SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND

DESIGN
Monita Wahengbam
Scientist-’C’
NIELIT Senapati Extension Centre

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Unit – 1
Introduction

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 Systems Analysis and Design is an active field in which analysts
repetitively learn new approaches and different techniques for building
the system more effectively and efficiently. The primary objective of
systems analysis and design is to improve organizational systems. This
tutorial provides a basic understanding of system characteristics,
system design, and its development processes. It is a good introductory
guide that provides an overview of all the concepts necessary to build a
system.

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• Systems development is systematic process which includes phases
such as planning, analysis, design, deployment, and maintenance.
Here, in this tutorial, we will primarily focus on −
• Systems analysis
• Systems design

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Systems Analysis

• It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the

problems, and decomposition of a system into its components.
• System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or
its parts in order to identify its objectives. It is a problem solving
technique that improves the system and ensures that all the
components of the system work efficiently to accomplish their
purpose.
• Analysis specifies what the system should do.

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Systems Design

• It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an

existing system by defining its components or modules to satisfy the
specific requirements. Before planning, you need to understand the
old system thoroughly and determine how computers can best be
used in order to operate efficiently.
• System Design focuses on how to accomplish the objective of the
system.
• System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on −
• Systems
• Processes
• Technology

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What is a System?

• The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means
an organized relationship between any set of components to achieve
some common cause or objective.
• A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked
together according to a plan to achieve a specific goal.”

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Constraints of a System
• A system must have three basic constraints −
• A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed
to achieve a predefined objective.
• Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system
components.
• The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the
objectives of its subsystems.
• For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic
library system, human resources information system.

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Characteristics/Properties of a System
• Organization
Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of
components that helps to achieve predetermined objectives.
• Interaction
It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each
other.
For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with
production department and payroll with personnel department.
• Interdependence
Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one
another. For proper functioning, the components are coordinated and linked
together according to a specified plan. The output of one subsystem is the required
by other subsystem as input.

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• Integration
Integration is concerned with how a system components are
connected together. It means that the parts of the system work together
within the system even if each part performs a unique function.
• Central Objective
The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is
not uncommon for an organization to state an objective and operate to
achieve another.
The users must know the main objective of a computer application
early in the analysis for a successful design and conversion.

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Elements of a System

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• Components : An irreducible part or aggregation of parts that makes up a
system; also called a subsystem.
• Interrelated components : Dependence of one part of the system on one or
more other system parts.
• Boundary : The line that marks the inside and outside of a system and that
sets off the system from its environment.
• Purpose : The overall goal or function of a system.
• Environment : Everything external to a system that interacts with the
system.
• Interfaces : Point of contact where a system meets its environment or
where subsystems meet each other.
• Constraints : A limit to what a system can accomplish.
• Input : Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing.
• Output : The main objective of a system is to get an output which is helpful
for its user. Output is the final outcome of processing.

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Types of Systems
• Common classifications are:
• physical or abstract,
• open or closed, and
• “man – made” information systems.

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Physical or Abstract Systems
• Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them.
• Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature. For example,
desks and chairs are the physical parts of computer center which are
static. A programmed computer is a dynamic system in which
programs, data, and applications can change according to the user's
needs.
• Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be
formulas, representation or model of a real system.

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Open or Closed Systems
• An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs
from and delivers outputs to the outside of the system. For example,
an information system which must adapt to the changing
environmental conditions.
• A closed system does not interact with its environment. It is isolated
from environmental influences. A completely closed system is rare in
reality.

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Adaptive and Non Adaptive System
• Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way
to improve their performance and to survive. For example, human
beings, animals.
• Non Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the
environment. For example, machines.

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Permanent or Temporary System
• Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business
policies.
• Temporary System is made for specified time and after that they are
demolished. For example, A DJ system is set up for a program and it is
dissembled after the program.

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Natural and Manufactured System
• Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, Solar system,
seasonal system.
• Manufactured System is the man-made system. For example, Rockets,
dams, trains.

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Deterministic or Probabilistic System
• Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the
interaction between system components is known with certainty. For
example, two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen
makes water.
• Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior. The exact output is
not known. For example, Weather forecasting, mail delivery.

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Social, Human-Machine, Machine System
• Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs,
societies.
• In Human-Machine System, both human and machines are involved
to perform a particular task. For example, Computer programming.
• Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the
tasks are performed by the machine. For example, an autonomous
robot.

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Man–Made Information Systems
• It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular
organization, under Direct Management Control (DMC).
• This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and application
for producing information according to the need of an organization.
• Man-made informa on systems are divided into three types −
• Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of informa on in the form of
memos, instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of management.
• Informal Information System − This is employee based system which solves the
day to day work related problems.
• Computer Based System − This system is directly dependent on the computer for
managing business applications. For example, automatic library system, railway
reservation system, banking system, etc.

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Further Categorized as:
• Formal Information Systems: Responsible for flow of information
from top management to lower management But feedback can be
given from lower authorities to top management
• Informal Information Systems: Informal systems are employee
based. These are made to solve the day to day work related
problems.
• Computer-Based Information Systems: This class of systems depends
on the use of computer for managing business applications

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Information systems (IS)
• In organizations capture and manage data to produce useful information that supports an
organization and its employees, customers, suppliers, and partners. Many organizations consider
Information systems to be essential to their ability to compete or gain competitive advantage. Most
organizations have come to realize that ail workers need ro participate in the development of
information systems.
• Transaction processing systems (TPSs)
• Management Information systems (MISs)
• Decision support systems (DSSs)
• Executive information system (EIS)
• Expert systems
• Communications and collaboration system
• Automation systems

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• Transaction processing systems (TPSs) process business transactions such as orders,
the cards, payments, and reservations.
• Management Information systems (MISs) use the transaction data to produce
information needed by managers to run the business.
• Decision support systems (DSSs) help various decision makers Identify and choose
between options or decisions.
• Executive information system (EIS) are tailored to the unique information needs of
executives who plan for the business and assess performance against those plans.
• Expert systems capture and reproduce the knowledge of an expert problem solver
or decision maker and then simulate the “thinking" of that expert.
• Communications and collaboration system enhance communication and
collaboration between people, both Internal and external to the organization.
• Finally, office automation systems help employees create and share documents that
support day-to-day office activities

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What is Manual System ?

• A manual system is like a bookkeeping system in which records

maintenance is done by hand, without using a computer system or
any automatic system. In this type of system transactions are written
in journals, from which the information is manually retrieved into a
set of financial statements. These systems suffer from higher rate of
inaccuracy, and they are much slower than computerized systems. ”

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What is Automated System ?
• “ Automated system is a combination of both software and hardware
which is designed and programmed to work automatically without
the need of any human operator to provide inputs and instructions
for each operation. “
• Automated systems allow you to monitor your processes in real time
and identify problems as they arrive, enabling quick adjustments
along the way. While manual systems can be difficult to coordinate,
similar to the old cliche that "the right hand doesn't know what the
left hand is doing," automated systems work in tandem on their own.

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 Manual System Vs Automated System
• Speed
• The main difference between manual and computerized systems is speed. Accounting software
processes data and creates reports much faster than manual systems. Calculations are done
automatically in software programs, minimizing errors and increasing efficiency. Once data is input, you
can create reports literally by pressing a button in a computerized system.
• Cost
• Another difference between manual and computerized systems is cost. Manual accounting with paper
and pencil is much cheaper than a computerized system, which requires a machine and software. Other
expenses associated with accounting software include training and program maintenance. Expenses
can add up fast with costs for printers, paper, ink and other supplies.
• Backup
• A third difference between manual and computerized systems is the ease of backup of a computerized
system. All transactions can be saved and backed up, in case of fire or other mishap. You cannot do this
with paper records, unless you make copies of all pages--a long and inefficient process.

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Real-life Business sub-systems
Functional Information System is based on the various business functions such as
Production, Marketing, Finance and Personnel etc. These departments or functions are
known as functional areas of business. Each functional area requires applications to
perform all information processing related to the function. The popular functional areas of
the business organization are:
1.Financial Information System
2.Marketing Information System
3.Production Information System
4.Human Resource Information System / Personal Information System
5.Material information system

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Financial Information System:
• Financial information system is a sub-system of organizational management information
system. This sub-system supports the decision-making process of financial functions at the
level of an organization.
• Financial data analysis may be conducted through trend evaluations, ratio analyses and
financial planning modeling. Data outputs that are produced by FIS can include
• Operating and capital budgets
• Working capital reports
• Accounting reports
• Cash flow forecasts
• The predictive analytics included in these applications may also narrow down exactly what
could be expected from a business interaction or transaction that has yet to take place.

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• The management of financial information in an e-commerce business is
paramount in order to gain maximum operating results in the shortest amount of
time. An FIS can also yield huge amounts of data for daily business operations.
Financial markets traders and salespeople have the greatest demand for FIS
because they work in very fast environments and their on-demand computing
systems must keep up with real-time activities in order to allow these
professionals to operate in real time. Broker investigating, investment and trade
data along with fiscal asset classes can be relayed through an FIS. This also works
for smaller businesses that need to obtain financial data about local markets. FIS is
a form of real-time operating system that works to enhance financial information
exchanges. NIELIT Imphal Senapati Extension Centre 32
Marketing Information System
• A system that analyzes and assesses marketing information, gathered
continuously from sources inside and outside an organization. Timely
marketing information provides basis for decisions such as product
development or improvement, pricing, packaging, distribution, media
selection, and promotion.
• Internal reporting systems
• Marketing research systems
• Marketing intelligence systems
• Marketing models

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Internal reporting systems
• All enterprises which have been in operation for any period of time nave a wealth of information.
However, this information often remains under-utilized because it is compartmentalized, either in
the form of an individual entrepreneur or in the functional departments of larger businesses. That
is, information is usually categorized according to its nature so that there are, for example, financial,
production, manpower, marketing, stockholding and logistical data. Often the entrepreneur, or
various personnel working in the functional departments holding these pieces of data, do not see
how it could help decision makers in other functional areas. Similarly, decision makers can fail to
appreciate how information from other functional areas might help them and therefore do not
request it.

• The internal records that are of immediate value to marketing decisions are: orders received,
stockholdings and sales invoices. These are but a few of the internal records that can be used by
marketing managers, but even this small set of records is capable of generating a great deal of
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information.
Marketing research systems
• Marketing research is a proactive search for information. That is, the enterprise which

commissions these studies does so to solve a perceived marketing problem. In many cases, data is

collected in a purposeful way to address a well-defined problem (or a problem which can be

defined and solved within the course of the study). The other form of marketing research centres

not around a specific marketing problem but is an attempt to continuously monitor the marketing

environment. These monitoring or tracking exercises are continuous marketing research studies,

often involving panels of farmers, consumers or distributors from which the same data is

collected at regular intervals. Whilst the ad hoc study and continuous marketing research differs

in the orientation, yet they are both proactive.

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Marketing intelligence systems
• Marketing intelligence is the province of entrepreneurs and senior managers within an
agribusiness. It involves them in scanning newspaper trade magazines, business journals and
reports, economic forecasts and other media. In addition it involves management in talking to
producers, suppliers and customers, as well as to competitors. Nonetheless, it is a largely informal
process of observing and conversing.

• Some enterprises will approach marketing intelligence gathering in a more deliberate fashion and
will train its sales force, after-sales personnel and district/area managers to take cognizance of
competitors' actions, customer complaints and requests and distributor problems. Enterprises
with vision will also encourage intermediaries, such as collectors, retailers, traders and other
middlemen to be proactive in conveying market intelligence back to them.
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Production / Manufacturing information
system
• A management information system that is targeted for use anywhere production is taking place.
Modern management information systems are generally computerized and are designed to
collect and present the data which managers need in order to plan and direct operations within
the company.

• OBJECTIVE OF PRODUCTION INFORMATION SYSTEM

• It is responsible for actually producing the firms goods and services.
• This system deals with planning, development & maintenance of production facilities.
• Establishment of production goals
• The acquisition, storage and availability of production materials.
• Scheduling of equipment, facilities, materials and labor required to fashion finished
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Personal / Human Resources Information
System
• This functional information system supports the functions of human resource management of an
organization. The human resource management function, in its narrow sense, it also known as
personnel management .The function involves:
• Manpower planning.
• Staffing
• Training and development
• Performance evaluation, and
• Separation activities

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Materials management information system
• It is a software suite packaged as an integrated offering to meet materials management, human-
resources and back-office needs. At a minimum, MMISs should be designed to interface readily
with other mission-critical information systems in the enterprise.

• The hospital materials management function--ensuring that goods and services get from a source
to an end user--encompasses many areas of the hospital and can significantly affect hospital
costs. Performing this function in a manner that will keep costs down and ensure adequate cash
flow requires effective management of a large amount of information from a variety of sources.
To effectively coordinate such information, most hospitals have implemented some form of
materials management information system (MMIS). These systems can be used to automate or
facilitate functions such as purchasing, accounting, inventory management, and patient supply
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Systems models types of models
• Systems that are intended for use in real-world environments should be designed
to function correctly in the widest possible range of circumstances and in the face
of many possible difficulties and threats.
Types Of Model :
• Physical model : Physical models are the most explicit way in which to describe a system; they capture
the hardware composition of a system in terms of the computers (and other devices, such as mobile
phones) and their interconnecting networks.
• Architectural models : Architectural models describe a system in terms of the computational and
communication tasks performed by its computational elements; the computational elements being
individual computers or aggregates of them supported by appropriate network interconnections.
• Fundamental model : Fundamental models take an abstract perspective in order to examine individual
aspects of a distributed system. Fundamental models that examine three important aspects of
distributed systems: interaction models, which consider the structure and sequencing of the
communication between the elements of the system; failure models, which consider the ways in which
a system may fail to operate correctly and; security models, which consider how the system is protected
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against attempts to interfere with its correct operation or to steal its data.
System Boundary and Environment
• What happens “outside” the system will affect it. In general, what happens outside the system, in
the system’s environment, is of vital importance. Firstly, the system can affect the environment,
and secondly the environment can affect the system. One of the reasons for the failure of many
technically brilliant engineering products is due to the lack of attention, by the designers, to the
environment. This is not only the environment in terms of the operating conditions but the wider
one that includes life cycle aspects, politics, fashion or just human beings.
A key aspect of Systems Thinking therefore is to identify and establish what is inside the system
and what is outside in the environment. This requires us to define the system boundary, an
interface which separates the system from its environment as shown and detailed below:
• the boundary separates the system of interest from its environment.
• the environment contains those elements and further systems that interact in some way with the
system of interest. Typically the environment of a system provides its inputs and consumes its
outputs.
• any element or system that does not interact with the system of interest lies outside the
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environment in the universe.
• Deciding what is and what is not part of a system is not easy. Consider the situation
given here - what is the system? The purpose of the system is to turn thoughts into
marks on paper. The context is the office. Clearly, the pen is part of the system.
However, to turn thoughts into marks on paper demands the human and the paper
to be part of the system. But, what about the desk? Without the desk, the paper
will not be supported at the correct height. Therefore, it is possible to argue the
inclusion of the desk as part of the system. If we accept the desk, is it necessary to
include the office floor? In which case what about the building, the street, the
town - and so on. The choice of what is and what is not the chosen system of
interest depends upon the observer and their reason for examining that system.
For example if the reason for examining the “turn thoughts into marks on paper”
system is to select a pen, then the pen would constitute the system of interest and
the human and the paper would be in the environment of that system. If, however,
my intent is to design a new pen the system would include the user and the paper
and the desk etc., would be in NIELIT
theImphal
environment.
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Real Time System
• A real-time system is any information processing system which has to
respond to externally generated input stimuli within a finite and specified
period – the correctness depends not only on the logical result but also the
time it was delivered – failure to respond is as bad as the wrong response!
• Hard real-time systems
• Soft real-time systems
• Firm real-time systems
• Weakly hard real-time
• A deadline is a given time after a triggering event, by which a response has
to be completed.
• For example: flight control system, real time monitors etc.
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What is a need for RTOS(Real Time Operating
System)

• Fast context switches? – should be fast anyway

• Small size? – should be small anyway
• Quick response to external triggers? – not necessarily quick but
predictable
• Multitasking? – often used, but not necessarily
• “Low Level” programming interfaces? – might be needed as with
other embedded systems
• High processor utilisation? – desirable in any system (avoid oversized
system)

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Hard real-time systems
• An overrun in response time leads to potential loss of life and/or big
financial damage
• Many of these systems are considered to be safety critical.
• Sometimes they are “only” mission critical, with the mission being
very expensive.
• In general there is a cost function associated with the system.

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Soft real-time systems
• Deadline overruns are tolerable, but not desired.
• There are no catastrophic consequences of missing one or more
deadlines.
• There is a cost associated to overrunning, but this cost may be
abstract.
• Often connected to Quality-of-Service (QoS)

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Firm real-time systems
• The computation is obsolete if the job is not finished on time.
• Cost may be interpreted as loss of revenue.
• Typical example are forecast systems.

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Weakly hard real-time systems
• Systems where m out of k deadlines have to be met.
• In most cases feedback control systems, in which the control becomes
unstable with too many missed control cycles.
• Best suited if system has to deal with other failures as well (e.g.
Electro Magnetic Interference EMI).
• Likely probabilistic guarantees sufficient.

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Classification Of Real-Time Systems
• Real-Time systems can be classified [Kopetz97] from different
perspectives. The first two classifications, hard real-time versus soft
real-time, and fail-safe versus fail-operational, depend on the
characteristics of the application, i.e., on factors outside the
computer system. The second three classifications, guaranteed-
timeliness versus best-effort, resource-adequate versus resource-
inadequate, and event-triggered versus time-triggered, depend on
the design and implementation, i.e., on factors inside the computer
system. However this paper focuses on the differences between hard
and soft real-time classification.

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Hard Real-Time versus Soft Real-Time
• Table 1 shows the major differences between hard and soft real-time systems. The response
time requirements of hard real-time systems are in the order of milliseconds or less and can
result in a catastrophe if not met. In contrast, the response time requirements of soft real-
time systems are higher and not very stringent. In a hard real-time system, the peak-load
performance must be predictable and should not violate the predefined deadlines. In a soft
real-time system, a degraded operation in a rarely occurring peak load can be tolerated. A
hard real-time system must remain synchronous with the state of the environment in all
cases. On the other hand soft real-time systems will slow down their response time if the
load is very high. Hard real-time systems are often safety critical. Hard real-time systems have
small data files and real-time databases. Temporal accuracy is often the concern here. Soft
real-time systems for example, on-line reservation systems have larger databases and require
long-term integrity of real-time systems. If an error occurs in a soft real-time system, the
computation is rolled back to a previously established checkpoint to initiate a recovery
action. In hard real-time systems,NIELIT
roll-back/recovery is of limited use.
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Table 1

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Real-Time Scheduling
• A hard real-time system must execute a set of concurrent real-time
tasks in a such a way that all time-critical tasks meet their specified
deadlines. Every task needs computational and data resources to
complete the job. The scheduling problem is concerned with the
allocation of the resources to satisfy the timing constraints.

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• Real-Time scheduling can be categorized into hard vs soft. Hard real-time scheduling can be
used for soft real-time scheduling. Some of the research on QoS addresses this problem in
detail and is not covered here. The present paper focuses on scheduling algorithms for hard
real-time.
• Hard real-time scheduling can be broadly classifies into two types: static and dynamic. In
static scheduling, the scheduling decisions are made at compile time. A run-time schedule is
generated off-line based on the prior knowledge of task-set parameters, e.g., maximum
execution times, precedence constraints, mutual exclusion constraints, and deadlines. So
run-time overhead is small. More details on static scheduling can be found in [ Xu90]. On the
other hand, dynamic scheduling makes its scheduling decisions at run time, selecting one
out of the current set of ready tasks. Dynamic schedulers are flexible and adaptive. But they
can incur significant overheads because of run-time processing. Preemptive or non-
preemptive scheduling of tasks is possible with static and dynamic scheduling. In preemptive
scheduling, the currently executing task will be preempted upon arrival of a higher priority
task. In non-preemptive scheduling, the currently executing task will not be preempted until
completion.

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Dynamic Scheduling Algorithms
• Schedulability test often used by dynamic schedulers to determine
whether a given set of ready tasks can be scheduled to meet their
deadlines. Different scheduling algorithms and their schedulability
criteria is explained below.

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Rate Monotonic Algorithm (RMA)
• Rate monotonic algorithm [ Lui94] is a dynamic preemptive algorithm
based on static priorities. The rate monotonic algorithm assigns static
priorities based on task periods. Here task period is the time after
which the tasks repeats and inverse of period is task arrival rate. For
example, a task with a period of 10ms repeats itself after every 10ms.
The task with the shortest period gets the highest priority, and the
task with the longest period gets the lowest static priority. At run
time, the dispatcher selects the task with the highest priority for
execution. According to RMA a set of periodic, independent task can
be scheduled to meet their deadlines, if the sum of their utilization
factors of the n tasks is given as below.

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Earliest Deadline-First (EDF) Algorithm
• EDF algorithm is an optimal dynamic preemptive algorithm based on
dynamic priorities. In this after any significant event, the task with the
earliest deadline is assigned the highest dynamic priority. A significant
event in a system can be blocking of a task, invocation of a task,
completion of a task etc. The processor utilization can up to 100%
with EDF, even when the task periods are not multiples of the
smallest period. The dispatcher operates in the same way as the
dispatcher for the rate monotonic algorithm.

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The Priority Ceiling Protocol
• The priority ceiling protocol [ Lui90] is used to schedule a set
dependant periodic tasks that share resources protected by
semaphores. The shared resources, e.g., common data structures are
used for interprocess communication. The sharing of resources can
lead to unbounded priority inversion. The priority ceiling protocols
were developed to minimize the priority inversion and blocking time.

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Static Scheduling Algorithms
• In static scheduling, scheduling decisions are made during compile
time. This assumes parameters of all the tasks is known a priori and
builds a schedule based on this. Once a schedule is made, it cannot
be modified online. Static scheduling is generally not recommended
for dynamic systems. Applications like process control can benefit
from this scheduling, where sensor data rates of all tasks are known
before hand. There are no explicit static scheduling techniques except
that a schedule is made to meet the deadline of the given application
under known system configuration. Most often there is no notion of
priority in static scheduling. Based on task arriaval pattern a time line
is built and embedded into the program and no change in schedules
are possible during execution.
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Distributed System
• Distributed system a system in which components are distributed across multiple
locations and computer-network.
• A distributed system is one in which the components of an information system
are distributed to multiple locations in a computer network. Accordingly, the
processing workload required to support these components is also distributed
across multiple computers on the network.
The opposite of distributed systems are centralized systems. In centralized
systems, a central, multi user computer (usually a mainframe) hosts all
components of an information system. The users interact with this host computer
via terminals (or, today, a PC emulating a terminal), but virtually all of the actual
processing and work is done on the host computer.

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Distributed systems are Inherently more complicated and more
difficult to implement than centralized solutions. So why is the
trend toward distributed systems?
• Modem businesses are already distributed, and, thus, they need distributed system solutions.
• Distributed computing moves information and services closer to the customers that need them.
• Distributed computing consolidates the incredible power resulting from the proliferation of
personal computers across an enterprise (and society in general). Many of these personal
computers are only used to a fraction of their processing potential when used as stand-alone PCs.
• In general, distributed system solutions are more user friendly because they use the PC as the
user interface processor.
• Personal computers and network servers are much less expensive than main-frames. (But
admittedly)', the total cost of ownership is at least as expensive once the networking complexities
are added ln.)

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• There is a price to be paid for distributed systems. Network data traffic can cause congestion that
actually slows performance. Data security and Integrity can also be more easily compromised In a
distributed solution. Still there Is no arguing the trend toward distributed systems architecture.
While many centralized, legacy applications still exist, they are gradually being transformed Into
distributed Information systems. Conceptually, any information system application can be
mapped to the layers:
• The presentation layer is the actual user interface- the presentation of inputs and outputs to the
user.
• The presentation logic layer is any processing that must be done to generate the presentation.
Examples include editing input data and formatting output data.
• The application logic layer Includes all the logic and processing required to support the actual
business application and rules. Examples include credit checking, calculations, data analysis.
• The data manipulation layer includes all the commands and logic required to store and retrieve
data to and from the database.
• The data layer is the actual stored data in a database.

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• There are three types of distributed systems architecture:
• File server architecture.
• client/server architecture.
• internet-based architecture.

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File Server Architecture
• Today very few personal computers and workstations are used to
support standalone information systems. Organizations need to share
data and services. Local area networks allow many PCs and
workstations to be connected to share resources and communicate
with one another. A local area network (LAN) is a set of client
computers (usually PCs) connected to one or more servers (usually a
more powerful PC or larger computer) through either cable or
wireless connections over relatively short distances - for instance, in a
single department or in a single building.

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Client/Server Architectures
• The prevailing distributed computing model of the current era is called client/server computing
(although it is rapidly giving way to internet-based models). A client/server system is a solution in
which the presentation, presentation logic, application logic, data manipulation, and data layers
are distributed between client PCs and one or more servers.
The client computers may be any combination of personal computers or work-stations,
“sometimes connected” notebook computers, handheld computers (e.g.,Palm or Windows
Mobile Platforms), WebTVs, or any devices with embedded processors that could connect to the
network (e.g., robots or controllers on a manufacturing shop floor). clients may be thin or fat.
A thin client is a personal computer that does not have to be very powerful (or expensive) in
terms of processor speed and memory because it only presents the interface (screens) to the
user-in other words, it acts only as a terminal. Examples include Remote Desktop and X/Windows.
In thin client computing, the actual application logic executes on a remote application server.
A fat client is a personal computer, notebook computer, or workstation that is typically more
powerful (and expensive) in terms of processor speed, memory, and storage capacity. Almost
all PCs are considered fat clients.
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Internet – Based Computing Architectures
• Some consider Internet-based system architectures to be the latest evolution of client/server.
We present internet-based computing alternatives this section as a fundamentally different form
of distributed architecture that is rapidly reshaping the design thought processes of systems
analysts and Information technologists. A network computing system is a multi tiered solution in
which the presentation and presentation logic layers are implemented in client – side Web
browsers using content downloaded from a web server. The presentation logic layer then
connects to the application logic layer that runs on an application server, which subsequently
connects to the database server(s) on the backside. All information systems running in browsers-
financials, human resources, operations- all of them! . E-commerce is part of this formula, and as
we go to press, e-commerce applications are getting most of the attention. But the same
internet technology being used to build e-commerce solutions are being used to reshape the
internal information systems of most businesses- we call it e-business (although that term is also
subject to multiple Interpretations). Network computing is, in our view, a fundamental shift away
from what we just described as client/server.
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Advantages of Distributed system
• Economics: cost effective way to increase computing power.
• Speed: a distributed system may have more total computing power than a mainframe.
• Ex. 10,000 CPU chips, each running at 50 MIPS. Not possible to build 500,000 MIPS single processor since it
would require 0.002 nsec instruction cycle.
• Reliability: If one machine crashes, the system as a whole can still survive. Higher availability and improved
reliability.
• Incremental growth: Computing power can be added in small increments. Modular expandability
• Data sharing: allow many users to access to a common data base
• Resource Sharing: expensive peripherals like color printers
• Communication: enhance human-to-human communication, e.g., email, chat
• Flexibility: spread the workload over the available machines

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Disadvantages of Distributed System
• Software: difficult to develop software for distributed systems
• Network: saturation, lossy transmissions
• Security: easy access also applies to secrete data

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Basic Principles Of Successful System
• The Incremental Commitment Spiral Model (ICSM) is a life cycle
process model generator that has been evaluated to be a flexible but
robust framework for system development. The ICSM combines the
strengths of various current process models and limits their
weaknesses. The ICSM, like the Vee model, emphasizes early
verification and validation, but allows for multiple-incremental
interpretation and emphasizes concurrent rather than sequential
engineering. Compared to the Spiral Model, the ICSM also focuses on
risk-driven activity prioritization, but offers an improvement by
adding well-defined in-process milestones.

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Four key trends that require changes and how the
ICSM suggests process changes for developing
successful systems:
• Increasingly complex, global systems of systems: The Internet and personal communication
devices are connecting most everything and everyone together. Developers of 21st century
systems will need to consider how they fit, not only within their own enterprise, but often within
multiple networks of independently evolving, codependent systems. The ICSM commitment
milestones require evidence that the system be scalable to operate with its intended full-up
environment, and be interoperable with its codependent systems for global collaborative
processes.
• Emergent requirements: Asking people what they would like in their user interface usually results
in a response such as “I’m not sure, but I’ll know it when I see it” (IKIWISI). The most appropriate
user interfaces and collaboration modes for a complex human-intensive system are not
specifiable in advance, but emerge with usage. Forcing users to specify them precisely in advance
of development generally leads to poor business or mission performance and expensive late
rework and delays. The ICSM provides support for incremental and concurrent definition of
system requirements and solutions, including competitive prototyping approaches.
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• Rapid change: Trying to stay competitive in a world of increasingly rapid changes requires new
levels of agility, and shorter times between new releases of products and services. The ICSM’s
incremental definition and development stages directly support shorter increments, more agile
methods, and evolutionary development.
• High assurance of qualities: At the same time that systems engineering and development need to
become more agile, the growing interdependence of systems and people requires systems to
have higher assurance levels. Just assuring any of the quality attributes for a complex system of
systems is difficult. It is even harder to get agreement among multiple system owners with widely
disparate quality priorities. “Satisficing” means not everybody gets everything they want, but
everybody gets something they are satisfied with. The ICSM’s principles of stakeholder satisficing
and evidence-based commitment milestones help ensure that key stakeholders’ primary quality
concerns are addressed.

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Key principles of the ICSM
• Principle 1: Stakeholder Value-Based System Definition and Evolution =>
The INCOSE definition of systems engineering is “An interdisciplinary approach and means to
enable the realization of successful systems”. A system will be successful if and only if it makes
winners of its success-critical stakeholders. Thus, in order to create a successful system, you need
to identify which stakeholders are success-critical, to determine their value propositions or win
conditions, and to define, design, develop, and evolve a mutually satisfactory or win-win system
with respect to their value propositions. If a project fails to include and address the value
propositions of its success-critical stakeholders such as end-users, maintainers, inter operators, or
suppliers, these stakeholders will frequently feel little commitment (or active hostility) to the
project and either underperform, decline to use, or block the use of the results.
• Principle 2: Incremental Commitment and Accountability =>
Without key personnel commitment and accountability for the system under development, there
is no way to build trust among the system’s stakeholders. It is too easy to overpromise and depart.
And there must be clear visibility of progress versus plans up and down the supplier chain. If
success-critical stakeholders are not accountable for their commitments, they may not provide
necessary commitments or decisions in a timely manner and are likely to be drawn away to other
pursuits when they are most needed.
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• Principle 3: Concurrent Multidiscipline System Definition and Development -
The fundamental assumptions underlying sequential processes, prespecified requirements, and functional-
hierarchy product models began to be seriously undermined in the 1970s and 1980s. The increasing pace of
change in technology, competition, organizations, and life in general has made assumptions about stable,
prespecifiable requirements unrealistic. The existence of cost-effective, competitive, incompatible
commercial products or other reusable non-developmental items (NDIs) made it necessary to evaluate and
often commit to solution components before finalizing the requirements. The difficulty of adapting to rapid
change with brittle, optimized, point-solution architectures generally made optimized first-article design to
fixed requirements unrealistic. The ICSM emphasizes the principle of concurrent rather than sequential work
on understanding needs, envisioning opportunities, system scoping, system objectives and requirements
determination, architecting and designing of the system and its hardware, software, and human elements,
life cycle planning, and development of feasibility evidence. So, it is important to do everything in parallel,
especially in the early phases. If definition and development of requirements and solutions; hardware,
software, and human factors; or product and process definition are done sequentially, the project is likely
both to go more slowly, and to make early, hard-to-undo commitments that accumulate technical debt and
cut off the best options for project success.

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• Principle 4: Evidence-Based andRisk-based Decision making =>
Having evidence serves as the principal decision criterion at milestone decision reviews is a considerable
step forward from traditional schedule based or event-based reviews. This is better, but frequently leads
to “Death by PowerPoint and SysML” reviews, which present much design detail, but there is little time
to determine whether or not the design will meet the system’s key performance parameters. Such
evidence of feasibility is generally desired, but is considered as an optional appendix and is often
neglected. In an ICSM evidence-based review, the feasibility evidence is a first-class deliverable. As such,
its planning and preparation becomes subject to earned value management and is factored into progress
payments and award fees. Investments in feasibility evidence have been found to pay off significantly in
development rework avoidance [BoehmValerdi-Honour, 2008]. The link between evidence-based and
risk/opportunity-based decision making is that shortfalls in evidence are uncertainties or probabilities of
loss or gain. If the Opportunity Exposure OE is high and the window of opportunity is closing rapidly,
proceeding at least incrementally with a small amount of evidence can be the best decision. Thus, we
can see that Principle 4 brings all of the other principles together. It involves concerns with the
stakeholders’ value propositions in making decisions as in Principle 1; with proceeding incrementally as
in Principle 2; and with synchronizing and stabilizing the concurrent activity prescribed in Principle 3.

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