International Journal of Sustainable Development and

Planning
Vol. 18, No. 3, March, 2023, pp. 737-743
Journal homepage: http://iieta.org/journals/ijsdp

Environmental Sustainability and Food Safety of the Practice of Urban Agriculture in Great
Bandung
Sunardi Sunardi1,2* , Ismail Ghulam3 , Nadia Istiqomah1 , Kabul Fadilah4 , Kinanti Indah Safitri3 , Oekan S.
Abdoellah1,5
1
Center for the Environment and Sustainability Science (CESS), Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung 40132, Indonesia
2
Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang 45363, Indonesia
3
Graduate Program on Environmental Studies, Graduate School, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung 40132, Indonesia
4
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Pembangunan Nasional “Veteran” Jawa
Timur, Surabaya 60294, Indonesia
5
Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Social and Political Science, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang 45363, Indonesia

Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.180309 ABSTRACT

Received: 17 November 2022 Urban farming activities is markedly increasing with expectation to strengthen the food
Accepted: 28 February 2023 security in the cities, however, the crop safety and the environmental sustainability of
farming activities is questioned. To address environmental sustainability, examination of
Keywords: river water quality and pesticide residue both in the water and crop production in peri-
environmental sustainability, food safety, food urban areas of Great Bandung were carried out. STORET index were used to identify the
security, urban farming quality of water source with reference to Indonesia Ministry of Environment as well as
the biodiversity index to ensure the health of aquatic ecosystem. The results showed that
the urban farming practices had utilized clean and uncontaminated water sources to
irrigate the land. The good quality of water sources could be maintained even after urban
farming activities. The diversity of plankton and macrozoobenthos were relatively
increasing, with low-medium level of diversity (H' index = 0.3 – 2.9), even in the
downstream areas after farming land. None of pesticide residues were found in the crop
products. The crops from peri-urban farming of the Great Bandung were safely
consumed. Meanwhile, the sustainability of urban farming in the peripheral areas of Great
Bandung might be lasted so far as the upstream river pollution from the city could be
well-maintained.

1. INTRODUCTION One of the challenges of urban farming is higher levels of

pollution in urban areas compared to rural areas so that it can
One of the global challenges in the 21st century is food affect agricultural processes and commodities. Water, soil and
production to meet the human needs. According to World air are the main inputs in agricultural practices. Potential
Bank [1], human population is expected to increase up to more pollution that occurs in urban areas might come from industrial
than 10 million by 2050 and mostly will reside in the cities. To activities, domestic waste from residential areas,
meet the needs of food and nutrition, crop production is transportation emissions and other sources of pollution related
expected to increase by 75% in the future. Thus, urban farming to human activities in the city. In consequence, it will
is considered to be a solution for global food security and negatively affect environmental quality in urban areas and
sovereignty. Urban farming is defined as the practice of failure urban farming practices and its commodities [5, 6].
growing, processing and distributing agricultural products Generally, agricultural activities in urban areas utilize
intensively in or around urban areas [2]. Sustainable urban limited land; from vertical gardens, rooftop gardens even
farming might overcome the problem of food security by house garden or yard. Urban farming mostly planted
integrating environmental health, economic benefits and perishable crops, such as leafy plants (vegetables) and fruits
social welfare [3] so that access to food commodities and which are also susceptible to air pollutants deposition [7, 8].
economy are increasing without damaging the quality of In addition, urban farming practices occasionally reuse
environment [4]. Urban farming potentially supports wastewater as a water source to irrigate agricultural land. The
environmental health by using efficient input of water high content of nutrients, especially nitrates and phosphates,
resources and the use of fertilizers and pesticides in proper in wastewater helps plant fertility so that it can cut costs for
amount. The economic benefits of urban farming are derived buying fertilizers or pesticides. On the other hand, untreated
from cutting off operational costs from producers to wastewater may contain hazardous compounds such as heavy
consumers. Meanwhile, social welfare can be obtained from metals and hydrocarbons [6, 9], and contaminated by
the opportunity for social interaction and recreational value in pathogens [10] that possibly contaminate soil and agricultural
the practice of urban farming. commodities and have a risk on human health [6, 9, 11, 12].

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 Urban farming practices are threatened by excessive use of represent urban farming activities and as the majority of
agricultural chemicals that deposits residues in crops. The use vegetable and fruit supply areas to Great Bandung. Although
of pesticides in intensive and large-scale agriculture has been it is located in the peri-urban zone of Great Bandung, the study
shown to contribute to environmental pollution and health. area can be categorized as urban agriculture. Urban agriculture
This can happen mainly due to inappropriate use of pesticides does not only include agricultural activities within the urban
or careless handling of pesticides [13]. Thus, the challenge of zone but also includes the peri-urban zone which has direct
food security becomes an important issue in agricultural linkages and interactions with the urban food system [18].
practices in urban areas. Agricultural practices at the study area go hand in hand with
Great Bandung area is the second most populous massive development in the surrounding area which is
metropolitan city after Jakarta (Jabodetabek) with a population undergoing development and transition to urban areas. The
of 8 million people [14]. For fulfilling demand of vegetables three locations are (see Figure 1):
and fruits, the Great Bandung area is supported by agriculture a. Land around the PPI Complex, Jalan Mutiara 1,
in suburban areas, one is West Bandung Regency. Located on Lembang Village, Lembang District. The land area is
the borderland of Bandung City, West Bandung Regency is about 7.3 hectares. The water source for irrigation
leading area for most agricultural activities in Great Bandung derived from Situ Umar. Situ Umar is a lake-like located
with suburban characteristics. Along with suburban inside a tourist attraction. The farmers create a waterway
development, commercial agriculture has emerged in some from tourist attraction to their land.
peri-urban areas of Great Bandung, one is Lembang District, b. Land in Cisalasih Village, Cikidang Village,
West Bandung Regency. Geographically, this area has close Lembang District, West Bandung Regency. The
proximity to the intra-urban area, Bandung City. The peri- estimated land area of the combined land owned by
urban zone of Great Bandung is an area that run into peri- residents and Perhutani is around 500 hectares. However,
urbanization phenomenon. The massive development was each individual farmer owns approximately 0.25 hectares.
occurred from city centre to the sub urban as the centre of new Water sources come from 3 springs (Citamiya, Legok
urban activities [15]. oray and Mount Geledung Cisalasih).
Several studies have been shown the presence of pesticide c. Land in Pasir Wangi Village, Gudang Kahuripan
residues in both water sources and horticultural crops Village, Lembang District, West Bandung Regency. The
produced by intensive agriculture in Lembang, Parongpong water sources come from Cihideung River.
and Cikidang areas [13, 16, 17]. These studies focus on large-
scale intensive agriculture, while research focuses on 2.2 Water quality and aquatic organism analysis
environmental quality and food safety in small-scale urban
farming is still limited. Therefore, this research analyses and In situ water sampling was designed to cover potential water
evaluates urban farming practices on water quality and tries to that flowing to and leaching from urban farming land. The
ensure food safety by assessing potential pesticide residue on distance between urban farming land and water source was
agricultural commodities of urban farming practices. The less than 50 meters. The river is a source of water for irrigation
location includes Cikidang, Cihideung and Lembang villages as well as a reservoir for leaching and material input from
which are areas with intensive agricultural practices and are urban farming.
the majority of vegetable and fruit supply areas in Great Water sampling protocols refer to standard method as
Bandung. described by APHA [19]. Sampling was carried out twice in
the upstream area (before urban farming land) and
downstream area (after urban farming land), with an hour time
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS interval. At each sampling point, five samples were collected
for physio-chemical, trace metals, pesticide residue and
2.1 Study area aquatic organism (plankton and macro zoobenthos). Water
samples for physico-chemical analysis were collected into 1L
high density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles. For metal analysis,
water samples were filtered using filtered membrane with
0.45µm pore size and added HNO3 solution until pH < 2 prior
to be stored. Plankton were collected using plankton net. The
samples preserved by lugol solution prior to analysis in the
laboratory. For macrozoobenthos sampling, grab sampler were
used. The samples then sieved to isolate the organism and to
separate from sedimen/mud. The sample then stored in the
bottle and preserved using formalin 5% for further analysis in
the laboratory.
In situ parameters (temperature, DO, alkalinity and
conductivity) were measured using portable instrument
(thermometer for temperature, DO meter for DO and Lutron
Electronic for alkalinity and conductivity). Nitrate and
phospate analysis were determined using spectrophotometer
technique. TSS was analysed using gravimetri technique.
Figure 1. Map of study area Metal analysis were conducted using Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry (AAS).
To analyse pesticide residue, 100mL water sample was
The study was conducted in the basis of commercial urban
extracted using organic solvent n-hexane. The sample was
agriculture in Great Bandung. Three locations were chosen to

738
shaken for 5 minutes until 2 layer appeared. The water layer Once the diversity index value is obtained, the quality of
was separated and added by n-hexane, then shake. After the aquatic environment can be determined according to the
layer appeared, the water layer was discarded and n-hexane criteria listed in Table 2 [21].
solution was combined with other n-hexane. The solution then
added by 5gr natrium sulphate powder anhydrate until all the 2.3 Pesticide residue analysis
water were bounded. The samples then cleaned up and purified
until it being concentrated. The measurement of pesticide To ensure food safety, an assessment was carried out to the
residue was carried out using Gas Chromatography Mass vegetables produced from urban farming, including lettuce,
Spectrophotometry (GC-MS). green mustard, broccoli and snaps. Pesticide residue on
In case of aquatic organism, plankton counting were carried vegetables were analysed using liquid-liquid extraction
out using sedgewick rafter counting chamber under light method, a standard method adopted from The National
microscope. Macro zoobenthos were identified and quantified Pesticide Committee.
manually using referred species identification book. Vegetables samples were cut into small pieces and grinded.
Once all parameters were calculated, further analysis were 25 g of each grinded vegetables were put into Erlenmeyer and
conducted to determine water quality status and diversity homogenized with acetone. The samples were left overnight
index of aquatic organism using following formulas: for static extraction process. 25 mL of the organic phase was
taken and put into boiling flask and concentrated by rotavapor
𝐻′ = − ∑[(𝑛𝑖 ⁄𝑁) × ln(𝑛𝑖 ⁄𝑁)] (1) in 40°C until its dry. The residue was dissolved using 10mL
acetone and ready to be measured by GC/MS with ECD
detector.
a. STORET index for water quality status
The status of river water quality is evaluated using STORET
Index by comparing the water quality data with the standard 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
referred to [20] concerning Water Quality Management and
Water Pollution Control (class 3 and class 4 for agricultural 3.1 Water quality status of irrigation water source for
purposes). If the value meets the quality standard, then the urban farming
score is 0, otherwise the score is according to the list in Table
1. Furthermore, the final score of the assessment will show the According to evaluation using STORET index, water source
status of water quality which is categorized into 4 classes: for land irrigation of urban farming was classified as good and
Class A = very good/meet the quality standard, score 0 very good (based on class 3 and 4 for agricultural purposes)
Class B = good/lightly polluted, score -1 to -10 that is listed in Table 3. In terms of water quality, none of
Class C = moderate/moderately polluted, score -11 to -30 pesticide residue parameters were detected in the water
Class D = bad/severely polluted, score ≥ 31 sources and almost all parameters meet the quality standard
except BOD.
b. Shannon-Wiener Index for aquatic organism diversity Generally, the waste generated from urban farming were
mostly found to be non- hazardous except pesticide waste [22].
Table 1. The score of each type of parameter in STORET Pesticides contain chemicals that can persist in the
Index environment and are difficult to break down or take a long time
to decompose. These chemicals can accumulate in the food
Number of Parameters chain and spread over a wide range. One of the hazardous
Value
parameters Physical Chemical Biology chemicals is organochlorine which can have a negative impact
Max -1 -2 -3 on human health and the environment. According to water
<10 Min. -1 -2 -3 quality analysis, pesticide residue especially lindane and
Means -3 -6 -9 methoxychlor were not detected in the water source used for
Max -2 -4 -6 urban farming as well as leached to the water sources. Lindane
>10 Min. -2 -4 -6
and Methoxychlor are organochlorine (OC) pesticide that were
Means -6 -12 -18
classified as persistent organic pollutant (POP) and their use
was already prohibited worldwide. However, some farmers
To determine the diversity of plankton and benthos
still use for its lower operational cost and effectiveness.
communities, the following calculation formula is used:
Although there was no OC detected in the water source of the
(Ministry of Environment, the Republic of Indonesia No.
study area, there is still potentially OC pollutant in the future
115/2003)
since some farmers in the upper Citarum watershed were
where:
reported still using the OC pesticides [23].
H’ is Shannon Wiener diversity index and ni is number of
Ministry of Environment, the Republic of Indonesia set
individu within same species and N is total number of individu
BOD value for class 3 and 4 of 6 mg/L and 12 mg/L,
species found
respectively. Downstream water sources of urban farming
land in Cikidang and Lembang village have exceeded BOD
Tabel 2. Criteria for assessing the diversity index of
quality standard, with the value of 15.5 mg/L and 8.2 mg/L
plankton and macrozoobenthos
respectively. Meanwhile, the water sources that flowing to and
leaching from urban farming land in Cihideung Village had
Diversity Index (H’) Community structure
H’ > 3 High diversity
BOD value beyond the applicable standard (Table 4).
1 < H’< 3 Moderate diversity Although BOD was detected in higher value than the standard
H’< 1 Low diversity applied, the water sources quality was adequate for land
irrigation.

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 Table 3. Water quality status of rivers as water sources for urban farming in Great Bandung based on STORET Index

Cikidang Cihideung Lembang

Parameters Parameters Parameters
Class criteria
Score Status exceeded the Score Status exceeded the Score Status exceeded the
standard standard standard
Class 3 0 Very good – -10 Good BOD -8 Good BOD
Class 4 0 Very good – -10 Good BOD 0 Very good –

Table 4. Water quality characteristics of rivers as water sources for urban farming in Great Bandung

STATION*
No. Parameters Unit
Cikidang 1 Cikidang 2 Cihideung 1 Cihideung 2 Lembang 1 Lembang 2
0C
1 Temperature 21 22 23,5 22 24 29
2 Conductivity µmhos/cm 57 92 455 453 541 659
3 Total Suspended Solid (TSS) mg/L 1.2 59 88 42 15 44
4 BOD mg/L 1.7 6 36 15.5 5.1 8.2
5 Dissolved Oxygen mg/L 6.5 6.7 6.2 6.1 1.8 2.7
6 pH – 7.01 7.24 7.59 7.59 7.26 7.18
7 Lead (Pb) mg/L < 0.006 < 0.006 < 0.006 < 0.006 < 0.006 < 0.006
8 Cadmium (Cd) mg/L < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002
9 Nitrate (NO3-N) mg/L 0.622 0.487 0.697 1.306 0.209 0.389
10 Total Phosphate (PO4-P) mg/L 0.148 0.132 0.036 0.036 0.065 0,1.4
11 Lindane µg/L < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4
12 Methoxychlor µg/L < 0.3 < 0.3 < 0.3 < 0.3 < 0.3 < 0.3
*Note: Number 1 and 2 refer to the upstream and the downstream area respectively in reference with the location of farming land

The BOD value is an indirect indicator that can determine recycle nutrients and can reduce the use of fertilizers [26].
the health of waters and the ability of aquatic ecosystems to Although the use of wastewater has a positive impact on crop
support biological life. BOD value fluctuations in waters may yields and can minimize production costs, the risks is also
occur due to spatial and temporal variations. Increased levels come up in relation to food safety. The use of unclean water
of BOD in water sources flowing from the urban farming land can cause contamination, either directly or indirectly.
indicate an increase in organic matter content which might Contamination can occur directly when farmers come into
derived from domestic waste, sewage and agricultural runoff contact with unclean water sources that contain pathogenic
and livestock activities around the river. Urban farming microorganisms. As a result, health risk from contamination is
practice in Cikidang and Lembang village might contribute to inevitably [8, 12]. Meanwhile, indirect contamination can
leach organic matter to the water. Conversely, organic matter occur through the crop yield consumed [11].
in downstream water source had decreasing after urban
farming land in Cihideung Village, showing water quality 3.2 Urban farming impact on aquatic organism
improvement. Environmentally friendly urban farming
practices have been proven to improve the quality of According to diversity index value, plankton and
environment by decreasing stormwater runoff [24]. macrozoobenthos in the rivers around study area were
The trend of increasing BOD levels is in line with the classified as low to moderate level of diversity. However,
increase of TSS levels in the downstream of urban farming urban farming practices carried out in Cikidang, Cihideung,
land in Cikidang Village and Lembang Village. High levels of and Lembang have shown a positive response to the quality of
TSS indicated great amount of the sediment content (clay, mud, the river. It is indicated by an increase in the diversity of
organic matter, etc.) in the river. It can be derived mainly from plankton and macrozoobenthos in the downstream after urban
runoff or other activities in urban areas. Sediment input from farming land (see Figure 2 and Figure 3).
soil runoff might be exacerbated especially during rainy In many studies, urban farming has been shown to increase
season with high precipitation. Globally, most of river biodiversity and ecosystem services [27–30]. The increase in
pollution comes from anthropogenic activities due to the diversity of plankton and macro zoobenthos observed in
urbanization and intensive agricultural and livestock activities this study indicates a healthy and adequate aquatic
[25]. Overall, the water source used to irrigate urban farming environment for the growth of aquatic organisms. Physical and
land at the study area was suitable and relatively safe for chemical factors of waters have an important influence on the
agricultural activities. condition and health of plankton, both in number and diversity.
Determining the condition and status of the river as a source In line with the water quality status, the unpolluted waters
for land irrigation of urban farming activities is very important. around the urban farming land have stimulated an increase in
In some urban farming activities, contamination may happen the diversity of plankton and macro zoobenthos. Healthy
due to the use of poor quality of water sources. Wastewater waters are characterized by the availability of sufficient
use for land irrigation is one of examples. Wastewater nutrients and low levels of contamination that support the
commonly contain high nutrients that beneficial for agriculture. growth of plankton and benthos.
Farmers only need few amounts of fertilizers and they may get
greater profits. The use of wastewater can conserve water,

740
 4.00 3.00
Diversity Index

Diversity Index
3.00 2.00
2.00
1.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
Cikidang Cihideung Lembang
Cikidang Cihideung Lembang
Upstream Downstream
Upstream Downstream

Figure 2. Shannon-Wiener diversity index for plankton Figure 3. Shannon-Wiener diversity index for macro
both in the upstream and the downstream part of the water zoobenthos both in the upstream and the downstream part of
sources of urban farming the water sources of urban farming

Table 5. Pesticide residue in vegetables of urban farming in Great Bandung

Agricultural commodities
Parameters Unit Detection Limit
Lettuce Green mustard Broccoli Snaps
DDD µg/kg nd nd nd nd 1.0
DDE µg/kg nd nd nd nd 1.0
DDT µg/kg nd nd nd nd 2.0
Aldrine µg/kg nd nd nd nd 1.0
Dieldrin µg/kg nd nd nd nd 1.0
Heptachlor µg/kg nd nd nd nd 1.0
Methoxychlor µg/kg nd nd nd nd 2.0
Chlordane µg/kg nd nd nd nd 1.0
*nd = not detected, the value observed was below detection limit

Agricultural activities potentially affect the water quality reproductive parts (leaves and fruit). In leafy vegetables, more
due to untreated agriculture waste, or farming practice was pesticide residue concentrations were found on the outer
conventional. This is exemplified by Rahmawati et al. [23] that surface of the leaf than on the inside. Plants may concentrate
showed OC residue (lindane) in carrot and potato had slightly pesticide residue through different pathways, such as direct
higher in conventional carrot farming compare to organic uptake from soil, contamination on fruits and foliage, and
farming due to synthetic fertilizer and pesticide usage. deposition from air particles. Studies on the presence of
Excessive use of fertilizers might generate agricultural waste pesticide residues in agricultural commodities, especially
that potentially leaching to the body water and cause vegetables and fruit, are often found on large-scale agricultural
eutrophication [31]. The residue of fertilizer that pollutes the land, both in developed and developing countries, especially
aquatic environment can be indicated from the content of in cash crop commodities [5, 33].
nitrate and phosphate. The value for nitrate and total phosphate Lembang district is an area with intensive agriculture
in the water sources were ranged from 0.036 – 1.306 mg/L. practice (Figure 4). There have been many studies
This value is far below the quality standard (total phosphate 1 documenting the presence of pesticide residue contamination
mg/L (class 3) and 5 mg/L (class 4); nitrate 20 mg/L (class 3 in soil and river water in Lembang area. This may happen
and 4)), thus the nutrient levels in the water sources was not because of the intensive use of pesticides to combat the pests.
become a limiting factor for plankton and macro zoobenthos Misuse of agricultural chemicals was reported prone to small-
growth. Excess nitrate and phosphate content in the water can scale farmers, especially in developing countries. Lack of
affect the quality of water bodies, cause algal bloom knowledge regarding the rules for appropriate use of
phenomena and encourage the growth of aquatic plants. As a chemicals and prioritizing economic interests are the main
result, dissolved oxygen consumption will increase and affects reasons for the misuse of agricultural chemicals on small-scale
the life of aquatic organisms. In addition, pesticide farmers [13]. In a previous study, the vegetable plantation area
contamination to the water had been reported to have in Cikidang Village, Lembang District was reported had
negatively affect reproduction and fertility of aquatic organism. contaminated by cypermethrin derived from poor quality well
Pesando et al. [32] exemplified methoxychlor contamination water as water sources for irrigation [16], although the value
had disrupted embryo development of sea urchin and altered is smaller than the maximum residue limit (<100ppb).
intracellular biochemical pathways. Inorganic fertilisers and synthetic pesticides were applied
by farmers in urban farming practices at the study area. It is
3.3 Urban farming impact on crop production mainly used to protect agricultural commodities from pests,
diseases and to improve the quality of crop production.
There was no pesticide residue detected on four types of However, the pesticide residue was not detected in the samples
vegetables in Great Bandung urban farming. All the samples of vegetables. This can be caused by several possibilities, such
showed the residue value below the detection limit (see Table as post-harvest handling and vegetables washing, thus can
5). Pesticide contamination in agricultural commodities minimize pesticide residues contained in plants. Rinsing the
mostly come from pesticide spraying directly in soil and crop. vegetables in running water can reduce even remove pesticide
Plants can be easily contaminated by pesticides that come from content in plant because the high level of solubility between
soil, water and air and are deposited on the vegetative and the pesticide content and water [34]. It can also possible to

741
rinse accidentally through rainwater. Pesticide residue levels farming practices so that the city's food supply can be fulfilled
are also effectively reduced when farmers consider the interval with concerning food safety. While the results of this study
between pesticide application and harvest time. focus on urban farming practices that support environmental
In many cases, urban farming practice cultivate green sustainability and food security, it also requires a better
vegetable commodities. Some of them are frequently understanding that urban farming also has an important role in
consumed raw or without cooking, so it has the potential to ecosystem services that needs further research.
cause digestive diseases when the farmers use contaminated
water sources.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research funded by research scheme of the Academic

Leadership Grant (ALG) – Universitas Padjadjaran with
Contract No. 1427/UN6.3.1/LT/2020 and 1959/UN
6.3.1/PT.00/2021 leaded by Prof Oekan S. Abdoellah, Ph.D.

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