A STUDY ON CAUSES FOR DEATHS AND

INJURIES IN CONSTRUCTION SITES IN

SRI LANKA

Mudith Bhawantha Wijesekara

BSc (Hons) Quantity Surveying

School of the Built Environment

Liverpool John Moores University

2021

BSc (Hons) in Quantity Surveying

Mudith Bhawantha Wijesekara
Student ID No. - 932570
Statement of authorship

This Research Project was completed as part of the BSc (Hons) Quantity
Surveying at Liverpool John Moores University. This is my own unaided work.
Where the work of others has been used or drawn on then it has been fully
attributed to the relevant source.

Signature: Mudith Wijesekara (signed)

Date: 25/05/2021

[i]
Table of contents

Statement of authorship ....................................................................................... i

List of figures and tables ..................................................................................... v

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................... vii

Abstract ............................................................................................................ viii

Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... ix

Chapter 1 - Introduction ......................................................................................1

1.1 Background ........................................................................................1

1.2 Research goals and outline methodology ...........................................3

1.2.1 Research question .......................................................................3

1.2.2 Research aim ...............................................................................3

1.2.3 Research objectives .....................................................................4

1.2.4 Outline methodology ....................................................................4

1.2.5 Research methodology road map ................................................5

Chapter 2 - Literature review...............................................................................6

2.1 Introduction .........................................................................................6

2.2 Occupational accidents.......................................................................6

2.3 World’s statistics of construction accidents .........................................7

2.4 Profile of construction accidents in Sri Lanka ................................... 10

2.5 General factors contributing to construction accidents ..................... 12

2.6 Impact of accidents on construction projects .................................... 13

2.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 15

Chapter 3 - Research methodology .................................................................. 16

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 16

3.2 Research design ............................................................................... 16

3.3 Research philosophy ........................................................................ 17

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 3.4 Sampling ........................................................................................... 19

3.5 Research techniques ........................................................................ 19

3.5.1 Documentary review .................................................................. 19

3.5.2 Semi-structured interviews ......................................................... 20

3.5.3 Questionnaire survey ................................................................. 20

3.6 Pilot study ......................................................................................... 21

3.7 Data analysis and evaluation ............................................................ 21

3.8 Ethical consideration......................................................................... 22

3.9 Summary .......................................................................................... 23

Chapter 4 - Argument and evidence ................................................................. 24

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 24

4.2 Documentary review ......................................................................... 24

4.2.1 Various types of construction accidents ..................................... 25

4.2.1.1 Falls form heights or scaffolding .......................................... 25

4.2.1.2 Falling debris, materials or objects....................................... 25

4.2.1.3 Machinery accidents ............................................................ 25

4.2.1.4 Electrocution ........................................................................ 26

4.2.1.5 Being caught between objects ............................................. 26

4.2.1.6 Slips/trips and falls ............................................................... 27

4.2.1.7 Fire and explosions .............................................................. 27

4.2.1.8 Trench collapses .................................................................. 28

4.2.1.9 Overexertion ........................................................................ 28

4.2.2 Resultants of accidents .............................................................. 29

4.2.3 Causes of identified construction accidents ............................... 35

4.3 Semi-structured Interviews ............................................................... 42

4.3.1 Measures to mitigate identified accidents .................................. 42

4.3.2 Recommendations to improve construction site safety .............. 49

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 4.4 Questionnaire survey ........................................................................ 51

4.5 Summary .......................................................................................... 55

Chapter 5 - Conclusion and recommendations ................................................. 57

5.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 57

5.1.1 Objective one ............................................................................. 57

5.1.2 Objective two.............................................................................. 58

5.1.3 Objective three ........................................................................... 59

5.1.4 Objective four ............................................................................. 60

5.2 Concluding remark............................................................................ 61

5.3 Recommendations ............................................................................ 62

References........................................................................................................ 64

Appendices ....................................................................................................... 69

[iv]
List of figures and tables

List of figures

Figure 1: Research methodology road map .......................................................5

Figure 2: Global estimate of work related fatalities ............................................7

Figure 3: Work related injuries in UK..................................................................8

Figure 4: Deaths of South Asian migrants in Qatar during 2011-2020 by

nationality ............................................................................................................9

Figure 5: Safety performance of the Sri Lankan construction industry in

2011 .................................................................................................................. 11

Figure 6: Major causes of accidents................................................................. 12

Figure 7: Negative impact of accidents to the construction companies ............ 14

Figure 8: Framework of the research methodology .......................................... 17

Figure 9: Pragmatism in research .................................................................... 18

Figure 10: Relative importance index ............................................................... 22

Figure 11: Percentages of types of accidents in Sri Lankan construction sites

during 2010-2020 .............................................................................................. 29

Figure 12: Fatal accidents in construction graphed against other industries

during 2010-2020 .............................................................................................. 29

Figure 13: Percentage of fatal accidents in construction compared to other

industries during 2010-2020.............................................................................. 30

Figure 14: Non-fatal accidents in construction graphed against other

industries during 2010-2020.............................................................................. 31

Figure 15: Percentage of non-fatal accidents in construction compared to

other industries during 2010-2020 .................................................................... 31

Figure 16: Total accidents in construction graphed against other industries

during 2010-2020 .............................................................................................. 32

Figure 17: Percentage of total accidents in construction compared to other

industries during 2010-2020.............................................................................. 33

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Figure 18: Percentages of consequences of accidents in Sri Lankan
construction sites during 2010-2020 ................................................................. 34

Figure 19: Percentage of respondents by the party ......................................... 52

Figure 20: Percentage of participants by their work experience ....................... 53

Figure 21: Percentage of participants by their level of qualification ................. 53

List of tables

Table 1: Fatal accidents in construction compared to other industries during

2010-2020 ......................................................................................................... 29

Table 2: Non-fatal accidents in construction compared to other industries

during 20210-2020 ............................................................................................ 31

Table 3: Total accidents in construction compared to other industries during

2010-2020 ......................................................................................................... 32

Table 4: Causes of identified accidents in Sri Lankan construction sites ......... 41

Table 5: Details of interview participants .......................................................... 42

Table 6: Measures to mitigate identified accidents in Sri Lankan construction

sites................................................................................................................... 48

Table 7: Details of Questionnaire survey participants ...................................... 52

Table 8: Relative importance index of each recommendation based on the

effectiveness ..................................................................................................... 54

[vi]
Acknowledgements

This thesis is the final resultant of a long and coordinated effort that comprised
the contribution of a fair number of people. So, it is my duty to make at least the
briefest remark on those persons, without whom, I would not have been able to
achieve a plausible outcome.

Firstly, I owe my gratitude to LiverpoolrJohn Moores Universityrfor theirrsupport

throughoutrthis researchrproject by providingrme withrall requisite resources and
study material. I’m indebted to my research project supervisor, Mrs. Nishanthi
Gunarathna, who has been steadfast in showing me how to make the best out of
my efforts. I would like to thank the research project participants who were
involved in questionnaire surveysrandrinterviews, for the first-hand input provided
on the research subject. Their expertise was proven to be indispensable in
preserving the authenticity of the study. Further, I’m thankful for the Industrial
Safety Division of Sri Lanka Labour Department for taking the trouble to supply
me with industrial data and reports. I should also thank my parents and my sisters
for being unfailing pillars of strength and bearing with my restlessness through
the course of this study. On and ending note, I thank all those who were of
assistance to me in advance, had I failed to mention by name.

[vii]
Abstract

The construction industry is important for the social and economic development
along with the national fiscals of any country. However, on the other hand, it has
been recognized as one of the most hazardous industries in many counties
around the world because of the nature of activities and tasks performed at
construction sites. Similarly, present-day construction industry of Sri Lanka
prioritizes and considers safety as a primary, complex issue due to its high
frequency. Accordingly, the aim of this study is to identify the causes for deaths
and injuries in construction sites in Sri Lanka and identify actions to mitigate those
accidents. Consequently, four objectives were developed so the research aim
can be reached successfully, and those are: to identify the various types of
accidents recorded, to identify the resultant deaths and injuries, to establish the
specific causes for deaths and injuries in construction sites in Sri Lanka during
last 10-year period and to recommend strategies to minimise the accidents
resulting from the identified causes. The data collection was in the form of
documentary review, semi-structured interviews and questionnaire survey. This
study found that the 9 most prominent types of accidents that have occurred on
Sri Lankan construction sites include falls from heights and scaffoldings, falling
debris, materials or objects and machinery accidents. During the last 10-year
period 2,135 accident have been recorded in the construction industry, among
which 311 were fatal accidents, accounting for 37% when compared to other
industries. Usually, most of the accidents at a construction site are due to the lack
of safety at site, working without PPE, risky behavior and unsafe act, poor
housekeeping, inadequate training and lack of supervision. Further, it was also
observed that recommend strategies to minimize the identified 9 prominent types
of accidents and to improve construction site safety. Findings of this research
could help towards reducing the accidents in construction sites and developing
safe work environment in the construction industry in Sri Lanka.

Keywords: construction accidents, deaths and injuries, site safety, causes,

recommend strategies, Sri Lanka

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[ix]
Chapter 1 - Introduction

1.1 Background

The constructionrindustry is important for the socialrand economicrdevelopment

along with the national fiscals of any country. Generally, the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) as well as the Gross National Product (GNP) of the economy have
been receiving a significant share from the construction industry (Jayasuriya,
2019). Additionally, the industry creates job opportunities and improves economic
development, especiallyrin developingrcountries, such as Sri Lanka, Malaysia,
Bangladesh etc. However, on the other hand, it has also been recognized as one
of the most hazardous industries in many counties around the world because of
the nature of the activities and tasks performed at construction sites. The
construction projectsrare beingrexperienced troublesrby many risks, complexities
and uncertainties duerto frequentlyrhappened accidents (Sousa et al., 2014).
Therefore, the term “Safety First” is a must-have feature on construction sites,
but, the frequency of the occurrence of injuries in therconstruction industryris
greater compared to any other industry. Many individuals become the victims of
injuries, harmrand evenrdeath due to accidentsron constructionrsites, each year.

International Labour Organization (2017) discovered that there are at least

60,000 fatal accidents occurring annually, at construction sites all across the
world. The rate of fatal injuries at construction industry is much higher in
comparison to national average among industries, worldwide. Inrindustrialized
countries, as many as 25% to 40% of work related deaths occur in on construction
sites, evenrthough thersector employsronly 6% to 10% of therworkforce (ILO,
2017). Kalatpour and Khavaji (2016) found that the developingrcountries arerthe
extremervictim of constructionraccidents due to therattention to healthrand safety
issuesrat construction sites isrvery low, occupationalrexposure torhazards isrvery
high and poor quality of record-keeping etc. Butrmost of therdeveloped countries
arertrying to reducerthe damagesrand losses fromrconstruction accidentsrby
preventing, eliminating, andrbypassing therpossible accidentsrin construction
projects.

Present-day construction industry of Sri Lanka prioritizes and considers safety as

a primary, complex issue due to its high frequency (De Silva and Wimalaratne,

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2012). De Silva and Nawarathna (2014), identified that when paralleled with other
industries, the construction industry is the most vulnerable due to the recorded
number of yearly accidents in between 750-900, among which 50 to 60 were
fatalities. Furthermore, according to De Silva and Wimalaratne (2012), more than
30% accidents were symbolized by this annual figure which was approximately
13 times greater compared to other industries. Therefore, it is clear that, a plenty
of accidents have occurred at Sri Lankan construction sites. However, it is
mentioned in the NationalrInstitute ofrOccupational Safetyrand HealthrAct, No.
38 of 2009 (b) of Sri Lanka, that advises to the government on preventive
measures for accidents and injuries relating to occupations at work places as well
as research, investigations, surveys and study programs in occupationalrsafety
andrhealth, willrbe supplied byrthe institute.

Construction industry has set a higher accidents record which result in lower
productivity levels, absenteeism from work, delay in completion of project,
damage to plant equipment, increment in expenses, loss of reputation of the
constructors, permanent disabilities and even deaths etc. (Fung et al., 2005).
Thus, construction sites are usually labelled as dangerous, unsafe or hazardous
places of work (Sherratt et al., 2013). Usually, most of the accidents at a
construction site are due to the lack of attention to safety at site, unawareness of
the safety precautions and lack of training (De Silva and Nawarathna, 2014). This
is due to the fact that most of the construction workers are hired on a temporary
basisrand manyrof themrare unfamiliarrwith construction processes. Also, human
errors were emphasized to be a leading root cause for accidents in construction
sites (Hinzeand, 2000). Ahamed, et al. (2011), informs that risky behavior and
unsafe acts of labours owe to 90% of accidents. Further, Somasundarawaran, et
al. (2005) recognized that lack of safety at construction sites, lack of
organizational commitment, poor technical supervision, working without personal
protective equipment and limited legislation requirement for safety of workers at
construction sites as the primary explanations among causing factors for
construction accidents in Sri Lanka.

Accidentsrare unexpectedrevents thatroccur at anyrcircumstances evenrthe work

place wasrin saferrconditions, the aim is torminimize orrcontrol the accidents.
This is because the working environment at construction sites changes frequently
due to its very nature and parallel to that, the health and safety risks that workers

[2]
face also change. Therefore, prevention of accidents has progressively evolved
to be vital aspect in the construction industry. Consequently, all efforts to identify
and discoverrpossible waysrof preventingrand controllingraccidents shouldrbe
sought after, henceforth the need for the study arises. In this sense a
comprehensive assessment and serious analysis of accidents at construction
sites, are of importance, leading to the mitigation of them and enhance the quality
of work environment and quality of work life of employees. Accordingly, this
research was conducted to study the causes for deaths and injuries in
construction sites in Sri Lanka, and was based on the data documented by the
Sri Lanka Department of Labour, Industrial Safety Division. The data regarding
accidents in the past may be of use to create predictions about the impending
numbers and types of accidents that are likely to take place. In addition, with
these findings, efforts could be taken to form operational accident prevention
programme in construction sites in Sri Lanka.

1.2 Research goals and outline methodology

1.2.1 Research question

In consideration of the background and rational, the research question is:

What are the causes for deaths and injuries in construction sites in Sri Lanka and
how to mitigate those in future?

1.2.2 Research aim

The aim of this study is to identify the causes for deaths and injuries in
construction sites in Sri Lanka and identify actions to mitigate those accidents.

[3]
1.2.3 Research objectives

Consequently, fourrobjectives haverbeen developedrso therresearch aimrcould

berreached successfully, and thoserare:

1) To identify the various types of accidents recorded in the construction sites in

Sri Lanka during last 10-year period.

2) To identify the resultant deaths and injuries in construction sites in Sri Lanka
during last 10-year period from objective 01 above.

3) To establish the specific causes for deaths and injuries in construction sites
in Sri Lanka during last 10-year period from objective 01 and 02 above.

4) To recommend strategies to minimize accidents resulting due to above

causes.

1.2.4 Outline methodology

Once a proper foundation for research aim and objectives was established by
reviewing relevant literature, the documentary review was conducted by
evaluating the statistical data sourced from the industrial Safety Division of Sri
Lanka Labour Department. This review was intended to achieve the first three
objectives of the research study. Then semi-structured interviews were held with
the selected industry professionals and a questionnaire survey wasrdeveloped in
orderrto verifyrthe informationrgathered onrthe firstrthree objectivesras wellras to
reach the fourth objective successfully. The data collected were then analyzed
and entered in graphs, pie charts and frequency distribution tables etc. for
representation purposes. At last, the findings from the four objectives were then
utilized tordraw uprconclusions andrrecommendations tormatch.

[4]
1.2.5 Research methodology road map

Figure 1: Research methodology road map

[5]
Chapter 2 - Literature review

2.1 Introduction

This chapter will study literature relevant to the causes of deaths and injuries that
occur at construction sites. The purpose is to form an understanding and a
foundation for the four objectives that will be later be instrumental in achieving
the research aim. The review will progressively flow from understanding the
occupational accident; to understanding the world’s statistics of construction
accidents; to reviewing the records of construction accidents in Sri Lanka; to
discovering the general factors contributing the occurrence of construction
accidents; and then finally to discuss the impacts on construction projects that
on-site accidents have. Literature reviewed, was excerpted from research
papers, conference papers, books, articles, reports and journals. The same will
be studied cognising the similarities, common themes, differences, contradictions
and criticisms.

2.2 Occupational accidents

The International Labour Organization (ILO) recognises “occupational accident”

as anrunexpected and unplannedroccurrence, includingract ofrviolence, resulting
from or in the course of work which ensues fatal or non-fatal injuries. These
accidents are classified under varying categories based on type of the accident,
class of the injury sustained, physical location and agency. Rameezdeen, et al.
(2003) defined the occupational accident as, an unplanned, unexpected and
damaging event that disrupts the fulfilment of an activity. Rameezdeen, et al.
classified the same based on the level of injury, in relation to the loss of working
days. The practicality has enabled this to gain increasing popularity among others
(Rameezdeen, et al., 2003). According to Arunkumar and Gunasekaran (2018)
most of the accidents are caused by human error. Human error comprises of
inappropriate behaviour or poorly thought-out decisions that impede
effectiveness, system performance, or safety. Such an error involves either
performing something erroneously or failing to at a task (Al-Tabtabai, 2002).
Moreover, the International Labour Organization defines incapacity for work, as
the victim being unable, owing to an injury sustained while in occupation, to fulfil

[6]
the normal responsibilities of work in the post or job that they were employed in
when the accident occurred. Incapacity that results from occupational accidents
can be permanent or temporary. Instances of permanent incapacity for work are
the cases in which occupational injuries forever barred the victim from performing
again the usual tasks in the post or job that they were employed in when the
accident occurred (ILO, 2017). The International Labour Organization (2017)
further clarifies, Instances of temporary incapacity are cases of worksite injuries
where the victims were not able to perform the usual tasks from the day that after
the accident, but with time were able to perform again the normal duties of work
in the job or post that they were employed in when the accident occurred. For an
injury to be classified as a temporary incapacity, the worker should resume in
their job within a year from the day of the accident (ILO, 2017).

2.3 World’s statistics of construction accidents

In the construction sector, workers are considerably more susceptible to

accidents, especially when looked at in comparison with other industries. Globally
higher numbers of fatalities recorded during the construction projects have the
implications of a lingering industrial crisis. An assessment of the International
Labour Organization has adjudged that at least 60,000 fatal accidents happen
annually in construction sites around the world. This breaks down to one fatal
accident taking place every ten minutes. In simple terms, approximately 17% of
all fatal occupational accidents, or one in every six, occur in construction sites.

17%

Construction - 60,000
Other Industries - 295,000
83%

Figure 2: Global estimate of work related fatalities (ILO, 2017)

[7]
Furthermore, the ILO estimates that in industrialised countries which employ
between 6% to 10% of national workforce in the construction sector, 25% - 40%
of the total number of deadly occupational accidents may be reported from the
construction worksites. When it comes to health, in France, 20 percent of
diseases that come under work-related diseases according to the workers’
compensation system, are originated in construction worksites. In a European
survey carried out in 2000, it was pointed out that 16% of workers in construction
sites, were exposed to toxic chemicals for 50% of their employment, which
exceeds the exposure in all other sectors. It is speculated that 10% of bricklayers
in the UK give up employment yearly, owing to allergic dermatitis that results from
handling cement (ILO, 2017). Also, from 2017 to 2020 period in the UK, 2.8% of
the construction workforce underwent an injury and this is statistically higher than
the all-other industry rates (HSE, 2020).

Figure 3: Work related injuries in UK (HSE, 2020)

The US Bureau of labour Statistics 2019 point out that, a total of 1,061
construction workers lost their lives, citing the highest fatality rate among the
industries in the United States. And also, according to Ling, et al. (2009), the
numbers of occupational accidents in the construction sector in US and
Singapore show the highest rates of death among the 24 to 34 age group, 80%
of skilled manpower, and 50% during or just before the tea break. Moreover,
according to Shao, et al. (2019), from 2009 to 2019, approximately 7,275
construction employees in China died from construction-related accidents, with
an average of 1.99 deaths per day. 1,116 occupational accidents were reported

[8]
during the period from 2011 to 2016, from construction sites in Malaysia. Among
which 37.85% - 51.50% of the incidents caused permanent and temporary
disabilities, and deaths (Ayob, et el., 2018). Unfortunately, more than 6,500
migrant workers have died in Qatar while working on the construction of stadiums,
airports and other facilities for the FIFA World Cup 2022 (The Guardian, 2021).
The data have been complied since Qatar won the hosting rights for the football
world cup in 2010, during that 10-year period there was an average of 12 deaths
per week.

Figure 4: Deaths of South Asian migrants in Qatar during 2011-2020 by nationality

(The Guardian, 2021)

When it comes to South Asian construction industry, which carries the highest
numbers in construction accidents regionally, Kanchana, et al. (2015) found that
the Indian construction workers make up 7.5% of the total global workforce and
have been victimised in 16.4% of fatal global occupational accidents. According
to PBS 2014, Pakistan employees 7.3% of the workforce in the construction
industry. However, its accident rate stands at 14.1% which exceeds all other
industries. Whereas every year 150 workers died in average, and thousands of
workers were injured due to on-site accidents in Bangladesh construction industry
(Ahmed, et al., 2018). Further, back pain and muscular-skeletal disorders are also
common in the construction industry. The ILO has estimated that 30% of
construction workers in some countries suffer from back pain or other

[9]
musculoskeletal disorders. Being exposed to asbestos is also a generic risk faced
by the workers in construction. Despite its use having been discontinued and
prohibited in some countries, many buildings still comprise of asbestos and
construction workers may risk being exposed to the dust created from asbestos
during refurbishments or demolitions (ILO, 2017). Additionally, MEPI (2017)
found that, fatal injuries sustained during constructions cost the United States
approximately $5 billion each year in lost income, lost production health care and
reduced quality of life. These are alarming statistics which underscore the
urgency for a coordinated effort to create, implement and assess novel
approaches to effectively solve this issue.

2.4 Profile of construction accidents in Sri Lanka

The Ministry of Labour – Industrial Safety Division in Sri Lanka, is the only
organization with the jurisdictive power to regulate occupational/industrial safety
and health. It is also the primary agency to provide occupational safety services
in the country. Even though there are few other semi-governmental organisations
such as Occupational Hygiene Division and Industrial Service Bureau and
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), they do not have
the legal authority to administrate the law related to occupational/industrial safety
and health (Dissanayake, 2016). However, the Ministry of Labour lacks
institutional capacity to resolve these problems by itself, while the burden of
mortality and morbidity caused by occupational hazards have to be undertaken
by the Ministry of Health (Darshana, 2017).

Darshana (2017) stated that according to the recent statistics of the Labour
Department of Sri Lanka, it is shown that from 2012-10-01 to 2013-09-30, 392
employers reported accidents. However, the 2013 performance report of the
Labour Department of Sri Lanka shows that only 3.5% employers have reported
accidents. In the same duration, the Accident and Orthopaedic Service of the
National Hospital of Sri Lanka had 11,047 patients who sustained occupational
injuries. This is from a total of 105,217 patients. The number amounts to a
percentage of 10.5% from the total. From these accidents it was revealed that in
2013, 30% of the total accidents were from construction industry. The percentage
was about 25% in 2004 (De Silva and Nawarathna, 2014). Not only that,

[10]
Darshana (2017) found that, in 2015 the Accident and Orthopaedic Service of the
National Hospital of Sri Lanka treated 102,321 patients, among which 12,322
were victims of occupational health hazards. That is a 12% from the total number.
Out of the fatal accidents, a staggering amount of 50% were from the construction
industry. Further, Weerasinghe, I. (2013) stated that as per the ICRA Lanka
report, the construction industry contributed 27% to the national index of fatal
accidents in 2011.

Figure 5: Safety performance of the Sri Lankan construction industry in 2011

(Weerasinghe, 2013)

Also De Silva and Nawarathna (2014) mentioned that the construction industry in
Sri Lanka has an accident percentage that goes well beyond the same rate in any
other industry (accidents that resulted in minor to fatal accidents are included in
the rate). However, these numbers do not attest to the true context, since only
less than 60% of accidents were recorded. People tending to get treatments by
themselves, limited coverage of reporting procedure and lack of awareness of
legal reporting requirements etc. were recognised to be the factors contributing
to the reduced reporting rates (De Silva and Nawarathna, 2014). It is evident
here, that the site safety of Sri Lankan construction industry, is a matter of grave
concern.

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2.5 General factors contributing to construction accidents

Cheng and Wu (2013) researched the commonalities of occupational accidents

in small construction projects in Taiwan using extensive statistics and analysed
that data using correlation coefficients. According to their discovery, lack of safety
awareness, insufficient safety training for novice workers, careless acts about the
implementation of safety measures, absence of qualified health and safety
officers and inadequate attention paid to safety issues by the authorities were the
most pressing problems. Similarly, Chim et al. (2018) mentioned that failure to
enforce safety measures, inadequate workman training, negligence of contractor
and failure to comply with OSHA guidelines are the leading major causes of
accidents in construction sites.

Figure 6: Major causes of accidents (Chim et al., 2018)

In Malaysia, Hamid et al. (2008) identified many causes of construction accidents

during their study. The core findings of the study were dangerous equipment and
jobsite conditions, the distinctive characteristics of the building sector, poor site
management, risky methods, ineffective safety guidelines, malfunctioning
machineries and the shortage of personal protective equipment. Priyadarshani et
al. (2013) created a structure that assesses the safety measures implemented in
the Sri Lankan construction industry. According to this research, lack of
accountability of management, negligence of individuals to respond properly to
the safety protocols, insufficient worker-protection measures and untrained

[12]
workers are the most causes of accidents that occur in construction sites. Al-
Kaabi & Hadipriono, (2003) found that, poor site management, work in highly
elevated positions, lack of skills and experience of the executives, insufficient
worker training and equipment failure to be the most frequent causes of
construction site accidents in the United Arab Emirates. Udo et al. (2016)
revealed that the most common causes of occupational accidents in the Nigerian
construction industry were the lack of personal protection measures while
handling and lifting materials/objects, slips, trips on objects, collapses during
excavations, operating damaged equipment, being stricken by moving
objects/machines/equipment, and falling from heights. Haslam et al. (2005)
stated that accidents are resulted by lack of coordination among workers or work-
teams, malpractices in storing materials, poor housekeeping and lack of personal
protective equipment and machinery. Incompetence of the construction design
and method, economic effects faced by clients and owners, improper project
management, lack of safety education and training and risk mismanagement
were also identified to be the major disruptors by Haslam et al. (2005). An all-
inclusive study was conducted by Ogwueleka and Chinweude (2013) to analyse
the causes of construction accidents. It was pointed out by the research that the
most influential factors were safety awareness of top management/ project
managers, managerial commitment, insufficient machinery safety management
procedures/ practices/reviews, training or expert knowledge and negligence or
faulty judgement. Tsang et al. (2017) identified working conditions, environmental
factors and management actions as the three main types of factors that contribute
to accidents in construction sites.

2.6 Impact of accidents on construction projects

Udo et al. (2016) identified 21 impacts on the construction accidents have in

Nigeria. Among which, enhanced project costs, discouragement of employees,
unfavourable reputation to the firm, compensation for injury and death claims and
damages to property, plant and equipment were identified in the study to be the
highest ranking aftereffects in order of impact. Kadiri et al. (2014) recognized that
the most significant effects that on-site accidents might have on a project are the
loss of time and reputation, the negative impression that will be made on other

[13]
workers and the medical expenses. Similarly, Chim et al. (2018) mentioned that
delays in project completion, bad reputation of the organization, dissatisfaction
among stakeholders and penalties from authorities are the most serious impacts
of construction accidents affecting the construction organization.

Figure 7: Negative impact of accidents to the construction companies (Chim et al., 2018)

Okolie and Okoye (2012) emphasised that the importance of protection measures
in construction sites and the safety of construction workers can never be stressed
too much. They argued that when accidents happen on-site, they cause many
human tragedies, demotivate workers, increase overall project cost, delay project
progress, disrupt site activities, and affect the project productivity. Furthermore,
Mthalane et al. (2008) distinguished many economic impacts that site accidents
have on the construction companies. The more prominent effects were the loss
of productivity, damages to plant/equipment/completed work, disruption of
current work, training cost that entails employee replacement, medical expenses,
costs of compensation, cost of rescue operations and equipment, loss of function
and operations income, expenses incurred in settling injury or death claims, legal
fees and increased insurance cost. In Hrymak and Perezgonzalez’s (2007) study
carried out case studies on twenty construction sites in Ireland, and it was shown
that there was a plethora of negative costs and effects to the employer in terms
of financial, that arise from on-site accidents. The study identified that payments
for alternative workers or overtime payments, retaining costs, repair costs,
expenses for increased supervision, production and productivity losses,
compensation for injury claims, quality failures, disputes and litigation. Moreover,

[14]
Li and Poon (2009) revealed that Hong Kong had an extensive number of lawsuits
regarding monetary claims for victims of non-fatal accidents that occurred in
construction sites. The construction industry in Hong Kong was also identified to
have suffered the following consequences; the time loss on schedule, conflicts,
adverse effects on worker psychology and legal issues. Trinh et al. (2018)
revealed that the construction accidents had remarkable interrelations with the
quality of the final outcome of a construction project. The study identified loss of
scheduled time, cost overrun and employer dissatisfaction as other results of
construction accidents.

2.7 Conclusion

It is apparent that the number of accidents occurring in construction sites

worldwide, as well as in Sri Lanka, is concerning and overwhelming.
Consequently, most countries have launched numerous academic studies to
identify and differentiate between the types of onsite accidents, general factors
contributing to construction accidents, the impact of accidents on construction
projects, the preventive measures that could potentially mitigate the negative
effects and possible methods to improve construction site safety etc. However,
no comprehensive and inclusive study has been carried out in Sri Lanka to
examine the specific / direct causes that contribute to construction site accidents
and to recommend strategies to mitigate accidents associated with those causes.
As construction accidents are influenced by various endemic factors that exist
within worksites, the need for a country-based study is further emphasized. This
research is intended to fulfil the same gap, in some capacity at least.

[15]
Chapter 3 - Research methodology

3.1 Introduction

This chapter focuses on the methodology by which the research aim and
objectives were achieved. It introduces the criteria used to select which
participants should be included in the study, explains who the participants were
and presents the method of sampling. The research design that was chosen and
the reasons behind the choice is described in the chapter. The data collection
technique and the procedure that was followed during study are also explained.
Furthermore, the researcher discusses the data analysis methods used. The
ethical issues that might arise in the course of research are covered in the end.
In conclusion, through this section the reader gains a thorough understanding of
how the research study was approached from start to end, and how the required
knowledge was gained inrorder torconclude therresearchrstudy.

3.2 Research design

The research design is a framework of processes that will together form the final
outcome of the research. Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods are the
most popular approaches used by the researchers in collecting data to design
their studies. Quantitative approach is useful when a researcher needs numerical
values to prove their theorem. Here, the respondents are asked to give statistical
answers. When there is a need to collect opinions, suggestions or ideas from
resource persons with distinctive expertise on the matter, qualitative approach is
usually used. A composition that is inclusive of both quantitative and qualitative
approaches is called the mixed approach. It is used where data is required both
numerically and suggestively. The mixed approach facilitates a more diverse data
collection for the study, which will in turn enhance the probability of delivering
suitable findings at the end of the study.

The mixed design approach was elected to be ideal for this study, because both
qualitative data and quantitative data are required in data analysis to achieve the
research aim successfully. According to the research objectives, quantitative
approach is required to identify the various types of accidents, their impact as

[16]
well as their specific causes during last 10-year period in construction sites in Sri
Lanka. Similarly, qualitative approach is required to recommend strategies to
reduce accidents that occur originate from the above-mentioned causes, with the
help of the perspectives of project managers, health and safety officers, site
supervisors and the like. It is understood that such data cannot be obtained
through a numerical study. This provides adequate justification as to why mixed
approach, which complements the interconnection between quantitative and
qualitative data, is ideal for this research.

Identificaion of Methodological
Research Literature Framework to
Problem, Aim Review Fulfil the Aim and
and Objectives Objectives

Objective 1 - Documentary review

Objective 2 - Documentary review Data Analysis
Objective 3 - Documentary review
Objective 3 - Questionnaire survey
and Interview

Conclusion and
Recommendations

Figure 8: Framework of the research methodology

3.3 Research philosophy

The philosophy is the platform on which the methodology of a research study is

built. It is a brief of the way in which data should be collected, analysed and used
for a research. Depending on the requirement, many philosophical approaches
are available for implementation. Mainly, there are four types of research

[17]
philosophies: pragmatism, positivism, realism, interpretivism. The appropriate
limitations to the philosophy of this project were established with cognisance to
the research question, aim and objectives. Since this study has the mix design
approach selected as the method of collecting data, the philosophy of the study
was led towards the pragmatism approach. Furthermore, the study involved a
combination of deductive and inductive perceptions that would collectively form
the design.

Figure 9: Pragmatism in research

Once a proper foundation has been laid for research aim and objectives by
reviewing relevant literature, objective one, objective two and objective three was
achieved by collecting statistical data from the Industrial Safety Division of Sri
Lanka labour Department. The collected data was used to gain a fair
understanding of various types of accidents, their resultants as well as their
specific causes during the last 10-year period in building construction sites in Sri
Lanka. Once a fair synopsis of the first three objectives is reached, the
questionnaire survey was developed and interviews were conducted with
professionals of the industry. This further verified the initially collected information
on the first three objectives, as well as in order to achieve the fourth objective
successfully, which recommended strategies to minimise the accidents that
resulted from the identified causes.

[18]
3.4 Sampling

Samplingris anressential partrof datarcollection andrcan berperformed selectively

orrrandomly. Randomrsampling involves randomly selected respondents, andris
normally used when the scope of study is not very specific. However, in this
research, the nature is unique and characteristics well defined. Thus, the
participants (e.g., interviews, questionnaire survey) are required to have at least
5 yearsrof experiencerin the building construction industry in Sri Lanka, therefore
selective sampling was apt.

3.5 Research techniques

Data was collected, analysed and evaluated to establish the aim and objectives
of the research. The type of data collected was “primary”, which means the data
was collected first-hand and be up-to-date. Sharma (2017) has opined that
primary data are relevant to the research, making such data very accurate and
useful. The research technique to be discussed includes the sample of
respondents that were utilised in the data collection process, the methods used
in collecting data and the analysis process. The subjects were further discussed
hereunder.

3.5.1 Documentary review

The three objectives which are; to identify the various types of accidents recorded
in the construction sites in Sri Lanka during last 10-year period, to identify the
resultant deaths and injuries in construction sites in Sri Lanka during last 10-year
period, and to establish the specific causes for deaths and injuries in construction
sites in Sri Lanka during last 10-year period was achieved by collecting statistical
data related to building construction projects from the Industrial Safety Division
of Sri Lanka Labour Department. The data collected was then analysed and
entered in graphs, pie charts and frequency distribution tables etc. for
representation purposes. Mean score analysis was applied to compare data in
the analysis process.

[19]
3.5.2 Semi-structured interviews

As authentic input of individuals based on their experience and knowledge was

an essential prerequisite for the research, interviews were conducted. In order to
achieve the fourth objective which is to recommend strategies to minimise
accidents resulting from the identified causes, semi-structured interviews were
selected as it enabled the interviewer to question and clarify at will, deviating from
the pre-determined questions on the guidelines when necessary. A semi-
structured interview enables the collection of all possible data and gives the
interviewer the freedom to ask questions from different areas. This adds to the
quality of the data collected. The criterion was prepared abiding by the relevant
ethics in industry and research. Industry professionals such as project managers,
health and safety officers, site supervisors and engineers were interviewed, who
have at least 5 years of experience and knowledge in building construction
industry in Sri Lanka. Further, the relevant industry professionals were contacted
via emails and phone calls to organise interviews and meetings.

3.5.3 Questionnaire survey

A questionnaire survey was used to obtain further recommendations and

suggestions to mitigate the construction accidents. The questions were mainly
created focusing on the answers given by the industrial professionals during
semi-structured interviews as well as the data gathered from the Labour
Department. The questionnaire survey was designedrvia openronline survey tool
knownras therGoogle Form, andrthe resultsrcollected were saved in Google
Drive Data Storage. The questions were dividedrinto three partsrto correspondrto
therobjectives ofrthe study: SectionrA relatesrto therbackground ofrrespondents;
in Section B, respondents were asked to rate the level of effectiveness of the
recommendations that were given by the industrial professionals in the
interviews; and finally, Section C obtains further recommendations and
suggestions from the construction personnel on accidents preventive measures.

The participants were asked to rate the level of effectiveness from 1 to 5 degrees;
which are no impact, low impact, moderate impact, high impact and very high
impact respectively. Depending on the structure of the questionnaire, there were

[20]
close-ended and open-ended questions. Furthermore, it was designed with a
maximum of 20 questions, so that the participants do not feel like the survey was
consuming too much time. This also expected to encourage and increase
participation in the survey.

3.6 Pilot study

Arpilot studyrwas launched before preceding the main data collection, to assess
if the questionnaire survey and interview questions designed were successful in
extracting required data for analysis. Castillo-Montoya, (2016) has opined that
pilot interviews further bolster the protocols as they can help identify limitations
and flaws within the design of the interview. That way there is chance to
incorporate necessary alterations to the major project, before continuing. The
pilot interview for this study, was conducted collaborating with the representatives
of Sri Lanka Labour Department and the research supervisor.

3.7 Data analysis and evaluation

Data sourced from the Sri Lanka Labour Department was separated into key
themes based on the objectives and extracted information (e.g., various types of
accidents i.e., fatal, non-fatal etc.). Then the data was recorded in tables with the
use of MS Excel to ensure that analysis and appraisal are easier. Firstly, the most
commonly occurring types of accidents in construction sites of Sri Lanka in the
past 10 years were singled out. The research study then progressed based on
the same. Using the data tables, charts were created, and a ranking system
developed. To rank the effectiveness of the preventive measures that were
proposed by the industrial professionals during the interviews, therRelative
ImportancerIndex (RII) wasrused. As mentioned above, the research participants
were asked to grade the efficacy of the recommendations from 1 to 5. Based on
the formula given below, the scores were then turned into important indices. This
was instrumental in determining the relative ranks of the recommendations
prescribed.

[21]
"W” denotes the weighting, ranging from 1 to 5, that the respondents gave to the
recommendations. “A” (i.e., 5 in this context) is the highest weight that can be
attributed. “N” represents the total numberrof respondentsrthat participated in the
research.

∑𝑤
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 (𝑹𝑰𝑰) =
𝐴𝑁

Figure 10: Relative importance index

Also, content analysis was used to analyse the data which gatheredrfrom
interviews and questionnaire survey. This simplified and made the collected data
more edible, while producing results that may then be measured using
quantitative techniques. This was expected to make the results clearer, so more
accurate conclusions could be made. The end goal is to develop practical and
pragmatic recommendations from the achieved conclusions.

3.8 Ethical consideration

When conducting this research there were certain ethical issues that required
careful consideration of the researcher. Informed consent of the participants was
the most prominent one. Accordingly, all participants were made aware prior to
the surveys and interviews about the purpose of this project. Additionally, written
consent was obtained from all respondents. The identities as well as the names
of the organisations they are employed in, were held in strict confidentiality, in
accordancerwith therrequirements ofrthe universityrcode ofrethics. Therprivacy
and confidentiality policies of all of the companies were considered and
respected. Finally, all the information collected in the course of this research
studyrwas onlyrused forrthe academicrpurposes, andrnot misused in any way.

[22]
3.9 Summary

The chapter discussed the research design that was used at length. Following
the design, the methodology integrated for the research was also described. An
amalgamation of qualitative and quantitative research approaches was used for
this study. Documentary review was the data collection method in order to
achieve the first three objectives of the study. Addition to that, a series of semi-
structuredrinterviews andra questionnairersurvey werercollectively form the data
collection to achieve the fourth objective successfully. For both interviews and the
survey, the population sample was determined with ‘selected sampling’. The
primary findings were cross-referenced with the data collected, as a method of
analysis. Preferably, this enabled the research aim to be attained satisfactorily.

[23]
Chapter 4 - Argument and evidence

4.1 Introduction

This chapter analyses and evaluate data collected through documentary review
from the Labour Department, semi-structured interviews and questionnaire
survey. As discussed in the previous chapter, this was instrumental in achieving
these four objectives: to identify various types of accidents recorded in
construction sites in Sri Lanka during the last 10-year period, to identify the
resultant deaths and injuries in construction sites in Sri Lanka during last 10-year
period, to establish the specific causes for deaths and injuries in construction
sites in Sri Lanka during last 10-year period and to recommend strategies to
minimize accidents resulting due to the above causes. Furthermore, the results
were displayed in tables and graphs for visualization purposes and to derive a
final conclusion.

4.2 Documentary review

The documentary review was conducted by evaluating the statistical data

sourced from the industrial Safety Division of Sri Lanka Labour Department. This
review is intended to achieve the first three objectives of the research study,
which are; to identify various types of accidents recorded in construction sites in
Sri Lanka during the last 10-year period, to identify the resultant deaths and
injuries in construction sites in Sri Lanka during last 10-year period and to
establish the specific causes for deaths and injuries in construction sites in Sri
Lanka during last 10-year period. Firstly, the nine (9) most prominent types of
accidents that have occurred in Sri Lankan construction sites within the last 10-
year period were identified. The analysis of the research was then based on the
same.

[24]
4.2.1 Various types of construction accidents

4.2.1.1 Falling from heights or scaffolding

Fall hazards are a common occurrence in most worksites. Construction workers

face such accidents daily, which result in minor to major injuries, even death.
Owing to the nature of the industry, construction employees regularly have to
work at heights, on ladders and scaffoldings, on roofs etc. A fall in technical terms,
is categorized, when a person suffers an injury from a fall or a jump — from a
scaffold, ladder, roof, building, or any other height — followed by an impactful
landing, on the surface or the ground below. According torthe IndustrialrSafety
Divisionrof LabourrDepartment, theseraccidents accountrfor approximately 22
percent ofrall on-the-jobraccidents ofrconstruction workers. Fallsrfromrheights
remain the biggest causerof occupationalrfatalities and injuries in construction
sites in Sri Lanka. These statistics are self-evident; the risk of falling from heights
is not being properly managed by the construction companies.

4.2.1.2 Falling debris, materials or objects

One very common risk that the construction workers and passers-by are
susceptible to in working environments where work is being carried out at
elevated positions, is the possibility of being hit by falling debris, materials,
equipment or any other objects. Falling objects, materials or debris, can cause
devastating and even fatal accidents onsite. The type and the degree of injury
sustained may vary, depend on the weight and size of the object, as well as the
height from which it was released. The only potential victims of such accidents
are not construction workers. When there is construction being done on a building
near pedestrian walkway passers-by could be also in danger. The Industrial
Safety Division of Labour Department has pointed out that falling
equipment/material and debris account for around 17% of all occupational
accidents sustained by employees of the construction industry in Sri Lanka.

4.2.1.3 Machinery accidents

Construction workers are required regularly to use heavy-machinery in the field

of work. Despite the gains in efficiency, one mistake while manoeuvring or

[25]
working around such powerful machinery comes with large attributable risks. In
fact, accidents caused while operating heavy-duty machinery have been
speculated to be one of the most common causes behind occupational accidents
that resulted in bodily injuries and even deaths. When heavy machinery is being
used on a construction project, the risks posed are not limited to the onsite
personnel. All persons in close proximity of the operation, including the driver, is
in the zone of possible danger. According to the Industrial Safety Division of Sri
Lanka Labour Department, this type of accidents account for approximately 13%
of all accidents faced by construction workers in Sri Lanka.

4.2.1.4 Electrocution

As construction sites are in continuous progression, there is an increased

possibility of exposed power lines, wirings and unsafe electrical systems being
around the work areas. Electrical accidents are one of the four most frequent
causes of fatalities and injuries amongst construction workers in Sri Lanka
according to the statistics of industrial safety division. It accounts approximately
13% of occupational accidents sustained workers in construction. There are
typically three different categories of such accidents on worksites. Overhead
power lines cause most of the electrocutions. Workers coming into contact with
transformers and exposed live wires is also another common accident. The third
most commonly occurring accidents related to electrocution is, when workers
make contact with electrical currents while working with machinery and other
equipment. Outside of the fatalities, victims of non-fatal electrocutions often suffer
long-term health problems.

4.2.1.5 Being caught between objects

Being caught between objects, vehicles and machinery is another common

accident in the construction industry. These accidents result deaths, injuries,
permanent and non-permanent disabilities. Such accidents are caused when
personnel are caught, pinched, compressed or squeezed between two objects or
parts of objects, or are buried under collapsing walls. On construction sites, these
accidents may occur due to workers getting caught between a moving object and
a fixed object such as a wall. Accidents have also been reported where

[26]
construction employees were stuck between two vehicles or moving machinery
parts. Another type of such accidents is when body parts are pulled into machines
with rotating or rolling parts. According to the Industrial Safety Division of Labour
Department, this type of accidents account for approximately 11% of the
accidents faced by employees of the construction sector in Sri Lanka, while being
on-duty.

4.2.1.6 Slips/trips and falls

Slip/trip and fall accidents are another one of the leading causes of injuries on the
construction sites. Fromrstray toolsrand materialsrto unevenrground or holes,
thererare many hazardsron arconstruction site thatrcould leadrto ardangerous
slip/trip and fall and these could be occurred while working from heights as well
as at the ground level. The lack of friction or traction between the foot and the
ground may cause a person to slip. A trip is when someone’s foot hits something,
causing them to lose balance. Generally, unexpected or unintended changes in
the contact between the feet and the walking surface result in both slips and trips,
and often leads to falls. According to the Department of Labour, about 7% of the
accidents that occur in Sri Lankan construction sites are slips/trips and falls.

4.2.1.7 Fire and explosions

Fires and explosions are accidents with devastating consequences, and care
should be exercised at all times as to avoid such risks. Since fires and explosions
could not obviously be contained, these accidents might potentially injure or kill
anyone who is in the proximity of the fire or the explosion as well as employees
and passers-by within long distances of the source could be harmed by flying
debris and objects. The gasses and chemicals that might be emitted in such an
accident, can exacerbate the aftereffects. Flammable liquids and chemicals,
electrical equipment, pressurized containers and the likes stored in construction
sites may present many hazards, if not properly managed and stored. According
to Sri Lanka Labour Department, this type of accidents accounts for
approximately 6% of all occupational accidents suffered by employees of the Sri
Lankan construction sector. However, stringent safety measures and procedures
have proven to be effective in reducing the likelihood of such accidents.

[27]
4.2.1.8 Trench collapses

The constructionrof trenchesris notrsimply diggingrin the soil, asrit comesrwith

risksrand hazards. According to the reported statistics in Sri Lanka Labour
Department, about 5% of accidents that occur in Sri Lankan construction sites
are caused by collapsing trenches. Although trench collapses are not the most
common cause of construction site accidents in Sri Lanka, the impact of such
incidents on the health and safety of working personnel can be devastating. A
trench collapse occurs when a large amount of soil that was unstably piled at the
sides of the excavation begin rapidly sliding into the trench. Therefore, the
employers should be extra cautious regarding the safety of workers, when
engaging them in underground constructions. Trench collapses can result in
workers being buried alive, suffocated, and crushed. Such collapses often lead
to the deaths of the victims, as rescue missions cannot be executed fast enough.

4.2.1.9 Overexertion

According to the reported statistics in Sri Lanka Labour Department, about 3% of

overexertion accidents occur at construction sites in Sri Lanka. However, it is
widely understood that only a small number of such accidents are reported to the
authorities. Overexertion accidents are the results of workers being excessively
tired on the job and workers being assigned manual tasks that they are physically
not competent to undertake. Workers may also suffer overexertion injuries when
they have not been provided with adequate training as of how to safely complete
a job or perform. Engaging in routine tasks for extended times could also be a
cause of such accidents. Also, long hours spent working in excessively hot or
humid environments can greatly reduce the muscular capacity of a person. This
puts the workers at increased risk of injuries, while some persons might even face
heart failures. Overexertion may result in dehydration, exhaustion, and can even
reduce mental clarity.

[28]
 25% Falling from heights or scaffolding
22%
Falling debris, materials or objects

20% Machinery accidents

17%
Electrocution

15% 13% 13% Being caught between objects

11% Slip/trip and falls

10% Fire and explosions

7%
6% Trench collapses
5%
5% 3% 3% Overexertion

Other types
0%

Figure 11: Percentages of types of accidents in Sri Lankan construction sites during 2010-2020

4.2.2 Resultants of accidents

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020

Other industries
Construction industry

Table 1: Fatal accidents in construction Figure 12: Fatal accidents in

compared to other industries during 2010-2020 construction graphed against other
industries during 2010-2020

[29]
 37%
Construction - 311
63%
Other Industries - 538

Figure 13: Percentage of fatal accidents in construction compared to other industries

during 2010-2020

This pie chart illustrates fatal occupational accidents that occurred in Sri Lanka
during 2010 – 2020, against the industry in which they took place. In the 10 years
under consideration, a total of 849 fatal accidents were reported across all
industries in Sri Lanka. 311 of these fatal accidents happened within the
construction sector. All other industries combined reported 538 fatalities. As the
pie chart indicates at a glance, these numbers amount to 37% of all fatal
occupational accidents in Sri Lanka in the 10-year period of 2010-2020, taking
place in the construction industry. That means more than one in every three fatal
accidents were reported from construction. It is also notable how the fatal
accidents in the construction sector exceeded the number of deaths in all other
industries in 2011.The gravity of the statistics should be understood with
relevance to the number and scale of all other industries in Sri Lanka. As such,
the implications are undeniably concerning.

(Sourced from the Industrial Safety Division of Sri Lanka Labour Department)

[30]
 1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0

2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Other industries
Construction industry

Table 2: Non-fatal accidents in construction Figure 14: Non-fatal accidents in

compared to other industries during 20210-2020 construction graphed against other
industries during 2010-2020

12%

Construction - 1,824

Other Industries - 13,394

88%

Figure 15: Percentage of non-fatal accidents in construction compared to other industries

during 2010-2020

This is an analysis of the non-fatal accidents that occurred in Sri Lankan

industries from 2010 to 2020. Within the 10 years, 15,218 accidents were
reported to the Sri Lanka Labour Department, as accidents that happened while
persons were engaged in industrial activities. Care should be exercised when
considering these statistics, for it is probable that the actual number of accidents
occurred, may vary from the number reported by employers. Out of the total
number of non-fatal accidents reported, 1,824 occurred in the construction

[31]
industry. Other industries in Sri Lanka have reported 13,394 accidents. These
numbers translated into percentages indicate that 12% of the occupational
accidents that took place in Sri Lanka in the given timeframe, could be attributed
to the construction industry. 88% of the non-fatal accidents occurred in other
industries. However, it would inadvertently be noted that the percentage of non-
fatal accidents reported to the Sri Lanka Labour Department, are substantially
lower than the fatal accidents in the same. Construction workers getting individual
treatments after non-fatal accidents without reporting it as an occupational
accident, could be a main reason behind this difference. Consequently, these
numbers should not be looked at in isolation, as it may distort the reality.

(Sourced from the Industrial Safety Division of Sri Lanka Labour Department)

1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Other industries
Construction industry

Table 3: Total accidents in construction compared Figure 16: Total accidents in

to other industries during 2010-2020 construction graphed against other
industries during 2010-2020

[32]
 13%

Construction - 2,135

Other Industries - 13,932

87%

Figure 17: Percentage of total accidents in construction compared to other industries

during 2010-2020

This pie chart shows the percentages of occupational accidents that were
reported from Sri Lanka in the time period of 2010 to 2020, against the industry
that they were reported from. For the purpose of the study, the sectors have been
recognised as construction and other industries.

When considering the number of accidents reported from the construction sector
per year, the overall trend from 2010-2020 has been on the rise, despite some
minor deviations. After reaching a record high of 250 accidents per year in 2018,
the numbers have considerably declined in 2019 and 2020. The impediments that
followed the coronavirus pandemic and lockdown situations. A total of 16,067
occupational accidents were reported from Sri Lanka in the period 2010-2020.
This is inclusive of fatal and non-fatal accidents. Out of this, 2,135 accidents were
classified under the construction industry. 13,932 accidents were communicated
to the Labour Department from all other industries combined. As percentages,
these numbers indicate that 13% of all reported accidents were from the
construction sector. The remaining 87% could be attributed to other industries in
Sri Lanka.

(Sourced from the Industrial Safety Division of Sri Lanka Labour Department)

[33]
 45%
39%
40%

35%

30%

25% 22%
20%
15%
15%

10% 8% 7% 6%
5% 3%

0%
Consequences of accidents

Injuries to the body Body fracture Death of person

Loss of body parts Skin infection Other
Deficiencies to ears & eyes

Figure 18: Percentages of consequences of accidents in Sri Lankan construction sites during
2010-2020

This bar chart was formulated to visualise the varying consequences of

occupational accidents that happened in construction sites of Sri Lanka. Almost
two-fifths of the accidents that inflicted considerable damage, 39% to be precise,
resulted in physical injuries. Approximately 22% of such accidents effected bodily
fractures while 15% of such reported worksite accidents in Sri Lanka resulted in
the death of a person or persons. This is considered to be a worrying trend, as
this quantifies how mare than one in every 10 occupational accidents in Sri
Lankan construction sites ends in one or more deaths. Loss of body parts, skin
infections, damages to ears and eyes, were also common consequences of such
accidents. However, they were all under 10%, according to the percentage
calculations. Even though the possibility of an accident cannot completely be
ruled out by any safety measures employed, the degree of the injury can be
managed. The numbers stress the need for urgency in addressing this issue.

(Sourced from the Industrial Safety Division of Sri Lanka Labour Department)

[34]
4.2.3 Causes of identified construction accidents

Following table emphasizes on the specific causes for the 9 prominent types of
accidents that have occurred on Sri Lankan constructionrsites inrtherlast 10-year
period which were collected through documentary review from the Industrial
SafetyrDivision ofrthe SrirLanka LabourrDepartment.

Type of Accident Causes and Injury Types

Falling from heights Causes

or scaffolding
 Unprotectedrroof edges, floorropenings, structural
steelrand leadingredges etc.
 Improperrscaffold construction
 Using defective laddersrand trying torclimb a
ladderrwhile holdingrheavy things
 Arsafe systemrof work forrscaffold dismantling was
not provided
 Therscaffold wasrnot horizontallyrand securely
erectedron therinclined floor
 Workers overreaching from scaffolds and high
working platforms, that result in imbalance
 The steelrplate underneathrthe scaffoldrfailed to
balancerand securerthe scaffold
 The whole scaffold structures were not inspected
by a supervisor before use
 Inclement weather when performing roof work
 Failure to display the safety hazard warning notes
and signs
 Workers’ overconfidence and taking shortcuts

[35]
 Types of injuries

Skull fracture, pelvic fracture, long bone fracture,

vertebral fracture, elbow fracture, lower limb fracture,
intra-thoracic injury etc.

Falling debris, Causes

materials or objects
 The materials and objects were liablerto fall asrit is
placedrat the windowredge onran upperrfloor
 Norsecure fenders/bracingsrhad beenrinstalledrat
therexternal wallrof therbuilding nearrthe podium
 Barricades placed too close to dangerous areas
 Bricks/blocks and the like wererneither properly
stackedrnor securelyrtied
 The frame of the hoist was unfenced
 Materials like metal pipes were not properly tied
not stacked in a balanced way before lifting
 Heavy loads unsafety being lifted pass an area
where workers were working
 Miscommunication between the crane operator
and signaller, in the course of the lifting operation
 Insufficient signage warning for passers-by to keep
them out
 Inadequate support of panels and nets placed
vertically and horizontally to prevent accidental
debris, objects, materials falling

Types of injuries

Neck and back injuries, fractures, concussions,

lacerations, bruises, paralysis, brain injuries,
permanent disabilities etc.

[36]
Machinery accidents Causes

 Failure to carry our routine maintenance of

machinery and equipment
 Workers not being provided with adequate training
to safely operate machinery
 Workers not being supervised while operating
machines
 Workers not following the manufacturers’
instructions while operating machinery
 Equipment and machinery were not display proper
warnings
 Operating machinery without any Personnel
Protective Equipment (PPE)
 Operators often experience blind spots and
obstructions while using heavy machinery
 Selection of incorrect equipment and machines for
the particular job
 Use of faulty or unsafely design work equipment
and machineries

Types of injuries

Cuts, bruises, spinal cord injuries, head injuries,

broken bones, disfigurement, damage to internal
organs, laceration, dismemberment etc.

Electrocution Causes

 Being contact with live power lines

 Use electrical equipment while standing on wet
conditions
 The electric wires were not properly earthed
 The power socket was not fitted with an earth
leakage circuit breaker

[37]
  Failing to provide ground-fault protection for
workers
 Not disconnecting the power supply before
carrying out constructions around live wires
 Wires with damaged insulation and covering
 Improper use of extension and flexible cords and
touching a damaged extension or flexible cords
 Not following manufacturer instructions when
using electronic appliances

Types of injuries

Shock, burns, physical injuries from falls due to

contact with electricity, electrocution, vision and
hearing damage, brain damage etc.

Being caught Causes

between objects
 Machinery or vehicles not properly powered down
at the time of maintenance or repair
 Unsafely working between moving materials and
immovable structures, vehicles or equipment
 Wearing dangle or loose cloths or jewelleries when
working at the job site
 Jacks that were not placed on a firm foundation or
secured one and walls not secured properly with
braces
 Employees being pressurized mentally or
physically while performing work tasks
 Absent-mindedness of the workers
 Lack of warning signage around worksites where
machinery was being operated
 Inadequate training or preparation

[38]
 Types of injuries

Amputations, traumatic brain injury, internal organ

damage, spinal cord injuries, fractures, broken bones
muscles and tendon sprains etc.

Slips/trips and falls Causes

 Uneven floor surfaces

 Floor drains left uncovered
 Grease, water or another slippery substance on a
floor, platform or stairways
 Dusty and sandy surfaces
 Changes in levels
 Boxes, cords, equipment and the like left in
walking paths
 Steps over or around obstructions
 Poor lighting
 Poor housekeeping
 Inappropriate safety footwear
 Wind driven rain through doorways
 Insufficient signage warning for passers-by
 Carrying heavy and awkward loads or objects

Types of injuries

Musculoskeletal injuries, spinal cord injuries,

fractures, dislocation of bones, cuts, bruises,
traumatic brain injuries etc.

Fire and explosions Causes

 Improper use or storage of flammable liquids and

chemicals etc.
 Welding or abrasive cutting techniques used in
places not specially prepared for such works

[39]
  Not following manufactures’ instructions while
handling or working with the flammable liquids,
chemical and gases
 Smoking at work and around flammable liquids,
combustible materials, gases etc.
 Insufficient signage warning for passers-by to keep
them out and to take necessary precautions
 Workers are not properly trained and/or
supervised
 Handling chemicals and flammable liquids etc.
without any necessary Personnel Protective
Equipment (PPE)
 Products of liquids, chemicals etc. do not display
proper warnings

Types of injuries

Burns, lung damages, cancers, smoke inhalation, loss

of vision, emotional distress, suffocation,
disfigurement, skin infections etc.

Trench collapses Causes

 Poor excavation of trenches

 Failure to provide a ladder or other proper means
of entering and existing a trench
 Placing spoil pile too close to a trench where rock
and dirt fall in on employees
 Failure to provide daily inspection of excavation
 Failure by the designated competent person on
the jobsite to protect workers from potential cave-
in
 Hazards created by water accumulating in a trench
 Placing the equipment and machinery too close to
the edge of the dug-out area

[40]
  Improper trench reinforcement (shoring) and
trench boxes to prevent sides of the trench from
caving in
 Working close to the trench with heavy machinery
that vibrates around the trench

Types of injuries

Brain damage from suffocation, traumatic brain

injuries, spinal injuries, nerves damage, broken bones
etc.

Overexertion Causes

 Employees engaging in manually exhaustive tasks

for excessive time periods
 Workers not being provided with required training
on how perform their manual tasks
 Workers being tasked with jobs that exceed their
physical capabilities
 Workers not being in acceptable physical
conditions
 Workers were suffering from health problems
 Working long hours in a hot environment
 Workers had not enough sleeping hours
 Working in small spaces
 Lack of supervision

Types of injuries

Back injuries, muscle strains, sprains, neck injuries,

heat exhaustion, joint/tendon and connective tissue
injuries

Table 4: Causes of identified accidents in Sri Lankan construction sites

[41]
4.3 Semi-structured Interviews

This section is based primarily on the opinions that were expressed by the
participants. Industrial professionals with at least 5 years of experience and
knowledge in building constructionrsector in Sri Lanka were interviewed in order
to achieve the fourth objective which is: to recommend strategies to minimize the
accidents resulting from the identified causes. Adding further to the fourth
objective, recommendations to improve worksite safety were also collected
through the interviews. The initial intent of the researched was to interview 6
professionals in the industry. However, 4 out of 6 predetermined candidates
agreed to take part in the interviews.

Preliminary information sourced by the researcher regarding the positions and

the levels of experience of the said respondents, are as follows.

Number of Years of
Respondent Job Role
Experience

01 Project Manager 27
02 Health and Safety Officer 11
03 Engineer 8
04 QA/QC Engineer 13

Table 5: Details of interview participants

The opinions of the respondents mentioned above, were of great use for the
researcher throughout the course of the study.

4.3.1 Measures to mitigate identified accidents

Following table emphasizes on the suggestions that were given by the

construction industry professionals in the semi-structured interviews to minimize
above mentioned 9 prominent types of accidents that have occurred on Sri
Lankan construction sites over the last 10-year period which were collected
through documentary review from the IndustrialrSafety Divisionrof the SrirLanka
LabourrDepartment.

[42]
 Type of Accident Preventive Measures

Falling from heights  Make sure that fall protection equipment is

or scaffolding adequate and maintained.
 Organise regular fall preventing training.
 Make sure that floor holes and openings are
protected by guardrails or floor hole covers etc.
 Ensure that all scaffolds are set-up strictly
adhering to instructions of the manufacturer.
 A qualified person must overlook and inspect as
scaffolds are being set-up, changed, moved and
deconstructed.
 For scaffolds that stand higher than 10 feet, above
a personal fall arrest system or guardrails are
mandatory.
 Ensure safe access, stable footing, full planking,
and safe platform when using scaffolds to reach
heights.
 Select the right ladder for the task-at-hand and
double-check whether it is functional.
 Before using ladders, look out for hazards in close
proximity.
 Ensure the ladder is mounted in the correct angle.
 Eliminate the fall hazard whererpossible by
reschedulingrthe task, isolatingrthe takeror
changingrthe task.

Falling debris,  Makersure loads beingrhoisted are properlyrrigged

materials or objects andrsecured andrensure therrigging equipmentris
inrgood condition.
 Use a signaller to assist the crane/hoist operator.
 Keeprtools and otherrmaterials awayrfrom open
edgesrand stackrmaterials in arbalanced and
secure way.

[43]
  Ensure toe boards are in place and inspected
frequently.
 Use barricades to block off exclusion areas where
workers are not allowed or below the work area
where drop hazards may exist.
 Do not exceed the lifting capacity of a crane, lift or
hoist.
 Make use of nets, canopies or platforms to catch
debris and objects.
 Post warning signs at hazardous work zones.
 Wear protective safety gears such as helmet,
hard-toe boots etc. at all times while on the job.
 Educate workers to stay away from barricaded
hazard areas, areas with posted signs warning
about the potential for falling objects.

Machinery accidents  All workers must be provided with adequate

training before they start operating machinery.
 Follow maintenance schedules and inspection of
work equipment and machinery.
 Wearing PPE while operating machinery.
 Ensure that blades, arms, and other attachments
etc. are locked and secured before proceeding
with maintenance activities of heavy machines.
 Manufacturers’ recommendations and instructions
should be adhered to, while operating
machineries.
 A competent person mustrbe supervisedrto ensure
thatrsafety instructionsrand proceduresrare
followed.
 Ensuringrthat workersrmaintain a cleanrand tidy
workplaceraround machinery.
 Instructing workers to report any faulty or defects
in work equipment.

[44]
  Make sure that appropriate machinery and
equipment are available to perform tasks safely.

Electrocution  Ensurerall electricalrequipment isrproperly

groundedror doublerinsulated.
 Make sure that all workers are aware of the
location of power lines to avoid accidental contact.
 Inspect electric equipment before use and check
extensionrand powerrcords forrwear and tear.
 Disconnect machinery and other tools from the
power supply before inspecting or repairing.
 Use lock-out or tag-out practices to make sure that
circuits are de-energized.
 Keep metal object well away from live electrical
appliances.
 Ensure power tools are maintained in safe
conditions.
 Mark warning lines to indicate power line
clearance distances, horizontally and vertically.
 Use relevant PPE, follow the directions and obey
safety warnings when operating electrical
equipment.
 Employees should be trained regarding power line
hazards and about the available protective
measures.

Being caught  Train all workers to operate their respective

between objects machines and vehicles safely.
 Refrain from wearing loose or dangling clothing or
jewelleries that can get caught by moving parts of
machines.
 Ensurerthat all rotatingrand otherrmoving partsron
machinesrand power toolsrare properlyrguarded.
 Berconstantly awarerof the equipmentrand
materials around and always keep a safe distance.

[45]
  Turn off all machines and vehiclesrwhen theyrare
not in use, whenrchanging accessories, andrprior
torservice or cleaning.
 Strictly follow the maximum weight limits
prescribed when lifting, moving and storing loads.
 Wear seat belts when driving or operating
machines or vehicles to avoid being thrown out
and crushed in the event of an accident.
 Wear protective safety gears at all times while on
the job.
 Barriersrto keeprpeople awayrfrom dangerous
machinery/equipmentrof vehicles.

Slips/trips and falls  Make wearing work boots with slip and puncture
resistance mandatory for workers.
 Make sure all areas have adequate lighting to
illuminate any potential hazards.
 Clean up spills, drips and leaks immediately.
 encourage workers to keep the working space
clean whenever possible.
 remove garbage and debris etc. at regular
intervals.
 Keep walkways free from obstacles and keep
walkways free of clutter.
 Post adequate warning signs at hazardous areas
 Controlling individual’s behaviour through regular
monitoring.
 Regularly inspect worksites to identify any hazards
that could potentially cause slips, trips or falls.
 Extensiversafety trainingron therprevention of slip,
tripsrfalls shouldrbe providedrfor employees.

Fire and explosions  Ensure that manufacturer’s instructions are strictly

adhered to when installing, maintaining, protecting

[46]
 and using electrical equipment, chemicals, gases
flammable liquids etc.
 Separate ignition hazards and combustibles when
storing.
 Ensuring that only authorized and qualified
personnel handle explosives.
 Banning the consumption of alcohol, drugs and
smoking by employees at the construction site.
 Wearing adequate PPEs while handling
chemicals, flammable liquids etc.
 Reducing fire risk by preventing overheating and
regular maintenance.
 Make sure that hot works are carried out in a
separate area situated well away from explosive
substances and the main structure.
 Waste should be minimized whenever possible
and disposed of as soon as possible.
 Make sure the fire exits and escape routes are
clearly marked, and kept unobstructed.
 Ensurerworkers receiverappropriate trainingron
procedurerthey needrto follow, includingrfire drills.

Trench collapses  Ensurerproper use of sloping, shoring, benching,

trench shield and boxes for protection against any
potential collapses.
 Keep excavated soil (spoils), equipment or other
materials that may fall into a trench, a minimum of
2 feet away from opening.
 For all excavations deeper than 20 feet,
safeguards must be designed by a qualified
engineer.
 Use ladders, stairs or appropriate design ramp
when going into and coming out of excavations.

[47]
  A competent person must inspect the trenching
and excavation operations.
 Use proper arrangement to barricade the area
being excavated.
 Eliminate the cave-in hazards due to weather and
climate by rescheduling the task or changing the
task.
 Employees should not be assigned to work
underground if water is leaking or accumulating,
unless precautions are taken well in advance.
 A qualified person should carefully examine and
evaluate soil conditions.
 Before working in and around trenches,
employees should receive training on trenching
safe practice and on recognizing hazards.

Overexertion  Use appropriate techniques when lifting and

handling heavy loads or material.
 Use forklifts, hand trucks and cranes available to
move heavy loads around.
 Assign different tasks employees whenever
possible, to increase the variety of physical
movements.
 Before giving a job, check that the workers are in
acceptable physical condition.
 Provide adequate breaks for employees.
 Ensure workers receive appropriate training to
perform the relevant tasks safely.
 Encourage workers to seek assistance when
having to move supplies or material manually.

Table 6: Measures to mitigate identified accidents in Sri Lankan construction sites

[48]
4.3.2 Recommendations to improve construction site safety

Semi-structured interviews were used to identify possible methods that could

potentially improve the overall safety of construction sites in Sri Lanka. The
recommendations from respondent R1 were mainly from a managerial point of
view. He mentioned that construction companies should implement total safety
management at the organizational level and that onsite safety should be
discussed in management meetings. He also recommended that formal safety
meetings be held weekly at project level, in order to take necessary decisions on
site safety. Construction companies essentially need safety budgets, both in
short-term and long-term to ensure that safety measures are adequately
implemented throughout the full course of a project. Respondent R1 opined that
proper project planning could notably improve construction safety. He stressed
that project managers should always communicate clear expectations for onsite
safety, so that the individual worker fully understands the personal responsibility
they towards safety.

Respondent R2 introduced a step-by-step process for safety development. It

comprises six main stages; Formulating regulations, identifying risks, assessing
the degree of risks, deciding on risk management measures, recording
conclusions, andrupdating inrrelation torthe workrcondition. The respondent also
stated that regular inspection is indispensable for onsite safety performance. He
mentioned that supervisors are the immediate seniors of the workers, and
subsequently are key persons in management of worksite safety. This makes
their roles essential in implementation and maintenance of safety. He further
stressed the importance of providing site safety training to workers, and that new
employees should be given an appropriate orientation regarding safety and safety
inspections before they begin their duties.

Respondent R3 stated that Sri Lanka lacks rules and regulations regarding health
and safety measures. He was concerned that the law enforcement agencies were
rather lax on the subject of onsite safety. Therefore, he recommended that new
rules and regulations be implemented by the regulatory bodies regarding the
health and safety of construction sites. Respondent R3 further opined that the
establishment of an organisational framework must be considered immediately,
to aid in policy implementation. It should have closely defined roles and
responsibilities at various level for all personnel, and should ensure that safety is

[49]
integrated into the operational activities. Finally, he emphasized the requirement
of adequate insurance policies on construction risks.

Respondent R4 recommended that workers should be indiscriminately educated

and trained on personal safety. He suggested that strict fines and penalties be
introduced for those who do not take safety precautions. He also mentioned that
by developing an incentive program which rewards workers that adhere to
construction site safety protocols, all workers as a collectively will be encouraged
to adhere those protocols while contributing to improve the overall site safety.
Finally, Respondent R4 spoke about the importance of daily safety meetings each
morning for employees to improve site safety. According to him, these talks can
last for about 15 minutes and essentially comprised a description of the day’s
work along with applicable safety information.

The recommendations that were given by the industrial professional, can be

summarized as such;

 Proper project planning

 Formulate safetyrregulations andrpolicies

 Identify, asses, evaluate risks and deciderprecautions

 Recordrfindings andrupdating inrrelation torthe workrcondition

 Conduct daily safety meetings each morning for employees

 Planrout short and long term safety budgets to ensure the adequacy of safety
implementationronrsite

 Discuss onsite safetyrin managementrmeetings

 Implement totalrsafety managementrat anrorganisational level

 Use coerciverenforcement mechanismsrsuch asrfines

 Develop incentive programmes

 Ensure that all new employees arergiven anrappropriate orientationrregarding

safetyrand safetyrinspections

 Make regular site safety inspections

[50]
 Conductrweekly formalrsafety meetingsrat therproject level

 Provide proper safety training for all employees

 Introduce new technologies to workers

 Adequate insurance policies on construction risks

Using the above recommendations given by the industry professionals during

semi-structured interviews, the respondents of the questionnaire survey were
requested to rank the level of their effectiveness from degrees 1 to 5; which are
norimpact, low impact, moderate impact, high impact and very high impact
respectively. The results are shown under the section of 4.4 - Questionnaire
survey.

4.4 Questionnaire survey

Therquestionnaire surveyrwas intended to assess the recommendations that

were given by the industry professionals in the semi-structured interviews as well
as to obtain further suggestions to mitigate construction accidents. It was
conducted through Google Form which is an open online surveying tool, and the
collected results were saved in Google Drive Data Storage. The questions of the
survey were divided into three parts: Section A related to the background of
respondents; in Section B, respondents were asked to rate the level of
effectiveness of the recommendations that were given by the industry
professionals during interviews; and finally, Section C obtained further
suggestions from the industry professionals to mitigate construction accidents. A
total number of 67 industry professionals responded to the questionnaire survey
and the background details of the respondents are as follows.

[51]
 Job Role Number of Participants

Project Manager 3
Deputy Project Manager 1
Senior Quantity Surveyor 2
Draughtsman 8
QA/QC Engineer 2
Engineer 12
Assistant Engineer 4
Health and Safety Officer 3
Site Supervisor 6
Quantity Surveyor 8
Assistant Quantity Surveyor 18

Table 7: Details of Questionnaire survey participants

Out of 67 respondents, 49 belonged to the contractor party and the remainder 18

were from the consultant party.

27%

Consultant
73% Contractor

Figure 19: Percentage of respondents by the party

Industry experience of each participant was also documented. 21 participants

were in the industry for more than 20 years. 16 had 10-20 years of experience, 7
participants had 5-10 years. 23 participants had been in the industry for less than
5 years.

[52]
 31% Less than 5 years
27%
5-10 years
10-20 years
24% 73%
More than 20 years

Figure 20: Percentage of participants by their work experience

Highest academic qualifications the participants had in terms of construction,

were also collected. 9 respondents had a diploma. 50 graduates were in the
sample and 5 with a master’s. 3 participants of the questionnaire survey had
chartered qualifications.

4%
10% 13%
Diploma
Degree
Masters

71% Chartered

Figure 21: Percentage of participants by their level of qualification

In the section B of the questionnaire survey, the participants were asked to rate
the level of effectiveness of the recommendations that were initially given by the
industry professionals during the interviews. The ranking ranged from degrees 1
to 5; which are norimpact, lowrimpact, moderaterimpact, highrimpact andrvery
high impact respectively. To determine the relative ranking of the
recommendations the scores were then transformed into importance indices
using “Relative Importance Index” (RII) formula. The following table shows the

[53]
Relative Importance Index of each recommendation based on the effectiveness
to improve the construction site safety in Sri Lanka.

Recommendations RII Overall rank

Provide proper safety training for all employees 0.866 1

Make regular site safety inspections 0.842 2

Formulate safety regulations and policies 0.821 3

Identify, asses, evaluate risks and decide precautions 0.809 4

Proper project planning 0.797 5

Conduct daily safety meeetings each morning for

0.785 6
employees

Ensure that all new employeesrare givenran

appropriaterorientation regarding safetyrand safety 0.773 7
inspections

Usercoercive enforcementrmechanisms such as fines 0.746 8

Develop incentive programs 0.737 9

Introduce new technologies to workers 0.719 10

Conduct weekly formal safety meetings at the project

0.701 11
level

Implement total safety management at an

0.684 12
organizational level

Record findingsrand updatingrin relationrto therwork

0.678 13
condition

Planrout shortrand longrterm safetyrbudgets to

0.657 14
ensurerthe adequacy of safety implementation on site

Discuss onsite safety in management meetings 0.654 15

Adequate insurance policies on construction risks 0.642 16

Table 8: Relative importance index of each recommendation based on the effectiveness

[54]
The table above shows the RII rates and their ranks calculated according to the
feedback given by the questionnaire survey participants regarding the
effectiveness of improving construction site safety. The highest ranking (1st)
recommendation is to “provide proper safety training for all employees”, with a
0.866 RII rate. The 2nd highest ranking recommendation is to “make regular site
safety inspections” with 0. 842 RII rate. “formulate safety regulations and policies”
is the 3rd highest ranking with the 0.821 RII rate. According to the results of the
questionnaire survey, rankings 4th, 5th and 6th are “identify, asses, evaluate risks
and decide precautions” (RII = 0.809), “proper project planning” (RII = 0.797) and
“conduct daily safety meetings each morning for employees” (RII = 0.785)
respectively. “Ensure that all new employees are givenran appropriaterorientation
regarding safety and safety inspection” with 0.773 RII and “Use coercive
enforcementrmechanisms suchras fines” with 0.746 RII arerranked in 7thrandr8th
positions in the table. The 9th, 10th and 11th ranking recommendations are
“develop incentive programs” (RII = 0.737) “conduct weekly formal safety
meetings at the project level” (RII = 0.701) and “introduce new technologies to
workers” (RII = 0.719). “Record findingsrand updatingrin relationrto therwork
condition”, “plan out short term and long term safety budgets to ensure the
adequacy of safety implementation on site” and “implement total safety
management at an organizational level” are ranked in 12th, 13th and 14th positions
in the table. The questionnaire survey participants were of the opinion that
“discuss onsite safety in management meetings” and “adequate insurance
policies on construction risks” are the least effective out of the given 16
recommendations to improve construction site safety. Those recommendations
are ranked in the 15th and 16th positions in the table with the 0.654 RII and 0.42
RII respectively.

4.5 Summary

This chapter analysed and presented findings of this research. Data obtained
through the documentary review, semi-structured interviews and the
questionnaire survey, were instrumental in achieving the research objectives.
The following are some of the key findings gathered from the data collection
process, listed out to provide a brief overview.

[55]
 The 9 most prominent types of accidents that occurred in Sri Lankan
construction sites in last 10-year period were identified.

 Statistical data of fatal, non-fatal, and total construction accidents in Sri Lanka
during last 10-year period were compared to that of all other industries.

 The specific causes for the 9 prominent typesrof accidentsrthat occurredrin

Sri Lankan construction sites were emphasised.

 Strategies were recommended to minimise the identified 9 most prominent

types of accidents the resulted from the said causes.

 Professional opinions of the industry were sought regarding possible methods

to improve overall construction site safety.

 16 methods were identified torimprove overall constructionrsite safetyrthrough

semi-structured interviews, and were ranked in accordance with the feedback
given by the questionnaire survey participants based on their effectiveness in
improving construction site safety.

[56]
Chapter 5 - Conclusion and recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

Thisrsection willrdraw uprconclusions from the argument and evidence presented

in chapter 4, in order to achieve the aim of the study; “The aim of this study is to
identify the causes for deaths and injuries in construction sites in Sri Lanka and
identify actions to mitigate those accidents” by establishing the objectives as
illustrated below.

5.1.1 Objective one

To identify the various types of accidents recorded in the construction sites in Sri
Lanka during last 10-year period

The documentary review utilised statistical data sourced from the Industrial
Safety Division of Sri Lanka Labour Department in order to achieve the first
objective. Accordingly, the 9 most prominent types of accidents that have
occurred in Sri Lankan construction sites in the last 10-year period were
identified. Those accidents are as follows;

1) Falling from heights or scaffolding

2) Falling debris, materials or objects

3) Machinery accidents

4) Electrocution

5) Being caught between objects

6) Slips/trips and falls

7) Fires and explosions

8) Trench collapses

9) overexertion

“Falling from heights or scaffolding” accidents were the most common type of
accidents that occurred in Sri Lankan construction sites. Those accidents account

[57]
for approximately 22% of all on-the-job accidents of construction workers. The
2nd most common type of accidents that were recorded was “falling debris,
materials or objects”, accounting for 17% of on-the-job accidents of construction
workers. According to the statistics, 13% of accidents were from the “machinery
accidents” and “electrocution” categories. Additionally, “being caught between
objects”, “slips/trips and falls” and “fires and explosions” accounted for 11%, 7%
and 6% of total number of accidents that occurred on Sri Lankan construction
sites in last 10-year period, respectively. There were also 5% and 3% of accidents
caused by “trench collapses” and “overexertion” in construction sites according
to the statistical records of the Industrial Safety Division Sri Lanka Labour
Department.

5.1.2 Objective two

To identify the resultant deaths and injuries in construction sites in Sri Lanka
during last 10-year period from objective 01 above.

The documentary review was conducted in order to ascertain the resultants

accidents in Sri Lankan construction sites by evaluating the statistical data
sourced from the industrial Safety Division of Sri Lanka Labour Department.

A total of 16,067 occupational accidents were reported from Sri Lanka in the
period 2010-2020. Out of this, 2,135 accidents were classified under the
construction industry. As percentages, these numbers indicate that 13% of all
reported accidents were from the construction sector. In the 10 years under
consideration, a total of 849 fatal accidents were reported across all industries in
Sri Lanka. 311 of these accidents took place in the construction sector. These
numbers amount to 37% of all fatal occupational accidents in construction
industry in Sri Lanka in the 10-year period of 2010-2020. That means more than
one in every three fatal accidents, were reported from the construction sector.
When considering the number of non-fatal accidents during the last 10-year
period, 15,218 accidents were reported to the Industrial Safety Division, among
which 1,824 occurred in the construction sites. These numbers, when translated
into percentages, result in 12% from the total occupational non-fatal accidents
are happening in the construction industry. Furthermore, this research analysed

[58]
the varying consequences of occupational accidents that occurred in construction
sites of Sri Lanka. Almost two-fifths of the accidents that inflicted considerable
damage, 39% to be precise, resulted in physical injuries. Approximately 22% of
such accidents effected bodily fractures. 15% of such reported worksite accidents
in Sri Lanka resulted in death of one or more persons.

5.1.3 Objective three

To establish the specific causes for deaths and injuries in construction sites in Sri
Lanka during last 10-year period from objective 01 and 02 above.

Based on the research evidence, several major causes have been discovered for
the 9 most prominent types of accidents that have occurred in Sri Lankan
construction sites in the last 10-year period which were collected through
documentary review.

Unprotected roof edges/floor openings, improper scaffold erections and workers’

overconfidence were the most common and obvious causes for the accident type
of “falling from heights or scaffolding”. Material and objects carelessly placed near
edges, inadequate safety nets and panels, and materials not being properly tied
or secured before lifting were the major causes of accidents caused by “falling
debris, material or objects”. Based on the research evidence, the major factors
causing “machinery accidents” were unmaintained machines, working without
adequate PPE and workers not being properly trained or supervised. The most
common causes of “electrocution” were the electric wires not being properly
earthed, improper use of extension and flexible cords, and workers not following
manufacturer instructions on electronic appliances. Unsafely working between
moving objects, inadequate training or preparation, and machinery or vehicles
not properly powered down at the time of maintenance, were identified to be the
common causes behind “being caught between objects”. The results confirmed
that lack of safety footwear, poor housekeeping, and floor drains left open were
the major causes of “Slips/trips and falls”. Improper use or storage, not following
manufacturer’s instructions, and handling chemicals and flammable liquids etc.
without necessary PPE, were some of the most obvious causes of “fires and
explosions”. The study showed that “trench collapses” were caused by a wide

[59]
range of factors, some of which were singled out to be improper trench
reinforcement and trench boxes, placing spoil pile too close to trenches, and
failure to provide daily inspection of excavations. The major factors that led to
“Overexertion” of workers, were found out to be long working hours in high
temperatures, workers not being in acceptable physical conditions and workers
not being provided with necessary training and supervision.

5.1.4 Objective four

To recommend strategies to minimize the accidents resulting due to above

causes

The research study has highlighted a number of essential suggestions that were
given by the construction industry professionals in the semi-structured interviews,
to minimise the 9 most prominent types of accidents that were identified to have
occurred in Sri Lankan construction sites over the last 10-year period.

According to research evidence, preventive measures such as conducting fall

prevention training on a regular basis, ensuring fall protection equipment is
appropriate to the task, and making sure floor holes/openings are protected by
guardrails etc. are the stepsrthat shouldrbe takenrinrorder to minimise “falls from
heights or scaffoldings”. Actions such as ensuring that hoisted loads are properly
rigged and secured, wearing protective safety gears and making use of nets,
canopies or platforms to catch debris can help reduce the accidents caused by
“falling debris, materials or objects”. The result of the study confirmed that to
effectively prevent “machinery accidents”, all workers must be provided with
adequate training, should be provided appropriate machinery and equipment are
available to perform tasks safely, and be supervised by a competent person. It is
recommended to use lock-out/tag-out practices to ensure that circuits are de-
energized, mark warning lines to indicate power line clearance distances and
obey safety warnings, when using electrical equipment as it will reduce the
probability of workers getting “electrocuted”. Strictly following the maximum
weight limits, providing extensive training on how to safely and properly use
equipment, and wearing fitting clothes which are not loose and dangling, are
methods which can be followed to minimise the possibility of accidents which are

[60]
caused by persons “being caught between two objects”. “Slips/trips and falls” can
be prevented by providing slip resistant boots and puncture resistant soles.
Similarly, by requesting and encouraging workers to keep the workspace clean
and by placing warning signs appropriately, slips and falls can further be
prevented. “Fires and explosions” in construction sites can be prevented by
allowing qualified personnel to handle explosives, banning consumption of
alcohol, drugs and smoking by employees around the construction site, and by
ensuring chemicals, flammable liquids etc. are stored and used in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions. Byrensuring properruse ofrshoring, sloping,
benching, trench boxes or trench shield and by keeping excavated soil (spoils),
equipment or other materials at least 2 feet from the edge of excavations many
“trench collapses” can be avoided. Moreover, a competent and experienced
person must regularly inspect the trenching and excavation operations. To
prevent “overexertion”, supervisors should check whether the workers are in
optimal physical condition before a job is assigned to them. The tasks provided
should be switched regularly to increase variety of physical movements, and
workers must be provided with appropriate training in relevant tasks to increase
skills and efficiency in executing them.

5.2 Concluding remark

Based on the research evidence, it is evident that a concerning numberrof

accidentsrhave occurredrin therconstruction sites in Sri Lanka during last 10-year
period and the statistics were surprisingly higher compared to other industries.
However, since causes for such accidents are complex and hard to identify, it is
not possible to single out root causes and remove them all at once. Basedron this
recognition, thisrresearch aimsrto analyzerthe causalityrof construction accidents
onrthe basis of direct / specific causes in the context of different construction
accident types. The final effort is directed at answering the research question
“What are the causes for deaths and injuries in construction sites in Sri Lanka
and how to mitigate those in future?”. In that sense, the researcher identified 9
most prominent types of accidents that have occurred in Sri Lankan construction
sites in the last 10-year period, their specific causes as well as strategies to
minimize the accidents resulted due to above causes. Still, it is important to

[61]
recognise the root causes for the identified accidents to establish effective safety
measures to mitigate accidents in Sri Lankan construction sites. Therefore,
further research is required to find out root causes of identified 9 accidents that
will be essentially beneficial in preventing accidents in the construction sites in
Sri Lanka more effectively.

5.3 Recommendations

Therfollowing recommendationsrare basedron therconclusions drawn from the

results obtained through the documentary review, semi-structuredrinterviewsrand
the questionnairersurvey, in order to improve the construction site safety in Sri
Lanka.

 Constructionrcompanies mustrnot onlyrprovide safety trainingrfor all therstaff,

but these trainings must be adequately and progressively providedrto
increase the workers’ knowledge of safety, technicality of work procedure and
machinery usage, andrcreate familiarityrto therworkrenvironment.

 The employer shouldrsecure safetyrprotection measuresrat the jobsite and

provide adequate PPEs to the workersrand maintain their validity for use.

 Theremployer isrrequired to enrollrqualified and certifiedrsafety and health

supervisors at his worksites, and assure that person is aware of his
responsibilitiesrand dutiesrtoward keepingrthe worksite safe, andralso howrto
improverit torbe healthierrand saferrfor everyone.

 New rules and regulations should be implemented by the regulatory bodies to

suitrthe present industrial situation. In addition, the process of making policies,
guidelines, standards etc. is very slow due to lack of resources, experts and
otherrinfluences. Theserissues shouldrbe addressedrproperly.

 Managementrshould practicera continuousrsafety developmentrprocess that

includesrsix steps: creatingrsafety regulations, identifyrhazard, asses and
evaluaterrisk, deciderprecaution, recordrfindings andrupdating inrrelation to
therwork condition.

 To prevent unsafe behavior of employees, operating procedure should be

formulated, those who violate regulations be penalized, incentive program be

[62]
 developed to reward those who adhere construction site safety protocols and
health checks of employees should be conducted.

 Daily safety briefings should be conducted before the duties commence, and
formal safety meetings should be conducted weekly at project level in order
to take necessary decisions about site safety.

[63]
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[68]
Appendices

Structure of the questionnaire survey

[69]
[70]
[71]
[72]