n is odd,
rules) statement, namely, for all natural numbers n, if n is odd, then there is an integer k where n = 2k + 1.Then we see n² = (2k
injective. To do so, consider any a₁,a₂ ∈A where a₁≠a₂. We will prove g•f(a₁)≠g•f(a₂).
∀a₁ ∈ A. ∀a₂ ∈ A. (a₁ = a₂ → f(a₁) = ⌊n/2⌋·⌈n/2⌉ is even. To do so, pick an odd natural number for + 1)² = 4k²+4k+1 =2(2k² + 2k)+1. ∴, there is an integer m
Equivalently, we need to show g(f(a₁))≠g(f(a₂)). Since f is injective and a₁≠a₂, we see n. We want to show that ⌊n/2⌋·⌈n/2⌉ is even. Since n is an odd (namely, 2k² + 2k) such that n²=2m+1, so n² is an odd
f(a₂)) (Deterministic)
A func needs a domain, codomain, and f(a₁)≠f(a₂), we see g(f(a₁))≠g(f(a₂)), as req.■ natural number there exists a non-negative number k such number, as req.
a rule to evaluate. Thm: |[0,1]|=|[0,2]|. Prf: Consider the func f: [0,1]→ [0,2] defined as f(x)=2x. We need that n = 2k+1.Thus, ⌊n/2⌋·⌈n/2⌉ = ⌊(2k+1)/2⌋·⌈(2k+1)/2⌉ = Thm: For all integers a, b, and c, if a²+b²=c², then at least
f:Z→Z, where f(x)=x+2 to prove f is a bijection. First we show f is a well defined func. Choose any x∈[0,1]. ⌊k+(1/2)⌋·⌈k+(1/2)⌉ = k·(k + 1) = k²+k. There are 2 cases to one of a, b, and c is even. Prf: We will prove the
Piecewise can be valid with overlap as This means 0≤x≤1, so we know 0≤2x≤2. Consequently, we see 0≤f(x)≤2, so f(x) ∈ examine. One in which k is even and the other in which k is contrapositive of this statement, namely, for all integers a, b,
long as they produce the same output odd. Case 1: k is even and, thus, exists an integer a so that and c, if a, b, and c are odd, then a²+ b² =c². To do so, pick
[0,2]. Next, we’ll show f is injective. Pick any x₁,x₂∈[0,1] where f(x₁)=f(x₂). We will
for the overlap section. k=2a. Through substitution, we see that ⌊n/2⌋·⌈n/2⌉ = k² + k = odd integers for a, b, and c. We want to show a²+b² =c².
show x₁=x₂. To see this, notice since f(x₁)=f(x₂), we see 2x₁=2x₂, so x₁=x₂, as req. (2a)²+(2a)=4a²+2a=2(2a² + a). Case 2: k is odd and, thus, Since a, b, and c are odd numbers, we know by our result
f:N→R f(x) = 1 / (x+1) is a func
Finally, we will show f is surjective. To do so, consider any y∈[0,2]. We’ll show that exists an integer b so that k=2b+1.Through substitution, we from the previous problem a²,b², and c² are odd. Because a²
f:R→R f(x) = 1 / (x+1) not a func
f: A→A is called an involution if there is some x∈[0,1] where f(x)=y. Let x=y/2. Since y∈[0,2], we know 0≤y≤2, so see that ⌊n/2⌋·⌈n/2⌉ = k²+k= (2b+1)² + (2b+1) = and b² are odd, there exist integers p and q such that a² =
∀x ∈ A. f(f(x))=x (A to A required as 0≤y/2≤1. We picked x=y/2, 0≤x≤1, which means x∈[0,1]. Moreover, f(x)=2x=2(y/2)=y. 4b²+4b+1+2b+1 =2(2b²+3b+1). In either case, both are shown 2p+1 and b² = 2q+1. This means a² + b² = (2p+1) + (2q+1) =
input to f is f(x). So f(x)=y, as req■ to be even in the form 2m (m= 2a² + a in the even case and 2(p+q+1), which means a² + b² is even. However, as
To prove not an involution: Thm: If S is a set, then |S|≠|P(S)|. Prf: Let S be an arbitrary set. We will prove m=2b²+3b+1 in the odd case) which is what we needed to mentioned earlier we know c² is odd. ∴, we see a² + b² = c²
¬((∀n∈N. f(f(n)) = n) = ∃n∈N. f(f(n))≠n |S|≠|P(S)| by showing there are no bijections from S to P(S). Choose an arbitrary funcshow. ■ as req.■
Injective Func (one-to-one) : f: A→B Thm: Let T be an arbitrary tournament and c be a player in Thm: For all integers m and n, if mn is even and m is odd,
f:S→P(S). We will prove that f is not surjective. Starting with f, we define the set D = that tournament. If c won more games than anyone else in T then n is even. Prf: Assume for the sake of contradiction
∀a₁ ∈ A. ∀a₂ ∈ A. (a₁ ≠ a₂ → f(a₁) ≠
{x ∈ S | x ∉ f(x) }. We will show there is no y∈S such that f(y) = D. To do so, we or is tied for winning the greatest number of games, then c is a there exist integers m and n where mn is even and m is odd
f(a₂))
= ∀a₁ ∈ A. ∀a₂ ∈ A. (f(a₁) = f(a₂) → a₁ proceed by contradiction. Suppose that there is some y ∈ S such that f(y)=D. By tournament champion in T. Prf: We will prove that if c won and n is odd. Since m is odd, we know there is an integer k
= a₂) definition of D, y∈D if and only if y∉f(y) (2). By assumption f(y)=D combined with (2), more games than anyone else in T or is tied for winning the where m = 2k + 1. Similarly, since n is odd, there is an
[Contrapositive], injective is whether y∈D if and only if y∉D. This is impossible. We have reached a contra… ∴, there is greatest number of games, then c is a tournament champion integer r where n = 2r + 1. Then we see mn = (2k+1)(2r+1) =
A→B→A is possible. no y∈S so that f(y)=D, so f is not surjective. ∴, f is not a bijection, and since our in T. To do this, we will prove the contrapositive of this 4kr + 2k+2r+1 =2(2kr+k+r)+1 which means mn is odd, but
Surjective Func if each element of the statement, namely, if c is not a tournament champion in T, then this is impossible because mn was assumed to be even. We
choice of f was arbitrary, we conclude that there are no bijections between S and
codomain is covered by at least one some player in T won more games than c. If c is not a have reached a contradiction, so our assumption must have
P(S). Thus |S|≠|P(S)|, as req.■ tournament champion, then its negation holds, namely, there been wrong. ∴, if mn is even and m is odd, then n is even.■
element of the domain: f: A→B
∀b ∈ B. ∃a ∈ A. f(a)=b. Thm: The sum of the first n powers of 2 is 2ⁿ-1. Prf: Let P(n) be the statement "...". exists a player p such that p beat c, and for any player q, q Thm: For all integers x and y and any integer k, if x ≡k y,
Involutions: funcs that undo themselves. We will prove, by induction, that P(n) is true for all n∈N, from which the thm follows. beat c or p beat q. Consider any player r. There are 2 cases: then y ≡k x. Prf: Let x, y, and k be arbitrary integers where x
Injections: funcs where different inputs For our base case, we need to show P(0) is true, meaning that the sum of the first 0 Case 1: If r beat c, then c’s win tally did not change. Case 2: If ≡k y. We want to show that y ≡k x. To do so, we will show
go to different outputs; powers of two is 2⁰-1. Since the sum of the first 0 powers of 2 is zero and 2⁰-1 is zero c beat r, the statement "r beat c or p beat r" must still be there is an integer q where y = x + qk. Because x ≡k y, we
Surjections: funcs that cover their whole as well, we see P(0) is true.For our inductive step, assume that for some arbitrary satisfied. Since r did not beat c, p must have beaten r. Then know there is an integer r such that x = y + rk. Now, let q = -r.
codomain. c’s and p’s win tallies both increased by one. Thus, p beat Then we see y = x − rk = x − (−q)k = x + qk which ....
k∈N that P(k) holds meaning that 2⁰+2¹+...+2ᵏ⁻¹=2ᵏ-1. (1) every player that c beat,so p won at least as many matches Thm: For all integers x, y, z, and k that if x ≡k y and y ≡k z,
func composition is okay as long as the
We need to show that P(k+1) holds that the sum of the 1ˢᵗ k+1 powers of 2 is 2ᵏ⁺¹-1. as C. Furthermore,p beat c, which adds an additional win to we have x ≡k z. Prf: Let x, y, z, and k be arbitrary integers
codomain of the first func is the domain
of the second func. 2⁰+2¹+...+2ᵏ⁻¹+2ᵏ=(...)+2ᵏ = 2ᵏ-1+2ᵏ=22ᵏ-1=2ᵏ⁺¹-1. ∴, P(k+1) is true, completing the p’s tally. Thus, p must have won at least one more match than where x ≡k y and y ≡k z. We want to show x ≡k z. To do so,
Diagonal Set: D={x∈S|x∉f(x)} induction. c.So, some player in T won more games than c, as req. we will show there is an integer m where x = z + mk.
|S|=|T| if there exists a bijection f:S→T.Thm: If exactly 1 coin in a group of 3ⁿ coins is heavier than the rest, that coin can be found using only n weighings on a balance. Prf: Let P(n) be Because x ≡k y, we know there is an integer r such that x = y
Thm: The func f:N→N defined as f(n)=n²the statement: ... We'll use induction to prove that P(n) holds for every n∈N, from which the thm follows. As our base case, we'll prove that P(0) is + rk and because y ≡k z, we know there is an integer s such
is not an involution. Prf: We want to true, meaning that if we have a set of 3⁰=1.coins with one coin heavier than the rest, we can find that coin with 0 weighs. This is true because if we that y = z + sk. Using this we can see x = y + rk = (z + sk) +
show there is some n∈N where f(f(n)) ≠ have just 1 coin, it's vacuously heavier than the others, and no weighings are needed.For the inductive step, suppose P(k) is true for some arbitrary rk = z + (s + r)k = z + mk which ...
n. Pick n = 2. Then f(f(n)) = Thm: For all integers x and k,x ≡k x.Prf:Let x and k be
k∈N, so we can find the heavier of 3ᵏ coins in k weighs.We'll prove P(k+1): that we can find the heavier of 3ᵏ⁺¹ coins in k+1 weighs. Suppose we arbitrary integers. We want to show x ≡k x. To do this, we will
f(f(2))=f(4)=16, which means f(f(2)) ≠ 2.
have 3ᵏ⁺¹ coins with one heavier than the others. Split the coins into two groups of 3ᵏ coins each. Weigh 2 of the groups against one another. If one show there is an integer r where x = x + rk. Pick r = 0. Then
Thm: The func f:N→N defined as
group is heavier than the other, the coins in that group must contain the heavier one. Otherwise, the heavier coin must be in the group we didn't put we see x=x+0(k) = x+rk ...
f(n)=2n+7, then f is injective. Prf:
on the scale. ∴, with 1 weigh, "we can find a group of 3ᵏ coins containing the heavy coin. We can then use k more weighings to find the heavy coin Look at odd no starting at 3, analyzing pattern show m=k².
Consider any n₁,n₂ ∈ N where f(n₁)=f(n₂) Thm: If n is an odd natural number and n ≥ 3, then there is
in that group. We've given a way to use k+1 weighs and find the heavy coin out of a group of 3ᵏ⁺¹ coins.Thus P(k+1) is true, completing the
. We will prove n₁=n₂. Since f(n₁)=f(n₂), Thm: For any natural n≥1, there are exactly 2ⁿ⁻¹ ways to eat a 1*n choc an m ∈ N where m > 0 and m² + mn is a perfect ▢. Prf: Pick
induction.
we see 2n₁+7 = 2n₂+7, n₁ = n₂. So, Thm: For any N n, if n points labeled +1 are placed on the circle and n bar from left to right.Prf: Let P(n) be the statement "there..." We will an odd natural number n where n ≥ 3. We want to show
n₁=n₂ as req. ■ points labeled -1 are placed on the circle. Prf: Let P(n) be the predicate prove by induction that P(n) holds for all natural numbers n≥1, from there exists an integer m such that m² + mn is a perfect ▢.
Thm: For any func f:A→A, if f is an "for..." We will prove by induction that P(n) holds for all N n, from which which the thm follows.As our base case, we prove P(1), there is exactly Since n is an odd natural number there is an integer k such
involution, then f is surjective. Prf: Pick any the thm follows. As our base case, we prove P(0), there is a way to win 2¹⁻¹=1 way to each a 1*1 bar.The only option is to eat the entire bar at that n=2k+1. Let m= k². Because 2k+1 ≥ 3, we know k ≥ 1,
involution f:A→A. We will prove f is the game when no points. You can start at any point and survive. For once, as needed.For our induc. step, assume for some arbitrary N which means m=k²≥1. m² + mn = (k²)² + (k²)n = k4 + (k²)(2k +
surjective. To do so, pick an arbitrary b∈A. our inductive step, assume for some arbitrary N k, that "...". Now we number k≥1 that P(1) … P(n) are true. We need to show P(k+1) is true, 1) = k4 + 2k3 + k² = (k² + k)². ∴ there is an integer r (namely,
We need to show there is an a∈A where consider any arbitrary config A of k+1 points ... Pick an arbitrary point p that there are exactly 2ᵏ ways to eat a 1*(k+1) bar. There are 2 options k(k+1)) such that m²+mn=r². Thus m²+mn is a perfect ▢, as
f(a)=b. Specifically, pick a=f(b). This means labelled +1. Move clockwise starting at p until reaching a node labelled for how to eat the bar. 1st, we can eat the whole bar in 1 bite. 2nd, we req.
f(a)=f(f(b)). Putting this together, we see -1. Call this node r, and the node immediately preceding it q.Now could eat a piece of size r for some 1≤r≤k, leaving a bar of size k+1-r, Thm: For all sets A and B if P(A)=P(B), then A=B. Prf: Let A
f(a)=b, as req. consider the circle B formed by removing points q and r. This circle has then eat that bar from left to right. Since 1≤r≤k, we know 1≤k+1-r≤k, so and B be arbitrary sets. We will prove the contrapositive of
Thm: For any func f:A→A, if f is an k points labeled +1 and k points ... So by our previous assumption, it by our inductive step, there are 2ᵏ⁻ʳ to eat the remainder. Summing up this thm's stmt, namely, if A≠B, then P(A)≠P(B). If A≠B, then
involution, then f is injective. Prf: Consider a contains a starting point from which u can win the game. Finally, we seethis 1ˢᵗ option, plus all choice of r for the 2nd option, we see the no. of there must exist an x such that (x∈A and x∉B) or (x∉A and
func f:A→ A is an involution. We will prove f that by starting from this same point in A and moving clockwise, we’re ways is 1+2ᵏ⁻¹+...+2¹+2⁰= 1+2ᵏ-1=2ᵏ. Thus P(k+1) holds, completing the x∈B). Since x∈A, {x}∈p(A). Furthermore, because x ∉ B,
is injective. To do so, choose any a₁,a₂ ∈ A guaranteed to survive until we reach the node q since it is a induction.■ {x} ∉P(B). ∴P(A)≠P(B), as desired.
Thm: For any n≥6, there is a way to subdivide a ▢ into n smaller ▢s. Prf: Let P(n) be the
where a₁≠a₂. We need to show f(a₁)≠f(a₂). prefix of the winning path in B. Now by travelling through q Thm: Let f:A→A be a func. If f³ is surjective f is statement "there ..." We will prove by induc. that P(n) holds for all n≥6, from which the thm
We’ll proceed by contradiction. Suppose and r, we gain 1 point and lose it, leaving us with surjective. Prf: We will prove the contrapositive of follows.As our base cases, we prove P(6),P(7), and P(8), that a ▢ can be subdivided into
f(a₁)=f(a₂) which means f(f(a₁))=f(f(a₂)), which unchanged score. Continuing from the node following this stmt, namely, if f is not surjective then f³ is not 6,7,and 8 ▢s. This is shown here: GRAPH.For the inductive step, assume that for some
in turn tells us a₁=a₂ because f in an q with this score, we are guaranteed to survive until surjective. Assume f is not surjective. There must arbitrary k≥6 that P(k) is true and there is a way to subdivide a ▢ into k ▢s. We prove P(k+3),
involution. But that’s impossible,so our we reach the starting node of winning path B, since it exist a b∈A where there is no a∈A so f(a)=b. that there is a way to subdivide a ▢ into k+3 ▢s. To see this, start by obtaining a subdivision of
assumptions must have been wrong. ∴ we is equivalent to following B's winning path.∴we see t Equivalently, there is no f(a) ∈ A such that f(f(a))=b.▢s into k ▢s. Then, choose any of the ▢s and split it into 4 equal ▢s. This removes one of the k
see that f(a₁)≠f(a₂), as req. hat ..., so P(k+1) is true, completing the induction. ■ There is no f(f( a))∈A so f(f(f(a)))=b. We have ▢s and adds 4 more, so there will be a net total of k+3 ▢s. Thus P(k+3) holds, completing the
shown the cp to be true as req. induc.