PHYSICS 1

G LEIGH
CONTENTS

1. DEAR STUDENT... vi

2. SUBJECT GUIDE vii

2.1 Syllabus vii
2.2 Lecturer's guide viii
2.3 Aims and outcomes xii
2.4 Method of assessment xiii

INTRODUCTION

3. MEASUREMENT and MATHEMATICS 1

3.1 MEASUREMENT 1
3.2 Base SI units 2
3.3 Derived SI units 2
3.4 Accuracy and precision 3
3.5 Significant figures 3
3.6 Scientific notation 4
3.7 MATHEMATICS 5
3.8 Basic calculation 5
3.9 Laws of indices 6
3.10 Mathematical relationships 7
3.11 Solution of triangles 7
3.12 TUTORIAL 8

4. VECTORS 9
4.1 Scalars and vectors 9
4.2 Notation 9
4.3 Ways of stating direction 10
4.4 Graphical representation 10
4.5 Addition of vectors 10
4.6 Subtraction of vectors 11
4.7 Resolution of vectors 11
4.8 Multiplication of vectors 11
4.9 TUTORIAL 12

MECHANICS

5. KINEMATICS 15
5.1 Speed 15
5.2 Velocity 16
5.3 Acceleration 17
5.4 Equations of motion 17
5.5 Free fall 18
5.6 TUTORIAL 19

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6. DYNAMICS 21
6.1 Revision 21
6.2 Identifying forces 21
6.3 Inertia 22
6.4 Effect of an unbalanced force 22
6.5 Tension 22
6.6 Mass and weight 23
6.7 Reaction forces 23
6.8 TUTORIAL 24

7. UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION 27
7.1 Newton's deductions 27
7.2 Cavendish's contributions 27
7.3 The earth's gravitational field 28
7.4 Weightlessness 28
7.5 TUTORIAL 28

8. FRICTION 29
8.1 Types of friction 29
8.2 Laws of friction 29
8.3 Coefficients of friction 30
8.4 Determining µ 30
8.5 TUTORIAL 31

9. MOMENTUM 33
9.1 Momentum 33
9.2 Reformulation of Newton's 2nd law 33
9.3 Conservation of momentum 34
9.4 Verification of Newton's 3rd law 34
9.5 TUTORIAL 34

10. WORK, ENERGY and POWER 37

10.1 WORK 37
10.2 Work done 37
10.3 ENERGY 37
10.4 Types of energy 37
10.5 Conservation of mechanical energy 38
10.6 POWER 39
10.7 TUTORIAL 40

11. SOLID STATICS 43

11.1 TRANSLATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM 43
11.2 First condition of equilibrium 43
11.3 ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM 44
11.4 Moments/Torque 44
11.5 Second condition of equilibrium 44
11.6 Parallel forces 44
11.7 STABILITY and BALANCE 45
11.8 Centre of gravity 45
11.9 Types of equilibrium 45
11.10 ELASTICITY 46
11.11 Distortion 46
11.12 Stress 46
11.13 Strain 46
11.14 Elastic limit 46
11.15 Elastic/Young's modulus 47
11.16 TUTORIAL 47

ii
12. FLUID STATICS 51
12.1 Ideal fluids 51
12.2 DENSITY 51
12.3 Density 51
12.4 Relative density 52
12.5 PRESSURE 52
12.6 Pressure in fluids 52
12.7 Atmospheric pressure 52
12.8 Gauge pressure 53
12.9 Hydraulics 54
12.10 BUOYANCY 54
12.11 Archimedes' principle 54
12.12 Determining relative density using Archimedes' principle 55
12.13 Floating objects 55
12.14 SURFACE PHENOMENA 56
12.15 TUTORIAL 57

13. FLOW DYNAMICS 59

13.1 Flow types 59
13.2 Flow rates 59
13.3 The equation of continuity 60
13.4 Bernoulli’s principle 60
13.5 Special cases of Bernoulli’s principle 61
13.6 Applications of Bernoulli’s principle 61
13.7 Viscosity 62
13.8 Reynolds number 62
13.9 TUTORIAL 63

OPTICS

14. SIGHT 65
14.1 Importance of light 65
14.2 Requirements for sight 65
14.3 Sources of light 65
14.4 Propagation 65
14.5 The ray model 66
14.6 TUTORIAL 66

15. REFLECTION 67
15.1 Laws of reflection 67
15.2 Regular/Specular reflection vs Diffuse reflection 67
15.3 PLANE MIRRORS 68
15.4 CURVED MIRRORS 68
15.5 Terminology 68
15.6 Aperture 68
15.7 Ray diagrams 69
15.8 Mirror formula 69
15.9 Magnification 69
15.10 TUTORIAL 70

16. REFRACTION 71
16.1 Refractive index 71
16.2 Apparent depth 72
16.3 Total internal reflection 72
16.4 PRISMS 73
iii
16.5 LENSES 73
16.6 Terminology 73
16.7 Ray diagrams 73
16.8 Lens formula 74
16.9 Magnification 74
16.10 Combination formula 74
16.11 TUTORIAL 74

17. COLOUR 77
17.1 Dispersion 77
17.2 Colour mixing 77
17.3 Observed colours 78
17.4 Types of spectra 78
17.5 Chromatic aberration 78
17.6 TUTORIAL 78

18. THE NATURE OF LIGHT 79

18.1 Historical 79
18.2 WAVES 79
18.3 Terminology 79
18.4 Interference 80
18.5 Diffraction 80
18.6 LIGHT AS A WAVE 81
18.7 Young’s experiment 81
18.8 Related phenomena 81
18.9 Lens coatings 81
18.10 LIGHT AS A PARTICLE 82
18.11 The photoelectric effect 82
18.12 So what is it??! 82
18.13 TUTORIAL 83

TEMPERATURE & HEAT

19. TEMPERATURE and EXPANSION 85

19.1 TEMPERATURE 85
19.2 Definitions of temperature 85
19.3 Thermometers 85
19.4 Temperature scales 86
19.5 THERMAL EXPANSION 86
19.6 Coefficient of linear expansion 86
19.7 Coefficient of volume expansion 87
19.8 THERMAL STRESS 87
19.9 TUTORIAL 87

20. HEAT 89
20.1 HEAT AS ENERGY 89
20.2 Statistical mechanical model 90
20.3 Effects of transferring energy to an object 90
20.4 Heat 90
20.5 Heat capacities 91
20.6 Calorimetry 91
20.7 TRANSFER OF HEAT 92
20.8 Conduction 92
20.9 Convection 92
20.10 Radiation 93
20.11 TUTORIAL 93

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21. PHASE CHANGES 97
21.1 Phase changes 97
21.2 Evaporation 97
21.3 Boiling 98
21.4 Phase diagrams 99
21.5 Internal energy changes up to, during and after a phase change 99
21.6 Heat of transformation 100
21.7 TUTORIAL 100

22. GASES 103

22.1 Boyle's law 103
22.2 Charles' law 103
22.3 Gay-Lussac's law 104
22.4 The ideal gas law 104
22.5 Standard temperature and pressure 104
22.6 Real gases 104
22.7 TUTORIAL 105

ELECTRICITY

23. STATIC ELECTRICITY 107

23.1 ELECTROSTATICS 107
23.2 Electric charge 107
23.3 Elementary charge 107
23.4 Separation of charges 108
23.5 Force between charges 108
23.6 ELECTRIC FIELDS 108
23.7 Electric field 108
23.8 Electric field strength 109
23.9 Work done in moving charge in an electric field 109
23.10 Potential difference 109
23.11 Field strength between charged plates 109
23.12 TUTORIAL 110

24. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 111

24.1 Electric current 112
24.2 Electric circuits 112
24.3 Series and parallel connections 112
24.4 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE 112
24.5 Potential difference 112
24.6 The voltmeter 112
24.7 CURRENT STRENGTH 113
24.8 Current strength 113
24.9 The ammeter 113
24.10 RESISTANCE 113
24.11 Resistance 113
24.12 Factors affecting resistance 114
24.13 Resistors in series 114
24.14 Resistors in parallel 114
24.15 ELECTRICAL ENERGY 115
24.16 ELECTRICAL POWER 115
24.17 TUTORIAL 116

APPENDICES

25. DATA D1-5

v
MEASUREMENT and MATHEMATICS

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: base unit, derived unit, accuracy, precision, significant figure, scientific
notation, metric prefix, micron, ångström, direct proportion, inverse proportion.
 List the seven base SI units together with their abbreviations, the relevant physical quantities
and their symbols.
 Express any derived unit in terms of the seven base SI units.
 Recognise and use the common metric prefixes and their abbreviations (see table, p 4).
 State the number of significant figures in a given value and determine (and use) the
appropriate number of significant figures for a calculated result, rounding as required.
 Perform basic mathematical calculations (as detailed on p 5 ff), using the laws of indices
where necessary.
 Recognise and interpret the relationships between two physical variables, converting
between the written, mathematical and graphical representations of such relationships.
 Solve triangles, using (where appropriate) Pythagoras’ theorem, sine, cosine and tangent
ratios, and the sine and cosine rules.

Physics is the study of the natural world. More specifically, it is the study of the matter and energy which
together make up the entire known universe. It is the most fundamental of the sciences. Much of the
knowledge and many of the skills gained while mastering this subject are generic and can be carried over to
other scientific disciplines.

The classically preferred method of studying the universe, the scientific method, is based on careful
experimentation and observation. Hypotheses are proposed to explain observed phenomena and are rigorously
tested. Those which survive generate the theories accepted (currently) by the mainstream of scientific
thought – until further testing proves them inadequate or wrong. From the interplay between these theories
and real phenomena we develop scientific models – ideas which help us understand natural phenomena in
terms of a few fundamental laws. Good models are consistent, enabling us to predict what will happen in
changed circumstances and thereby giving us some measure of control over our environment and our lives.

MEASUREMENT
One thing which distinguishes the scientist from the casual observer is the process of measurement. In fact
true scientists are really interested only in phenomena which can be measured.

Measurement is the comparison of a physical quantity (eg length) with a

predefined unit, or fixed standard of measurement (eg the metre, or the foot, or
the cubit, or the hand, or the furlong, or…). Globalisation necessitated the
standardisation of units, so in 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights
and Measures recommended a practical system of units called the Système
International d'Unités (abbreviation SI). This system comprises seven well-
defined, dimensionally independent base units and other, derived units, which
are formed by combining base units according to the algebraic relations linking
the corresponding quantities (ie the appropriate equations).

Despite standardisation, it is still essential to state the unit of measurement

together with the measurement or value.
1
2 MEASUREMENT and MATHEMATICS

Base SI units: The following table shows the seven standard base units of the SI:

Physical quantity Symbol Base unit Unit abbr

Length s metre m

Time t second s

Mass m kilogram kg

Current strength I ampere A

Temperature T kelvin K

Luminous intensity Iv candela cd

Amount of substance n mole mol

Derived SI units: Some derived units are self-explanatory; simple algebraic combinations of the
seven base units…

Physical quantity Symbol Unit Unit abbr

Area A square metre m2

Volume V cubic metre m3

Speed v metre per second m/s

Acceleration a metre per second squared m/s2

Density  kilograms per cubic metre kg/m3

...while others have been “disguised” by being named after famous scientists:

Physical quantity Symbol Unit Unit abbr Base units

Force F newton N kg m/s2

Pressure p pascal Pa N/m2 = kg /(m s2)

Energy (incl work, heat) E, w, Q joule J N m = kg m2/s2

Power P watt W J/s = kg m2/s3

Charge Q coulomb C As

Electrical potential V volt V J/C = kg m2/(A s3)

Electrical resistance R ohm  2 2 3
V/A = kg m /(A s )
Frequency f hertz Hz s–1

...and yet others are (unnamed) further combinations of all these:

Physical quantity Symbol Unit Unit abbr

Expansion coefficient ,  per kelvin K–1

Specific heat capacity c joule per kilogram per kelvin J/(kg K)

Heat capacity C joule per kelvin J/K

Electric field strength E newtons per coulomb N/C
Resistivity  ohm metres m
MEASUREMENT and MATHEMATICS 3

Accuracy and Precision: The following pictures of bullet holes in targets, and tables of readings
from a Physics practical illustrate the difference between precision
(the closeness of hits or values to each other) and accuracy (the
closeness of hits or values to the target, or true value).

Reading A B C
1 1,7 1,985 2,001
2 3,2 1,986 1,999
3 1,4 1,984 2,002
4 1,0 1,981 1,998
5 2,6 1,989 2,000
Averages: 2,0 cm 1,985 cm 2,000 cm

Alan’s readings (A) are neither accurate nor precise, although the arithmetical mean (average) of
these happens to correspond with the mean of Carmen’s readings (C). If the true value of the
length being measured is exactly 2 cm, both Alan and Carmen might at first glance appear to be
equally accurate. But besides the scatter of Alan’s readings, there is a further indication that he has
not been very precise: there are only two significant figures in each reading (and hence the mean
value). Both Carmen and Bonisiwe have measured to a precision of four significant figures (and
can truthfully reflect this in their mean values).

If the actual length is exactly 2 cm, then Bonisiwe’s mean value is not very accurate – although her
readings are indeed precise. This suggests that there might a fault, either in the procedure she
follows when taking readings (as with the target shooter who always aims too high), or in the
equipment she is using (for the shooter, her gun sights may be incorrectly set), in which case the
equipment needs to be properly calibrated, or Bonisiwe’s method/procedure needs to be corrected.

Significant figures: The number of significant figures, or digits, in a measured value gives an
automatic indication of how precise that value is.

If a student records that a cube has a side of 1 cm, he is implying that its length is somewhere
between 0,5 cm and 1,4 cm (if it had been 1,5 cm, for example, he would have recorded 2 cm). If,
however, he gives the length as 1,00 cm it means that he has measured to the nearest hundredth
of a centimetre – in other words the reading lies between 0,995 cm and 1,004 cm – a much more
precise value than the previous one.

1 cm contains only one significant figure; 1,00 cm contains three significant figures, or digits.

The following rules determine the number of significant figures in a given number:
1. All non-zero numerals are significant.
eg: 112,6 has four significant figures.
2. Only zeros between non-zero numerals, or following a non-zero numeral AND CONTINUING
TO THE RIGHT OF THE DECIMAL POINT are significant. Other zeros are not significant.
eg: 1 004 has four significant figures
0,000 060 has two significant figures
50,00 has four significant figures
50 000 really has only one significant figure (see below)
4 MEASUREMENT and MATHEMATICS

The number of significant figures in a result which has been calculated from several measured
values depends on both the precision of the original measurement and the nature of the calculation:
1. If the result is calculated by multiplying or dividing measured values, it may contain only as
many significant figures as contained in the least precise of the readings.
2. If the result is calculated by adding or subtracting measured values, it may contain only as
many decimal places as there are in the value with the least number of decimal places.

In both of the above cases, if non-significant digits are dropped from the final result, the last
reported (ie significant) digit is adjusted, or rounded, according to whether the next digit (the first of
the discarded digits) is less than 5, or equal to/greater than 5. (Eg: If only three significant figures
are to be reported, 1,2149 is rounded to 1,21, but 1,2153 becomes 1,22.

The terminal zeroes in a number without an explicit decimal point (eg 50 000) may or may not be
significant. If the crowd attendance at a soccer match is given as 50 000 it may indeed be that the
electronic gates have counted exactly that many spectators – not 50 001, or 49 999, but exactly
50 000. It is more likely, however, that the attendance has been rounded off to the nearest hundred
(in which case only the first three figures are significant), or even the nearest thousand (in which
case only the first two figures are significant). In scientific measurements such ambiguity can be
avoided by the use of scientific notation.

Scientific notation: In scientific notation only the first significant digit of a number appears before
the decimal point. The order of magnitude is then indicated by means of an
additional factor – an exponent to the base 10 (eg 112,6 becomes 1,126  102).

If the 50 000 referred to above is supposed to be precise to three significant figures this precision
can be conveyed unambiguously by writing it as 5,00  104. If it were precise to only two significant
figures it would be written as 5,0  104.

Scientific notation is also particularly useful for representing very large or very small quantities.
(Eg: Avogadro’s number = 6,02  1023; the diameter of a hydrogen atom = 7,4  10-8 m.)

The “ 10n” factor of a physical quantity is sometimes abbreviated to a metric prefix, especially
where n is a multiple of 3. This prefix is usually then further abbreviated to a single letter or symbol.
(Eg: 5,25  103 metres becomes 5,25 kilometres, or just 5,25 km; 3,14  10-6 grams becomes
3,14 micrograms, or just 3,14 g.) A number may even be adjusted so that the exponent becomes
a multiple of 3 and it can be written more simply (eg 6,50  10-7 m can be rewritten as 650  10-9 m
so that it then becomes 650 nm).

The following metric prefixes will be used in this course and must be well known:

–12
Factor 10 10–9 10–6 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 103 106 109

Prefix pico- nano- micro- milli- centi- deci- - kilo- mega- giga-

Prefix abbr p n  m c d - k M G

A micrometer (m) is commonly referred to as a micron.

Another unit of length frequently used by particle physicists and chemists is the ångström, Å:
1 Å = 10-10 m.

To facilitate changing from one unit to another you should familiarise yourself with your calculator’s
ability to switch between fixed, scientific and engineering displays.
MEASUREMENT and MATHEMATICS 5

MATHEMATICS
A certain amount of numeracy and mathematical competency is necessary for even a basic understanding of
physics. This section lists the several procedures which will be used to process data (eg measured values,
or supplied information) and produce numerical solutions to typical physics problems.

Basic calculation: You must be able to...

1. Perform calculations in the correct order of operation (BODMAS or BOMDAS):

Eg: 3 + 2 x 4 – 1 = 10

2. Divide by a fraction (invert the fraction and multiply):

0 ,14
Eg:  0 ,14  3  0 ,21
2 2
3

3. Square a number, and raise a number to any power:

Eg: 0,032 = 0,0009; 28 = 256

4. Take the square or cube root of a number:

Eg: 0 ,49  0 ,7 ; 3
125 = 5

5. Use :

Eg: .(2,5)2 = 19,6

6. Convert between ordinary, scientific and engineering notation (or at least be able to enter
such numbers into a calculator):

Eg: 14 700 = 1,47 x 104 = 14,7 x 103

(ordinary) (scientific) (engineering)

0,253 = 2,53 x 10–1 = 253 x 10–3

Note: the index is positive if the decimal was moved to the left, and
negative if the decimal was moved to the right.

7. Enter 10-6 correctly into your calculator.

Eg: 10 6  ... (?!)

2

8. Solve basic equations:

Eg: 14  4  2 … therefore R = 0,25

R

9. Solve simultaneous and quadratic equations:

Eg: 3A – 2B = 11 (1) Eg: 5t2 – 25t + 30 = 0

A + 6B = 17 (2)  5(t – 2)(t – 3) = 0
[3  (1) + (2)] ...  A = 5 and B = 2  t = 2 or t = 3
6 MEASUREMENT and MATHEMATICS

10. Calculate the areas and volumes of various simple shapes and objects:

 A=b
Rectangles: b

r 2
Circles: d Circumference = 2..r A = .r2 = .d
4

Right solids: h V = (area of base)  h

Spheres: Surface Area (SA) = 4..r2 V  34 ..r 3

11. Perform unit conversions:

Eg: 1 m = 1 000 mm
1 m2 = (1 000)2 mm2 = 106 mm2 = ? cm2
1 m3 = (1 000)3 mm3 = 109 mm3 = ? cm3
[Note: 103 cm3 = 1 dm3 = 1 litre = 103 m... so 1cm3  1 m]

80 km 80 000 m 80
80 km/h    m/s = 22 m/s
1h 60  60 s 3,6

Laws of indices:

1. 10x x 10y = 10x + y Eg: 102 x 10-5 = 10-3

2. 10 x  10 x  y Eg: 10 3  10 1
10 y 10 4

and 1  10 2
10  2

3. (10x)y = 10x.y Eg: (102)3 = 106

y x 6
2
4. 10 x  10 y
Eg: 10 6  10 2  10 3
MEASUREMENT and MATHEMATICS 7

Mathematical relationships:

1. Direct proportion: If one variable increases as the other increases the two variables
are directly proportional.
A

1.1 Simple direct proportion: A  B ...

A = k.B 0 B

A
1.2 Direct square law: A  B2 ...
A = k.B2
0 B

2. Inverse proportion: If one variable decreases as the other increases the two variables
are inversely proportional.

A
1
2.1 Simple inverse proportion: A  …
B
A.B = k 0 B

But if A is plotted against 1/B, we get a (more A

readable) straight-line graph:

1
0 /B
1
2.2 Inverse square law: A  …
B2
A.B2 = k

Solution of triangles:

1. Right angled triangles:

AC2 = AB2 + BC2 (Pythagoras)
A
AB BC AB
sin Ĉ  ; cos Ĉ  ; tan Ĉ 
AC AC BC
B C

2. Other triangles:
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 – 2.AB.BC.cos B (cosine rule)
A

AC BC AB
  (sine rule)
B C sin B̂ sin  sin Ĉ
8 TUTORIAL MEASUREMENT and MATHEMATICS

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 A watt is equivalent to a

A Nm B kg m2/s3 C kg m/s2 D J.s

1.2 Which of the following is equivalent to 900 cm2?

A 0,09 m2 B 0,3 m2 C 0,9 m2 D 9 x 103 mm2

1.3 Which of the following is equivalent to 10 dm3?

A 0,1 m3 B 1 m3 C 100 cm3 D 104 m

1.4 Which of the following is equivalent to 36 km/h?

A 10 km/h B 10 m/s C 130 m/s D 600 m/s

EXERCISES

2. State the number of significant figures in each of the following measurements:

2.1 56 m 2.4 4,6  1019 atoms
2.2 40,2 g/cm3 2.5 0,060 50 dm
2.3 601,04 tonnes 2.6 0,000 003 mg

3. Express…
3.1 31,45 g in kilograms 3.4 946,4 millilitres in dm3 (with three significant figures)
3.2 15 m/s in km/h 3.5 5 000 cm2 in square metres (to two significant figures)
3.3 22,3 tonnes in grams 3.6 4 light years in kilometres (to four significant figures)

4. Express each of the following in scientific notation:

4.1 356 4.3 47 764
4.2 0,096 4.4 0,000 000 027

5. Perform the following operations and report each answer with the appropriate number of significant figures:
5.1 5,679 2 m + 0,6 m + 4,33 m 5.6 (5,61  7,891)  9,1
5.2 4,51 cm  3,666 6 cm 5.7 8,91 – 6,435
5.3 13,7 g + 2,35 kg 5.8 10  3
5.4 3 h + 42,5 min + 23,45 s (ans in seconds) 5.9 145,75 + (2,3  10-1)
5.5 25 mm  4,0 cm 2
5.10 (1,00  104)  (9,9  106) + 109

6. A wooden cube with a volume of 45 cm3 is carved into: (a) the largest sphere possible;
(b) the largest cylinder possible.
In each case, determine:
6.1 the volume of wood which must be carved off;
6.2 the percentage reduction in surface area (ignoring the wood shavings).
VECTORS

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: scalar, vector, magnitude, bearing, resultant, resolution, component,
dot product (scalar product), cross product (vector product).
 Distinguish between given scalar and vector quantities as well as give examples of your own.
 Express the direction of a vector quantity as a bearing or as an angle relative to some given
direction. Convert several historic notations (such as compass points) into bearings.
 Represent a vector quantity graphically on paper. Move such graphical representations
around as necessary. Convert “pictures” or descriptions of vector arrangements into rough
sketches and thence into vector diagrams by moving the vectors and correctly computing the
relevant angles.
 Determine the components of a vector in specified directions. Resolve a vector into two right-
angled components.
 Determine the resultant of two or three given vectors which are arranged…
(a) in a straight line (by algebraic addition);
(b) at right angles to each other (by solution of right-angled triangles);
(c) at any angle to each other (using sine and cosine rules and/or components).
 Subtract vectors and multiply vectors, using the right hand rule to determine the direction of a
cross product.
 Discuss briefly the implications of a “closed” vector diagram (especially in the case of three or
more forces acting at a single point).

Scalars and vectors: Up until now most of the quantities you have dealt with (ie measured)
have been scalar quantities. Your age, shoe size or the distance you
walked to get to this place are each expressed simply as a number (and,
usually, a unit, like years or metres).

In Physics, however, it is often 25 m ?

useful to be more specific. 25 m
Instead of saying only that you ?
walked 25 m to get here, or even path length … distance … displacement
that you covered a straight line ?
25 m
distance of 25 m, it would be 25 m, south-east
easier to pinpoint your starting 25 m
point if you stated also in which
direction it lay: “My starting point ? !
is 25 m south-east of here.”

You would be stating its displacement from here, not merely its distance (or the path length you
would walk to get back there). Displacement is an example of a vector quantity.

Defn: A scalar is a physical quantity with magnitude (size) Eg's: time; mass
but no associated direction.

Defn: A vector is a physical quantity which has both Eg's: displacement;

magnitude AND direction. force

9
10 VECTORS

Notation: To indicate in formulae that a vector, not a scalar, quantity is required, we use one of
several possible special notations. So while distance and speed are represented as s and v
 
respectively in the formula s = vt, an equation for displacement might be written: s = vt , or
by using bold type: s = vt.

Ways of stating direction: In the displacement example on the previous page, we used a
compass point (south-east) to denote the direction of the
displacement vector. [NB!! South-east means exactly half way
between south and east – not just anywhere in between.]

However, rather than using compass points and variations on them (such as E30°N) we prefer to
use bearings. A bearing is the angle to the direction of the vector measured clockwise from north.
[Note the difference to vector directions in Mathematics.] If the position of north is unknown, or if
the directions have nothing to do with a map at all, they have to be given as angles relative to some
reference (such as the horizontal, or force A etc).

Graphical representation: It is very convenient to represent a vector quantity graphically –

as a ray (ie a line segment with an arrow at one end).

By convention the length of the ray gives a relative idea of the magnitude of the vector (it can even
be drawn to scale, if desired) and the arrow points in the direction of the vector quantity. We speak
of the head of the vector (where the arrowhead is), and the tail.

NB!! Directions and angles are ALWAYS measured at the tail of a vector!

Eg: Vector X lies on a bearing of 80°, while vector Y points north-east. What is the angle
between the two vectors?

Addition of vectors: Because of their directions, vectors cannot be added by simply adding their
magnitudes together (ie numbers), except in the simplest case where both
vectors point in exactly the same direction. (If two vectors point in exactly
opposite directions their magnitudes can still be added – but only after one
has been made negative with respect to the other. The direction of the
resultant will automatically be that of the larger vector.)

The following procedure should be applied to the addition of all “photo”

vectors:
1. Draw a rough sketch. The (invisible) forces in the
ropes in the adjacent "photo" must first be represented
as vectors (rays). The length of each ray indicates the
magnitude of the applied force (not the length of the rope!).
T
2. Calculate the angles needed for the vector diagram. rough sketch
(Hint: extend the tail of each vector back through the
100°
point of contact.) 160° S
3. Draw the vector diagram by arranging the vectors
head-to-tail, using the angles you calculated in 2.
U
4. Determine the resultant, ie its magnitude and direction!! 20°
by drawing a ray from the tail of the first vector to the T
U
head of the last. vector diagram
80°
Eg: Determine the resultant force in the above Mexican ring-
S
pull game if the magnitudes of the forces are
T = U = 250 N and S = 80 N.

What could you deduce if the last vector drawn reached exactly to the
R
tail of the first (ie the three vectors formed a closed triangle?) (qv)
VECTORS 11

 
Subtraction of vectors: To subtract vector B from vector A [ie A  B ] simply add vector A to
  
the negative of vector B [ie A +  B  ]. Remember that  B  has the
 
same magnitude as B , but lies in the opposite direction to B .

Resolution of vectors: A single vector can be resolved (separated, split up) into a number of
component vectors, or components.

An infinite number of combinations of vectors can add up to any given vector (all it requires is that
the first component starts at the tail of the resultant and that the last ends at the head).
However, we normally resolve vectors into just two components at right angles to each other (eg
horizontal and vertical components, or easterly and southerly components).

Using a rough sketch, draw in the directions of the required components at the tail of the vector.
Then drop perpendiculars onto each of these lines from the head of the vector.

F F
Fy F = Fx + Fy.
 
Fx

The perpendiculars cut off the required length of component vector along each of the directions
drawn at the tail. Vector components Fx and Fy can then be calculated using simple trigonometry.

Any number of vectors can easily be added (and/or subtracted) by first resolving them into
components. Each set of components is then added algebraically and the two resultant
components are then added (head-to-tail) to determine the final resultant. (Find out how to do this
using the  r and xy buttons on your calculator.)

Multiplication of vectors:
Multiplying a vector by a scalar: Multiplying a vector with a positive scalar alters the magnitude
of the vector without altering its direction. A negative scalar reverses the direction of the vector.

The scalar product of two vectors: In cases where we are 

concerned with the product of one vector and that component A
of the other vector in the same direction as the first 
[ie AB cos, where  is the angle between the vectors, and A B
and B represent their respective magnitudes], we use the

scalar product, or dot product – so-called because it is
  B cos
written A  B . [Example: the formula for work done, page 37.]
   
Note that whether A is multiplied by the component of B parallel to A , or B is multiplied by
 
the component of A parallel to B , the result is the same (scalar!) quantity, ie the dot product
   
is commutative: A  B = B  A .

The vector product of two vectors: Also known as the cross 

product, this is equivalent to one vector multiplied by that A
component of the other vector at right angles to the first
 
[ie AB sin]. It is written A  B , and the result is a vector 
quantity whose direction is determined by the right hand B sin B
  
rule. (In the adjacent example, the cross product A  B is
a vector pointing out of the page towards you.)
   
This time the order in which the vectors are written is important, since A  B = –( B  A ).
[Example: the formula for torque, page 44.]
12 TUTORIAL VECTORS

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 The resultant of two vectors, 5 km SW and 12 km NW, is

A 13 km, 292° B 13 km, N C 13 km, W D 13 km, 338°

1.2 If three vectors with magnitudes 30, 40 and 50 are added together, which of the following
CANNOT represent the magnitude of the resultant?

A 0 B 30 C 62,5 D 130

1.3 In the diagram, Y is a vector of which the direction can be changed.

Y
For which value of  will the magnitude of X + Y be a MAXIMUM?

A 0° B 90°
 X
C 180° D 270°

1.4 The magnitude and direction of a vector R are 10 km and 330°. The easterly and northerly
components of R are

A (10 sin60°; 10 cos60°)

B (–10 cos60°; 10 sin60°)
C (10 cos60°; –10 sin60°)
D (–10 sin60°; 10 cos60°)

1.5 The sketch represents a yacht sailing on a bearing of 45°.

The axis along which the component of its velocity is zero is

A AA B BB
C CC D DD

1.6 A river flows due east at 3 m/s. A man starts at a point on the south bank in a boat which can travel
at 5 m/s in still water. If he wishes to reach a point on the north bank directly opposite his starting
point, the direction he should take is

A B C D

37° 37°
37°

1.7 X and Y are two forces acting on point O. The sum of the components
Z
of the two forces in the direction OZ is X
A 20 N 40 N 120°
B 40 x 0,866 N Y
C 90 N O 50 N
D 50 – (40 x 0,866) N

1.8 A car which, a moment ago, was travelling at 60 km/h south is now travelling at 60 km/h east.
The change in its velocity is

A 0 km/h B 0 km/h, east C 85 km/h, north-east D 85 km/h, north-west

VECTORS TUTORIAL 13

EXERCISES

2. A car is driven 40 km west and then 30 km south. Determine:

2.1 the distance travelled by the car;
2.2 the car’s total displacement.

3. Consider two displacements, one of 3 m north and the other of magnitude 4 m. Use three diagrams
to show how these vectors may be combined to give resultants of magnitude 7 m, 1 m and 5 m
respectively. In each case state the direction of the resultant.

4. Two forces of exactly 3 N and 4 N act at a point. The direction of the 3 N force is 60° and that of
the 4 N force is 330°. Determine the resultant of the forces.
[Check your answer using one or both of the other two methods.]

5. Two tugs are shown pulling a barge, using forces of

5 000 N and 4 000 N respectively.
5 000 N, 210° 4 000 N, 120°
Calculate the resultant force exerted by the tugs.

6. A marble rolls across a train compartment at right angles to the side of the coach. If the marble
accelerates at 4 m/s2 and the train is accelerating at 3 m/s2, calculate the marble's acceleration
relative to the ground.

7. Determine the resultant of two forces, each 20 N, when the angle between them is…
7.1 0°
7.2 60°
7.3 90°
7.4 120°
7.5 180°

8. A jet with an air speed of 540 km/h is flying with its nose pointing due south. A south-easterly
wind is blowing at 120 km/h. Calculate:
8.1 the ground speed of the jet;
8.2 the direction in which it is actually traveling;
8.3 the ground distance it will cover every half an hour.

9. A river flows at a speed of 1 m/s. At a point where the river is 225 m wide, a boat, which can sail at
1,5 m/s in still water, sets off to the opposite bank. Calculate:
9.1 the shortest time in which the boat can cross the river;
9.2 the distance that the boat drifts downstream in this time;
9.3 the direction in which the boat must sail in order to land at the point directly opposite its starting
point;
9.4 the time it takes the boat to travel straight across like this.

10. A pilot wishes to fly 100 km due south. There is an easterly crosswind blowing at 65 km/h.
Calculate:
10.1 the direction in which the pilot must fly if the plane's normal air speed is 500 km/h;
10.2 how long the flight will take.
14 TUTORIAL VECTORS

11. The resultant of two vectors of equal magnitude is 10 m, 70°. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the vectors if one of them is in the direction due north.

12. On a windless day raindrops fall vertically with a constant speed of about 9 m/s. You are eager not
to be late for Physics, so you run from the station through the rain at 3 m/s. At what angle should
you hold your umbrella to get maximum protection from the rain?

13. Four forces of 10 N, 8 N, 6 N and 4 N act at the same point on an object. Determine the net force
on the object if the forces act on respective bearings of…
13.1 0°, 90°, 180° and 270°;
13.2 0°, 90°, 135° and 270°;
13.3 30°, 79°, 135° and 315°.

14. On a journey, you come to a circular lake with a radius of 2 km. Your journey continues on the far
side. You can ride a bicycle around the lake at 36 km/h, or you can paddle a canoe across it at
7 m/s. How much time will you save if you choose the shorter option?
KINEMATICS

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define and distinguish between the following pairs of terms: distance and displacement;
speed and velocity; instantaneous velocity (or speed) and average velocity (or speed).
Define also the terms: uniform motion, rectilinear motion, acceleration, free fall, projectile.
 Explain the difference between average velocity and instantaneous velocity in terms of the
 
calculus, ie lim s  ds , the derivative of displacement with respect to time.
t  0  t dt
 Perform numerical calculations using the several equations of motion as applied to examples
of rectilinear motion, distinguishing clearly between instantaneous and average velocity.
 Draw and interpret graphs of motion, using slopes and areas “under” the graphs to read quantities
of motion. “Convert” between displacement-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs.

Speed: Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance, in other words, how much distance a body
covers in a certain period of time, or, even more simply, how quickly the body is moving:

v  s
t

This equation actually calculates the average speed of a body which covers a distance s during a
time interval t. The actual value of the body’s speed at any one instant may vary considerably
during the interval, especially if the time interval is reasonably long.

A useful way to represent the motion of a 2

body is to plot its position as a function of s [km] E F
time on a distance vs time graph. 1
D
The adjacent graph shows the movement 0
1 2 3 4 5
of a train which takes 5 minutes to travel t [min]
from one station to the next, 4 km away –1 C
due west, as viewed by an observer B
A
halfway between the stations. –2

The average speed of the train is given by 2

v  s  54 = 48 km/h, which is just the slope of the s [km] E F

t 60
1
D
straight line AF on the adjacent graph. (The slope of a 0
1 2 3 4 5
distance-time graph automatically represents speed.) t [min]
–1
However, this does not take into account the fact that B
C
the train starts from rest and stops at the next station A
–2
(at both A and E the slope of the original graph can be
seen to be zero), or that it accelerates (speeding up and slowing down) in between.

Between minutes 2 and 4 the train travels at a 2

constant, top speed of s/t = 2,3/0,03 = 69 km/h, as s [km] E F
1
shown by the slope of the straight line section of the
D
graph between C and E. Between minutes 0 and 2 0
1 2 3 4 5
the slope of the graph (ie the speed of the train) t [min]
–1
increases gradually to 69 km/h, and between minutes B
C
4 and 5 the slope/speed decreases (somewhat more A
–2
rapidly) from 69 to 0 km/h.

15
16 KINEMATICS

To find the actual instantaneous speed at some 2

E F
s [km]
particular time in the journey, such as at minute 1, we 1
need to shrink the time interval around that point closer D
and closer to 0 in order to determine the slope at that 0
1 2 3 4 5
point (B). Mathematically, this is written as –1
t [min]
C
vinstantaneous  lim s  ds , and is called the derivative of s with
B
A
t  0 t dt –2

respect to t. This “instantaneous slope” is in fact

represented by the tangent to the graph at the point in question, as shown at B on the graph above.

It can also be shown that, provided the acceleration is 2

E F
uniform, the slope of the tangent at B is equal to the s [km]
1
slope of the line joining A and C – points at equal time
D
intervals on either side of B. In other words, provided the 0
1 2 3 4 5
acceleration is uniform, the instantaneous speed at B is t [min]
–1 C
equivalent to the average speed during the surrounding B
A
time interval, as shown on the adjacent graph. –2

Velocity: In the previous chapter we distinguished between the scalar quantity distance and its
vector counterpart, displacement. There is also a vector form of speed…

Velocity (which is like speed with direction) is defined as the rate of change of displacement:

 
v  s
t

Since displacement consists of both a magnitude and a direction, a body’s velocity changes if either
one of these quantities changes. It is possible to swing a stone around your head (on a string) at
constant speed, but not at constant velocity, since its direction is continuously changing.

Once again, the above equation actually calculates the average velocity of a body which undergoes

a displacement s during a time interval t. The actual value of the body’s velocity (its magnitude
and/or direction) may vary during the interval. To determine instantaneous velocity we shorten

the time interval and determine lim s , ie we differentiate displacement with respect to time:
t  0 t

 
vinstantaneous  ds
dt

In practice, the instantaneous velocity of a body at some point is equivalent to its instantaneous
speed together with the direction in which it is moving at that moment.

Eg: An athlete runs at constant speed clockwise around a


circular track with a radius of 70 m. If it takes her exactly N
20 s to get a quarter way round the track, from the north
to the east, calculate:
1. the speed at which she is running;
E
2. her instantaneous velocity the moment she reaches 70 m
the east;
3. her average velocity over the quarter of a circuit;
4. her average velocity for a complete circuit (assuming
she maintains the same speed).
KINEMATICS 17

Acceleration: Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. Like velocity, it is

therefore also a vector quantity (so it has direction!).

 
a  v
t

Acceleration is the amount added to the velocity each time interval. If it’s positive, the velocity
increases; if it’s negative, the velocity is decreasing.

As noted in the train example on page 15, the train slows down more quickly than it speeds up.
While it takes 2 minutes to reach its top speed of 69 km/h (19 m/s), it takes only 1 minute to stop.

Mathematically (and working in standard SI units this time), aAC  19  0 = 0,16 m/s2, west, while
120
 0  19
aEF  2 2
= –0,32 m/s , west, ie 0,32 m/s , east. In the latter case, saying that the train
60
accelerates negatively (ie in the opposite direction to its movement) is a more formal way of saying
that the train decelerates.

It is difficult to quantify the rate of 20

change of slope on a displacement- v [m/s] C D E
time graph, but if we plot the train’s 15
velocity against time, we can see that
10
the slope of a velocity-time graph B
gives us the acceleration – not only 5
the magnitude of the acceleration,
but also its sign (ie its direction). [On A F
0
the graph, EF has a negative slope.] 60 120 180 240 300
t [s]
On a velocity-time graph, since v  t gives us displacement, the area “under” the graph (that is,
between the graph and the x-axis) represents the cumulative displacement of the body:
stotal  sAC  sCE  sEF   12  120  19   120  19    12  60  19  = 1 143 + 2 286 + 571 = 4 000 m.

Notes:  Once again, unless we use the derivative, we are calculating the average acceleration
during the interval. While we shall almost always restrict ourselves to uniform acceleration
on this course, you should be aware that in many circumstances (eg rockets taking off
into space) the rate at which velocity changes (ie acceleration) may itself change.
 The rate of change of speed, a scalar quantity, is also called acceleration, but we shall
almost always use the word to mean the vector quantity.
 The acceleration of a body whose direction changes without its speed changing is the
subject of a section called circular motion, which is not covered on this course.

Equations of motion: In order to more easily derive Newton's equations for rectilinear motion
(the equations are not valid for non-linear motion!), we plot a velocity-time
graph of a body which is initially travelling with a velocity whose
magnitude is vi.

(Since the body is travelling in a straight

line, we won't bother to specify its direction, vf
which remains constant.)
velocity
The body is accelerated uniformly for a time v = at
interval t, at the end of which period it is
travelling with a final velocity of vf. vi
vi
The acceleration (the rate of change of
velocity) is the slope of the graph and is 0 ti t tf
time
given by a = (vf – vi)/t, which we rewrite as:

v f  vi  a t
18 KINEMATICS

The area "under" the graph (the shaded vf

trapezium made up of a rectangle and a
velocity
triangle) is the product of velocity and time,
v = at
and thus represents the total displacement ½a (t)2
during the time interval, so:
vi
sf  si  vit  1
2 a(t )
2 vi t vi

0 ti t tf
In order to obtain a formula without time, we time
v v
substitute t  f i into the above equation and derive:
a

v f 2  vi2  2a s

(A fourth equation, without acceleration in it, can also be derived and used if necessary.)

Remember, Newton’s equations of motion can be used only for uniformly accelerated motion in a
straight line. They do, however, work for both directions along the line (ie backwards and forwards)
PROVIDED that opposite signs are used for opposite directions. Always include an x-axis (or both
x- and y-axes) as part of your rough sketch of the situation. The axes may point in any direction (at
right angles to each other, of course), depending on what suits the situation. All quantities pointing
in the direction of the axis are positive; those pointing in the opposite direction are negative.

Eg: A ball rolls up a sloping surface, slowing down at a rate of

4 m/s2. (You may assume that this rate remains constant.)
 If the ball is initially travelling at 6 m/s, what is its
velocity after 2 seconds?
 Plot a velocity-time graph representing the ball’s motion from the time it starts up the
slope until it returns to the bottom of the slope.

Free fall: A body experiencing no other forces (balanced or unbalanced) besides the force of gravity
[we usually ignore air resistance] is said to be in free fall.

This applies not only to dropped objects, but to any object thrown up or down into the air at any
angle. Objects in free fall are called projectiles.

Galileo Galilei is reported to have dropped two objects of different masses from the Leaning Tower
of Pisa in 1590 in order to show his students that all objects – light or heavy – fall with the same
acceleration due to gravity – in contradiction of the long-held Aristotelian beliefs. Although this
heresy cost him his post at the local university, 30 years later the principle was confirmed practically
by Robert Boyle when he was able to remove air resistance from the equation with the aid of his
new vacuum pump. During the Apollo 15 mission in 1971 this demonstration was repeated with a
hammer and a feather by Astronauts David Scott and Jim Irwin on the airless surface of the Moon.

Again, being consistent about signs is very important. There is no firm convention about whether
upwards is positive or negative – you can choose – but remember to record your decision (with a
labelled axis) and stick to it.

Remember also that whatever sign the acceleration due to gravity (g) turns out to have on your
axis, gravity ALWAYS acts in only ONE direction: DOWNWARDS! Always. No matter what the
projectile is doing!!

Eg: A kingfisher hovers 30 m directly above a boy with a catapult. If the boy launches a stone
straight up at 25 m/s, how long does the stone take to hit the bird?
KINEMATICS TUTORIAL 19

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 A motorbike accelerates uniformly from rest. It travels 75 m in the first 5 s. After 10 s its total
displacement will be

A 150 m B 225 m C 300 m D 375 m

1.2 The same motorbike's acceleration, in m/s2, is

A 3 B 6 C 12 D 30

1.3 The velocity of a body changes from 8 m/s to 2 m/s in the opposite direction during a 2 s interval.
The average acceleration experienced by the body is

A 3 m/s2 B 5 m/s2 C 6 m/s2 D –3 m/s2

1.4 A cyclist pedals from point X to point Y half way round a circular track in 20 s. The diameter of the
track is 140 m. The magnitude of her velocity when she reaches Y is

A 0 m/s B 7 m/s C 11 m/s D 22 m/s

[Discuss this question and its answer.]

1.5 A car travels north at 80 km/h for 3 hours, then south at 100 km/h for 2 hours. Its average speed
for the journey is

A 44 km/h B 88 km/h C 90 km/h D 180 km/h

1.6 The magnitude of the average velocity for the same car and the same journey is

A 8 km/h B 10 km/h C 40 km/h D 88 km/h

1.7 A ball is thrown vertically upwards at a velocity of u m/s. If air resistance is ignored, the maximum
height, in metres, reached by the ball is

A u2 B u2 C u
2
D 2u
2g g2 2g g2

1.8 The diagram depicts a displacement-time graph of an object which initially travels in an easterly
direction.

A
x
displacement
B
0
T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T
time
–x
C
Its velocity at point B in the graph is

A x , west B 2x , west C zero D x ,east

T 3T 3T
20 TUTORIAL KINEMATICS

EXERCISES

2. A man travels north for two hours at 30 km/h before turning and travelling in the opposite direction
for another one hour at 40 km/h.
2.1 Calculate his average speed and his average velocity for the three-hour trip.
2.2 If he had covered only 10 km at 30 km/h and then another 10 km at 40 km/h, what would his
average speed have been?

3. A body starts from rest and moves with a constant acceleration of 0,6 m/s2.
3.1 What is its speed after 7 s and after 12 s?
3.2 How far has it travelled after 5 s and 8 s?
3.3 What is its average speed over the first 8 s?

4. A 2 kg object is dropped from a height of 405 m. Ignoring air resistance, calculate:

4.1 the speed with which it hits the ground;
4.2 how long it takes to hit the ground.

5. An aeroplane uses all of the available 400 m runway during its 10 s take-off.
5.1 Calculate its take-off speed.
5.2 Plot its motion on each of the following types of graph: (a) displacement-time;
(b) velocity-time;
(c) acceleration-time.

6. In order to measure the length of a train, a boy stands on the platform 20 m in front of the train as it
accelerates uniformly from rest. The front of the train passes him after 6 s; the back of the train
after 16 s.
6.1 How long is the train?
6.2 What speed (in km/h) is the train travelling when the last coach passes the boy?
6.3 How realistic is it, therefore, to assume that the acceleration remains constant throughout?

7. The graph describes the straight-line 12 A

motion of a car which starts off in a velocity
(m/s) 9 D
south-easterly direction at t = 0.
7.1 Calculate the displacement of the car…
6
7.1.1 during the first 3 s;
7.1.2 after 8 s. B C
3
7.2 Determine the acceleration of the car …
7.2.1 during the first 3 s;
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 time (s)
7.2.2 between seconds 3 and 6;
7.2.3 during the last 2 s.
7.3 Draw the corresponding displacement-time graph for the first 8 s of motion. Label the relevant
displacement and time values.

8. A patient in a waiting room on the seventh floor of the Medical Centre (28 m above the ground)
sees a window cleaner falling past. She happens to notice that he takes exactly 0,15 s to pass the
3 m high window. Ignoring air resistance, determine which floor he was cleaning when he fell.

9. You wish to average 60 km/h on a certain trip, but when you have covered half the distance you
discover you have averaged only 40 km/h so far. How fast should you travel the remaining half of
your trip in order to attain an overall average of 60 km/h?
DYNAMICS

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: force, balanced and unbalanced forces, normal force, inertia, mass,
tension, weight, reaction-pair.
 State Newton’s three laws of motion (in the correct order). Explain the behaviour of moving
and stationary objects in terms of these laws.
 Identify all the forces acting on a given body under given circumstances.
 Perform numerical calculations using the formula derived from Newton’s 2nd law: F = ma,
and its variation: W = mg, including examples involving tension.
 Distinguish carefully between a pair of balanced forces and a reaction-pair.
 Identify the forces on a spring balance while taking a reading and correctly predict the reading.
 Describe the principle of rocket propulsion.

Revision: The force of one object on a second object is part of the mutual interaction between the two
objects. The force of the first object has some effect on the second object. (The other part
of this interaction is the equal and opposite force which the second object exerts on the first.)

It is not possible to see a force. We can recognise the presence of unbalanced, or resultant forces
only by their (pushing or pulling) effects in a specific direction. (Balanced forces are all around us,
but they are much more difficult to detect.)

NB: Before they can be said to be balanced, the forces concerned must all be acting at the same
point, on the same object!

An unbalanced force acting through the centre of mass (qv) of a rigid object will definitely cause a
CHANGE in the motion of that object (ie a change in its speed and/or direction). [If the force does
not act through the centre of mass, or if the object is elastic or plastic (ie not rigid), the force will
have other effects (rotation or distortion), but we will leave such cases to the chapter on Statics.]

Defn: Force is that agency which changes (or tends to change) a body's
state of rest or state of uniform motion.

Identifying forces: In order for a force to be acting on an object there must be an identifiable agent.
While gravitational, electromagnetic and nuclear forces can act at a distance, in all other
cases the agent can apply its force only while it is IN CONTACT WITH THE OBJECT.

So if nothing is touching an object, there can be no forces acting on it! (besides gravity etc.).
Remember: every force is actually an interaction between two things!!

A surface in contact with an object exerts a force on the object at right angles to the surface, a force
known as a normal force, FN, or sometimes just N. Remember, also, the hidden or reactive
forces, friction and air resistance (although we often use friction-compensated runways, or else
work only theoretically, specifying that friction and air resistance are to be ignored.)

Eg: A ball rolls along a track, as shown. With the

A
aid of a labelled sketch, identify all the forces
acting on the ball in positions A and B, B
indicating also the resultant force in each …?
position. (Ignore the effects of friction.)
Describe the motion of the ball in each position.
21
22 DYNAMICS

Inertia: A massive object is suspended by a piece of thread. Another piece of the same
kind of thread is attached to the bottom of the object and pulled downwards. cotton
Which piece of thread will break? lead
mass
Defn: Inertia is that property of matter which causes it to continue
in its state of rest or uniform motion (in a straight line).

Mass is a numerical measure of inertia. The more massive an object is (ie the more mass it has)
the more “reluctant” it will be about having its motion altered. Contradicting Aristotle’s teachings yet
again, Galileo declared that a moving object does NOT need a force to keep it moving – its own
inertia (Galileo’s word) causes it to carry on doing whatever it is doing.
Eg: A motor car and a shopping trolley are rolling freely down a hill towards you and your
friend, their owners running behind them shouting at you to help them stop their runaway
vehicles. Since the trolley and the car are travelling at the same speed, which (if either) do
you choose to stop (leaving the other one for your “friend”)?

Note: Mass, or inertia, is a scalar quantity.

Newton's 1st law of motion:

A body will remain at rest or continue moving with uniform velocity unless acted upon
by an external unbalanced force.

Eg: You are a passenger in the front seat of a motor vehicle. With the aid of labelled
sketches, identify all the forces acting on you when…
 the vehicle makes a sharp turn to the right (sketch a view from the top)
 your vehicle is struck from behind while standing still (sketch a view from the side)

Effect of an unbalanced force: What happens if a net, unbalanced or resultant force does
act on a movable object?

Remember: "An unbalanced force applied to an object WILL DEFINITELY cause a CHANGE in the
motion of that object (ie a change in its speed and/or direction)."

Newton's 2nd law of motion:

When an unbalanced force acts on an object, it causes that object to accelerate in
the direction of the force. This acceleration is directly proportional to the unbalanced
force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

Mathematically: a  F/m … and, with suitable units…

F = ma [newton, N = kg m/s2]

NB!! F means the resultant force, ie the sum of all the forces acting on the object.
(It can also be regarded as the net UNbalanced force acting on the object.)

Defn: One newton is the amount of force required to accelerate a 1 kg mass at 1 m/s2.

Tension: Consider a boy pulling a toy along by a piece of light string. He is applying a force to the
string, which in turn applies pretty much the same amount of force to the toy. The string is
pulled taut and we say there is tension in the string. The magnitude of the tension in the
string, T, is equal to the force being applied to the string by the boy (or the force applied by
the string to the toy, or the force being applied by the toy to the string, or the force … etc.)

Although, like force, it is measured in newtons, tension is a scalar quantity.

DYNAMICS 23

Mass and Weight: According to Newton's law of universal gravitation, every particle in the universe
attracts every other particle (qv). But because the universal gravitational
constant is so tiny, we are not normally aware of this attraction – unless one of
the "particles" happens to be particularly massive – like the Earth.

The force of attraction between the Earth and an object (strictly speaking at the surface of the
Earth) is called the weight of that object. As stated in the law of universal gravitation, this
gravitational force (or weight) is directly proportional to the mass of the object.

So W  m, and by introducing the constant called the acceleration due to gravity, g, we have:

W  mg [newton, N]

Although g applies only to the surface of the Earth (and varies very slightly from place to place), it
does NOT depend on the mass of the object and we shall regard it as having one fixed value.

Eg: A lift and its passengers have a total mass of 1 500 kg. Calculate the
tension in the lift cable when the lift is
(a) stationary
(b) accelerating upwards at 4 m/s2
(c) travelling upwards at a constant 3 m/s
(d) accelerating downwards at 6 m/s2.

The 80 kg man in the lift is standing on a bathroom scale. What is the reading on the
scale in each of the four cases (a) to (d) above?
Suddenly he notices that the reading has dropped to zero. What's happening? Is he
weightless? He drops his briefcase… What appears to happen to it?

Reaction forces: Consider a boy and a girl facing each other, toe-to-toe, on rollerblades. What
would happen if the boy pushed the girl away from him? What would happen if
she pushed him? What would happen if they both pushed at the same time?

Eg: A bullet is fired from a rifle. Which force is greater: the force the rifle exerts on the bullet,
or the force of the bullet on the rifle?
Why does the bullet travel fast and far, while the rifle moves very little? (qv momentum.)

Newton's 3rd law of motion:

If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal but opposite
force on body A.

Note that in a reaction-pair the forces act on two DIFFERENT objects!

The principle of rocket propulsion makes use of Newton's 3rd law. As the rocket pushes back
against its exhaust gases (not the ground or other nearby objects!), the exhaust gases push with an
equal force against the rocket, propelling it forwards. In this way, since it carries and burns its own
fuel, a rocket is capable of operating even in empty space.

Eg: A line of blocks, each tied to the next by a piece of string, is being pulled along a
horizontal, frictionless surface by a constant force of 20 N.

A B 20 N
3 kg 2 kg 5 kg

Calculate the tension in each of the strings A and B.

24 TUTORIAL DYNAMICS

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 The force exerted on an object by the Earth is called

A mass B weight C inertia D gravity

1.2 A feather of mass 0,02 g drifts downwards at a constant speed of 0,5 m/s. The upward force it
experiences due to air resistance is

A 2 x 10-4 N B 2 x 10-1 N C 0,01 N D 0,04  10-7 N

1.3 A dark horse pulling a cart with a load of hay causes it to accelerate at a m/s2. The mass of the
cart is 100 kg and that of the hay 500 kg. Assuming the horse's force remains constant, what
would be the acceleration, in m/s2, of the cart if the load of hay fell sideways off it?

A 2a B 4a C 5a D 6a

1.4 The figure shows a book on a table, with the two forces acting on it. N
According to Newton's third law, the reaction force of the normal
force N is

A the gravitational force exerted by the Earth on the book

B the gravitational force exerted by the book on the Earth W
C the force exerted by the book on the table
D the force exerted by the table on the book

1.5 A crate is being pushed across a floor at a constant speed of 1 m/s. If the force being applied to
the crate is suddenly removed, the crate will

A stop immediately
B continue at constant speed
C immediately start slowing to a stop
D continue at constant speed for a short time and then slow to a stop

1.6 A man stands in a lift which is descending at a constant speed. If the push of the floor on the man
is P and the pull of the Earth on him (ie his weight) is W, then the net force on him is

A zero
B a fraction of W, vertically downwards
C slightly greater than P, vertically upwards
D slightly greater than W, vertically downwards

1.7 An object of mass 5 kg is projected vertically upwards. The force necessary to accelerate this
mass away from the Earth's surface at a steady 3 m/s2 is

A 15 N B 50 N C 65 N D 150 N

1.8 The sketch shows a single horizontal force F being F

applied to a block of mass M, which is in contact with M
m
another block of mass m. If the effects of friction are
ignored, the magnitude of the force exerted by mass
M on mass m is

A mF B mF C MF D F
M+m M m
DYNAMICS TUTORIAL 25

EXERCISES

2. An unbalanced force of 3,0 N acts on a 2,5 kg object for 5 s.

2.1 Calculate the magnitude of the acceleration of the object.
2.2 Calculate the final speed of the object.
2.3 Calculate the distance covered by the object during the 5 s the force acts on it.
2.4 Calculate the distance covered by the object during the next 5 s.
2.5 Comment on your answers and/or the question.

3. A 50 tonne airliner, approaching the runway at 200 km/h, fires its retro-jets as it touches down,
coming to a halt 25 s later. Calculate the magnitude of the force exerted by the jets.

4. A passenger in a car travelling at 80 km/h hits the windscreen when the car is involved in a head-on
collision. The windscreen takes 0,05 s to stop him dead. Calculate the average stopping force
exerted on the passenger (as a multiple of his own weight.)

5. The sketch shows two objects, masses 8 kg and

12 kg respectively, resting on a frictionless T? 40 N
8 kg 12 kg
horizontal surface and joined by a string.
A horizontal force of 40 N is applied as shown.
Calculate the tension in the string.

6. A 6 400 kg lift starts down a mine shaft with an acceleration of 4 m/s2. Determine the tension in
the cable during the start.

7. A mass of 25 kg is suspended by a cable. Find the tension in the cable if the acceleration is…
7.1 2 m/s2 upwards;
7.2 4 m/s2 downwards;
7.3 10 m/s2 downwards (what is actually happening here?).

8. The total mass of a lift and its load is 2 500 kg. The lift, originally moving downwards at 12 m/s, is
brought uniformly to rest in a distance of 18 m. Calculate:
8.1 the lift's acceleration;
8.2 the tension in the supporting cable while the lift is slowing down.

9. A student of mass 50 kg investigates the motion of a lift by standing in it on a bathroom scale

calibrated in newtons (using g = 10 m/s2). She notes four different readings on the scale:
A For 2 s immediately after the lift starts, the scale reads 600 N;
B During the next 6 s it reads 500 N;
C The reading then drops to 300 N before the lift stops and…
D …the reading finally settles on 500 N.
9.1 Describe, specifying magnitudes and directions, the motion of the lift during each interval.
9.2 What is the resultant (unbalanced) force acting on the student during each of the phases A, B, C
and D?
9.3 Hence calculate the acceleration of the lift during each phase.
9.4 How long does interval C last?
9.5 Through what total distance did the lift travel?
26 TUTORIAL DYNAMICS

10. Calculate (a) the acceleration (b) the tension in the cord
A
for the system shown if it is frictionless and…
A= B=
B
10.1 30 kg 50 kg
10.2 2,0 kg 500 g
10.3 1,0 kg 1,0 kg

11. Using the information provided for the frictionless system

shown in the sketch, calculate: 2 kg
11.1 the acceleration of the system;
11.2 the tension in each of the cords;
3 kg 5 kg
11.3 the velocity of the system after 1 s if it starts from rest;
11.4 distance travelled by the 3 kg block during the first second.

12. A 2 kg object dropped from a height of 405 m hits the ground after 10 s. Calculate the average
force of air resistance on the object during its fall.

13. A 15 kg monkey slides 10 m down a monkey rope, accelerating at 4 m/s2. Calculate:

13.1 the tension in the rope;
13.2 the “heat” produced by the friction (qv!).

14. You are trapped on the fourth floor balcony of a burning building (each floor is 3 m). Tied to the
balcony is piece of rope which reaches to the ground, but the rope’s breaking strain is only 600 N
and your weight is 700 N.
14.1 Describe how you could slide down the rope without causing it to snap.
14.2 Show that the minimum speed with which you would reach the ground would be 5,86 m/s.
14.3 From what height would you ordinarily jump in order to land at this speed? (Ie sliding down the
rope would be equivalent to jumping from a height of ….)
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 State Newton’s law of universal gravitation.

 Perform numerical calculations using the formula derived from Newton’s law of universal
gravitation. Apply the formula in the solution of ratio and proportion examples.
 List and discuss briefly the differences between the gravitational constants, g and G.
 Explain the sensation of “weightlessness” as experienced by bodies in free fall/orbiting
satellites.

Newton's deductions: Newton observed that when an apple (or any other object) fell, it
accelerated towards the ground.

From his 2nd law, Newton deduced that the apple was therefore experiencing an unbalanced force.
This force, he reasoned, was being exerted by the Earth on the apple. From his 3rd law, he
deduced that if the Earth exerted a force on the apple, then the apple exerted an equal force on the
Earth (in the opposite direction). He named this mutual attraction between the Earth and the apple
gravitational force.

The more massive an object, the more difficult it is to lift (ie pull away from the Earth). Gravitational
force is in fact directly proportional to the mass of each of the attracting objects. By studying the
motion of the moon, Newton further deduced that gravitational attraction is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between the objects. This led him to formulate:

Newton's law of universal gravitation:

Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force which
is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.

And, by introducing the universal gravitational constant, G, (whose value Newton was able only to
estimate):

m1m2
F G
r2

Eg: If your weight on Earth is W newtons, what would be the corresponding force, in newtons,
between you and a planet which had four times the mass of the Earth and one quarter of
its radius?

Cavendish's contributions: Henry Cavendish’s famous steel ball experiment of 1798 yielded
the first accurate measurement of G, the value of which is now
taken as G = 6,67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2

By combining the above formula with the simpler formula for the weight of an object at the surface
of the Earth (W = mg), we can prove that g is independent of the mass of the object (as shown by
Galileo). Using the same combination, Cavendish became the first person to accurately determine
the mass of the Earth…

Eg: Given that the Earth’s radius is 6,4 x 106 m, use your mass to determine the mass of the Earth.

27
28 UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

The Earth's gravitational field: It is often convenient to consider the field around one object,
instead of considering directly the force between the two objects.

A field is a region in space where an object experiences a force. In a gravitational field the object
experiences the force as a result of having mass.

The strength of a gravitational field is defined as the force experienced per unit of mass in that field,
ie F/m which in fact turns out to be g. In other words, the acceleration due to gravity is also a
measure of the strength of the Earth’s gravitational field.

Note: To say that g  1 is actually an over-simplification, for the following reasons:

 Re 
2

 The mass of the Earth is NOT all at its centre.

 Its mass is not evenly distributed.
 The effects of the Earth's spin are not the same at the equator as at the poles.

Eg: Imagine that a hole exists right through the centre of the Earth (ignoring the molten nature
of the Earth’s core). Ignoring air resistance, what would happen to a ball dropped into the
hole? Plot acceleration- and velocity-time graphs for the ball’s motion.

Weightlessness: Given Newton's law of universal gravitation, how can anything ever be
"weightless"? Where does the Earth’s gravitational field end? At what height is it
safe to fall off a ladder? What does it mean to be in space? Why do astronauts
appear to be weightless?

MULTIPLE CHOICE
1.1 The gravitational force of attraction between two uniform spheres can be changed to one half of
the original force if

A the mass of each sphere is halved

B the distance between them is halved
C the distance between them is doubled
D the mass of one of the spheres is halved

1.2 An astronaut in orbit around the Earth experiences

A no unbalanced force because he is weightless

B no unbalanced force because he is in free fall
C a resultant force towards the centre of the Earth
D a centrifugal force which keeps him from falling Earthwards

1.3 An astronaut weighs X newtons when standing on the Earth [which has a radius of 6 400 km].
When orbiting in a satellite at a height of approximately 200 km above the Earth's surface, the
gravitational attraction he experiences, in newtons, will be

A zero
B less than 10% of X
C approximately 25% of X
D approximately the same as X

EXERCISE
2. Two identical solid lead spheres of equal masses are placed so that their centres are 300 mm from
each other. Calculate the mass of each if they attract each other with a force of 6,67 x 10-9 N.
FRICTION

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: friction, static friction, starting friction, kinetic friction, coefficient of friction.
 Describe (with the aid of a graph) and explain the relative values of starting friction and
kinetic friction for any given pair of materials.
 State the three laws of friction.
 Perform numerical calculations using the formula Ff = FN. Calculate the coefficient of
friction for a pair of surfaces from a set of experimental data.

Types of friction: Any force which resists the relative motion of two substances in contact with
each other is referred to as friction. Friction is said to be a reactive force – it
is not a fundamental force, but arises only in reaction to other applied forces.

Consider trying to push a heavy table over a rough surface. You push, but nothing happens. (Your
applied force is being opposed by frictional force in the opposite direction.) You push harder, but
still the table doesn’t move. (The frictional force has increased to match your increased force.) You
increase your force still more, and suddenly the table begins to move….

If you were to maintain your current force you would find

that the table would accelerate away in the direction you Fs
were pushing. To push the table at a steady speed friction
requires a well-judged reduction of applied force. This is Fk
because the maximum value of static friction (ie the
starting friction) is greater than the kinetic (or sliding)
friction between the table’s feet and the floor.
[These various values are illustrated on the adjacent graph.] applied force

Note that friction always acts parallel to the contact surfaces.

A similar effect can be observed by placing a block on a plank and then slowly tilting the
plank. As the angle between the plank and the horizontal increases, the force on the block
(down the plank) increases. (Why?) The block starts to move only when the force down the
plank exceeds the starting friction. The block then accelerates down the plank!

What would happen if the wooden block were replaced with a cylinder or ball of the same
material? How far would the plank have to be tilted before the round object started to move?
What can you deduce from this about rolling friction?

Laws of friction: 1. Friction is practically independent of the contact area between the surfaces.
2. Friction is proportional to the normal force exerted on the object by the surface.
3. Kinetic friction is practically independent of the relative speed of the surfaces.

29
30 FRICTION

Coefficients of friction: From the 2nd law of friction above we have Ff  FN and hence, by
introducing , a constant, or rather a coefficient (since its value
depends on the materials involved), we get

F f   FN

To calculate static friction, Fs, the coefficient of static friction, s, must be used. Similarly, use k
when calculating kinetic friction, Fk.

The table below gives a few coefficients of friction for common materials. Note how k is never
bigger (and is in fact usually smaller) than s for a given pair of materials.

Materials Static, µs Kinetic, µk

Steel on steel (unlubricated) 0,74 0,57
Steel on steel (lubricated) 0,15 0,07
Glass on glass 0,94 0,40
Wood on wood 0,40 0,20
Rubber tyre on dry road 1,00 0,70
Rubber tyre on wet road 0,7 - 0,9 0,50
Ice on ice 0,10 0,03
Teflon on teflon 0,04 0,04
Teflon on staal 0,04 0,04
Synovial joints (in human limbs) 0,01 0,01

NB!! Distinguish clearly between the force of friction in a given situation between two objects, and
the coefficient of friction (which, as seen in the table, is constant for that pair of materials).

Determining µ:
Method A: Weights can be added to the scale pan in the
adjacent sketch (thereby increasing the value of FN
F – and hence also Fs) until the block suddenly
starts to slide. The instant before the block Fs F
started to slide, the weight in the pan was equal
to the starting friction, Fs. The normal force, FN,
is simply equal to the object’s weight.
W = mg
F
 is then calculated from   s
FN

Method B: By tilting the slope (increasing ), the component of the Ff

FN
block’s weight acting down the slope, mg sin, increases.
(Note that in this case the normal force is only a fraction
of the weight: FN = mg cos.)
mg cos  mg sin
F mg sin
 f   tan
FN mg cos 

By setting the angle so that the block moves down the W = mg 

slope at a constant speed, the coefficient of kinetic
friction can be determined from the same formula.

Note how in the formula above the weight of the object (mg) divides out – the angle to
which the slope can be raised before the block starts moving depends only on µ. But is it
correct to say that the coefficient of friction depends on the angle of the slope?
FRICTION TUTORIAL 31

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 A gardener finds it easier to pull a heavy garden roller than to push it. This is because

A the vertical component of the push would increase the roller's mass
B the vertical component of the pull reduces the coefficient of friction
C the horizontal component of the pull reduces the force of friction
D (none of the above reasons is valid)

1.2 A block slides freely down an inclined plane as shown.

The coefficient of friction

A is definitely less than 1

B depends on the weight of the block
C increases as the contact area increases 40°
D decreases as the contact area increases

1.3 A box is being pulled along a level floor at constant

velocity by a horizontal force P. W is the weight of the N
box. N is the normal force on the box. F is the force of F P
friction between the floor and the box.

Which of the following statements is true regarding the

magnitudes of the forces?
W
A P > F and W = N
B P > F and W > N
C P = F and W > N
D P = F and W = N

1.4 A 10 kg block accelerates down a slope which makes an angle of 30° to the horizontal. The force
of friction on the block

A is 10 sin30° N
B is 100 sin30° N
C is 100 cos30° N
D cannot be determined from the given information

1.5 When an object exerts a normal force on a surface, the force is definitely

A frictional in origin
B parallel to the surface
C equal to the object's weight
D perpendicular to the surface

1.6 A force of 40 N is needed to start a 10 kg steel box moving across a horizontal wooden floor.
The coefficient of static friction is

A 0,08 B 0,25 C 0,4 D 2,5

1.7 A horizontal force of 150 N is applied to a 51 kg crate on a level floor. The coefficient of static
friction is 0,5 and that of kinetic friction is 0,4. The frictional force acting on the crate is

A 150 N B 200 N C 250 N D 500 N

32 TUTORIAL FRICTION

EXERCISES

2. A roller of mass 200 kg is pulled across a lawn at a constant speed by a gardener F

exerting a force of 300 N at an angle of 30° to the ground. Calculate:
2.1 the frictional force acting on the roller;
2.2 the resultant vertical force exerted by the roller on the lawn; 30°
2.3 the coefficient of friction for the lawn and the roller (while moving).

3. A 2,00 kg block is placed at one end of a metre stick which is then raised at that end until the block
suddenly starts to slide. The angle between the stick and the horizontal at this point is 40°.
3.1 Calculate the coefficient of starting friction.
3.2 If the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0,60, calculate the block’s speed at the bottom of the slope.

4. A driver sees a child in the road ahead and brakes so hard that the car skids to a stop in 25 m.
Assuming the road is horizontal, tarred and dry, calculate:
4.1 how fast the car was travelling (in km/h) when the driver saw the child;
4.2 the minimum distance in which the car could have stopped if the car hadn't skidded.

5. An 80 kg firefighter slides down an 8,0 m-high pole in a fire station. If the frictional force between
him and the pole is 600 N, calculate the time he takes to reach the bottom.

6. The coefficient of kinetic friction between two substances A and B is 0,25. A force of 40 N is
required to accelerate a block of A over a horizontal surface made of B at 0,5 m/s2.
Calculate the mass of A.

7. A 275 kg safe slides from rest down a 5,0 m-long slope and out onto a horizontal surface. The slope
makes an angle of 25° with the horizontal. If the coefficient of friction is 0,10, calculate:
7.1 the net (ie unbalanced) force accelerating the safe down the incline;
7.2 the speed of the safe at the bottom of the slope;
7.3 how far out on the horizontal the safe will come to rest.

8. A piece of ice slides down a 45° incline in twice the time it takes to slide down a frictionless slope at
the same angle. What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the ice and the incline?

A
9. Block A weighs 160 N. The coefficient of starting friction between
the block and table is 0,25. Find the maximum weight block B can
have before A is pulled off the table. B

10. Given that the adjacent system accelerates at 4 m/s2, calculate: 30 kg

10.1 the force of friction experienced by the 30 kg object;

50 kg
10.2 the coefficient of friction for the surfaces involved.

11. Three objects, with masses of 2 kg, 3 kg and 5 kg, are

attached to each other by light inextensible strings 3 kg
stretched over frictionless pulleys as shown. The 3 kg
object is accelerating to the right at 2 m/s2. Calculate:
11.1 the tension in each of the strings; 2 kg 5 kg
11.2 the coefficient of friction for the contact materials.
MOMENTUM

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: momentum, impulse, elastic and inelastic collisions

 State: Newton’s 2nd law in terms of a change in momentum; the principle of conservation of
momentum.
 Calculate the momenta and changes in momenta of various bodies with due attention to the
fact that momentum is a vector quantity.
 Perform numerical calculations using the formula Ft = mv and the principle of
conservation of momentum.

Momentum: Earlier we considered the relative difficulty of stopping two vehicles travelling at the
same speed where one was more massive (and therefore had more inertia) than the
other. What happens if the objects have the same mass, but one is travelling much
faster than the other?

Clearly, when trying to stop a moving object (or change its motion in any way, for that matter), we
need to consider both its mass and its velocity. Newton combined these two quantities into a single
"quantity of motion". Nowadays we speak of momentum:

p  mv [kg m/s]

Reformulation of Newton's 2nd law: From Newton’s 2nd law of motion we have
F = ma … ie F = mv , from which we get:
t

F t  (mv) [N s = kg m/s]

ie Ft, the impulse given to an object, is equal to the change in the object’s momentum.

NB!! Momentum is a vector quantity! We usually work in linear systems, so the magnitudes can
be added easily – but ALGEBRAICALLY!! (ie Take note of signs!)

Eg: A 200 g ball travelling at 5 m/s bounces straight back off a wall at 3 m/s. Calculate its
change in momentum.

Many sports involve changing the momentum of a ball or some other object. By “following through”
(in cricket, golf, tennis etc) players not only ensure accuracy, but also apply their force for longer (by
staying in contact with the ball for longer), maximising the impulse they impart to the ball. On the
receiving end, cricket fielders allow their hands to move back with the ball when catching it (ie they
stop it over a longer period of time) so that the force it exerts on their hands (and thus the pain it
causes!) is minimised. In the same way, rifles have higher muzzle velocities than handguns
because their longer barrels ensure that the force of the expanding gases is applied for longer.

Eg: A fast bowler delivers a 154 g cricket ball to the batsman at 130 km/h.
 How much impulse is given to the ball if it is hit straight back to the bowler at 20 m/s?
 The ball hits the bowler on the shin, stopping in 0,01 s. How much force does the ball
exert on the bowler’s shin?

33
34 MOMENTUM

Conservation of momentum: Observation of the behaviour of objects before and after

collisions and explosions led to the formulation of the…

Principle of conservation of momentum:

The total linear momentum of an isolated system remains constant in both
magnitude and direction.

While mechanical energy is conserved only in elastic collisions and NOT in inelastic collisions
(where it is “lost” in distortion, heat etc), momentum IS conserved in ALL cases.

total pbefore  total pafter

This equation is then customised as required for particular cases.

For example, m1u1 + m2u2 + ... = m1v1 + m2v2 + ...

Eg’s:  Object A of mass 4 kg moves south at 9 m/s and collides head-on with object B of mass
8 kg moving north at 12 m/s. After the collision, object A moves north at 7 m/s.
Calculate the magnitude and the direction of the velocity of object B after the collision.

 A 4 kg gun fires a 20 g bullet at 400 m/s. Calculate the speed at which the gun recoils.

Verification of Newton's 3rd Law: mv (lost) = mv (gained)

F1t = –F2t
And hence, F1 = –F2

[Note: These laws apply only to Newtonian speeds, well below the speed of light.]

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 A constant force, F, acts on an object. The object undergoes a change in momentum of 45 kg m/s
during 5 s. The magnitude of F is

A 3N B 9N C 90 N D 225 N

1.2 A trolley with a mass of 2 kg moves with a speed of 0,6 m/s along a horizontal, frictionless surface.
A stationary 4 kg object is dropped onto the moving trolley. The trolley's new speed is

A 0,1 m/s B 0,2 m/s C 0,3 m/s D 0,4 m/s

1.3 A bouncing ball of mass m kg strikes the ground with a speed of v m/s and rebounds straight back
after a 20% speed loss. The impulse it receives from the ground, in N s, is

A 0,2.m.v B 0,8.m.v C m.v D 1,8.m.v

1.4 A car, mass m, and a bus, mass 3m, collide head-on. If the car was travelling at 60 m/s and the
bus at 20 m/s before the collision, then the speed of the combined wreckage immediately after the
collision is

A 0 m/s B 30 m/s C 40 m/s D 80 m/s

MOMENTUM TUTORIAL 35

1.5 Two trolleys, masses 1 kg and 2 kg, are joined by 1 kg 2 kg

a rubber band and are held apart as shown.
After the trolleys are released they collide and
couple. Assuming there is no friction, after the collision the trolleys will

A remain at rest
B accelerate to the left
C move to the left at constant speed
D move to the right at constant speed

EXERCISES

2. The Principle of Conservation of Momentum states that the total linear momentum of a closed
system remains constant, even in inelastic collisions. Explain the meaning of the underlined terms.

3. A 60,0 kg boy runs and jumps onto his stationary 5,0 kg skateboard at 7,0 m/s. How fast does he
move off on his board?

4. Two trolleys, A and B, with masses m and 2m

respectively, are set up for an explosion m 2m
experiment to verify the principle of conservation
of momentum.
4.1 What is the momentum of the system before the explosion?
4.2 What is the momentum of the system immediately after the explosion?
4.3 What can you say about the velocities of the trolleys after the explosion?

5. A 5 000 kg fighter aircraft loaded with two 50 kg rockets flies with a

groundspeed of 500 km/h.
Calculate the speed of the aircraft immediately after simultaneously
firing both rockets forwards at a groundspeed of 1 000 km/h.

6. An 8 g bullet is fired horizontally into a 9 kg wooden block. The block, with the bullet embedded in
it, moves off at 0,4 m/s. Calculate the initial speed of the bullet.

7. An object A of mass 4 kg slides from rest down a frictionless

chute and collides with an object B, mass 2 kg, which is A
moving horizontally at 2 m/s to the right. After the collision B
B continues at 6 m/s to the right, while A continues to the
right at 3 m/s. Calculate:
7.1 the momentum of B before the collision;
7.2 the momentum of B after the collision;
7.3 A's change in momentum;
7.4 A's velocity just before the collision.

8. A 200 kg cannon fires a 1 kg projectile with a muzzle velocity of 600 m/s. The gun recoils against a
constant resisting force of 1 800 N. Calculate:
8.1 the initial recoil velocity of the cannon;
8.2 the time in which the cannon is brought to rest;
8.3 the distance the cannon recoils.
36 TUTORIAL MOMENTUM

9. Two masses of 16 kg and 4 kg approach each other head on with speeds of 3 m/s and 5 m/s
respectively. With what velocity does the combined wreckage move after the collision?

10. A body A with a mass of 10 kg moving at 5 m/s collides with a stationary body B of 15 kg. The two
bodies unite on impact and then move off together in the same direction in which A was travelling.
Calculate the speed of the bodies after the collision.

11. A 600 g rubber ball is dropped onto the ground. The speed of the ball just before impact is 15 m/s.
After being in contact with the ground for 0,15 s, it bounces up again, leaving the ground at 10 m/s.
Calculate:
11.1 the total change in the momentum of the ball during the collision;
11.2 the average force exerted on the ball during the collision.

12. Object A of mass 4 kg moves south at 9 m/s and collides head-on with object B of mass 8 kg
moving north at 12 m/s. After the collision, object A moves north at 7 m/s. Calculate the magnitude
and the direction of the velocity of object B after the collision.
WORK, ENERGY and POWER

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: potential energy, kinetic energy, closed system, conservative and
dissipative forces, power.
 State the Principle of conservation of energy.
 Perform numerical calculations using: the formula for determining work done; the formulae
for potential energy and kinetic energy and also the principle of conservation of energy; the
formula for power.
 Predict the motion of bodies after more complex collisions by applying both the principle of
conservation of momentum and the principle of conservation of energy.

WORK

Work done: In science, work is done whenever a force displaces an object in the direction of the
force, or along its line of action.

 
w  Fs [N m = joule, J]

ie w = F s cos, where  is the angle between the force and the displacement.
The term s cos is the component of the displacement which lies in the direction of the force F.
(Or F cos can be regarded as the component of the force which lies in the direction of the
displacement s.)

If  = 0° the work done is a maximum and is positive, ie the energy of the object on which the force
is acting increases. If  = 180° negative work is done on the object (ie its energy decreases).
If  = 90° no work is done on the object at all!

Unlike the F in the formula F = ma, F here stands for applied force – whether it is balanced or not.
The important thing to note is that s represents a movement from one place to another, and that
only those components of this movement and the force must be in the same direction. If necessary,
the component of the force in the direction of the movement (or vice versa) must first be calculated.

Eg: How much work is done by…

1. someone walking 4 m across the front of the lecture theatre carrying a 7 kg chair at a
height of 1,3 m above the floor?
2. a farmer who lifts a 23 kg pumpkin and places it on
the roof of an outhouse 1,88 m above the ground?
280 N
3. the roof of the outhouse which supports the 23 kg
pumpkin 1,88 m above the ground for a total of
50°
2 weeks and 3 days while it ripens? 60 kg
4. the farmer’s wife who lifts the pumpkin down off the
roof and places it on the ground?
5. a boy who pulls a 60 kg box 14 m along a horizontal floor by applying a force of 280 N
to a rope which makes an angle of 50° with the horizontal.

37
38 WORK, ENERGY and POWER

ENERGY

Types of energy: Common language usage makes a distinction between work and energy, but in
a scientific sense the two quantities are identical. Work is energy is work!
Or more correctly, the energy of a body is its capacity to do work. The more
energy a body has the more work it can do.

While there are many types of energy (chemical, thermal, electrical, nuclear etc), at this point we
are primarily concerned with mechanical energy, which can be further divided into two main types:
 potential energy (which a body has by virtue of its position relative to some reference point);
 kinetic energy (which a body has by virtue of its motion).

Work is done in lifting a mass in a gravitational field. An upward force (equal to the weight of the
body, ie mg) moves the body through a distance, or height, h, in the direction of the force. Doing
work on a body increases its energy – in this case its gravitational potential energy:

E p  mgh [joule, J]

2
Starting or stopping a body requires work, or energy. From v2 = (u2) + 2as, we get s  v , and
2a
since F = ma, the product of force and displacement this time yields the equation for translational
kinetic energy:

E k  12 mv 2 [joule, J]

NB!! Both work and energy are scalar quantities.

Conservation of mechanical energy: The total energy in a closed system remains constant
(ie energy is conserved in a physical system on which no
outside influences act; where nothing gets in or out of the
system and where nothing from outside can influence the
system's observable behaviour or properties.)

Energy is always conserved, but where non-conservative or dissipative forces (eg friction) are
involved some energy is converted into heat. Since it is difficult to convert heat back into other
forms of useful energy, we speak loosely about energy “loss”.

When dealing with conservative forces, however, (eg gravitational/elastic forces) in closed
systems, an almost perfect exchange between potential energy and kinetic energy occurs:
whatever energy is lost in one form is gained in the other.
A ET = EpA = k
This is illustrated by the falling ball in the adjacent diagram: the
ball loses potential energy as it falls, speeding up and gaining
B ET = EpB + EkB = k
kinetic energy instead. The total amount of energy (ET) remains
constant throughout.
C ET = EkC = k
A simple pendulum offers an even better example of the
interchange between potential and kinetic energy, as the energy
of the system is continually converting from one form to the other
as the pendulum swings.

Since the pendulum bob’s motion is non-linear, Newton’s Ep

equations of motion cannot be applied to this system. Instead,
the bob’s maximum velocity is determined by equating the kinetic
h
energy lost with the potential energy gained (or vice versa).
Ek
WORK, ENERGY and POWER 39

The Principle of conservation of energy, also known as the First law of thermodynamics, is arguably
the most fundamental and important law of the universe.

Principle of conservation of energy:

Energy is neither created nor destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.

Elost  Egained

Eg’s:  A 100 g bullet travelling at 300 m/s embeds itself in a

ballistic mortar (a 20 kg wooden block) hanging by a
light 3 m rod. How high does the block swing?
h

 A 0,1 kg ball P, moving at 6 m/s, collides with three

identical balls Q, R and S in contact with each other
on a frictionless horizontal track.
6 m/s
If the collision is perfectly elastic, P Q R S
which of the following sets of
velocities (in m/s) represents the
velocities of the balls P, Q, R and
S just after the collision?

P Q R S
A -3 0 0 3
B 0 2 2 2
C 0 0 3 3
D 0 0 0 6

POWER

Power: Power is the rate of doing work, or the rate of energy transfer. In other words, it is a measure
of how much work is done (or how much energy is converted) in a unit of time:

P w [J/s = watt, W]
t

It is very important to distinguish between the two quantities: work, and the rate at which work is
done.

Eg: A building site foreman must get rid of a 2 tonne rock by pushing it 75 m to the edge of the
horizontal site using a bulldozer. (The coefficient of friction involved is 0,6.) He can call
on either a large, 150 kW bulldozer, or a smaller one, a 60 kW machine.
 Ignoring the drivers’ pay, and assuming both bulldozers are equally efficient, which
bulldozer will cost more to do the job?
 If the small machine is in fact only 5% efficient, and the bigger machine 8%, how long
will each bulldozer take to do the job?
40 TUTORIAL WORK, ENERGY and POWER

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 If the velocity of a motorcar is halved, which of the following will also be halved?

A kinetic energy
B inertia
C momentum
D acceleration

1.2 In a tug-of-war contest, the boys hockey team exerts a force of 5 000 N, while the first team rugby
forwards exert a force of 6 500 N in the opposite direction. After 2 s the hockey team has tumbled
through a distance of 6 m. What is the power of the forwards?

A 3,25 kW B 4,5 kW C 19,5 kW D 34,5 kW

1.3 A motorcar with a mass of 1 000 kg is accelerated at a constant 4 m/s2 over a distance of 100 m.
The amount of work done is

A 4 x 105 J B 4 x 103 J C 4 x 102 J D 0J

1.4 A boy rides a soapbox car down a hill as shown. The total mass of the boy
and the car is 50 kg. If 1 000 J of work are done against friction,
the total kinetic energy of car and rider at the bottom is 120 m
A 3,0 x 103 J
B 2,0 x 104 J 60 m
C 2,9 x 104 J
D 5,9 x 104 J 30°

1.5 Which of the following systems possess(es) potential energy?

I A stretched spring with a mass-piece tied to the free end.
II A free falling object 100 m above the ground.
III A boulder at rest on the top of the mountain.

A II only B I and II only C II and III only D I, II and III

1.6 Two iron spheres of mass 1 kg and 2 kg respectively are dropped simultaneously from the top of a
tower in the absence of air friction. When they are each 1 m above the ground, they have the
same

A inertia
B momentum
C acceleration
D potential energy relative to the ground

1.7 Which of the following must remain constant if balanced forces act on an object?

A kinetic energy
B potential energy
C mechanical energy
D kinetic and potential energies
WORK, ENERGY and POWER TUTORIAL 41

EXERCISES

2. Using an object with a mass m falling through a height h, show, by calculating from first principles
the potential and kinetic energies at the top, half way down and the bottom, that mechanical energy
is conserved by an object in free fall.

3. How much potential energy is lost when a 2 kg object falls 4 m?

4. How much energy is needed to stop a 1 tonne bakkie which is travelling at 80 km/h?

5. What is my power rating if I can run up three storeys in 20 s?

(Each storey is 4 m high and I have a mass of 80 kg.)

6. A 5 kg body falls freely from a height of 3 m. Find its kinetic energy when it reaches the ground and
show that this equals its original potential energy.

7. A 200 g ball falls from a height of 20 m.

7.1 Calculate the magnitude of the momentum of the ball immediately after the first bounce if the speed
of rebound is exactly 80% of the impact speed.
7.2 How much energy is lost as heat and sound during the bounce?
7.3 How high will the ball rise after the first bounce?

8. An aeroplane, flying horizontally, needs to set its engines to deliver 16 000 W of power when
travelling at 40 m/s simply in order to overcome friction. What frictional force is the plane
experiencing?

9. Object A of mass 4 kg slides from rest down a frictionless

track and collides with object B, mass 2 kg, which is moving A
horizontally at 2 m/s to the left. After the collision B continues B
at 6 m/s to the left, while A continues to the left at 3 m/s.
9.1 Calculate the speed of object A just before the collision.
9.2 Determine whether the collision was elastic or not.
9.3 At what height above the horizontal was object A released?

10. The diagram shows a ballistic pendulum, used to measure the

speed of bullets. The 3,235 kg wooden block hangs from a
3m
3,00 m cord. When a bullet is fired into it from close range, it 18°
swings through an angle of 18,0° before coming to rest, and is 3m
afterwards found to have a mass of 3,250 kg. Calculate:
10.1 the speed of the bullet; 3,250 kg
10.2 the kinetic energy of the bullet as it left the gun barrel;
3,235 kg
10.3 the average force on the bullet while in the 20 cm barrel;
10.4 the recoil speed of the 950 g gun;
10.5 the average force of recoil if the gun is brought to rest in 0,1 s;
10.6 the average force of recoil if a gun of twice the mass had been used (and also stopped in 0,1 s).

11. A 5 kW motor with an efficiency of 90% operates a crane having an efficiency of 40%. With what
steady speed can the crane lift a 400 kg mass?
42 TUTORIAL WORK, ENERGY and POWER

12. Ball B of mass 4 kg slides from rest down a frictionless

slope and collides out on the horizontal with ball A, mass B
A 4 kg
2 kg, which is moving horizontally at 6 m/s towards B.
After the collision B bounces back to the right at 2 m/s, 2 kg
while A bounces back to the left at 7 m/s.
12.1 Calculate the speed of ball B just before the collision.
12.2 Determine whether the collision was elastic or not.
12.3 At what height above the horizontal was ball B released?
12.4 If the balls were in contact for 0,02 s during the collision, calculate the force ball B exerted on ball A.

13. A 4 kg ball, X, is moving at 12 m/s along a frictionless,

horizontal surface. It collides elastically with a stationary ball,
Y, of mass 8 kg suspended from a string as shown.
Calculate:
13.1 the velocity of each ball immediately after the collision;
13.2 the height reached by ball Y. X Y
SOLID STATICS

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: moment or torque, torque arm, lever, pivot, fulcrum, centre of gravity,
stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium, elastic and plastic deformation, elasticity, stress,
tensile strength, strain, proportional limit, elastic limit, force constant, elastic (Young’s) modulus.
 State: the two conditions for equilibrium; the triangle rule for forces; Hooke's law.
 Sketch and solve triangles of forces for three forces in equilibrium at a point. Distinguish
between the resultant and the equilibrant of any number of forces acting at a point.
 Perform numerical calculations using one or both of the conditions of equilibrium in order to
determine: the sum of moments about a point; the magnitudes and/or positions of unknown
forces in a system of parallel forces acting on a lever.
 Classify and rank given objects in terms of their type of equilibrium and degree of stability by
referring to their centres of gravity in relation to their bases.
 Perform numerical calculations using the formulae for stress, strain and Young’s modulus.
 Describe and explain, with the aid of a stress vs strain graph, the various stages of extension.

In this chapter we consider objects which remain at rest (ie remain static) even though there are indeed
forces acting on them. To be completely at rest, not only must a body not move about from one place to
another (ie exhibit translational motion), it must also not rotate (ie exhibit rotational motion).

TRANSLATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM

First condition of equilibrium: In order for a body to be in translational equilibrium, there

must be no unbalanced forces acting on it, or, in other words,
the sum of all the forces acting on the body must be zero:

F1  F2  F3    0 (1)

Triangle/Polygon rule:
If three [or more] forces acting at one point are in equilibrium, they can be represented
in magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle [polygon] taken in order.

Consider the situation illustrated in the adjacent sketch,

where two forces, A and B, act on a single object. A
R
Clearly these two forces are not balanced – once we …
have rearranged them in order to add them, we see that A
there is a non-zero resultant (represented by the dotted B B
ray drawn from the tail of A to the head of B).

But if we introduced a third force, C, with just the A

right magnitude and direction so that it can be C
C …
drawn from the head of B to the tail of A, we
complete the triangle. The resultant is now zero! B B A

Force C, in other words, balances the other two

forces acting at the same point, and we call it the equilibrant of the other two. (Of course, once all
three forces have been drawn we could say that any one of them is the equilibrant of the other two.)

43
44 SOLID STATICS

ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM

Moments/Torque: Even if a body is in translational equilibrium, it may still rotate around some or
other axis or turning point. Before we consider rotational equilibrium, we
must first study the rotational analogue of linear force – torque.

Consider how you push a heavy swing door open… Where and in what direction do you push?
Instinctively (or from experience) we apply our force at right angles to the door as far as possible
from the hinges (ie the turning point, also known as the pivot, or fulcrum). The closer to the hinges
we push, the harder we have to push to open the door.
F
Basically, a "certain amount of turning" has to take place before
the door will open (or a nut will turn). It is this "amount of turning"
which we call torque or a moment of force,  (Greek letter tau),
and there are two factors which contribute to it: the force itself, ,
and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the r
force and the turning point, known as the torque arm, r:

  
  Fr [N m]

Notes:  This newton metre is NOT equivalent to a joule. (Why not?)

 Torque is a vector quantity whose direction is given by the right hand rule. On this
course, however, we will refer simply to the direction of rotation, ie clockwise or
anticlockwise. Clockwise and anti-clockwise moments have opposite signs (make your
choice clear – although it is common to declare anticlockwise moments positive).
 When working with levers, one should apply the force at right angles to the lever in
order to maximise the turning effect.
 For the purposes of calculations, the pivot is arbitrary (although there may be a
"natural" one).

Second condition of equilibrium: In order for a body to be in rotational equilibrium, there must
be no unbalanced moments acting on it, or, in other words,
the sum of all the moments (around any point) must be zero:

1   2  3    0 (2)

Parallel forces: In many examples we consider horizontal levers under the action of purely vertical
forces (upwards and downwards, ie parallel forces). Since these forces are linear,
they are easy to add (algebraically).

When considering rotation, the turning point is chosen for convenience. It is often chosen as the
point of application of one of the (perhaps unknown) forces so as to make the torque arm for that
force equal to zero. (This is especially useful if there are two unknown forces.)

For the body to be completely balanced (ie neither accelerating up or down, nor rotating), both
conditions of equilibrium must be met. ie We apply both equations (1) and (2) above.

Eg: The 2 m-long rigid bar in the sketch has a 10 N force

acting upwards on it at one end and a 30 N force 10 N
acting downwards on it at its midpoint. Calculate: 1m 1m
X
 the sum of the moments about the right hand 30 N
end of the bar (X);
 the position and magnitude of the force required to keep the bar in complete
equilibrium.
SOLID STATICS 45

STABILITY and BALANCE

Centre of gravity:
Defn: The centre of gravity of a body is the point at which all its weight may be
considered (!) to be concentrated.

The centre of gravity of an object is practically equivalent to its centre of mass. (A force vector
acting through the centre of mass produces only linear acceleration, and no rotation.)

A body suspended by a point directly above, or pivoted on a point directly below its centre of
gravity will experience no rotation – it will be "balanced", or in equilibrium.

When dealing with levers and parallel forces, the weight of a uniform lever (although it is in reality
distributed evenly across the whole lever) is regarded as a downwards force acting at the midpoint
of the lever. (In the example at the bottom of the previous page the 30 N represented the lever's
weight.)

Eg: A roughly uniform 700 kg log is

supported on two trestles as shown.
1,5 m 3m 0,5 m
Calculate the approximate weight
borne by each trestle.

Types of equilibrium: The state of equilibrium of a body is determined by the position of its
centre of gravity relative to its support base. (If the centre of gravity
does not lie directly above the base the object will NOT be in equilibrium
and the body will topple.)

Since the mass of the object can be regarded as being concentrated at the centre of gravity, the
potential energy of the object is determined by the height of its centre of gravity. Raising the centre
of gravity raises the potential energy of the object (ie work must be done on the object).

There are three types of equilibria,

each one best understood
intuitively by studying the adjacent
diagram:

 Stable equilibrium: If the cone is tilted slightly, the centre of gravity is raised, but still remains
above the base (up to a point, that is). When the cone is released it falls back into place –
because this is the best way to lower the centre of gravity (ie minimise the cone's potential
energy).
 Unstable equilibrium: The centre gravity can (at least in theory) balance exactly above the
"base" (ie the tip) of the cone. However, the slightest perturbation will lower the centre of
gravity, and all the cone has to do in order to lower its centre of gravity still further is to
continue falling…
 Neutral equilibrium: Moving the cone, that is, rolling it around on its new "base" (ie its side)
neither lowers nor raises its centre of gravity, which always remains exactly above the
current base. The cone remains wherever it is left – it neither moves back, nor rolls further.

Eg: There are three ways to place a conventional building brick in stable equilibrium on a
horizontal surface. With the aid of diagrams, explain which position is the most stable and
which is the least stable.
46 SOLID STATICS

ELASTICITY

Distortion: There are two types of distortion, or deformation: elastic deformation (in which the
change of shape is only temporary), and plastic deformation (in which the distortion
persists, even after the deforming force is removed). We shall study only the former.

Defn: Elasticity is that property of a substance which causes it to resume its original
shape once the deforming force is removed.

Stress: The stress a body experiences as a result of an applied pushing or pulling F

force along its length is defined as the ratio of the force per unit cross- A
sectional area:

stress  F [N/m2 = pascal, Pa]

A

Stress in solids is equivalent to hydrostatic pressure in fluids.

Strain: The strain a body experiences as a result of a deforming force is

F

defined in terms of the relative distortion produced, ie the amount of 

extension per unit of original length:


strain   [no units]



Elastic limit: As we apply a pulling force to a body, the body stretches. The greater the pull, the
greater the stretch. If the pull is reduced, the object will shrink back towards its original
length…

But there comes a point where the applied force permanently distorts the body – we say that the
elastic limit has been reached, or exceeded. The elastic limit of an object is the smallest stress
which results in plastic (permanent) distortion. It lies just beyond the proportional limit.

Within the limits of Stress /

proportionality (the Force
proportional region on the
graph), there is a simple elastic limit fracture point
proportional limit
relationship between the
applied force, F, and the
proportional
amount of stretch, ; or, region
from another perspective,
between stress and strain:
Strain /

Hooke's law:
Within the limits of elasticity, stress is directly proportional to strain.

The slope of the graph (in the proportional region), k, is called the force constant of the spring:

k F

SOLID STATICS 47

Elastic/Young's modulus: The amount by which a body distorts or deforms when acted upon
by a force depends not only on the original length and shape of the
body, but also on the material of which the body is made.

The nature of the material is introduced into distortion equations by means of a coefficient called a
modulus. Each type of material has several different moduli, the choice depending on what type of
force is being applied (eg tensile force or shear force). We shall deal only with the modulus for
tensile or compressive forces – Young's modulus, also known as the elastic modulus.

tensile stress F A
Y    F [N/m2 = Pa]
tensile strain    A

Notes:  This equation also holds only within the limits of elasticity.
 Young’s modulus applies equally well to compressional stress and strain.

MULTIPLE CHOICE
F1
1.1 F1 and F2 are two forces acting on an object O and are represented
in magnitude and direction by the vectors indicated in the sketch.
Which one of the following represents the equilibrant of F1 and F2? O F2

A B C D

1.2 Two forces of 5 N each act at the same point. The magnitude of their resultant is 5 N. Which of
the following statements is true?

A The angle between the forces is 60°.

B The angle between the forces is 120°.
C The forces are opposite in direction.
D The forces are perpendicular to each other.

  
1.3 Three forces X , Y and Z , acting on the same point, are in equilibrium. From this we can deduce
that
  
A X + Y = Z
  
B X = Y = Z
  
C Z = X – Y
  
D – Y = the resultant of X and Z

1.4 SPR represents a light string. A weight, W, is suspended S

at P. The tensions in SP and PR are T1 and T2
respectively. SP makes an angle of 60° with the T1
horizontal and PR is horizontal.
W= 60° P R
T2
A T1.cos60°
B T1.sin60°
C T2.tan30° W
D T2.cot60°
48 TUTORIAL SOLID STATICS

1.5 A 200 g mass is suspended at the 100 cm mark of a metre-stick. The metre-stick has a mass of
100 g. The magnitude of the sum of the moments about the 0 cm mark is

A 2,0 N m B 2,5 N m C 3,0 N m D –3,0 N m

1.6 The cylinder head on an engine must be tightened with a torque of 63 N m. If a 300 mm-long
spanner is used, the minimum force required is

A 0,21 N B 4,76 N C 21 kg D 210 N

1.7 A cable stretches by an amount x under a certain load. If it is replaced by a cable of the same
material but half as long and half the diameter, the same load will stretch it by

A x/4 B x/2 C x D 2x

EXERCISES

2. A motor car engine weighing 7 500 N is hoisted up on a chain and then pulled sideways until the
chain makes an angle of 20° with the vertical.
2.1 Calculate the magnitude of the horizontal force, and the tension in the chain.
2.2 What magnitude of purely horizontal force would be required to pull engine out until the chain
makes an angle of 90° with the vertical? Explain.

3. Three forces act on a single point on the following bearings: 100 N, 135°; 50 N, 315°; 75 N, 45°.
Calculate the equilibrant of the given forces.

4. A 5 kg object must be held stationary on a frictionless plane 4.1

5 kg
inclined at 30° to the horizontal. Calculate the force required, if
the balancing force is to be applied to the object… 4.2

4.1 horizontally;
30°
4.2 parallel to the slope.

5. Three vertical forces act upon a 10 m-long 2N

horizontal rod of negligible mass as shown. 6 m 4m
Calculate: A C
B
3N 4N
5.1 the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the
rod;
5.2 the sum of the moments about each of the points A, B and C;
5.3 the magnitude and position of the single equilibrant required to balance the system.

6. A lever 14 cm long, of negligible weight, has weights of 20 N and 36 N on either end. Where must it
be supported in order to balance?

7. A uniform rod 1 m long and weighing 30 N with weights of 40 and 50 N suspended from its ends is
supported in a horizontal position on a fulcrum. Calculate the position of the fulcrum.

8. A uniform 20 kg beam 3 m long is supported horizontally by two supports, one at each end.
Calculate the force on each support if a man with a mass of 75 kg stands on the beam 1 m from
one end.
SOLID STATICS TUTORIAL 49

30 N 50 N 20 N
9. Determine completely the resultant
moment (about O) of the three 4m 6m 5m 3m
forces shown in the figure.
O

10. A uniform rod 10 m long and weighing

150 N is supported horizontally by
0 1 2 5 7 8 10 m
props P and Q at distances of 2 and
8 m from one end. Weights of 250 N,
100 N and 120 N are attached at P Q
distances of 1 m, 7 m and 10 m 250 N 150 N 100 N 120 N
respectively from the same end.
Calculate the force applied on the rod by each support.

3N 5N 6N
11. A rectangle is subjected to seven forces simultaneously
A
as shown. Calculate the algebraic sum of the moments 8N
1m
of these forces about each of the points A, B, C and O
2m 2m
respectively. O
7N
1m
B C
12. A boy and a man carry a heavy sack by slinging it on a
light pole carried between them. 9N 4N
12.1 Where on the pole must the sack be hung so that the
boy supports one third as much as the man does?
12.2 Another boy arrives and offers to help. A cross piece (of negligible mass) is placed under the pole
and its ends are supported by the boys. The man carries one end of the pole as before and the
sack is now slung a quarter way down the pole from him. If each boy is to support one third as
much as the man, show that the crosspiece must be inserted halfway between the sack and the
other end of the pole.

13. Nine boxes, each with a mass of 80 kg, are stacked

together on a 40 kg beam, as shown. Calculate the force 5m
on each support.
5m
P Q

14. A horizontal force of 500 N is applied at point A to a 1 m beam A

which is hinged at point O. Calculate: 30° F
14.1 the moment of the force about O;
14.2 the vertical force which would cause the same moment if applied at O
the same point;
14.3 the smallest force which would cause the same moment if applied at
the same point.

15. A 50 m steel lift cable has a diameter of 2 cm. Calculate the stretch in the cable when carrying a
load of 10 000 kg.

16. A 8 m vertical steel column with a square cross-section measuring 6 cm a side is compressed when
a mass of 50 000 kg is placed on top of it. By how much is the column compressed?

17. A 5 m length of wire is stretched 3,2 mm by a 200 N force. The diameter of the wire is 0,65 mm.
Calculate:
17.1 the stress;
17.2 the strain;
17.3 Young's modulus for this wire.
50 TUTORIAL SOLID STATICS

MORE ADVANCED EXERCISES

18. A thin uniform iron rod 16 cm long is bent at the 10 cm mark, 6 cm 

forming a right-angled L-shaped piece. The rod is then hung
10 cm
on a nail as shown. Calculate the value of angle  when the
rod is in equilibrium.

19. A 30 kg sign is hung from the end of a horizontal

bar of negligible weight which pivots against a wall
at the other end. The bar, which is 80 cm long, is 60 cm
supported at the same end as the sign by a wire
attached to the wall 60 cm above the pivot point.
Calculate: 80 cm
19.1 the tension in the wire; 30 kg
19.2 the force exerted on the bar by the wall.

20. A standard door measures 2 m by 88 cm and weighs 150 N. A hinge 30 cm from the top and
another 30 cm from the bottom each support half the door's weight. Assuming that the centre of
gravity is at the geometrical centre of the door, determine the horizontal and vertical force
components exerted by each hinge on the door.
FLUID STATICS

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: fluid, ideal fluid, laminar or streamline flow, turbulent flow, density, relative
density, pressure, absolute pressure, gauge pressure, hydraulics, buoyancy, draught,
freeboard, cohesive forces, adhesive forces, surface tension, meniscus, capillarity.
 State: Pascal’s principle, Archimedes’ principle.
 Perform numerical calculations using:  = m/V; p = F/A; p =  g h; F1
/A1 = F2/A2.
 Convert densities into relative densities (and vice versa).
 Explain the phenomenon of pressure in terms of the kinetic molecular theory.
 Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the basic principle of a Fortin barometer.
 Determine the relative surface areas of two pistons in a hydrostatic device given the relative
magnitude of the forces acting on those pistons (and vice versa). Explain the ratio of the
distances moved by each of the pistons in terms of energy conservation. List examples of
hydrostatic devices.
 Determine the relative density (and hence the density) of solids and liquids using
Archimedes’ principle.
 Explain the principle of floating, and relate the relative density of a floating object (relative to
the fluid in which it is floating) to the draught of the object in order to determine one from the
other.
 Explain the principle of a hydrometer (and describe its scale).

Ideal fluids: Materials which flow (ie liquids or gases) are called fluids. Ideal fluids are fluids which:
 are incompressible;
 have zero internal friction/viscosity;
 exhibit laminar or streamline flow (qv).

In practice no fluid is ideal, but provided we work within certain limits, or make allowances for the
limitations of a particular real (Newtonian) fluid, we can get reasonably accurate results using the
simple equations presented in this course.

DENSITY

Density: Density – a measure of the compactness of matter, ie how much matter is packed into a
given space – is a property of all matter, not only fluids. (The topic is handled in this
chapter because we shall make use of some fluid properties to measure relative density.)

The density of a substance is a measure of how much mass is contained in a unit volume:

 m [kg/m3]
V

Eg: A 51 g glass marble has a diameter of 17 mm. Determine the density of glass.

51
52 FLUID STATICS

Relative density: The relative density (RD) of a substance (still sometimes referred to as its specific
gravity) is the ratio of the density of that substance to that of water. Water itself has
a density of 1 000 kg/m3, and a relative density of exactly 1 (obviously!).

 substance
RD 
 water

Notes:  Relative density has no units.

 Strictly speaking, water has a density of exactly 1 000 kg/m3 only at 4°C. Because of
expansion and changes in volume (qv), the density of a substance changes with
temperature. The values given in tables are usually the densities at 20°C (except
water), but they may also be used at other temperatures – within reason!

To determine the density of any one of the materials in the table below, simply write “103 kg/m3”
after its given relative density.

RD RD RD
cork 0,25 stone 2,5 Hg 13,6
ice 0,9 Fe/steel 8,5 Au 19,3
methanol 0,8 Cu 8,9 urine 1,02
brine 1,2 Pb 11,3 blood 1,04 – 1,06

PRESSURE

Pressure is a measure of force acting per unit area. When you press a drawing F F F
pin into a notice board the forces on your thumb, on the pin and on the notice
board are all equal (in accordance with Newton’s 3rd law), but the drawing pin p

penetrates the board and not your thumb because the force on the board is A A

applied over a much smaller area (the point of the pin) than the area of your p
thumb pressing on the head of the pin.

Pressure in fluids: Since the particles (molecules or atoms) in a fluid are in constant translational motion (at
temperatures above 0 K, that is), they are continually colliding with each other and the
walls of their container.

In accordance with Newton’s 2nd law, since these collisions involve a change in momentum, they
also involve force. That is, the colliding particles exert a force on the walls of their container – and
on any object submerged in the fluid. Since the particles move in all directions, they exert this
(compressive) force in all directions. This force, exerted at right angles to a particular unit of area,
translates into the scalar quantity pressure:

p F [N/m2 = pascal, Pa]

A

Atmospheric pressure: The Earth’s atmosphere is a fluid which exerts a pressure of

1,013 x 105 N/m2 at the surface of the Earth. Although we are
accustomed to it, this is a considerable amount of pressure!

Several spectacular experiments can be performed to demonstrate the magnitude of atmospheric

pressure. One of the most famous was the 17th century demonstration by Otto von Güricke, a
physicist in Magdeburg, that two eight-horse teams could not pull two hollow bronze hemispheres
apart once the air had been removed from between them – the pressure of the atmosphere on the
outside of the hemispheres was too great.
FLUID STATICS 53

The water in a glass inverted over a water reservoir cannot run Torricellian
vacuum
out since the atmosphere exerts pressure only on the bottom of
the column. If the glass (or tube) is made long enough,
however, the weight of the water in the tube exceeds the atmospheric
maximum force which current atmospheric pressure can exert, pressure
and a vacuum (known as the Torricellian vacuum) forms at the
top of the tube.

Notice that the diameter of the tube makes no difference. (Why not?)

Since atmospheric pressure varies with different meteorological conditions (ie the weather), the
water levels in the two right hand tubes will rise and fall accordingly. Such a device is called a
Fortin barometer and it allows for short-term weather predictions. If the barometer is rising, good
weather is on the way, whereas atmospheric pressure drops ahead of a storm.

In practice, it is far more convenient to fill such a barometer with mercury rather than water. In fact
the pre-metric definition of standard atmospheric pressure (1 atm) was 760 mmHg, now written as
760 torr (after Evangelista Torricelli). Another unit of pressure is the bar, with 1 bar = 105 Pa.

Eg: Why is it more practical to use mercury in a barometer? What height of water can be
supported by standard atmospheric pressure?

Gauge pressure: The pressure at a certain depth in a fluid is

proportional to both the depth and the density
of the fluid. This pressure, due purely to the
fluid, is known as gauge pressure. h A

From F = mg and m = V = Ah,

we get F = Ahg and hence:

p   gh

Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and the external pressure on the fluid (usually
atmospheric pressure, but see Pascal’s principle below). ie pabsolute = pgauge + patm

Pascal's principle:
The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout the
fluid by the same amount.

Notes:  Pressure is a scalar (it acts in all directions).

 Pressure is independent of cross-sectional area and shape.
The adjacent diagram shows
several open containers of differing
shapes, volumes and cross-
sectional areas connected at their
bases so that water can flow freely
p p p p
between them.
Once the water “has found its own level”, the depth of the water in each container is
the same, and, since no water flows one way or the other, it can be deduced that the
pressure at the base of each container is the same.

Eg’s:  Calculate the absolute pressure on a diver at a depth of 20 m in the sea.

 Assuming (quite incorrectly) that the atmosphere is uniformly dense at all
altitudes, calculate the height of the atmosphere. [Actually atmospheric density
decreases by 0,1 kg/m3 per 1 000 m rise.]
54 FLUID STATICS

Hydraulics: The study of devices operated by liquids is known as hydraulics. [What name is
given to gas-operated systems?]

There are two distinct types of hydraulic device:

hydrodynamic devices – operated by the momentum and kinetic energy of a moving liquid
eg water wheels and turbines. (This type of device will not be
discussed on this course.)

hydrostatic devices – operated by a force applied to a confined, largely static liquid (ie pressure)
eg hydraulic car brakes and jacks.

The hydraulic jack consists of two connected cylinders of different cross-sectional areas. When
the device is in equilibrium the fluid (usually oil) is static, and thus the pressures at the bottoms of
the cylinders must be equal. Since the cross-sectional areas of the cylinders (A1 and A2) are
unequal, the forces exerted by the pistons (F1 and F2) are also unequal – a small force on the small
piston results in a large force exerted by the large piston.

F1 F2

s1 s2

p1 = p2 (Pascal)

F1 F2

A1 A2

Energy must be conserved in the device (ie w1 = w2)... So what can be deduced about the
distances through which each piston moves (s1 and s2)?

Eg: The master cylinder in a car’s hydraulic braking system has a diameter of 12,5 mm, while
the slave cylinder has a diameter of 50,0 mm. If the driver applies a force of 400 N to the
brake pedal, moving it through a distance of 16,0 cm, calculate (a) the distance moved
by the brake shoe, (b) the force applied by the brake shoe to the brake drum.

BUOYANCY

Archimedes' principle: Consider an imaginary "form", or “piece of liquid”

inside a liquid… If the form is stationary, the upthrust
forces on it must be balanced. In other words, its
weight must be balanced by an upthrust exerted
W
on it by the surrounding liquid.

If the liquid form were replaced with another object of the exact same shape and size, that other
object would experience the same upthrust as experienced by the liquid. That is, an upthrust equal
to the weight of the liquid which used to occupy that space.

Archimedes' principle:
The buoyant force on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by that object.

Note that this principle applies to all fluids, and therefore applies equally well to air… Strictly
speaking we ought to make adjustments to any weights which we obtain measuring in air!
FLUID STATICS 55

Determining RD using Archimedes' principle: The relative density of a substance

is the ratio of the density of that
substance to the density of water…
Solids:

RDsolid 
solid

mobject
V 
 mobj  g 
 mobj  g 
mobj
water m water
V
 m water  g (mobj  m in water ) g (mobj  m in water )

Archimedes

Liquids:
solid mobject
 solid relative to liquid
liquid 
mobj  min liquid 
liquid (mobj  min liquid )
RDliquid  
water (mobject  min water )

Eg: Without damaging the crown in any way, Archimedes used his principle to determine
whether King Hieron ‘s new crown really was pure gold, or whether it was diluted with
silver.
If Archimedes discovered that the crown weighed 14,7 N in air and 13,4 N in water, what
do you think happened to the crown-maker?

Floating objects: What if the fluid "form" is replaced by something with

the same shape and size, but lighter (ie something upthrust
less dense)?

The upthrust remains the same, but the object’s weight is less. W
Consequently the object experiences an unbalanced upwards force and
accelerates upwards until it breaks the surface. Eventually an equilibrium is reached, with the
object floating partly out of the water, displacing only enough water to exactly balance its weight.

There is a direct relationship between the relative density of the material from which an object is
made and the percentage draught of that object (that is the amount of object under the surface
while it floats). For example, since ice has a relative density of 0,9, icebergs float with 90% of their
volume below the surface (which is what makes them so dangerous to shipping).

The relative density of an object is directly related to its percentage draught

(that is the amount of floating object which hangs below the surface).

The hydrometer is an instrument which makes use of this principle. Basically

just a long, thin float, the hydrometer rides high in denser liquids and sinks
deeper in less dense liquids.

The density (or relative density) of the liquid is read off where (the bottom of)
the meniscus cuts the calibrated scale on the neck of the hydrometer. (Which
way does the scale read? From top to bottom, or vice versa?)

Eg: A boat with a mass of 2 700 kg has dimensions which can be approximated to the
following: a box 1,5 m high with a base measuring 3,75 m by 2,0 m. If it is launched in
fresh water, calculate
 the amount of freeboard it has (ie how much side shows above the waterline)
 the maximum weight of cargo it can carry if it is to have a minimum of 0,5 m
freeboard.
56 FLUID STATICS

SURFACE PHENOMENA

Surface tension: Consider the resultant forces on two

molecules in a liquid, one at the surface,
the other under the surface.

Each of the molecules experiences cohesive forces from the surrounding molecules, but whereas
the resultant of these forces is zero in the case of the molecule which is completely surrounded, the
surface molecule experiences a net downward force, ie a force at right angles to the surface. This
resultant force all over the surface of a liquid acts to minimise its surface area and is known as
surface tension.

Defn: Surface tension is the resistance a liquid offers to a force which tries to increase
its surface area.

Small objects with a relative density greater than 1 can nevertheless be floated on water because of
the strong cohesive forces between water molecules. This surface tension is easily reduced by the
addition of even very small quantities of soap. A floating object such as a sewing needle or a razor
blade will at first move rapidly away from the point where the soap is added and then eventually
sink as the surface tension weakens.

Falling raindrops, contrary to popular belief, are not teardrop shaped, but almost perfectly spherical
as a result of surface tension. In fact considerable research has gone into the production of
perfectly spherically ball bearings in so-called “microgravity” (basically free fall) situations.

Meniscus: Besides forces of cohesion between liquid molecules and other liquid molecules, there are
also adhesive forces between liquid molecules and the molecules of the container walls.

Surface molecules at the edge of a container experience a combination of these two, and, as a
result, one of two types of meniscus is formed:

concave meniscus: Adhesive forces are greater than Fad

cohesive forces and the resultant force
points out of the liquid. The liquid
surface slopes downwards into the Fco R
container. (Eg water in glass)

convex menisus: Cohesive forces are greater than

adhesive forces and the resultant force Fad
points into the liquid. The liquid surface
“climbs” into the container. Fco
(Eg mercury in glass)
R

Capillarity: A single hair (Latin: capillus) is basically a very narrow tube. If such an open-ended
tube is placed vertically in a liquid, the liquid slowly rises in the tube – the narrower the
tube, the greater the height to which the liquid rises.

Defn: Capillarity is the phenomenon in which a liquid rises (or falls) in a narrow,
open-ended tube.

The phenomenon can be understood as the result of the combination of meniscus and surface
tension effects. The interplay between these two effects gives rise to an upward force on the liquid
within the tube. (Actually, whether the force is an upwards or a downwards force depends on the
shape of the meniscus. Mercury actually crawls down narrow tubes.)

Capillarity is the principle behind much simple household technology: oil lamp wicks transport oil
upwards to the flame; the spaces between fibres in paper towels “suck” liquids into themselves.
FLUID STATICS TUTORIAL 57

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 Cooldrink enters the mouth through a drinking straw when the drinker sucks because

A the straw acts as a capillary tube

B it is pushed by atmospheric pressure
C it is drawn up by the upwards sucking force
D the forces of cohesion are reduced by the low pressure

1.2 Atmospheric pressure can support a column of mercury which is 76 cm high at sea level. The
height of a column of water which can be supported by this pressure is

A 0,103 4 m B 1,034 m C 10,34 m D 103,4 m

1.3 A cube of wood with 2 m sides has a density of 500 kg/m3. The weight of the cube is

A 1 000 N B 2 000 N C 4 000 N D 40 kN

1.4 A piece of copper with a mass of 178 g is totally immersed in ethanol. The quantity of ethanol
displaced will be

A 15,8 g B 2,0 kg C 0,02 m3 D 50 cm3

1.5 The weight of the copper in the above question will appear to be

A 0,16 N B 1,62 N C 1,76 N D 1,94 N

1.6 A beaker of base area 80 cm2 is filled to a depth of 10 cm with brine. The weight of the brine is

A 0,8 N B 6,4 N C 8N D 9,6 N

1.7 A circular viewing window 30 cm in diameter is installed with its centre 3 m below the surface of
one of the Two Oceans Aquarium tanks. The force the window must withstand is

A 2,17 kN
B 9,24 kN
C 4,35 x 105 N
D dependent on the size of the tank

1.8 A beaker of water rests on a scale. An object is lowered into the water without making any contact
with the beaker. The reading on the scale will

A definitely increase
B definitely decrease
C definitely remain the same
D depend on the relative density of the object

1 cm
1.9 A cube of wood has a side of 5 cm. It floats in water with
1 cm still showing above the surface, as shown.
4 cm

The relative density of the wood is

A 0,2 B 0,4 C 0,8 D 1,2

58 TUTORIAL FLUID STATICS

EXERCISES

2. Calculate the density and relative density of tin if 75,0 cm3 of the metal has a mass of 548 g.

3. Calculate the volume occupied by… (a) 300 g of mercury; (b) 44 g of CO2; (c) 1 oz of gold.

4. Calculate the mass of… (a) 3 m3 of ice; (b) 60 cm3 of lead.

5. Explain why only 10% of an iceberg is visible above the waterline.

6. A can has a mass of 3 kg when empty, 53 kg when filled with water and 66 kg when filled with
glycerine. Find the relative density of glycerine.

7. A piece of alloy weighs 380 N in air and 320 N when immersed in water. Calculate its…
7.1 volume;
7.2 relative density.

8. A glass stopper weighs 0,35 N in air, 0,20 N in water, and 0,10 N in sulphuric acid. What is the
relative density of the acid?

9. A submarine is at a depth of 100 m. What pressure must be available to expel the water from the
ballast tanks?

10. An East Texas oil field at a depth of 2 km has a pressure of 2,0 x 107 Pa. Determine the height of a
column of drilling mud which will be required to cap this pressure if the mud has a density of
1 900 kg/m3.

11. One litre of full cream milk weighs 10,32 N. The butterfat which it contains occupies 4% by volume
and has a relative density of 0,865. Calculate the density of… (a) skim milk; (b) "2%" milk.

12. An electroplating process supplies a coating thickness of 800 nm. Calculate the area which could
be covered using 1 kg of… (a) copper; (b) gold.

13. A tank containing water rests on a scale. The scale reads 150 N. A solid steel rod of diameter
5 cm is lowered end-on into the water to a depth of 1 m (without touching the bottom). Will the
reading on the scale change? (If so, to what?)

14. A block of oak weighs 90 N in air. A lead sinker weighs 130 N in water. The sinker is attached to
the wood and both together weigh 100 N in water. Determine the relative density of the wood.

15. A flask is filled with a mixture with a relative density of 1,4. The mixture consists of two liquids, A
and B, which have relative densities of 0,8 and 1,8 respectively. What is the mixing ratio A:B by volume?

16. A salt solution is 24% salt by mass and has a relative density of 1,18. Calculate:
16.1 the mass of pure salt required to make 10 litres of solution;
16.2 what volume of solution could be made with 10 kg of salt.
FLOW DYNAMICS

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: laminar or streamline flow, turbulent flow, volume flow rate, velocity
gradient, viscosity, Reynolds number.
 Perform numerical calculations using the equation of continuity.
 State Bernoulli’s principle and perform numerical calculations using the associated equation
and the various simplifications thereof.
 Describe the venturi effect and explain the principle of a venturi meter.
 List and explain selected phenomena illustrating the application of Bernoulli’s principle.
 Perform numerical calculations using the formula for calculating the force required to slide
two plates across each when separated by a fluid with a particular thickness and viscosity.
 List the causes and effects of turbulent flow and predict whether flow is likely to be turbulent
or not by calculation of the Reynolds number.

Flow types: In the previous chapter we stated that ideal fluids exhibit laminar or streamline flow.
In laminar or streamline flow adjacent layers flow alongside each other without
mixing, whereas turbulent flow is erratic and characterised by swirling eddy currents.

Turbulent flow is caused by:

 obstacles in the stream paths of fluid particles
 excessive velocity
turbulent
 abrupt changes in direction flow

… and gives rise to the following problems:

 increased operating pressures laminar flow
 greatly increased friction
(leading to increases in temperature)
 energy wastage

Flow rates: Mass flow rate is defined as the mass of fluid which passes a given point in a unit of
time. Assuming that the fluid is incompressible (and hence that its density remains
constant), we can work with volume per unit time (volume flow rate).

An element of volume, V, in a pipe with a cross-sectional area of A, s

is given by V = As, so ... A

flow rate  V  As  Av

t t

59
60 FLOW DYNAMICS

The equation of continuity: Consider an arbitrary tube of fluid flow

through cross-sections 1 and 2
in the adjacent diagram... 2

The law of conservation of mass dictates that if there are no v2, A2, 2
sources or sinks the masses passing through each cross- v1, A1, 1
section (in the same period of time) must be the same:
m1 = m2 1
 1V1 = 2V2
 1A1v1t = 2A2v2t
If the fluid is incompressible the density remains constant, so...

A1v1  A2v2 Equation of continuity

Thus, where the flow cross-section is large, the fluid speed is low; where the cross-section
narrows, the fluid speed increases.

Eg: Water flows at 2,5 m/s in a garden hose with a diameter of 1,5 cm.
 How long will it take to fill a 10 litre bucket?
 How far can you spray if you cover half the nozzle with your thumb?
 How long will it take to fill the bucket with the nozzle half covered like this?

Bernoulli's Principle: The mathematical relationship between the several variables associated
with laminar flow (excluding viscosity) was first worked out by the Swiss
physicist Daniel Bernoulli in 1738.
s1
The equation is derived by making use of the principle
of conservation of energy. The total energy at any point F1
X
in the system is the sum of the kinetic and potential A1 s2
energies at that point, ie ½mv2 + mgh. With a fluid,
however, it is easier to use V in place of an element h1 F2
Y
A2
of mass, m, so total energy = ½Vv2 + gh. h2

Now, by applying a force, F1, to an element of mass (X in the diagram) and moving it through
distance s1, work is done on the system according to the following:
From w1 = F1s1 and F1 = p1A1 and V = A1s1 we derive: w1 = p1V.

As this fluid moves through the system, it itself does work by exerting a force, F2, on another element of
mass, Y, and moving it through a distance s2. (Remember that since the fluid is incompressible, V
is the same for the second element.) The work done on element Y by element X is thus w2 = p2V.

The net work done on the system is therefore given by w1 – w2, or (p1 – p2)V, which equals the
resultant change in the total energy of the system.
ie (p1 – p2)V = (Vgh1 + ½Vv12) – (Vgh2 + ½Vv22)

By rearranging terms we get:

p1  gh1  21 v12  p2  gh2  21 v2 2

which is the mathematical statement of…

Bernoulli's principle:
In an ideal fluid, the sum of the absolute pressure, the potential energy per
unit volume, and the kinetic energy per unit volume is constant.
FLOW DYNAMICS 61

Special cases of Bernoulli’s principle: Several special cases, or simplified equations,

can be derived from the full equation:

Gauge pressure: In a static vertical system (or at least one in which the velocities at the top and
bottom are the same), the equation reduces to …
p1 – p2 = g(h2 – h1)
where p1 – p2 is essentially just gauge pressure at depth h2 – h1.

Torricelli’s theorem: In the case of a fluid flowing out of a tap below an

unpressurised reservoir (whose surface area is usually very much
larger than the cross-sectional area of the tap), the pressure v2
(atmospheric) is the same on both sides. Furthermore, v2, the
speed at which the reservoir surface drops, will be negligibly small h2 v1
(and v22 will be especially small). So gh1 + ½v12 = gh2, from
which we can derive Torricelli’s equation for the speed of efflux, ie h1
the exit speed of the fluid through the tap:

v1  
2 g h2  h1 
Venturi effect: In a purely horizontal system (where h1 = h2), Bernoulli’s equation becomes …
p1 + ½v12 = p2 + ½v22
Ie: Where the velocity of a fluid is high, the pressure is low, and where the velocity is low, the
pressure is high – a phenomenon known as the Venturi effect.

A simple device known as a Venturi flowmeter uses this

effect to measure the velocity of fluid in a horizontal pipe. p1 p2
The pipe, with a cross-sectional area A1 is constricted
v1 v2
smoothly to a smaller area A2 in a section known as the
Venturi tube. Pressure in the pipe causes the fluid to rise in A 1
A2
transparent vertical “risers” to heights determined by the
pressures at those particular points (p = gh).
The velocities can then be calculated from Bernoulli’s equation and the equation of continuity.

Applications of Bernoulli’s principle: Each of the following can also be explained in terms
of Bernoulli’s principle:

 a ball suspended in a jet of air

 fixed wings (dynamic lift, vortices)

 Bunsen burner jets

 carburettors

 jibs and mainsails

 chimneys and burrows

 TIA
62 FLOW DYNAMICS

Viscosity: The internal friction experienced by real fluids is

called viscosity,  (eta). X A F

Consider the force required to pull a flat plate, X, (surface Y

area A) over another flat surface, Y, (at speed v) while the
two plates are separated by a film of fluid (thickness y). X F
v
y fluid
Fluid in contact with X moves at the same speed, v, as X 0 .
does, but fluid in contact with Y does not move at all. Y
F  A … F  v … F  /s, so1

F   A dv
dy

Notes:  The quantity dv is known as the velocity gradient of the fluid.

dy
  is the coefficient of viscosity, or simply the viscosity of the liquid.
 Viscosity is temperature dependent.
Generally speaking, the higher the temperature, the lower the viscosity (eg warm
syrup vs cold syrup), but the viscosity of gases increases with temperature.
 Motor oils are graded by the Society of Automotive Engineers – the higher the
“weight” the more viscous the oil. SAE 30 might be too viscous for an engine that
needs to start in cold conditions, but using SAE 10 might not offer sufficient
protection at high operating temperatures. Fortunately"multigrade" oils are now
available.

Eg: A square plate, with a side of 200 mm, rests on a 2 mm layer of ethanol on a flat surface.
Calculate the amount of force necessary to drag the plate horizontally across the surface
at 0,7 m/s.

Reynolds Number: The onset of turbulent flow (determined by the average velocity v , density 
and viscosity  of a liquid in a pipe, diameter D) is often abrupt and
unpredictable, but we can get a rough idea of flow type from the Reynolds
number, NR:

 vD
NR 


From experience we know that Reynolds numbers less than 2 000 indicate that flow will be
laminar, while numbers above 3 000 predict that the flow will definitely be turbulent. Between
these values the flow is unstable and may switch between one state and the other in response to
random stimuli.

Eg: The average speed of blood in the aorta (radius 1 cm) during the resting part of the
heart’s cycle is about 30 cm/s. Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
FLOW DYNAMICS TUTORIAL 63

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 An air duct widens and then narrows again,

as shown. The relative speed of the air in the
X Y Z
three sections is

X Y Z
A fast slow slow
B fast slow fast
C slow fast fast
D slow fast slow

1.2 Fluid flows in a pipe at v m/s. If the radius of the pipe is now halved, the new speed of the fluid, in
m/s, will be

A ¼v B ½v C 2v D 4v

Questions 1.3 to 1.5 refer to a horizontal pipe with a cross-section of 10 cm2 which is joined to another
horizontal pipe of 50 cm2 cross-sectional area. The speed of water in the small pipe is 6,0 m/s and the
pressure there is 200 kPa.

1.3 The speed of water in the large pipe, in m/s, is

A 0,24 B 1,2 C 3 D 13

1.4 The pressure in the large pipe, in kPa, is

A 183 B 202 C 217 D 235

1.5 The rate of flow of water through the large pipe, in litres per second, is

A 0,6 B 1,2 C 3 D 6

Questions 1.6 and 1.7 refer to the adjacent sketch where A2

water flows through a frictionless duct with a varying cross- A1
v2
section. O
x
v1
1.6 The variation of static pressure p at points along
the axis is best represented by

A B C D
p p p p

x x x x

v2
1.7 The ratio of the speeds is equal to
v1

A1 A2 A1 A2
A B C D
A2 A1 A2 A1
64 TUTORIAL FLOW DYNAMICS

EXERCISES

2. An air conditioning duct with a cross-sectional area of 0,5 m2 has to remove all the air from a lecture
theatre measuring 10 m by 12 m by 3 m high every half an hour. Calculate the air speed required in
the duct.

3. Calculate the minimum pressure needed in the water pipe leading into a building if water is to come
out of a tap on the 12th floor, 35 metres above.

4. A pipe whose inside diameter is 30 mm is connected to three smaller pipes whose inside diameters are
15 mm each. If the liquid speed in the larger pipe is 1,0 m/s, calculate its speed in the smaller pipes.

5. Half a litre of petrol emerges per second at a speed of 50 cm/s from a leaking fuel hose.
How big is the hole in the hose?

6. Water emerges from a fire hose at a speed of 20 m/s and a rate of flow of 50 litres a second.
Calculate the force required to hold the hose steady.

7. Water flows at 2,5 m/s through a hose whose inside radius is 6,0 mm.
7.1 Calculate the nozzle radius if the water must leave the hose at: (a) 10 m/s; (b) 40 m/s.
7.2 What is the rate of flow of water through the hose in litres per minute?

8. Calculate the pressure difference on the roof of a house caused by a 150 km/h wind blowing over
the top of the house.

9. An aeroplane has a mass of 15 tonnes. At cruising speed, air flows over the top of its wings at
150 m/s and under the wings at 120 m/s. Calculate:
9.1 the difference in pressure between the top and bottom of the wings;
9.2 the surface area of the underside of the wings.

10. Water flows vertically up a 1,5 m-long pipe which narrows to a cross-sectional area of 20 cm2 at its
top end. If water enters the pipe at a speed of 3,0 m/s and at a flow rate of 15 litres/s, calculate:
10.1 the speed at which the water leaves the pipe;
10.2 the difference in pressure between the two ends.

11. A boat strikes an underwater rock and opens a pencil-sized crack 7,0 mm wide and 150 mm long
in its hull 65 cm below the waterline. The crew takes 5,00 min to locate the crack and plug it.
What mass of water did the boat take on in the meantime?
90 cm
12. The diagram shows a hose with an internal cross-sectional area of 2 cm2 70 cm
being used to siphon water out of a tank. Calculate:
50 cm
12.1 the speed with which the water emerges from the hose;
30 cm
12.2 the rate of flow (in litres per second).
0 cm

13. A water tank has a hole 3,0 cm2 in area located 2,0 m below the water surface. How many
kilograms of water emerge from the hole per second?

14. What is the maximum safe speed at which water at 20°C can be pumped through a 5 cm diameter
pipe before the risk of turbulence becomes considerable?
SIGHT

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: luminous and illuminated bodies, optical medium, homogeneous medium,
transparent, translucent and opaque media, transmission and absorption of light, coherent
transmission, refractive index, ray, parallel, convergent and divergent beams.
 Distinguish carefully between luminous and illuminated bodies, transparent and opaque
media, listing examples of each.
 Discuss briefly the importance/usefulness of light.
 State the requirements for sight.
 Perform numerical calculations using the formula n = c/v.
 Sketch rays and beams (parallel, convergent and divergent).

Importance of light:  It is an important form of energy transfer.

 It is one of the requirements for sight.

Requirements for sight:  There must be light. (Even cats need light to see “in the dark”.)
 Light must enter the viewer’s eye.

If no light enters the eye, there is no sight! Only an impression (or rather a non-impression!) which
we call black.

NB!! WE DO NOT SEE BLACK!! (It is interesting to consider how we read words on a printed
page!)

Sources of light: All light sources are either luminous or illuminated.

Luminous bodies (eg candles) emit their own light, while illuminated objects (eg this piece of paper)
merely reflect light shone on them by a luminous body.

Propagation: Light travels at 3  108 m/s (c) in vacuum (although this value can also be used for its
speed in air). This means it could travel seven times round the earth in one second –
except for one thing…

Light travels in straight lines (at least in homogeneous media (qv)).

Furthermore, since the eye (or rather the viewer’s brain) is unaware of direction changes caused by
reflection or refraction (qv), it assumes that light which enters the eye was always coming from the
direction in which it finally enters the eye. This leads to all sorts of illusions, from seeing yourself
“in” a mirror and sticks which appear to bend in water, to more complex phenomena such as
Pepper's ghost and mirages.
Substances which can be seen through (ie which transmit light in a coherent way) are said to be
transparent and are known as optical media. Substances which do not transmit light, but instead
absorb or reflect it, are said to be opaque.
(What is the difference between transparent and translucent?)

65
66 SIGHT

Light travels considerably slower in denser optical media such as: water ( 34 c); glass ( 32 c).
The refractive index, n, of a particular medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in
vacuum, c, to its speed in that medium, v.

n c
v

Eg: Use the above information to calculate the refractive indices of glass and water.

The ray model: Although light has a wave nature (it consists of transverse disturbances in coupled
electric and magnetic fields (qv)), in geometric optics it is convenient to represent light
as rays (straight lines with arrows) drawn in the direction in which light energy is moving.

A group of rays forms a beam. Beams can be …

parallel converging diverging

Notes:  Rays are reversible – that is, if light follows a certain path in one direction, it will follow
the exact same path if it travelled in the opposite direction.
 Rays do not interact with each other. A ray will continue in a straight line for ever
unless it interacts with matter which causes it to change direction or be absorbed.
(Rays can interact with matter by being… reflected, refracted, scattered, or absorbed.)
 Sight can be explained as the formation of an image
on the back of the eyeball by rays received from a
luminous or illuminated source and focussed on the
retina by the eye’s lens system, as shown.

 When the eye receives converging rays, it sees them as emanating from a large object.
Diverging rays carry information of a small object to the viewer. It is possible, with the
aid of curved mirrors or lenses, to convert beams from one form to another, thereby
deceiving the eye into seeing small objects as large objects, or vice versa (qv).

EXERCISES

2. Sketch a ray diagram showing light from a nearby candle illuminating a book. Now show the same
book being illuminated by sunlight. Why are light rays from a distant source such as the sun
regarded as being parallel to each other?

3. A searchlight beam shone into the sky produces a column of light.

3.1 State the two prerequisites for seeing something.
3.2 How is it that you can see the searchlight beam in the sky even though the beam itself is not
entering your eye?

4. Calculate the speed at which light will travel through a medium which has a refractive index of 2,0.

5. How much slower does light travel in diamond than in glass?

6. Use ray diagrams to explain what is observed when (a) a point source of light shines through a
large triangular opening onto a screen; (b) light from an extended source (eg a tree) is shone
through a pinhole onto a screen.
REFLECTION

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: normal, incident ray, reflected ray, angles of incidence and reflection, angle
of deviation, glancing angle, regular and diffuse reflection, plane mirror, lateral inversion,
convex and concave mirrors, principal axis, centre of curvature, radius of curvature, focal
point (focus), focal length, pole, real and virtual images, aperture, spherical aberration.
 State: The laws of reflection, the characteristics of real and virtual images.
 Perform numerical calculations using: the laws of reflection; r = 2f; the mirror formula (to
determine the focal length of mirrors and the positions of objects and images); the formulae
for magnification.
 Discuss briefly the phenomenon of spherical aberration, stating what measures can be taken
to avoid it.
 Draw ray diagrams to illustrate the position and size of images formed in plane mirrors. Draw
ray diagrams to illustrate all six cases of image formation in a concave mirror, and the single
case of image formation in a convex mirror.

Laws of reflection: A normal is a line drawn perpendicular to a surface or boundary.

incident ray
A ray arriving at the surface is called an
incident ray, and the angle it forms with normal
the NORMAL is called the angle of reflected ray
incidence or incident angle.
g  
Similarly, the angle of reflection is measured deviation
between the reflected ray and the normal.

Laws of reflection:
1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in same plane.

The angle marked g is called the glancing angle. Note that the deviation of the ray (the angle
between its original path and its new path) equals 2g.

Regular/Specular reflection vs Diffuse reflection:

The reflection of light always occurs according to the laws of reflection, but the overall result depends
on the nature of the reflecting surface. White paper reflects almost all the light which shines on it, as
does a mirror, but whereas the mirror’s reflecting surface is perfectly smooth, the paper’s is not.

Mirror – the reflected rays leave in the Paper – the reflected rays are scattered.
same regular order (although
reversed) in which they arrived.
67
68 REFLECTION

PLANE MIRRORS

image
The technique of cross-aiming is useful in determining the
position and size of an image in a plane mirror.

The image in a plane mirror …

 is situated on the same normal as the object
 is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front
object
 is the same size as the object
 appears to be laterally inverted

The image formed by a plane mirror is an example of a virtual image. That is,
 it is erect with respect to the object
 light does not actually strike it (Note the dotted lines in the diagram above)
 it cannot be cast on a screen

CURVED MIRRORS concave mirror

Terminology: r = 2f principle axis

f
The focal point, or principal focus (or just P
the focus) of a concave mirror is the point 2F F F 2F
through which rays travelling parallel to the centre of focal point
principle axis are reflected. The distance curvature
pole
between the pole of the mirror, P, and its
focal point, F, is called the focal length, f, of the mirror.

The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror, r, is the distance between the pole of the mirror and
the centre of curvature (of the sphere of which the mirror is a small piece). The radius of curvature is
twice the focal length of the mirror. Light rays travelling towards or from the direction of the centre of
curvature are automatically normal to (ie at right angles to) the surface of the mirror. (Why?)

Note that a concave mirror has a real focus so that generally (with one exception) the image which
is formed is a real image. That is,
 it is inverted with respect to the object
convex mirror
 light actually strikes or passes through it
 it can be cast on a screen

Convex mirrors, on the other hand, have only virtual P

2F F F
foci. Rays which arrived parallel to the principle axis
appear to be reflected from these points. Consequently focal point
convex mirrors form only virtual images. (virtual)

Aperture: The diameter of the mirror used for reflection is called its aperture.

The most common form of curved mirror is spherical, that is, the mirror is a segment of a sphere. If
an entire hemisphere is used, it is found that there is no clear focus, but instead, parallel rays at
different distances from the pole are reflected through different points on the principle axis, leading
to a phenomenon known as spherical aberration.

This distortion can be avoided either by using only small apertures (the mirror will appear to be
nearly flat), or by using a parabolic reflector instead.
REFLECTION 69

Ray diagrams: The following rules apply to the drawing of ray diagrams for concave mirrors:

1. Position the object with its foot on the principal axis.

2. Use a straight line to represent the mirror, but label it appropriately.
3. A ray striking the pole of the mirror will be reflected as if off a plane mirror.
4. A ray travelling parallel to the principle axis will be reflected through the focus.
5. A ray passing through the centre of curvature (or coming from that direction) will reach the
mirror along a normal, and will therefore be reflected straight back in the opposite direction.
6. A ray passing through the focal point (or coming from that direction) will be reflected parallel to
the principle axis.
7. Virtual rays and images must be represented with dotted lines. In the case of a virtual image,
the position of the observer must be shown.
concave mirror
In this example (one of six different
cases), an object drawn beyond 2F do
gives rise to a real, diminished
image between F and 2F.
I F
[NB: Each of the six different cases P
O 2F
should be drawn and studied.]

di

Only minor modifications of these rules are required for convex mirrors, which produce only one
case of image: a virtual, diminished image situated between P and the virtual focus. [This case
should also be drawn and studied.]

Mirror formula: It is always advisable to sketch a ray diagram as a rough guide, but the focal
length of a mirror, f, the object distance, do, and the image distance, di, are usually
calculated using

1  1  1
f do di

It is important that consistent sign conventions be followed:

 Distances to and heights of objects and real images are positive.
 Distances to and heights of virtual images are negative.
 The focal lengths and radii of curvature of mirrors which have only virtual foci (ie convex
mirrors) are negative.

Magnification: The magnification of a mirror is defined as the ratio of the image size to the object
size:

size of image
magnification 
size of object

But using similar triangles on any ray diagram allows us to deduce:

di
magnification 
do

Eg: An object 3 cm high is placed 25 cm in front of a concave spherical mirror with a radius of
curvature of 20 cm. Calculate the position and size of the image formed.
70 TUTORIAL REFLECTION

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 The reason you cannot see your own image reflected in a flat sheet of white paper is that

A the paper is not a reflecting surface

B the reflection off the paper is too diffuse
C the paper absorbs too much of the light shining on it
D the angles of reflection of the rays are not equal to their angles of incidence

1.2 The sketch shows a view, from directly above, of two people, X and
Y, standing in front of (and near one end of) a vertical plane mirror, M
M. Which of the following statements is true?

A X and Y see both their own and each other's reflections.

B X can see only his own reflection; Y can see no reflections. X Y
C X can see both reflections; Y can see no reflections.
D X can see both reflections; Y can see only X's reflection.

1.3 To deviate a light ray through 30°, a plane mirror should be placed so that the angle of incidence
of the light ray is

A 15° B 30° C 60° D 75°

1.4 A concave mirror is 24 cm from an object. It forms an image half the size of the object. The focal
length of the mirror is

A –24 cm B 8 cm C 24 cm D 8 cm or 24 cm

EXERCISES

2. A ray of light falling on a plane mirror has an incident angle of 25°. If the mirror rotates through 6°,
through what angle is the reflected ray rotated?

3. Describe fully (position, size, nature, erect/inverted, magnification) the image of a candle flame
located 10 cm from a concave spherical mirror with a radius of curvature of 16 cm.

4. Describe the image of an object placed 20 cm from a concave spherical mirror with a radius of
curvature of 60 cm.

5. How far should an object be spaced from a concave spherical mirror with a radius of curvature of
36 cm in order to form a real image one ninth of its size?

6. An object 7 cm high is placed 15 cm from a convex spherical mirror with a radius of curvature of
-45 cm. Describe its image.

7. What is the focal length of a convex spherical mirror which produces an image one sixth of the size
of an object placed 1 m from the mirror?

8. The image of a lamp, magnified 5 times, must be cast on a wall 12 m away, using a spherical mirror.
8.1 What kind of mirror must be used?
8.2 Calculate its radius of curvature and determine its position from the lamp.
REFRACTION

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: refraction, total internal reflection, critical angle, apex angle, angle of
minimum deviation, optical centre.
 Perform numerical calculations using: Snell's law and combinations thereof; the several
given formulae for refractive index; the lens formula (to determine the focal length of lenses
and the positions of objects and images); the formulae for magnification; the combination
formula for two lenses sandwiched closely together.
 Explain, with the aid of diagrams, why underwater objects appear shallower than they really
are.
 Describe carefully, with the aid of diagrams, the phenomenon of total internal reflection. List
examples and uses of the phenomenon.
 Draw ray diagrams to illustrate all six cases of image formation by a convex lens, and the
single case of image formation by a concave lens.

Refractive index: Since light travels at different speeds in different media, light entering obliquely
(ie angle of incidence  0) from one medium into another (of different optical
density) is deviated, or refracted.

The refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1, written as 1n2 , is given by:

speed in medium 1
1n2 
speed in medium 2

If medium 1 is a vacuum, 1n2 becomes just n, (or nmedium) and once again we have:

n c
v

Irrespective of the direction in which the light is travelling

(note that the arrows have been omitted from the rays in
the adjacent sketch), the refractive index of medium 2 1̂
(with respect to medium 1) can be calculated using the medium 1

formula known as Snell's law: medium 2

2̂
sin1ˆ
1n2 
sin2ˆ

Notes:  2n1 is the inverse of 1n2 , ie it is the refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2:
1  sin 2ˆ
2 n1 
1 n2 sin1ˆ
 to find gnw from ang and anw , use the formula gnw = gna x anw

Eg: A ray of light enters ethanol as shown. air 22°

Calculate the value of the angle marked as x.
ethanol x

71
72 REFRACTION

Apparent depth: An underwater object viewed from the air above appears to be shallower than
it actually is. ie Its apparent depth is less than its real depth.

The ratio of real depth to apparent depth is a useful

approximation of the refractive index of the medium in which
the object is located with respect to the medium from which
the viewer is looking.

NS
sin1ˆ NI = NO 1̂
n 
1 2  and, if 2ˆ is small,  SO N S air
sin2ˆ NS NI SI
NO 1̂ glass
ie 2̂ I
real depth
1n2  apparent depth
2̂
O

Total internal reflection: Light bends towards the normal when entering a denser medium
and bends away from the normal when entering a less dense
medium. This means that the angle which light makes with the
normal is always greater in the less dense medium…

As the incident angle in the denser medium in the sketches below is increased, so the refracted
angle also increases. But since the refracted angle is always larger than the incident angle, there
comes a point where the refracted angle eventually becomes (theoretically at least) a right angle.
The angle of incidence for which this happens is called the critical angle (of the denser medium
with respect to the less dense medium).

Defn: The critical angle of one medium (denser) with respect to another (less dense) is
the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90°.

A light ray striking the boundary at an angle greater than the critical angle will not escape the
denser medium at all, but will instead be totally internally reflected.

less dense less dense less dense

denser denser denser

critical (weakly
angle reflected ray)

It follows that:
critical angle  arc sin 1
n

The denser the medium, the smaller its critical angle and critical angle wrt air
“the more difficult” it is for a light ray to escape that medium. water 49°
glass 42°
The critical angles of a few substances with respect to air
are given in the accompanying table. diamond 23°

While total internal reflection can be observed in everyday life (where it explains phenomena
such as mirages and the sparkling of cut diamonds), it is particularly useful in specific
applications such as in binoculars and other optical instruments, and in fibre optics.

Eg’s:  Explain the silvery appearance of a soot-covered ball when it is lowered into water.
 Calculate the critical angle of glass with respect to water.
REFRACTION 73

PRISMS
refractive edge apex angle
A
deviation
b c
b
d
d a c
a

As the angle of incidence of ray ab changes, the angle of deviation changes. The smallest angle of
deviation (achieved when bc lies parallel to the base of the prism) is called the angle of minimum
deviation and is designated as D.

A more accurate empirical determination of refractive index is now possible using:

sin A  D
n 2
sin A
2

LENSES

Terminology: The terminology for lenses is similar to that for mirrors (including sign conventions),
except that the pole of the mirror is replaced by the optical centre, O, of a lens.
(A ray passing through the optical centre continues undeviated.)

Ray diagrams: The following rules apply to the drawing of ray diagrams for convex lenses:

1. Position the object with its foot on the principal axis.

2. Use a straight line to represent the lens, but label it appropriately.
3. A ray passing through the optical centre of the lens will continue undeviated.
4. A ray travelling parallel to the principle axis will be refracted through the focus.
5. A ray passing through the focal point (or coming from that direction) will be refracted parallel to
the principle axis.
6. Virtual rays and images must be represented with dotted lines. In the case of a virtual image,
the position of the observer must be shown.

In this example (one convex lens

of six different do
cases), an object
drawn beyond 2F
gives rise to a real, F
diminished image O
2F F 2F
between F and 2F.
di
[NB: Each of the
six different cases
should be drawn and studied.]

As in the case of convex mirrors, concave lenses only ever form one case of image: a virtual, dim-
inished image situated between O and the virtual focus. [This case should also be drawn and studied.]
74 REFRACTION

Lens formula: Once again, the ray diagrams are intended only as a rough guide. The focal
length of the lens, f, the object distance, do, and the image distance, di, are
calculated using

1  1  1
f do di

The same sign conventions as used for mirrors apply equally to lenses:
 Distances to and heights of objects and real images are positive.
 Distances to and heights of virtual images are negative.
 The focal lengths of lenses which have only virtual foci (ie concave lenses) are negative.

Magnification: magnification 
size of image
or magnification 
di
size of object do

Combination formula: Many optical applications use two or more lenses in combination with
each other.

The effect of two or more lenses at various distances from each other can be quite complex, but if
only two lenses are sandwiched close together, the combined effective focal length, fT, is given by:

1  1  1
fT f1 f2

Eg: A short-sighted eye has a focal length of 1,50 cm and focuses the image of a distant
object 3 mm short of the retina. What focal length contact lens should be prescribed?

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 If an object is placed at F on the principal axis of a convex lens

A an image will be formed at F on the other side of the lens

B an image will be formed between F and C on the other side
C a magnified, virtual image will be formed on the same side
D no image will be formed

1.2 When the point of a stick is immersed in water it appears (from directly above) as if the point is

A bent down, because light undergoes refraction

B bent down, because light is reflected from the surface
C bent upwards, because light undergoes refraction
D bent upwards, because light is reflected from the surface

1.3 The refractive index of the liquid in the accompanying ray

diagram is 40°
air
A 0,74
B 0,88 60° liquid
C 1,29
D 1,35
REFRACTION TUTORIAL 75

EXERCISES (Note: Take the average refractive index of glass as 1,50.)

2. Supply ray diagrams illustrating all 6 cases for a convex lens and the one case for a concave lens.

3. Draw a labelled ray diagram showing how a convex lens is used as…
3.1 a magnifying glass;
3.2 a burning glass.

4. The speed of light in air is 3 x 108 m/s. What is its speed in glycerol?

5. A beam of light strikes a glass plane at an incident angle of 60°. Determine the directions of the
reflected and refracted rays.

6. The critical angle for light passing from rock salt into air is 40,5°. Calculate the refractive index of
rock salt.

7. Calculate:
7.1 the critical angle of glass with respect to air;
7.2 the refractive index of diamond relative to glass;
7.3 the critical angle of diamond with respect to glass;
7.4 the critical angle of water with respect to diamond. [Explain your answer.]

8. Determine the nature, position and magnification of the image formed by a thin converging lens of
focal length +100 cm when the object distance from the lens is…
8.1 150 cm;
8.2 75 cm.

9. Describe fully the image of an object 20 cm high and spaced 56 cm from a diverging lens of focal
length –14 cm.

10. Calculate the focal length of the lens which will give an erect image 20 cm from the lens when the
object distance from the lens is…
10.1 4 m;
10.2 very great.

11. What is the nature and focal length of the lens which will form a real image having one-third the
dimensions of an object spaced 9 cm from the lens?

12. In what two positions of the object will its image be enlarged 8 times by a lens of focal length
+4 cm? Describe the image in each case.

13. A luminous object and a screen are 12,5 m apart. What is the position and focal length of the lens
which will throw upon the screen an image of the object magnified 24 times?

14. Two thin lenses of focal lengths +12 cm and –30 cm respectively are in contact with each other.
Calculate the focal length and power of the combination.
76 TUTORIAL REFRACTION

15. A prism with an apex angle of 46° causes a minimum deviation of 32° in a monochromatic beam of
light. Compute the refractive index of the prism for this wavelength of light and hence determine the
speed at which this light travels through the prism.

16. A swimming pool is 6 m deep. How deep would it appear to a 1,7 m observer (eyes 10 cm below
top of head) if viewed from…
16.1 directly above;
16.2 4 m away from the pool?

17. A mirror is made of 1,00 cm thick glass which is silvered on the back. A man stands 50,00 cm
away from the front surface of the mirror. Exactly how far from him will his image appear to be?

18. A 6 cm layer of benzene floats on water which is 4 cm deep. How deep does the bottom of the
vessel appear when viewed from directly above?

19. A straight stick partially immersed in water appears to bend when viewed from directly above.
What is the apparent angle between the two "halves" when the stick is held at an angle of 45° to the
surface of the water? Does the stick appear to bend up or down?

20. A movie theatre 20 m long has a 9 m wide screen. What focal length lens must the projectionist
use? How far in front of the film must the lens be positioned?

21. At what altitude must a survey plane fly in order to produce a 1:10 000 photograph of the ground
using a camera with a 100 mm lens? The high-resolution camera takes a 30 cm x 30 cm negative.
What ground area features in the photograph?

22. At what angle of incidence must light strike a horizontal water surface if the angle between the
reflected and refracted rays is to be 90°?

23. Explain thoroughly why we sometimes see "water" on a road surface on a hot day.
COLOUR

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: dispersion, spectrum, complementary colours, selective absorption and
transmission of light, pure and impure spectra, continuous emission, line emission and
absorption spectra, chromatic aberration.
 State: the seven component colours of white light (in order); the primary colours of light; the
secondary colours made from the various combination of primaries; the set of
complementary colours.
 Explain the appearance of colour in the world around us and under various colours of lighting.
 Discuss briefly the various types of spectra and their origins.
 Describe briefly the phenomenon of chromatic aberration, stating what measures can be
taken to avoid it.

Dispersion: Newton (1665) passed white light through a

prism and dispersed it, showing it was made
R
up of seven component colours – the visible O
spectrum – red, orange, yellow, green, blue, Y
G
indigo and violet. B
I
V
What can be achieved with a second prism? More colours?
Recombination of the seven colours to white light again?

Dispersion results from the different colours (ie different wavelengths of light) having different
refractive indices. The longer the wavelength, the lower the refractive index, and the less deviation
which occurs when the colour passes through a prism.

refractive
index glass nblue n nred
crown glass 1,521 1,517 1,510
flint glass 1,665 1,655 1,645

wavelength

Colour mixing: The seven colours of white light are divided into three groups known as the
primary colours of light (red, blue and green). Mixing two primaries at a time
produces the secondary colours. (What happens if all three primaries are
mixed?)

Primaries: Red (RO)

Green (YG)
Blue (BIV)

Secondaries: Yellow (ROYG) (Red + Green)

Magenta (ROBIV) (Red + Blue)
Cyan (YGBIV) (Green + Blue)

Complementary colours: A primary and its mutually exclusive secondary (eg red/cyan,
blue/yellow) are said to be complementary.

77
78 COLOUR

Observed colours: We see different colours in the world around us as a result of selective
absorption, or selective transmission of light by various dyes and
materials.

For example, a red object is one which absorbs blue and green light and reflects only the red light
shining on it. (How would it appear if viewed under light from which all the red had already been
removed (ie cyan light)?)

Why does a black dress appear black? Could a green dress be made to look black?

Types of spectra: The spectroscope is a device used to convert impure, or overlapping spectra,
into pure spectra which can then be accurately analysed.

Spectra are divided into three types:

 Continuous emission spectra – from incandescent, dense bodies (eg the sun)
 Line emission spectra – from incandescent gases at high temperatures and low pressures.
(Since each element has its own characteristic line emission spectrum, such spectra can be
used, like atomic fingerprints, to detect and identify small traces of individual elements.)
 Absorption spectra – formed when a cooler gas absorbs the frequencies it would emit when
incandescent. (The spectrum we receive from the sun is in fact not really continuous – it
contains dark lines, called Fraunhofer lines, indicating the presence of identifiable elements,
such as helium, in the colder outer atmosphere of the sun.)

Chromatic aberration: Unless it is specially coated (as is the case in high quality optical
instruments), a lens will form an image with coloured fringes, due to
the differing refractive indices of the different colours of light.

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 A prism separates white light into spectral colours because

A light waves of different frequencies move at different speeds in material media

B constructive interference causes first and second order images
C the frequencies of the colours change on entering the prism
D the degree of refraction is independent of wavelength

1.2 A red object viewed in green light will appear

A yellow B magenta C black D white

1.3 White light shone through a green filter and onto a blue screen will appear

A green B cyan C blue D black

1.4 With respect to lenses, the statement

"The focal length for red light is longer than that for blue light" ...

A is always true
B is always false
C is true for convex lenses only
D is true for concave lenses only
THE NATURE OF LIGHT

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: propagating medium, amplitude, wavelength, period, frequency, transverse
and longitudinal waves, phase, coherent sources, constructive and destructive interference,
path difference, diffraction, wave front, photoelectric effect, threshold frequency, work function.
 State the principle of superposition.
 Perform numerical calculations using: f = 1/T; the wave equation, v = f.; n. = d.sin (ie
determine the wavelength of spectral lines from empirical data gathered using a diffraction
grating); h.f = W + Ek.
 Discuss briefly Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect.
 List the various pieces of evidence which indicate that light  has a wave nature
 has a particle nature

Historical: 400 BC "active" sight

1600 Newton corpuscles
1680 Huygens wave fronts (explained refraction)
position of light in electromagnetic spectrum
1905 Einstein photons (explained photoelectric effect)
? ? unified field theory

WAVES

v
Terminology: propagating medium;  amplitude
amplitude; wavelength;
period; frequency; transverse
and longitudinal waves; A B C
particles which are in or out of
phase.

The sketch shows a transverse wave – one in which the displacement of the medium is at right
angles to the wave's direction of travel, as in the case of ripples on water. (In longitudinal waves,
such as sound waves, the medium is displaced parallel to the direction of travel.)

Particles A and C are said to be in phase (since they are executing exactly the same motion at the
same time), whereas particles A and B are out of phase with each other by a full 180°.

The relationship between the speed of a wave, v, its wavelength, , and its frequency, f, is given by
the wave equation:

v  f .

Eg: A radio wave has a frequency of 108 Hz. Calculate its wavelength in metres.

79
80 THE NATURE OF LIGHT

Interference: The principle of superposition states that the amplitude at any one point in a
medium, at any one time, is the algebraic sum of all the amplitudes of all the waves
passing through that point at that time.

Two, coherent sources transmitting through the same medium will give rise to interference
patterns – patterns formed by alternating areas of constructive and destructive interference.

The difference in the distances from a point in the medium to the two sources is known as the path
difference at that point. When the path difference = odd number of ½ wavelengths, destructive
interference occurs; when the path difference = even number of ½ wavelengths, constructive
interference occurs.

Since only waves, and not particles, can interfere destructively with each other, interference
provides a reliable test for the wave nature of a particular transmission.

Diffraction: The spreading out of wave fronts into the shadow region behind an obstacle
depends on the wavelength of the waves and the width of the slit in the obstacle.

diffraction  


The two sides of a slit can be seen as two separate sources of further wave fronts (Huygens’ wave
theory). These sources then give rise to an interference pattern.

The effect of differing wavelengths can be seen by observing the difference in the patterns formed
from monochromatic red and blue light. Since differing degrees of diffraction separates the colours,
a succession of slits close together (d metres apart from each other), called a diffraction grating,
can be used to observe and analyse spectra.

The spectral pattern is repeated several times on either side of the mid-line. The spectrum closest
to the mid-line is called the 1st order spectrum (n = 1), and so on.

spectral line


light source

The wavelength, , of the observed spectral line can then be determined using

n.  d .sin

Eg: When the diffraction grating in the diagram above is situated half a metre from the light
source, the spectral line (in the first order spectrum) is found to be 174 mm away from the
central source. If the grating has 500 000 lines per metre, calculate the wavelength of the
spectral line in nanometres.
THE NATURE OF LIGHT 81

LIGHT AS A WAVE

Young's experiment: Thomas Young (1801, UK) performed an experiment which proved
conclusively that light had a wave nature.

In his famous double-slit experiment he passed sunlight through two narrow, very closely situated
slits and allowed it to fall on a screen. Instead of just two bright lines on the screen, Young
observed a whole series of bright lines:

In other words, he had demonstrated interference patterns produced by visible light – patterns
obtainable only from waves.

Young was also responsible for determining the wavelengths of visible light, thereby showing that it
was wavelength which determined the colour of the light (although the idea had in fact first been put
forward by Francesco Grimaldi in 1665).

Related phenomena: The characteristic colours

formed on a patch of oil on a
wet road, or the surface of a
soap bubble are formed by air
interference between the light
oil
reflecting off the upper and
lower surfaces of the film.

Because of differing refractive indices, different colours will have different path length differences
and therefore only one colour (as viewed from any one angle) will experience constructive
interference, and appear brighter.

Lens coatings: Reflection from the many optical boundaries in a high quality camera lens leads to
both a reduction in light intensity on the film and ghost images.

Since the amount of reflection at a boundary depends on the difference in the refractive indices of
the two media, by coating glass lenses with a thin film of material whose refractive index lies half
way between that of glass and air, reflection can be minimised.

Only one colour’s reflection can be effectively reduced by any one coating, so the film thickness is
usually set for yellow, which is roughly in the middle of the spectrum. The reflection which does
then take place is from the two end of the spectrum colours: red and violet and this is what gives
high quality lens coatings their purple appearance.

LIGHT AS A PARTICLE
82 THE NATURE OF LIGHT

The photoelectric effect: The wave theory of light cannot be used to explain the
photoelectric effect.

Einstein extended Planck's quantum hypothesis to

photons photoelectrons
light, calling the quanta (or packets) of light energy
hf Ek
photons.

With the aid of his photon theory he developed the

following formula: metal surface W

h. f  W  E k

energy of work function Ek of photoelectrons

photon of the metal

The formula correctly predicts Millikan's empirical photoelectric effect results:

 Increasing the intensity of the incident light  more photons reach the metal  more
photoelectrons will be emitted per second (with same kinetic energy as before).
 Increasing the frequency of the incident light  same number of photons, but each carries
more energy  photoelectrons will have higher kinetic energies.
 The frequency of the incident light must first exceed the threshold frequency (= W/h) of the
metal before any photoelectrons will be emitted.

Eg: Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted from a tungsten
surface with a work function of 7,36  10-19 J when it is illuminated by ultraviolet light of
wavelength 200 nm.

So what is light??! In our current logic, light appears to have two, mutually exclusive natures,
depending on the way we look at it.

If we treat it as a wave, light behaves like a wave, but when we perform other experiments designed
to prove its particle nature, the experiments prove just that – that it does behave as if it consists of
particles!

How can it be both at the same time?

It appears that we cannot be objective observers of our universe; our observations interfere with the
very nature of reality. Or perhaps the answer lies in a different logic system altogether. Perhaps
we need to have evolved to be able to think in four (or more), not just three dimensions before we
can get a clearer, or more complete picture of what light really is.
THE NATURE OF LIGHT TUTORIAL 83

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 The wavelength of a transverse wave is the distance between

A a crest and the next trough

B two successive points in phase
C any two points of maximum displacement
D two successive points of zero displacement

1.2 Which of the following phenomena associated with light can be explained only by the principle of
superposition?

A refraction
B polarisation
C diffraction
D interference

1.3 Which of the following colours will be diffracted the MOST?

A red B green C blue D violet

1.4 Waves with a wavelength of 2 m are produced at a rate of 50 Hz. The time it takes three of these
waves to travel 500 m is

A 5s B 10 s C 15 s D 20 s

1.5 An electromagnetic wave is transmitted at a frequency of 108 Hz. Its wavelength is

A 0,03 m B 3m C 30 m D 300 m

1.6 Monochromatic red light from a given source passes through a double slit and falls on a white
screen. The pattern formed on the screen consists of

A alternating red and dark bands

B alternating red and white bands
C two narrow bands of red light separated by a white band
D a wide central red band flanked by alternating narrow dark and red bands

1.7 Which of the following properties of light provides the best evidence of light's being a form of wave
motion?

A Light can travel through a vacuum.

B Light travels at 3 x 108 m/s in free space.
C Light is diffracted after passing through a narrow slit.
D White light can be dispersed into a number of different colours.

1.8 The colour of light which has the largest quantum of energy is

A red B green C yellow D violet

1.9 The energy of a photon of light with a wavelength of 500 nm is

A 3,3 x 10-40 J B 3,3 x 10-38 J C 3,3 x 10-31 J D 3,96 x 10-19 J

84 TUTORIAL THE NATURE OF LIGHT

1.10 When the cathode of a photoelectric cell is illuminated with yellow light, the current in the external
circuit connected to it is found to be zero. Which of the following procedures is most likely to
produce a current through the cell: Illuminating the cathode with

A red light of suitable intensity

B blue light of suitable intensity
C yellow light of much higher intensity
D yellow light for a longer period of time

1.11 Light with a frequency of 7 x 1014 Hz is shone on a metal which has a work function of 5 x 10-19 J.
The kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons will be

A 4,6 x 10-19 J B 3,8 x 10-20 J C –3,8 x 10-20 J D 0J

EXERCISES

2. Waves passing through a gap in an obstruction spread out on the far side.
2.1 What is this phenomenon called?
2.2 Use a sketch to illustrate this phenomenon at a single slit.
2.3 State two ways in which the amount of spreading out may be increased.

3. Calculate the first order angle for 500 nm light using a grating with 10 000 lines/cm.

4. Monochromatic light falls normally on a diffraction grating ruled with 4 000 lines/cm, and the second
order image is diffracted 34° from the normal. Calculate the wavelength of the light.

5. Electromagnetic radiation striking the surface of a certain metal causes photoelectrons to be

emitted.
5.1 What property of the radiation determines the rate at which the photoelectrons are emitted?
Explain your answer.
5.2 What property of the radiation determines the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons?
Explain your answer.
5.3 An electron in copper needs a minimum energy of 3,3 x 10-19 J to be released from the copper.
(a) What is this minimum energy called?
(b) What minimum frequency must the incident radiation have in order to release electrons from copper?

6. A certain metal with a work function of 5 x 10-19 J is illuminated with light of wavelength 300 nm.
Calculate:
6.1 the energy of a photon of this light;
6.2 the maximum energy of a photoelectron released by this light;
6.3 the threshold frequency of the metal.

7. The caesium-coated cathode of a photoelectric cell is irradiated in

turn by red and by blue light as shown. Electrons are emitted
from the cathode in both cases.
7.1 Which one of the colours gives rise to photoelectrons with the
greater kinetic energy? Give a reason for your answer. A
7.2 In each case, what would be the effect on the ammeter reading if
very much brighter light were used? Explain your answer briefly.
7.3 Is it possible for a photoelectron ejected by green light to have the same energy as a photon of the
green light? Give a reason for your answer.
TEMPERATURE and EXPANSION

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: temperature, thermal equilibrium, thermometric property, triple point of
water, absolute zero of temperature, coefficient of expansion, thermal stress.
 State: the 0th law of thermodynamics; the standard reference point for the kelvin scale; the
factors which determine the extent of expansion of a solid or a fluid.
 List the three requirements for making a thermometer. List examples of thermometers with
different thermometric properties.
 Perform numerical calculations using: the Celsius-Kelvin conversion (distinguishing carefully
between temperatures and temperature differences);  = oT; V = VoT.

 List several disadvantages and advantages of thermal expansion.

 Discuss briefly some of the implications of the negative value of water’s coefficient of volume
expansion in the range 0°C – 4°C.

TEMPERATURE

Definitions of temperature: 1. Temperature is the sensation of “hot” or “cold”.

2. Temperature is that which can be measured on a
thermometer. [But what does a thermometer measure
other than its own temperature? (See 4 below.)]
3. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy
of the particles of a substance. [This is known as the
statistical mechanical interpretation of temperature (qv).]
4. Temperature is that which determines whether two bodies
are in thermal equilibrium or not.

0th law of thermodynamics:

Two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.

Thermometers: There are three requirements for making a thermometer:

1. A substance with thermometric properties (ie properties which change measurably with a
change in temperature).
Examples:  Liquid-in-tube thermometers
 Resistance thermometers
 Thermocouples
 Constant volume gas thermometers

2. Fixed reference points on a temperature scale.

3. An assumed relationship between the thermometric properties and the temperature.

85
86 TEMPERATURE and EXPANSION

Temperature scales: The standard SI unit for temperature is the kelvin, K, although the
Celsius scale (formerly the centigrade scale) is still widely used in
everyday life (except in the USA where they still use Fahrenheit!).

The standard scale (ie the kelvin scale) is calibrated with reference to the triple point of water, ie,
the temperature at which water, ice and steam coexist in a closed container (at a pressure of 610 Pa).
The triple point of water has been assigned the temperature value of 273,16 K, which conveniently
makes the kelvin exactly the same size as the Celsius degree.

Zero kelvin (0 K) is called the absolute zero of temperature, a temperature which, according to one
statement of the 3rd law of thermodynamics, is unattainable. Ie, there are no negative values on the
kelvin scale.

The Celsius scale is shifted 273,15 K relative to the kelvin scale (ie TC = TK – 273,15) so absolute
zero = -273,15°C and the triple point of water is at 0,01°C. Water freezes at exactly 0°C and boils
at 100°C.

NB: Because 1 C°  1 K, temperature differences on the kelvin scale are identical to temperature
differences on the Celsius scale.

THERMAL EXPANSION

Coefficient of linear expansion: Raising the temperature of a material raises the kinetic
energy of its particles. As the particles vibrate more
vigorously they occupy more space, and the material
expands. Similarly, when cooled, the material contracts.

Consider a rod-shaped object which is subjected to different


temperatures. The amount of expansion (or contraction), , the rod
undergoes depends on…
1. the original length of the rod, o;
o
2. the change in temperature, T;
3. the type of material of which the rod is made.

Hence:
    o T

where , the coefficient of linear expansion, gives an indication of the expansivity of the material.
Its SI unit is the K-1. Technically,  is the mean coefficient of linear expansion and its value is given
at a specific temperature (usually 20°C). However, the extent to which its value varies with
temperature is small enough for us to ignore.

If the new length (rather than simply the extension) needs to be known, we can derive:

 new   o  1   .T 

Eg's:  What length does a 3 m steel rule actually measure at 0°C?

 A shopkeeper uses a brass rule to measure out exactly 10 m of iron wire on a
day when the temperature is 30°C. The customer checks his purchase later at
room temperature (20°C). How much wire has he actually bought?

When a solid object expands every dimension increases in the same proportion. The increase in area
experienced by a flat object can easily be calculated by calculating the increase in each of its linear dimensions.
TEMPERATURE and EXPANSION 87

Coefficient of volume expansion: For volume expansion (the only meaningful expansion
fluids undergo) we make use of a different formula:

V   Vo T

where  is the coefficient of volume expansion. Its SI unit is the same as for : the K-1.

Notes:   ~ 3.
  also varies fractionally (but negligibly) with temperature.
 Gases have larger  values than liquids, which have larger values than solids.
 Water actually has a negative  value in the range 0°C – 4°C!! (Luckily!)

Eg’s:  “Hot air rises.” Why? By what percentage does air's density decrease when its
temperature rises by 150 C°?
 What is water's actual density at 30°C?
 A 60  petrol tank is filled to the brim early in the morning when the temperature is
5°C. How much petrol will overflow if the car is left to stand in the hot sun and the
tank and its contents reach 40°C?

THERMAL STRESS

Thermal stress: If an object is prevented from expanding (or contracting) while it is being
heated (or cooled) it experiences thermal stress.

Such stress can produce enormous forces and needs to be taken into account in all sorts of
engineering situations. It can be either a nuisance (eg the expansion of railway lines and bridge
sections on hot days) or a useful tool (eg the tying of end walls in long houses).

To determine thermal stress (and the associated force, or tension, which develops in the material
experiencing the temperature change) we work as if an extension (or contraction), , does indeed
occur, and then use the formulae for stress and strain on page 46.

Eg: A 12 m steel rod has a diameter of 2 cm. Calculate the tension which
develops in the rod if it cools by 80 C° after its ends have been clamped.

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 An absolute temperature of 100 K is equivalent to

A –173°C B 100°C C 173°C D 373°C

1.2 A brass bar is 1,0 m long at 20°C. At what temperature will it be 1,0 mm shorter?

A 0K B –100°C C –50°C D –30°C

1.3 A platinum bar increases in length by 0,10% when its temperature increases by 111 C°.
Platinum's coefficient of linear expansion, in K-1, is

A 1,1 x 10-6 B 9 x 10-6 C 1,1 x 10-5 D 9 x 10-4

88 TUTORIAL TEMPERATURE and EXPANSION

1.4 A mercury-in-glass thermometer and a platinum resistance thermometer are calibrated linearly
from measurements at the ice and steam points. The two thermometers, then, necessarily agree

A at every temperature
B only at the calibration points
C at the calibration points and one other temperature
D at temperatures midway between the calibration points

EXERCISES

2. Matter can exist in three phases – solid, liquid and gas.

2.1 Which phase expands the most when heated by 1 C°?
2.2 Which phase expands the least when heated by 1 C°?
2.3 Give an example (for each phase) of the usefulness of the expansion caused by heating.
2.4 Give one example where the expansion of a substance is a nuisance.

3. Explain why running hot water over a stuck lid on a jar helps to loosen it. Will this trick work for all
types of screw lid and container?

4. Reinforced concrete contains steel rods embedded in it. With two different materials tied together
like this, why do buildings not buckle during large temperature changes?

5. The concrete spans on a raised freeway are each 100 m long. If the local temperature range is
40 C° what size gap should engineers leave between spans?

6. A steel rod with a diameter of 7,0 mm is 0,316 m long at 20°C.

6.1 By how much does its length increase when it is heated to 150°C?
6.2 How much compressional force is needed to bring the hot rod back to its original length?

7. A brass plug has a diameter of 10,000 cm at 20°C. To what temperature must it be cooled in order
to fit into a hole with a diameter of 9,997 cm?

8. A fitter wishes to place a copper sleeve around a steel rod. At 18°C the copper tube has an inner
diameter of 0,998 cm while the rod’s diameter is exactly 1 cm. To what temperature must he heat
the copper to make it fit around the steel? [Cu = 1,7  10-5 K-1]

9. The largest oil tanker in the world has a deck measuring 458 m by 69 m and an enclosed volume of
1,8  106 m3. As it travels from the wintry North Atlantic (–20°C) to the Persian Gulf (40°C), by how
much do its deck area and volume increase?

10. Calculate the density of petrol at: (a) 0°C (b) 30°C.
If petrol costs R4.00 a litre, what is the cost of a kilogram of petrol at 0°C? What is the cost of a
kilogram of petrol at 30°C? Is it better to buy hot petrol or cold petrol?

11. What is the maximum allowable temperature range for a brass pendulum clock if it is to keep time
to within 1 s a day? If the temperature increases does the clock gain or lose time?

12. A piece of steel floats in mercury with 57,6% of its volume submerged. What percentage of its
volume will be submerged when the temperature is raised by 50 C°?
HEAT

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: heat, heat capacity, specific heat capacity, heat of transformation,
conduction, convection (both natural and forced), radiation, thermal conductivity, temperature
gradient, conductor, insulator, black body.
 State: the 1st law of thermodynamics; the three basic principles of the kinetic molecular
theory of matter.
 Perform numerical calculations using: Q = mcT and C = mc (especially in the context of
the method of mixtures); the formula for the rate of heating by conduction and the formulae
for the rate of heating by radiation.
 Distinguish clearly between heat, temperature, and thermal energy (or internal energy).
 Describe thoroughly the various possible effects (on the kinetic and potential energies of the
internal particles of the material) of transferring energy to a material over a range of
temperatures. Use these effects to explain the mechanisms of heating and phase change.
 Discuss any one or all three of the processes whereby thermal energy is transferred, giving
specific everyday examples, and indicating ways in which such transfer may be improved or
restricted.

HEAT AS ENERGY

Count Rumford (Ben Thompson, 1798, USA) and Sir James Prescott Joule (1840, UK) finally disproved the
caloric fluid theory of heat by showing the equivalence of heat and work.

Joule demonstrated that to raise the temperature of a particular mass of water by a certain amount one can
either supply “heat”, or do work on the water (in such a way that the energy is transferred to the internal
particles rather than to the water as a whole, as he achieved in his famous paddle wheel experiment).

A
is equivalent to

Q  m T w  m T

Once Joule had gone on to demonstrate the equivalence of electrical and chemical energy, the law of
conservation of energy, otherwise known as the first law of thermodynamics, was formulated.

1st law of thermodynamics:

The total energy of an isolated system remains constant.

Note: Since heat is a form of energy, it is measured in joules.

89
90 HEAT

Statistical mechanical model: The kinetic molecular theory states that

1. Matter consists of tiny particles with open spaces between them.

The spaces are vastly bigger than the particles themselves – especially in gases.
The spacing between particles in liquids and solids is approximately the same (neither phase
is really compressible).
2. These particles are in a state of continuous motion.
In the fluid phases [(l) & (g)] particles exhibit both vibrational and translational motion, while in
solids particles can only vibrate about fixed positions.
3. The particles have both potential energy and kinetic energy, known collectively as internal
energy, or thermal energy.
Ep – due to Coulomb forces and the separation of particles from each other (the further apart
they are, the more potential energy they have)
Ek – the average kinetic energy of the particles is taken as a measure of temperature
Note: Since temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles, it is
not dependent on the number of particles present (ie the size of object).

Effects of transferring energy to an object: One of several things may be achieved

by transferring energy to an object:

1. The energy of the object as a whole may be raised. (Eg: lifting it raises its potential energy,
increasing its velocity raises its kinetic energy.) This effect was covered under Dynamics.

2. The internal energy of the object may be increased by…

(a) raising the energy of (some of) its electrons (which usually results in changing the
way light interacts with its surface, that is, in changing its colour.)
(b) raising the kinetic energy of its particles (thereby increasing the temperature and the
size (or sometimes pressure) of the substance as a whole).
(c) raising the potential energy of its particles (thereby changing the phase of the
substance as a whole).
At a certain "point", the energy transferred to the object no longer increases the
kinetic energy of the particles, but their potential energy. At this point the
temperature of the substance remains constant while particles "detach" themselves
from each other – and phase change occurs.

Heat: Consider two bodies at different temperatures. When brought into contact with each other, the
particles in the hotter body lose kinetic energy (ie the temperature of the hotter body drops), while
the particles in the cooler body gain kinetic energy (ie the temperature of the cooler body increases),
until the two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with each other (ie their temperatures are equal).

It is this spontaneous transfer of internal energy from a hot body to a cold body which is called heat.

Notes: 1. The internal energy of the substance is a measure of the Ek and Ep of its particles – not heat!
2. Neither body contains heat. They contain only internal, or thermal energy.
3. Strictly speaking, the term heat is used only in reference to the process of transfer of
energy as it flows from a higher temperature to a lower temperature (perhaps even from
a smaller supply of energy to a larger supply!)
4. Instead of increasing kinetic energy, energy transfer (heat) could cause an increase in
potential energy and a consequent phase change (eg: ice in warm water).
5. Contrary to popular belief, friction does not cause heat – the energy supplied by an
outside force acting against friction simply results in a direct increase in average internal
kinetic energy, ie temperature, (as demonstrated in Joule’s paddle wheel experiment).
HEAT 91

Heat capacities: As Joule demonstrated, several factors affect the amount of heat transferred,
Q, when a body undergoes a temperature change, T, namely the mass of
the body, m, and both the original and final temperatures.

The amount of heat “available” (or “which can occur”) depends also on the nature of the substance
(ie how much internal energy it releases or absorbs when its temperature changes by one degree).

The amount of energy transferred (heat) when the temperature of 1 kg of a substance changes by
1 K (or 1 C°) is called the specific heat capacity, c, of the substance. Thus the amount of heat
gained or lost by a body of mass m when its temperature changes by T is given by:

Q  mc T

Specific heat capacity can be regarded as a measure of how difficult it is to heat or cool the
material. Values differ, not only for different substances, but also for different phases (and even
different temperatures!) of the same substance.

For example: water: c = 4,2 x 103 J/(kg.K)

ice: c = 2,1 x 103 J/(kg.K)

In the case of a specific object, since its mass and the material from which it is made do not
change, it is convenient to calculate (once and for all) the amount of heat absorbed or released by
the object when its temperature changes by 1 K (or 1 C°). This value is called the heat capacity,
C, of the object:

C  cm

Calorimetry: When two substances at different temperatures are mixed together, the principle of
conservation of energy applies (as usual).

That is, the amount of energy lost by the substance which cools is exactly equal to the amount of
energy gained by the material which warms up. This fact can be used to determine unknowns in a
process known as the method of mixtures, using equations based on:

Total heat gained = Total heat lost

Eg’s:  200 g of metal shavings at 90°C is tipped into a calorimeter with a heat capacity of
80 J/K containing 70 m of water at 5°C. The final temperature of the mixture is
22°C. Identify the metal.

 A photographer needs 600 m of water at 20°C in order to process film.

The current temperature of tap water is 24°C and he has a jug of cold water from the
fridge at 4°C. Ignoring heat exchanges with the surroundings and his mixing
container, calculate how much of each he should mix to get exactly 600 m at 20°C.

 As for the previous question. But this time take into account the 100 g glass mixing
container (which is at the same temperature as the tap water).

In the next chapter we shall extend this technique to include cases where substances change
phase during the mixing and energy exchange procedure.
92 HEAT

TRANSFER OF HEAT

Conduction: The transfer of thermal energy as a result of molecular collisions is called conduction.

Free electrons in metals contribute to their having high thermal conductivities, ie to their being
good conductors of thermal energy.

Often our sensation of some materials being warmer than others is simply a false impression
resulting from their lower thermal conductivities. (Consider walking with bare feet on wooden or
carpeted floors as opposed to bare cement or quarry tiled floors in the same house, at the same
temperature.)

Temperature gradient:
Rate of heat flow T  T1  The gradient is uniform only in lagged conductors.
Q
 kA 2  The linear relationship between Q and T (ie T2 – T1) is
t  valid really only for small differences in temperature.

Thermal conductivity:  [W/(m K)]

Thermal conductivity, k
(conductors)  metals Substance
[W/(m K)]
 1 000 x other solids
(insulators) 10 000 x gases Silver 420
Copper 380
(T1 and T2 are the temperatures at either end of the
Aluminium 200
conductor; A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor
Steel 40
through which the energy is conducted;  is the path Glass 0,84
length along which the energy flows, ie the length, or Brick and concrete 0,84
thickness of the conductor.) Water 0,56
Human tissue 0,2
Eg’s:  Calculate the energy lost in 5 hours through a Asbestos 0,16
3,2 mm thick glass window pane measuring Wood 0,08 – 0,16
1,5 m by 3 m if the outside surface is at a Cork and glass wool 0,042
temperature of 15°C and the inside at 17°C.
Down 0,025
 How much energy would be transmitted through Air 0,023
a 10-cm-wide brick wall in the same period?
Assume the inner and outer surfaces are at the same temperatures as above.

On cold days buildings lose vast amounts of energy through their windows, since the glass
(although it has the same thermal conductivity as concrete) is much thinner than the walls. In
countries with extreme outside temperatures, double-glazing is common. The windows have two
panes, separated by an air cavity.

Clothing works very much on the same principle. The material itself is often a fairly good conductor
of thermal energy, but it is woven or knitted in such a way that it traps a layer of air around the
body. It is this air, kept in place by the clothing, and not the clothing itself which keeps us warm.
(Wetsuits perform the same function in water – trapping a small amount of body-warmed liquid .)

Convection: The transfer of thermal energy as a result of the mass movement of fluid particles
from one place to another is called convection.

As fluids become hotter they expand and become less dense. This causes them to rise in the
surrounding cooler, denser fluid. Such a process, known as natural convection, occurs on a large
scale in fires, and on an even larger scale in the atmosphere, where it results in areas of high and
low pressure, thereby causing winds.

Convection ovens and furnaces use fans to speed up heat transfer and to ensure a uniform
temperature throughout the fluid or oven – a process known as forced convection.

The human body’s vital organs depend on forced convection for cooling – the heart pumps blood, which
during its circulation around the body transports thermal energy away from the interior to the skin.
HEAT 93

Radiation: The transfer of thermal energy by electromagnetic radiation is called radiation.

Radiant heat energy, known as infrared, is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic

radiation can travel through a vacuum – fortunately for us! – since this (and not conduction or
convection) is how all our energy reaches us from the sun.

Radiant energy is not readily absorbed by gases, so most of the sun’s energy (in the form of light
and ultraviolet as well as infrared, or heat) penetrates through the atmosphere to the earth’s
surface, where it arrives at the rate of 1 000 W/m2 (when arriving perpendicularly). The atmosphere
is then warmed from the ground up by conduction and convection.

An open-hearth fire warms a room almost solely by radiation, since most of the convectional heat
disappears up the chimney (taking the smoke with it). Such a fire is consequently a very inefficient
way of heating a room.

The rate at which energy is radiated from an object is proportional to both the fourth power of its
Kelvin temperature and its surface area, according to the Stefan-Boltzmann equation:

Q
 e AT 4
t

In the presence of other material, an object not only emits radiation, but it also absorbs radiation
from its surroundings. The net rate of radiation (or absorption) by an object at temperature To in
surroundings of temperature Ts is thus given by:
Temperature of surroundings

Rate of transmission Q
t 
 e A To 4  Ts 4 
-8 2 4
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 5,67 x 10 W/(m .K )
Emissivity:  scale of 0 to 1
(shiny) (matt black)
 The emissivity of human skin averages about 0,7.

Notes:  In these two equations A represents the surface area of the radiating body.
Q
 P
t

Eg: A naked athlete sits in a locker room whose walls are at temperature of 25°C (ie the
room is quite hot). Calculate the net rate at which he radiates energy to his
surroundings if his body has a surface area = 1,6 m2.

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 A body X at a high temperature is in contact with body Y at a low temperature. Study the following
assertions:
I Heat will flow from X to Y until the two bodies have the same internal energy
II Heat will flow from X to Y until the bodies are at the same temperature
III The internal energy of X will decrease, and that of Y will increase until the bodies are at the
same temperature
IV Both bodies will increase their internal energy until they are at the same temperature
The correct assertions are:

A I & II only B II & III only C III & IV only D I, II & III only
94 TUTORIAL HEAT

1.2 To raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C° requires

A 1J B 4,2 J C 42 J D 4 200 J

1.3 460 J are required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of iron by 1 C°. The amount of energy, in
joules, required to raise the temperature of 250 g of iron by 40 C° is

A 460 x 40 x 0,25
B 460 x 250 x 40
C 460 x (40 + 273) x 0,25
D 460 x (273 – 40) x 0,25

1.4 Heat transfer to a solid increases

A the total internal energy of the solid

B the total kinetic energy of the particles
C the total potential energy of the particles
D the average kinetic energy of the particles

1.5 Which of the following substances would require the most heat in order to raise 25 g of it by 7 C°?

A ice B water C petrol D mercury

1.6 30 kg of a liquid at 10°C is mixed with 10 kg of the same liquid at 30°C. The final temperature is

A 15°C B 20°C C 25°C D 30°C

1.7 A metal object feels colder than a wooden one in the same room because

A the metal is a better conductor than the wood

B the wood has more internal energy than the metal
C if the two objects touched heat would flow from the wood to the metal
D there is a bigger temperature difference between the metal and your hand than between the
wood and your hand

1.8 Heat can escape through the high vacuum between the double walls of a vacuum flask because of

A radiation
B convection
C convection and radiation
D conduction and convection

1.9 To be most effective, the liquid used in freezer blocks for coolboxes should have a

A low melting point

B high freezing point
C low specific heat capacity
D high specific heat capacity

1.10 Which of the following is the best way to minimise heat loss due to radiation from an object?

A Paint it matt black.

B Place it in a vacuum.
C Pack it in cotton wool.
D Chrome-plate its surface.
HEAT TUTORIAL 95

EXERCISES

2. Calculate the heat capacity of each of the following:

2.1 a 100 g copper calorimeter;
2.2 a 250 g steel safety belt buckle;
2.3 a 20 cm3 ice cube;
2.4 375 ml of water.

3. Calculate the amount of heat given out in each of the following instances:
3.1 1 kg of glycerol cools from 49°C to 39°C;
3.2 100 g of lead cools from 450 K to 350 K;
3.3 A 250 litre bath cools down from 65°C to 20°C.

4. A 300 g calorimeter has a heat capacity of 273,3 J/K. What is it made of?

5. A thin plastic bag and its contents have a mass of 500 g and a heat capacity of 1 175 J/K. What
liquid is in the bag?

6. After 100 g of solid M, at 640°C, was tipped into 1 kg of water at 20°C, the highest temperature
reached by the mixture was 40°C. Assuming no heat loss to the vessel, determine the specific heat
capacity of M.

7. 20 g of copper shavings was heated to 420 K and then tipped into a 50 g copper calorimeter
containing 200 g of paraffin at 300 K. If the highest temperature reached by the mixture was 302 K,
calculate the specific heat capacity of paraffin.

8. An aluminium calorimeter with a heat capacity of 56 J/K contains 118 g of water at 20°C. A 200 g
block of iron at 75°C is dropped into the calorimeter. Assuming no heat losses to the atmosphere,
determine the highest temperature reached by the mixture.

9. In a replication of Joule's paddle wheel experiment, 250 ml of water are stirred by a paddle attached
to a 500 g mass piece which falls through a distance of 2 m. How many times must this mass drop
to raise the temperature of the water by 5 C°?

10. An iron plate 2 cm thick has a cross sectional area of 0,5 m2. One side is at 150°C and the other
side is at 140°C. Calculate the rate of heat transfer through the plate.

11. A windowpane made of 6 mm glass measures 750 mm by 1 500 mm. How much energy is lost
through the pane each hour when the temperatures of its inside and outside surfaces are 12°C and
15°C respectively?

12. A plate of nickel 0,4 cm thick has a temperature difference of 32 C° between its faces. It transmits
800 kJ per hour through an area of 5 cm2. Calculate the thermal conductivity of nickel.

13. A certain kind of board transmits 3,6 x 105 J per day through an area of 1 m2 when the temperature
gradient is 1 K/cm. How many joules are transmitted per day through a board having dimensions
0,75 x 1,80 m and 4 cm thick, if one face is at 0°C and the other at 18°C?
96 TUTORIAL HEAT

14. Heat is supplied at a steady rate of 10 W to one end of a well insulated cylindrical aluminium bar
with a radius of 20 mm. The other end of the bar is water-cooled. Two temperature probes
100 mm apart along the bar show a difference of 3,8 C°. Calculate the thermal conductivity of
aluminium

15. As a bullet at 27°C hits a wall, half of its kinetic energy is converted into internal energy and the
lead just reaches its melting point as it comes to rest. What speed was the bullet travelling?

16. Explain carefully and fully how the design of a Thermos

flask prevents heat loss from the hot coffee contained in vacuum
the flask.

(Mention all the different kinds of heat transfer.) silvered

surfaces

17. A 240 g copper cube has a surface area of 5,4 x 10-3 m2 and an emissivity of 0,30.
It is heated to 1 000°C and allowed to radiate into its surroundings (which are kept at 20°C).
17.1 Calculate the amount of thermal energy the cube loses to its surroundings while cooling to 20°C.
17.2 How long would it take for the cube to cool to 20°C assuming that it maintained its initial rate of
radiation?
17.3 Why is the assumption in the previous question unrealistic?

18. A fire forms a sphere with a diameter of 10 m and a temperature of 700°C. Assuming ideal black
body radiation, at what distance from the centre of the fire will paper ignite? (Assume that paper
ignites at a radiation intensity of 30 kW/m2.)

19. A fire on one side of a 6,0 mm-thick steel plate with an area of 15 m2 causes that side to have a
temperature of 600°C. The other side of the plate is kept at 55°C by hosing it down with water. If
the temperature of the water in the hose is 20°C and the temperature of the run-off water is 26°C,
calculate:
19.1 the rate at which heat is conducted through the plate;
19.2 the volume flow rate of water (in cubic metres a second) required to keep the cooler side at 55°C;
19.3 the volume flow rate of the water (in litres a second).

20. In an experiment to determine the coefficient of linear

expansion in the laboratory, first cold tap water and A
then steam is passed through a metal tube AB. As
the tube heats up, it expands, and the tip, D, of a
special pointer, CD, moves slowly down the scale to
the point D’.
B D
But after the tube has been heated, if cold water is C
once again passed through the tube, the pointer B’ D’
moves very quickly back up to its original position, D.

Explain carefully why the pointer moves at different speeds during the warming and cooling phases
of the experiment.
PHASE CHANGES

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: melting, freezing, condensation, sublimation, deposition, evaporation,

boiling, closed system, dynamic equilibrium, saturated vapour pressure, triple point,
regelation, critical temperature, vapour, gas, heat of transformation (latent heat), specific
latent heat of fusion, specific latent heat of vaporisation.
 Distinguish carefully between evaporation and boiling, describing in detail the mechanism
behind each process. Describe and explain the effect on the boiling point of a liquid of:
altering the external pressure on the liquid; adding a non-volatile substance to the liquid.
 List the factors which affect the rate of evaporation. Explain why evaporation causes the
remaining liquid to cool down.
 Sketch phase diagrams for water and CO2 and use them to predict and describe the phases
(and changes of phase) of these substances at various temperatures and pressures.
 Predict and describe the changes to the internal energy of a substance up to, during and after
a phase change.
 Perform numerical calculations using Q = m (and the other equations for heat energy),
especially in the context of the method of mixtures.

Phase changes: GAS

boiling / evaporation / vaporisation
deposition condensation
sublimation LIQUID
freezing

melting
SOLID

Evaporation: Evaporation is the escape of particles with above-average kinetic energy from the
surface of a liquid at any temperature.

Since the particles in a fluid are continually colliding with each other, some molecules occasionally
pick up more than the average amount of kinetic energy. If such particles are situated on the surface of
the liquid they can convert this extra energy into potential energy and hence pass into the vapour phase.

Since the escaping particles leave with more than their “fair share” of energy, the average energy of
the remaining particles is lowered, and hence (by definition) the liquid cools.

In an open system, the particles which leave the

surface never return. In a closed system, however, as closed system
soon as a few vapour particles exist, the reverse process, open system
ie condensation, begins to occur simultaneously. As the
number of vapour particles in the space above the liquid
increases, the rate of condensation increases, until
eventually it matches the rate of evaporation. After this,
both processes continue to occur at the same rate, and
macroscopically no further change appears to take place liquid  vapour liquid  vapour
(the level of the liquid no longer drops).
A dynamic equilibrium has been established.

Note: Such dynamic equilibria are established during other phase changes as well, provided the
system is closed.
97
98 PHASE CHANGES

The vapour particles associated with a liquid give rise to a pressure known as the vapour pressure
of the liquid. Once phase equilibrium has been reached, this pressure is at a maximum value
known as saturated vapour pressure. Since the number of vapour particles which can be
supported increases with temperature, the value of a liquid’s saturated vapour pressure varies with
temperature, as illustrated in both the following graph and table. (Note that vapour pressure
obviously also depends on the nature of the substance.)

120 Saturated vapour pressure of water

Sat vap pressure [kPa]

101,3 T [°C] p [Pa] T [°C] p [Pa]

-50 4,0 40 7,37 x 103
80
ethanol -10 2,60 x 102 50 1,23 x 104
60 0 6,11 x 102 60 1,99 x 104
water 5 8,72 x 102 70 3,12 x 104
40
10 1,23 x 103 80 4,73 x 104
20 15 1,71 x 103 90 7,01 x 104
20 2,33 x 103 100 1,01 x 105
0 25 3,17 x 103 120 1,99 x 105
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
30 4,24 x 103 150 4,76 x 105
Temperature [°C]

Several factors affect the rate at which evaporation occurs:

 Temperature: The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of evaporation.
Note, however, that evaporation occurs at all temperatures (even
temperatures close to freezing and boiling).
 Wind: Any wind near the surface of the liquid will help to remove those particles which
have already passed into the vapour phase, making room for others.
 Humidity: If the air above the liquid already contains large numbers of vapour molecules, it
will be more difficult for further molecules to escape from the surface.
 Surface area: The greater the surface area of the liquid, the higher the rate of evaporation.

Boiling: Boiling is the phase change which occurs when the saturated vapour pressure of a liquid has
been raised (by an external source of energy) to equal the external pressure on the liquid.

At this point, bubbles of vapour which form within the liquid (usually near the heat source) are no
longer crushed by the pressure on the surface of the liquid, and instead make their way to the
surface where they cause the familiar disturbance associated with boiling. Note, however, that
boiling is a phenomenon which occurs throughout the liquid.

Only if the external pressure on the liquid is exactly one atmosphere does the boiling occur at a
specific temperature called the standard boiling point of the liquid. Otherwise the temperature at
which boiling occurs varies with atmospheric conditions, and, more particularly, with altitude.
(Atmospheric pressure decreases by 7,6 kPa with every 1 000 m rise in altitude.)

Eg’s:  At what temperature does water boil on the summit of Mount Everest, which has an
altitude of 8 850 m?
 Soft-boiled eggs need to be cooked for 4 minutes in Johannesburg (not 3 minutes, as
in Cape Town) because water boils there as soon as it reaches 96°C. How high is
Johannesburg above sea level?

Adding a non-volatile substance to a liquid raises the boiling point of the liquid. For example, salt
water boils at a higher temperature than pure water. This can be understood by considering
particles at the surface of the liquid. If non-volatile particles “take up room” at the surface, they
hamper the evaporation of the liquid particles, effectively lowering the vapour pressure of the liquid.
This means the liquid has to get hotter before its vapour pressure equals the external pressure.

What effect does the addition of a non-volatile substance have on the melting point of a substance?
PHASE CHANGES 99

Phase diagrams: By plotting boiling point temperatures against pressure, we arrive at a “boiling
line”. If we do the same for the other phase changes, melting and sublimation,
we produce a phase diagram for a particular substance. Two examples are
shown below.

Every point on such a diagram (not just the lines mentioned above) indicates a particular set of
pressure and temperature conditions. The phase of the material under those conditions can easily
be read off the diagram.

The lines represent the points at which phase equilibria occur. The point where the three phase
lines meet represents the conditions under which all three phases exist simultaneously in
equilibrium – the triple point of the material.

The most unusual aspect of water’s

phase diagram is the slope of the Pressure Water
freezing line. Normally substances
contract on freezing and this line
slopes up to the right. 101,3 kPa
L
In the case of H2O, however, it can be S
seen that ice just below 0°C can be 0,6 kPa V
melted simply by increasing the
triple point
pressure on it without changing the
temperature.
0,01°C 100°C
This is what makes ice-skating Temperature
possible. The pressure of the narrow
blade melts the ice directly under the skate. It is this layer of water between the skate and the ice
which provides the near frictionless experience. Once the skate moves on, the pressure is
suddenly reduced and the ice refreezes – a process also known as regelation.

Because carbon dioxide’s triple point

occurs only at a pressure of five Pressure Carbon dioxide
atmospheres, the compound does not
occur as a liquid at normal
atmospheric pressure. At this L
pressure, as the temperature S
increases above 79°C, carbon dioxide 5 atm V G
changes directly from a solid to a gas, triple point
that is, it sublimates.
101,3 kPa
critical temperature
It is for this reason that solid carbon
dioxide is commonly known as “dry –79°C –57°C 31°C
ice”. Temperature

Above a certain temperature, known as the critical temperature for that substance, it becomes
impossible to liquefy a gas by pressure alone. It is this temperature which separates vapours from
gases. A vapour can be liquefied by compression at constant temperature; a gas cannot. Only
gases (not vapours) will obey the gas laws of the next chapter.

Internal energy changes up to, during and after a phase change:

Internal energy of substance
Ek Ep
up to phase change increases very slight increase
during phase change remains constant increases
after phase change increases very slight increase
100 PHASE CHANGES

Heat of transformation: While a substance (which is being heated) is changing phase, the
energy it continues to absorb does not add to the kinetic energy of its
particles, so the temperature of the substance remains constant.

Similarly, when a cooling substance undergoes a change of phase, it continues to emit energy,
even though its temperature remains constant. To an observer watching a thermometer, the
energy absorbed or emitted during phase change appears to go to or come from some “hidden
place”. Hence the expression latent heat – although heat of transformation is a more
scientifically accurate term.

The amount of energy transferred (heat) when 1 kg of a substance melts (or freezes) is called the
specific latent heat of fusion, f, of the substance. Similarly, the amount of energy transferred
when 1 kg of a substance boils (or condenses) is called the specific latent heat of vaporisation,
v, of the substance.

Q  m 

Eg’s:  Explain why steam at 100°C inflicts a more severe burn than boiling water at the
same temperature. (Consider the amount of energy released by 20 g of each,
assuming that the final temperature reached in each case is 60°C.)
 A copper calorimeter with a heat capacity of 70 J/K contains 600 g of water at
20°C. Steam at 100°C is bubbled through the water. After a while, the mass of
water in the calorimeter has increased by 10 g, and the temperature is 30°C.
Use this information to calculate the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water.

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 A liquid will always boil when

A it is suddenly compressed
B it reaches atmospheric pressure
C bubbles of air start to form in it
D its vapour pressure is equal to the pressure on its surface

1.2 Two beakers contain distilled water and sea water respectively. The two beakers are heated on
the same hotplate. If both liquids are boiling

A they are both at the same temperature

B the sea water has the lower vapour pressure
C the distilled water has the lower vapour pressure
D the vapour pressures of the two liquids are equal

1.3 The boiling point of ethanol is lower than that of water at 101,3 kPa because

A ethanol is less volatile than water

B ethanol has stronger intermolecular forces
C water has a higher vapour pressure than ethanol
D ethanol has a higher vapour pressure than water

1.4 Which, if either, of the following statements is true?

I Heat energy can be transferred to water without the water's temperature increasing.
II The temperature of water can increase without the addition of any heat energy.

A I only B II only C I & II D neither

PHASE CHANGES TUTORIAL 101

1.5 The normal boiling points of mercury, water and alcohol are respectively 357°C, 100°C and 80°C.
At 40°C the vapour pressure(s) of

A mercury is greater than the vapour pressure of water

B water is greater than the vapour pressure of alcohol
C both alcohol and water are greater than the vapour pressure of mercury
D mercury, water and alcohol are identical

1.6 The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 333 kJ/kg. The quantity of energy needed to change 200
g of ice to the liquid phase is

A 6,66 kJ B 66,6 kJ C 333 kJ D 1 655 kJ

1.7 The freezing point of water is 0°C. Its melting point is

A slightly less than 0°C

B 0°C
C slightly more than 0°C
D 273,0 K

1.8 When a vapour condenses into a liquid,

A it emits energy
B it absorbs energy
C its temperature rises
D its temperature drops

EXERCISES

2. Explain the error in each statement:

2.1 "When a substance is heated, its temperature will always rise."
2.2 "Friction causes heat."

3. State the differences (in tabular form) between…

3.1 boiling and evaporation;
3.2 a gas and a vapour.

4. State three factors which will increase the rate of evaporation of a liquid.

5. Calculate the amount of energy released when 50 g of steam at 130°C is cooled until it is
completely frozen. [csteam = 2 010 J/(kg K)]

6. 700 g of a metal at 314°C is tipped into a calorimeter (heat capacity 80 J/K) containing 100 g of
water and 40 g of ice at 0°C. The final temperature of the mixture is 20°C. Calculate the specific
heat capacity of the metal. What metal is it?

7. An aluminium kettle of mass 0,5 kg and fitted with a 2,6 kW heating element contains 1,7 litres of
water at 10°C.
7.1 How long does this kettle take to boil?
7.2 How long after starting to boil would it boil dry?
102 TUTORIAL PHASE CHANGES

8. A bullet at 27°C, travelling at 506 m/s, hits a steel plate and converts half of its kinetic energy into
internal energy, melting completely as it comes to rest. Use this information to calculate lead's
specific latent heat of fusion.

9. A copper calorimeter with a heat capacity of 30 J/K contains exactly 300 g of alcohol at 60°C. After
75 g of ice at 0°C are added to the calorimeter the mixture reaches a final temperature of 18,8°C.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of alcohol.

10. 130 g of water at 20°C are poured over a 200 g block of metal at 126°C. Some steam is formed,
but the rest of the water and the block finally reach a temperature of 26°C. If 1,71 g of the water
was converted to steam…
10.1 calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal;
10.2 identify the metal.

11. An ice-making plant working round the clock produces 50 000 kg of ice per day at –10°C from water
at 15°C. Assuming no losses, what is the daily refrigeration capacity of the plant in kW h?

12. The following experimental data were obtained during an experiment to determine the specific
latent heat of fusion of ice:
mass of copper calorimeter 75 g
mass of calorimeter + water 131 g
mass of calorimeter + water + ice 145 g
initial temperature of water 30°C
initial temperature of dried ice 0°C
final temperature of mixture 10°C
Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.

13. Use the answer from the previous question to determine the amount of heat absorbed by a
refrigerator in making 2 kg of ice from 15°C tap water.

14. Calculate the specific latent heat of vaporisation for water from the following experimental data:
mass of copper calorimeter 77 g
mass of calorimeter + water 131 g
mass of calorimeter + water + steam 133 g
initial temperature of water 10°C
initial temperature of steam 100°C
final temperature of mixture 30°C

15. A coolbox containing ice at 0°C is made with thin plastic double walls 3 cm apart (the cavity being
filled with air). The effective area of all the walls is 1 m2 and the outside temperature is 25°C.
Calculate:
15.1 the rate of flow of heat into the box;
15.2 the mass of ice which will melt inside the box in an hour.

16. A pond has a 5 cm thick layer of ice on it on a day when the air temperature is –10°C. Assuming
the water in the pond to be in contact with the ice, how long would it take for the ice to thicken by
1 mm? [Thermal conductivity of ice, k = 2,0 W/(m K)]
GASES

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: absolute zero of temperature, standard temperature and pressure (STP),
ideal gas, real gas.
 State: Boyle’s law (in words and mathematically), Charles’ law (mathematically only), Gay-
Lussac's law (mathematically only). Sketch graphs illustrating each of these relationships.
 Perform numerical calculations using pV = nRT (and variations thereof).
 Discuss the differences between ideal and real gases, stating the conditions under which real
gases behave approximately like ideal gases. Sketch graphs to illustrate the deviation of real
gases from ideal gas behaviour.

Boyle's law: Consider a bicycle pump. If you close off the nozzle with a finger and push the
handle in, the air in the pump is compressed, occupying a smaller volume. If you
release the pressure, the volume increases once more (ie the handle moves out).

Boyle's law:
The volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure exerted on it, provided the temperature remains constant.

Mathematically,
V  1
p
Graphically,
p p pV
or … or …

1
V /V p

Charles' law: The thermal expansivity of all gases is the same:  = 3,66 x 10-3 K-1.
Ie when heated, they expand by 1/273 of their original volume for each C° rise in
temperature.
V
If we assume a linear relationship 100
1 273
and extrapolate to the left we arrive
at the absolute zero of
temperature.

–273,15°C 0°C 100°C T

So, according to our definition, for a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, on the kelvin scale,

V T

103
104 GASES

Gay-Lussac's law: If we enclose a gas in a rigid container (ie the volume is kept constant),
raising the (kelvin) temperature of the gas causes its pressure to rise
proportionately.
p
Mathematically, Graphically,
pT

The ideal gas law: Combining the above relationships (for a particular mass of gas) we get pV  T.
Generalising for any mass, we write pV  mT, but in this case the constant we
would have to introduce to construct an equation would vary from gas to gas.

So instead, since p, V and T are determined by the number of molecules, we work with the number
of moles of gas molecules, n, instead of the mass, m. Ie pV  nT. Introducing a constant we get

pV  nRT

where R is the universal gas constant, or molar gas constant, 8,314 J/(mol K).

Eg: Calculate the number of moles of air in this venue.

pV
For a fixed mass of gas nR is constant, which means that /T is constant, from which we derive
the useful formula
p1V1 p V
 2 2
T1 T2

STP: Since the volume of a gas (and hence its density, the temperature at which it liquefies etc) varies
with pressure and temperature, it is useful to define a standard temperature and pressure (STP)…

standard temperature 273,15 K 0°C

standard pressure 1,013 x 105 Pa 1 atm, or 1 bar ( 105 Pa)

Real gases: All the above laws and formulae apply strictly only to ideal gases – that is, gases in
which the molecules do not exert any forces on each other (except during collisions).

However, the laws work reasonably well for real gases – provided that we work within certain limits,
that is, we don’t allow the pressure to get too high or the temperature to drop too close to the
liquefaction point. Remember, the laws do not apply to vapours.

At the low volumes caused by high pressures, p p

the physical presence of real gas molecules
resists further compression, so at high pressures or …
real gases occupy more volume than predicted
by Boyle’s inverse law. (The solid lines in the
adjacent diagrams show how real gases deviate 1
V /V
from ideal gas behaviour, shown in dotted lines.)

At low temperatures, as a result of the molecules’ low kinetic energies, p

the inter-molecular forces between real gas molecules cause the
molecules to start clumping together – ie the gas begins to liquefy.
Fewer particles mean fewer collisions, so the pressure is less than
expected.
T
GASES TUTORIAL 105

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 Which one of the following sketch graphs best represents Boyle's law?
A B C D
1
/p p p p

1
V T /V V

1.2 The pressure on a certain volume of ideal gas is doubled, but the temperature is kept constant.
The average kinetic energy of the gas molecules will

A increase
B be halved
C remain constant
D decrease slightly

1.3 Which of the following temperature increases would cause the pressure of an enclosed gas to
double?

A 0°C to 100°C
B 50°C to 100°C
C 323 K to 373 K
D 320 K to 640 K

1.4 Consider a sample of an ideal gas. Certain changes are made to the system as listed below.
Which of these changes will affect the product p.V for the sample of gas?
I The temperature is raised, with volume kept constant.
II The temperature is raised, with pressure kept constant.
III The pressure is raised, with temperature kept constant.

A II only B III only C I & II only D I, II & III

1.5 A gas has a volume of V cm3 at a certain pressure. The pressure is now doubled while the
temperature is kept constant. The volume of the gas, in cm3, will now be

A ¼V B ½V C 2V D V2

1.6 A gas is at a pressure of P. The gas is now compressed to half its original volume while its
temperature is increased from 100°C to 200°C. The new pressure is now

A 1,58 P B 2P C 2,54 P D 4P

1.7 Steam does not obey Boyle's law because

A it is too hot
B it is actually a liquid
C it is a vapour, not a gas
D it does not have a fixed mass
106 TUTORIAL GASES

EXERCISES

2. Ideal gases are said to obey Boyle's law under all conditions.
2.1 State Boyle's law.
2.2 Draw a rough, but clearly labelled graph to illustrate the law.
2.3 Using a dotted line, indicate on the same graph the deviations a real gas would exhibit.

3. For each of the letters p, V, n, R and T in the equation pV = nRT …

3.1 state what each letter represents;
3.2 write down the standard SI unit in which it is measured.

4. 2,77 dm3 of nitrogen gas are under a pressure of 3 x 105 Pa at a temperature of 227°C. Assuming
ideal gas behaviour, calculate the number of moles of nitrogen present.

5. An ideal gas occupies a volume of 2,5 dm3 at a pressure of 900 Pa and a temperature of 17°C.
5.1 Calculate the volume of the gas at STP.
5.2 How many moles of gas are present?

6. A given mass of nitrogen gas occupies 5 m3 at a pressure of 250 kPa at 27°C. What would be the
volume (in m3) of the gas at 500 kPa and a temperature of 87°C?

7. The density of oxygen at a certain temperature and pressure is 1,20 kg/m3. Calculate the density of
oxygen if the pressure is doubled while the temperature, in kelvins, is trebled.

8. A certain mass of gas occupies a volume of 400 dm3 at 27°C and 150 kPa. The volume of this
quantity of gas is halved while the temperature is changed to 0°C. Under what pressure does the
gas now exist?

9. Calculate the temperature (in °C) to which 50 cm3 of oxygen at 20°C must be raised for its volume
to become 100 cm3, if the pressure remains constant.

10. A 375 ml aerosol can contains 0,031 moles of gas under pressure at room temperature (20°C).
10.1 Explain the customary warning on aerosol spray cans: "... must not be exposed to heat or high
temperature...”.
10.2 Assuming ideal gas behaviour, calculate the pressure exerted by the gas.
10.3 What would be the new pressure if the can were exposed to a temperature of 313°C?

11. A flat motor car tyre is inflated until it contains 20 litres of air at a pressure of 180 kPa and a
temperature of 27°C. After driving from Cape Town to Hermanus, the tyre's pressure and volume
are found to have risen to 185 kPa and 21 litres respectively.
11.1 Calculate the number of moles of gas in the inflated tyre.
11.2 What is the temperature of the tyre when it reaches Hermanus?
11.3 Boyle's law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure, yet both when
the tyre is being inflated and when it is driven to Hermanus both the pressure and the volume
increase together. Is this a contradiction of the law? Explain both cases carefully.

12. Determine the density of nitrogen at STP.

STATIC ELECTRICITY

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: elementary charge, electric field, electric field lines, electric field strength,
test charge, electrical potential energy, potential difference.
 List several types of energy suitable for conversion into electrical energy, naming the device
which performs the conversion in each case.
 Define the volt.
 List the properties of (electric) field lines.
 State: The law of conservation of charge; Coulomb’s law.
 Perform numerical calculations using: Coulomb’s formula; E = F/q = V/s; w = qEs; V = w/q.

ELECTROSTATICS

Electric charge: "Science is unable to offer any explanation regarding the nature of an electric
charge…"
"… but it is able to describe … the properties of matter that is so charged."
– The Penguin Dictionary of Science

Although the term "charge" is still used, understand that no such quantity exists in isolation from
certain particles. Only particles “carry” charge. So for “charge” read "charged particles", or more
specifically electrons and protons – the subatomic particles which carry the two known kinds of
charge, called (arbitrarily) negative charge and positive charge to indicate their “oppositeness”.

Charged particles exert forces, called electrostatic forces, on each other: like charges repel each
other; unlike charges attract each other.

All matter is made up of, inter alia, electrons and protons (arranged in atoms or molecules), but
since these usually occur in equal numbers (and each one carries the same amount of charge),
most matter is electrically neutral. In order to charge material, electrons (which occupy the outer
regions of atoms and molecules and are therefore accessible) must be removed, or extra electrons
must be added.

Elementary charge: The charge on one electron is always the same (and has the same
magnitude as, but opposite sign to, the charge on a proton). This is the
smallest charge possible, and is known as the elementary charge, e.

Robert Millikan (1913, US) determined the magnitude of the elementary charge, e = 1,6 x 10–19 C,
where C stands for the coulomb, which will be defined later, in conjunction with current strength.
Note that 6,25 x 1018 electrons need to be collected together to produce a charge of –1 coulomb!
We commonly work with much smaller units, such as the microcoulomb, C.

107
108 STATIC ELECTRICITY

Separation of charges: All "generation of electricity" involves the separation of electrons from
protons – a process which requires energy.

Typical sources of this energy (and the devices responsible for the conversion) include:
 friction (various static electrical devices)
 heat (thermocouples)
 light (photoelectric cells)
 electromagnetism (generators)
 exothermic chemistry (cells and batteries)

Since it actually consists of charged particles (electrons or protons), “charge” is never consumed or
destroyed. Charged particles (usually electrons) are merely transported from one place, or
material, to another.

Law of conservation of charge:

The net amount of electric charge produced in any process is zero.

Force between charges: Charles Coulomb (C18, France) performed an experiment to

quantify the electrostatic forces between like and unlike charges.
From his observations he deduced …

Coulomb’s law:
The electrostatic force between two charged particles is directly proportional to the
product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between their centres.

From this we derive

q q
F  k 1 22
r

where Coulomb’s constant, k = 9 x 109 N m2/C2.

(Note the similarities between Coulomb’s law and Newton's law of universal gravitation, and their
mathematical representations.)
+3 C +4 C
Eg: Charges of +3 µC, +4 µC and –5 µC are situated
on consecutive corners of a square of side 2 cm.
2 cm
Determine the force on the 4 µC charge.
–5 C

ELECTRIC FIELDS

Electric field: An electric field is a region in which a small (test) charge experiences
a force due to its charge (caused by another charged object, which is
often omitted from the picture in favour its field). (cf a gravitational +
field in which an object with mass experiences a force due to…?)

Michael Faraday conceived of representing fields graphically by means of lines,

which he called field lines. The direction of these field lines is given by the direction –
in which a small, positive, test charge would move, if allowed to do so. The density of
the field lines at various points in the field gives a qualitative indication of the relative
strength of the field at these points.
STATIC ELECTRICITY 109

Electric field strength: Electric field strength is defined as the force per unit (positive) charge
at a given point in an electric field:

E F [N/C]
q

NB: Electric field strength is a vector quantity.

(cf gravitational field strength, which is defined as force per unit mass: g = F/m)

Work done in moving charge in an electric field: Since force has to be used to
move a charged particle in an
electric field, work is done.

From w = Fs and F = qE we derive:

w  qEs

Doing work on a charged particle (by moving it from point A of lower potential energy to point B of
higher potential energy) results in an increase in the (electrical) potential energy of that particle.
There is thus a difference in the amount of electrical potential energy the charge has at B compared
to what it has at A.

As can be seen from the equation above, the amount of work done (the difference in electrical
potential energy) depends also on the magnitude of the charge being moved. By considering the
amount of potential difference per unit of charge (ie one coulomb), we introduce the concept of …

Potential difference: The potential difference (pd or V) between two points is the work done
in moving a unit positive charge from the point of lower potential to the
point of higher potential.

V  w [J/C = volt, V]
q

Defn: The potential difference between two points is 1 volt if 1 J of work is done in
moving 1 C of charge between the points.

Field strength between charged plates:

+ + + + + + + +
Unlike the electric fields around most charged objects, the
field between a pair of oppositely charged parallel metal
plates is quite uniform (except near the edges), as illustrated – – – – – – – –
by the uniformly spaced, parallel lines in the adjacent sketch.

Such uniformity is useful in a number of electronic applications (capacitors, electron guns, etc).

From w = qEs and w = qV we derive V = Es or:

EV [V/m]
s

Eg: Calculate the magnitude of the electrostatic force experienced by a charge of 40 x 10-12 C
placed between two parallel plates, 25 mm apart, when a potential difference of 500 V is
applied across the plates.
110 TUTORIAL STATIC ELECTRICITY

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 Two small, identical objects, a certain distance apart, carry equal charges. The electrostatic force
between them is F newtons. If the charge on each object, as well as the distance between them is
doubled, the new force between them, in newtons, is
F F
A /4 B /2 C F D 4F

1.2 If 30 joules of work is done in moving a charge of 4,5 C between two points in an electric field, the
potential difference between these points is

A 4,5 V B 6,7 V C 25,5 V D 34,5 V

1.3 Two charged oil drops, X and Y, of equal mass are situated in the
vertical space between two charged horizontal plates as shown in the – – – – –
sketch. X is stationary, while Y is moving upwards at constant speed. X Y
The charges are + + + + +

X: Y:
A neutral positive
B positive positive
C neutral negative
D negative negative

EXERCISES

2. Two spheres carrying charges of +3 µC and –5 µC respectively are placed with their centres 4 cm
apart.
2.1 Calculate the electrostatic force between the spheres.
2.2 The spheres are now brought together, touched and replaced 4 cm apart. What is the electrostatic
force between them now?

3. Two small, neutral conducting spheres, A and B, are placed on

insulating stands as shown. 109 electrons are transferred from A to B. A B
3.1 Calculate the charge on… (a) A (b) B.
3.2 If the electrostatic force between the two spheres is 2,56 x 10-9 N,
calculate the distance between their centres.

…2 000 V…
4. Two parallel metal plates, 50 mm apart, have a potential difference of
2 000 V applied across them as shown. A particle Q of mass
4 x 10-10 kg and carrying a charge of –9 x 10–9 C is placed at the
+ –
negative plate and released. Q
+ –
4.1 What is an electric field?
+ 50 mm –
4.2 Sketch the electric field pattern between the plates.
4.3 Electric field strength may be expressed in V/m or in N/C. Show that these units are equivalent.
4.4 Explain why Q accelerates and why the acceleration is uniform.
4.5 Calculate the field strength between the plates.
4.6 Ignoring gravitational forces, calculate the average acceleration of particle Q.

5. Two identically charged spheres are suspended from the same point by 50 cm threads. They repel
each other apart a distance of 60 cm. If the mass of each object is 2 g, calculate the charge on
each sphere.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: electron current, conventional current, conductor, circuit, series
connection, parallel connection, potential difference, current strength, resistance, resistivity,
multiplier, shunt.
 Define the units: ampere, coulomb, ohm.
 State Ohm’s law.
 Describe carefully the nature, mechanism and heating effect of a (direct) electric current in a
metallic conductor.
 List the factors affecting resistance in metallic conductors.
 Interpret and draw circuit diagrams, using the correct symbols for the various components.
Solve problems involving electric circuits with reasonably complex combinations of resistors.
 Perform numerical calculations using: q = It; I = V/R; R =  /A; the formulae for calculating
the combined resistance of resistors in series and parallel; w = VIt and the other formulae
for calculating electrical energy and power. Solve problems involving the cost of electrical
energy, using the kilowatt hour as a unit.
 Describe briefly how a basic galvanometer is modified in order for it to operate as either a
voltmeter (using a multiplier) or an ammeter (using a shunt).

Electric current: Only after Alessandro Volta (1800, Italy) had succeeded in providing a steady
conversion of (chemical) energy to electrical potential energy, was it possible
to set up a long term electric field.

For the first time, charged particles were made to flow steadily in a conductor, rather than just
jump in a flash from one charged object to another. It is this steady flow of charge which is called
an electric current. Note that it is technically incorrect to speak of current flowing – current is a
flow of charged particles.

Three aspects of metallic bonding (between atoms in a metal) explain why most metals are such
excellent electrical conductors:
 Metal atoms have low first ionisation energies. This means there are usually large numbers of
“free” electrons available to move from atom to atom.
 Metal atoms have low valence numbers, which means there are empty “spaces” for electrons
from neighbouring atoms to move into.
 The nuclei of metal atoms are densely packed, which makes it easier for electrons to move
from one atom to another.

In fact, in any metal object, electrons are moving (rapidly) from atom to atom all the time. Since this
movement is random, however, it is not macroscopically evident. Only if we establish a potential
difference across the ends of the metal will we impose a unidirectional drift on top of this random
movement, ie in addition to their rushing around, electrons will gradually move (at about 1 mm/s)
towards the end of the conductor which is at the higher potential. [Why do electrons move towards
the point of higher potential, and not the point of lower potential?]

So in reality, an electric current in a metallic conductor consists of a flow of electrons (called

electron current)… But for historical reasons, and by convention, we regard electric current as a
flow of positive charge from a point of higher potential to a point of lower potential. We refer to this
flow as conventional current. (In gases and conducting liquids, or electrolytes, current consists of
a bi-directional flow of ions – positive cations going in one direction; negative anions in the other.)
111
112 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Electric circuits: For an electric current to occur there must be a complete and unbroken
conducting path, or circuit, between the points of high and low potential.

A circuit may contain many components. The following table lists the minimum requirements, their
circuit diagram symbols and their functions:

Component Symbol Function

Cell 1. "drives" the charge along the conducting path

(terminals) 2. gives energy to each unit of charge

Conducting path provides a path for charged particles to "flow" along (cf insulators)

Resistor 1. impedes the flow of charge

(and various) 2. converts electrical energy carried by charge into other forms

Switch opens and closes the circuit

Series and parallel connections: Components are said to be connected in series with
each other if charge must go through all the
components, one after the other.

When components are connected in parallel with each other, each

charged particle is presented with a choice of paths (ie the circuit
branches). The charge (or rather each unit of charge) passes through 20 
30 
only one branch.

Eg: Which of the components in the adjacent circuit are 6V 18 

connected in series with each other and which are in parallel?

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE, V

Potential difference: The term potential difference can be read as shorthand for “the difference
in the amount of electrical potential energy possessed by one unit of
charge between one point and another”.
(These points usually lie either side of a cell or resistor.)

Notes:  The two points referred to need not be on a conductor; they can be anywhere,
provided that the one is at a higher electrical potential than the other is.
 If there is nothing between the two points, no heat appears when the charge moves
from the one to the other. The charge will still lose potential energy when it begins to
move, but it will move faster and faster (ie it gains Ek).
 The charge which moves can be either positive or negative, but opposite charges will
move in opposite directions between the two points.

multiplier
The voltmeter: To measure the potential difference between two points,
A and B, we use a voltmeter. To make a voltmeter, a
moving coil galvanometer is fitted with a very high
G
V
resistance (called a multiplier) in series with it. A B

The voltmeter is then connected in parallel with the component between points A and B, with the
multiplier ensuring that all the charge passes through the component and not through the voltmeter.
(The voltmeter is not really part of the circuit at all – at least in theory, that is.)
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 113

CURRENT STRENGTH, I

Current strength: The net rate of flow of charge (ie the amount of charge per second) past a
given point in a conductor is called the current strength in the conductor.

Actually, the unit of charge is defined in terms of current strength, as follows:

Defn: The coulomb is the amount of charge passing a given point in a circuit when a
current of 1 ampere is maintained for 1 second.

q  It [A s = C]

The ampere is defined in terms of the electromagnetic force experienced by current carrying wires:

Defn: The ampere is that strength of constant current which, when flowing in each of two
parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible cross-sectional area and situated
1 m apart in a vacuum, produces between them a force of 2 x 10-7 N per metre of their length.

The ammeter: A moving coil galvanometer in fact measures current strength directly, but it is
usually too sensitive to measure everyday current strengths.

So instead we construct an ammeter by fitting a galvanometer with a shunt

very low resistance (called a shunt) in parallel with it.

The ammeter is then connected in series in the circuit, with the shunt
drawing most of the current. Only a known fraction of the charge
A G

actually passes through the galvanometer, whose readout is then

scaled up to give the total current strength.

RESISTANCE, R

Resistance: Georg Ohm (1827, Germany) discovered the direct relationship between the potential
difference between two points on a conductor and the current strength which results.

Ohm's law:
The ratio of the potential difference between the ends of a conductor and the
current strength in the conductor is constant, provided the physical conditions
(eg temperature and phase) remain constant.

Ie V/I = constant. Later, since this ratio is a measure of how difficult it is for charge to flow through a
conductor, the constant was defined as resistance.

RV [V/A = ohm, ] Preferably: I V

I R

Defn: A conductor has a resistance of 1 ohm if a current of 1 A flows through it while

there is a potential difference of 1 V across its ends.

Note: Not all materials obey Ohm's law. Those which don't (typically non-metals) are called non-
Ohmic conductors.
114 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Factors affecting resistance: The ratio of the potential difference and the current strength
remains constant only under specific conditions.

Several factors affect the resistance of a conductor:

 Length (R  . The longer the resistor, the more resistance it offers.)

 Cross-sectional area (R  1/A. The thicker the resistor, the easier it is for current to flow, ie
the less the resistance it offers.)
 Type of material (R  resistivity, , measured in  m. The resistivity of a material provides
a measure of the intrinsic resistance of that material, ie the resistance of a
of a 1 m length with a cross-sectional area of 1 m2.)
 Temperature (Resistance increases in a complex way with temperature – but only for metals.
We shall not investigate this relationship on this course.)

Hence, at constant temperature:

R 
A

Eg: A 500 mm-long piece of wire with a diameter of 1,00 mm has a resistance of 10,7 m.
 Calculate the resistivity of the wire.
 Determine the new resistance of the wire if it is drawn out uniformly until it has a
diameter of 200 m.

Resistors in series: Resistors in series are said to be potential dividers: VT = V1 + V2

Therefore: IRT = Ir1 + Ir2

VT

… and since the current is the same everywhere (in one V1 V2

particular series circuit, that is!): I I I

r1 r2
Rs  r1  r2  r3  

Resistors in parallel: Resistors in parallel are said to be current dividers: IT = I1 + I2

Therefore: V =V +V
RT r1 r2

… and since the potential difference across each resistor is the r1 I1 IT

same as the potential difference across all: r2 I2

1  1 1  1  V
R p r1 r2 r3

Eg: Determine the readings on each of the meters in the A1 A2

adjacent circuit.
30  18 
V
20  6V
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 115

ELECTRICAL ENERGY, w

To maintain a flow of electric current, positive and negative charges must be continuously
separated, ie supplied with (electrical) potential energy. This energy is later "removed" (converted
into other forms) by resistors in the circuit.

Typically, the electrical potential energy of the electrons moving through a metal conductor is given
over as kinetic energy to the metal atoms, as the passing electrons “jostle” the atoms. In other
words, since the average kinetic energy of the metal atoms increases, the metal’s temperature
increases. This is often referred to as the heating effect of an electric current, and is the basis for
everyday appliances such as heaters, stoves and light bulbs.

Note: Energy is the commodity which reaches the consumer from the “electricity” supplier and for
which the consumer pays.

From w = Vq and q = It ...

w  VIt [joule, J]
and V = IR, so …
2
wV t and w  I 2 Rt
R

Eg: A kettle containing 1,7 litres of water at 25°C takes 4 min 30 s to bring the water to the
boil.
 How much current is drawn by the kettle?
 What quantity of charge passes through the kettle in this time?
 If electrical energy costs 35c a kilowatt hour (kW h), how much does it cost to boil the
kettle?

ELECTRICAL POWER, P

Power is the rate of doing work. ie P = w/t so …

P  VI [watt, W]

Eg: How much does it cost to leave a 100 W bulb burning for 8 h?

And from V = IR …
2
PV and P  I 2R
R

(Make sure you know which quantities are being provided or requested and hence which formula is applicable.)

Eg’s:  Kettle A is twice as powerful as kettle B. Which kettle takes longer to boil? Which
costs more to operate? Which draws more current (and how much more)? Which
offers more resistance?

 A geyser is needed to raise the temperature of 200  water from 30°C to 70°C in 2 h
25 min. Assuming the manufacturer guarantees an efficiency of 90%, what power
model should be installed?
116 TUTORIAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 Which of the following arrangements provides an effective resistance of 10 ?

A B C D
5 5 5
5 15  10 
5 5 5 10  10 

1.2 Three 5  resistors all connected in a circuit CANNOT give a combined resistance of

A 1,5  B 3,33  C 7,5  D 15 

1.3 Three identical resistors of 3  each are connected as indicated

in the diagram. The effective resistance between M and N is 3 3

A 2 B 3
M 3 N
C 6 D 9

1.4 In the circuit shown all lamps are of equal

resistance. If ammeter A1 reads 1,5 A, the
reading on A2 will be A1 A2

A 0,5 A B 0,75 A C 1,0 A D 1,5 A

1.5 The reading on the voltmeter in the accompanying circuit is X X

A 0V
2X  V X
B 2V
C 6V
D 12 V 12 V

1.6 Eight identical 1  resistors are connected as shown.

The effective resistance of the combination is

A 0,33 
B 1
C 2,33 
D 8

1.7 An electric light bulb is labelled 12 V; 2 A. When operating correctly

A its resistance is 24 
B the power of the bulb is 6 W
C it should draw more than 6 A
D it consumes 120 J of energy every 5 seconds

1.8 Ignoring any heat losses, kettle K takes twice as long to boil the same amount of water as does
kettle M. If kettle M uses 400 kJ of energy to do the job, kettle K needs, in kJ,

A 200 B 400 C 800 D 1 600

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS TUTORIAL 117

1.9 The electrical energy converted to heat energy in one hour by a 1 kW electric kettle connected to
the 240 V mains is

A 1 x 240 J
B 1 000 x 60 J
C 1 000 x 60 x 60 J
D 1 000 x 60 x 240 J

1.10 A conductor which is carrying a current obeys Ohm's law. The current in the conductor is doubled.
Which of the following is correct with regard to the rate at which energy is dissipated in the
conductor? The rate will be

A doubled
B quadrupled
C quartered
D halved

1.11 Which of the following graphs best represents the relationship between the power rating of a home
appliance and its resistance?
A B C D
P P P P

R R R R

1.12 The resistance of the element of a 220 V electric heater is 1 000 . Another domestic heater,
which has twice the power rating, has a resistance of

A 250  B 500  C 2 000  D 4 000 

EXERCISES

2. You have four 4  resistors. Show with circuit diagrams how to use ALL FOUR of them to make (in
turn) combined resistances of 16 , 4  and 1 .

3. A 3 , 4  and a 7  resistor are connected in parallel.

3.1 Calculate their combined effective resistance.
3.2 Explain why the resistance of resistors connected in parallel is always lower than the lowest
individual resistance.

4. Calculate the potential difference which must be maintained across the ends of a conductor of
resistance 4  so that 48 C of charge will flow through any cross section of it in 6 s.

5. Given the adjacent circuit... V1

5.1 Compare the readings on V1 and V2.
5.2 Calculate the readings on…
5V
5.2.1 A1; 15  7,5  5 V2
5.2.2 A2.
A1 A2
118 TUTORIAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

18 V
6. Determine the reading on each of the meters in the
adjacent circuit diagram.
6 V1 4
A
V2
3

7. Consider the adjacent circuit and complete each of the following statements by using the words
"increases", "decreases" or "stays the same".
7.1 If R1 increases, the potential difference across the battery ...
and the current through R2 ... R3
7.2 If R3 decreases, the potential difference across the parallel R 2
combination ... , the potential difference across R1 ... , and the R1 R4
current through R2 ...

8. 220 V is applied to two different nichrome conductors. One is twice as long and twice as thick as
the other is. What is the ratio of the power transformed in the one relative to the other?

9. What is the operating resistance of a 60 W light bulb? How come the tungsten filament can offer so
much resistance?

10. A 12 V battery is connected to a parallel combination of a S1

A1
4 , 3  and 9  resistor as shown. Two ammeters, a
voltmeter and two switches are included in the circuit. 12 V
3 9
Both switches are initially CLOSED. Calculate:
10.1 the total resistance of the circuit; S2 4 V
10.2 the readings on… (a) ammeter A1; A2
(b) ammeter A2;
(c) the voltmeter;
10.3 the rate of energy dissipation in the 4  resistor. (What is this quantity usually called?)
10.4 the amount of charge which flows through ammeter A1 in one minute.

Switch S2 is now OPENED. Determine the new readings on…

10.5 ammeter A1;
10.6 the voltmeter.

11. In the adjacent circuit, voltmeter V3 reads 5 V. A1

11.1 Determine the readings on the other meters.
11.2 Calculate how much charge passes through the… V1 8
V2
(a) 3  resistor in 30 s; V3 24 
(b) 24  resistor in 5 minutes. A2
2 3
11.3 Calculate the power rating of the 24  resistor.

12. People often make the mistake of connecting an extra pair of loudspeakers to the output terminals
at the back of an amplifier. Explain why this is likely to damage the amplifier. Is there a way to
connect extra speakers safely? What are the disadvantages?

13. Every day a certain household uses a 3,3 kW electric stove for 72 minutes, six 100 W light bulbs for
6 hours each and miscellaneous appliances amounting to 1,6 kW h. The 3 kW hot water cylinder
switches on for a total of 108 minutes during the day. If electricity costs 35 c a kW h, what is the
monthly electricity bill?
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Learning outcomes: At the end of this chapter you should be able to …

 Define the terms: isotopes, radio-isotope, nucleon, radioactivity, nuclear reaction,

transmutation reaction, parent nucleus and daughter nucleus, decay series, activity, decay
constant, half-life, capture reaction, electron-volt, breeder reactor, fission, fusion.
 Write and interpret the correct notation for protons, neutrons, electrons, positrons and alpha
particles, as well as the general notation for nuclear isotopes.
 List, and describe the characteristics of, the three types of radiation associated with
radioactive decay. Illustrate - and -decay graphically on A-Z axes.
 Write balanced nuclear equations, applying the principles of conservation of nucleon number
and charge, in order to illustrate
the processes of - and -decay
the production and decay of 14C
fission and fusion reactions
Identify such equations
 Perform numerical calculations using the radioactive decay law and its various derivatives,
including calculations concerning the activity of a sample. Describe the process of
radioactive dating, using 14C dating as an example. Perform calculations involving half-life
(particularly the half-life of 14C, in order to determine the age of organic samples).
 List several devices suitable for detecting radiation, describing briefly the basic mechanism
involved in each.
 List several uses of man-made radio-isotopes.
 Describe and explain the biological dangers of nuclear radiation.
 Perform numerical calculations using Einstein’s mass and energy equation, using both the
joule and the electron-volt as units of energy.
 Describe the processes of fission and fusion and discuss briefly the advantages and
disadvantages of each.

Particle notation: 1 1n 0e 0e 4 He
p 0 1 1 2
1

proton neutron electron positron alpha particle

Nuclear stability: Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same A
ZX
atomic number (Z) (and therefore the same chemical properties),
but different mass numbers (A) (because of different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei).

Some isotopes are more stable than others. Nuclear instability seems to be as a result of an
imbalance between the number of protons and the number of neutrons present in a given nucleus.

This instability can occur naturally (for example, elements with Z > 82, 40K and a few others), or as
a result of deliberately adding neutrons to the nuclei of stable isotopes, thereby creating radio-
isotopes.

119
120 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Radioactivity: The instability of the nucleus implies there is excess energy present which will
sooner or later be released (in the form of radiation).

Defn: Radioactivity is the "decay" or disintegration of nuclei, with the emission of "radiation"
(of which there are three types).

Three types of radiation:

Radiation   
What it is 4 He 0e
2 1
vhf e-m radiation

Electric charge 2+ 1– nil

Mass 4 amu 1 nil
th amu
1 850

Relative penetrating power 1 100 10 000

Decay types:

-decay

238 234 4
eg: U  Th  He
92 90 2
parent daughter alpha particle

(a transmutation reaction)

-decay 214
A
212
eg: 212
Bi  212 Po  0 e
83 84 1
210

82 83 84
Z
-decay ( radiation)

Occurs along with - and -decay to further lower the energy of the nucleus.

eg: 212 Bi  212 Po  0 e  

83 84 1

Decay series:
NUCLEAR PHYSICS 121

Activity: While the progress of each nucleus follows a completely unpredictable time schedule,
statistically we can determine how many nuclei in a sample are likely to decay in unit time,
that is, we can determine the activity of the sample.

The activity of a sample is proportional to the number of nuclei present (N). To make an equation,
we introduce a constant  called the decay constant, and we have:

N    N
t [decay/second = becquerel, Bq]

The negative sign indicates that the number of nuclei is getting smaller. (Once a particular parent
nucleus has decayed into its daughter it cannot do it again.) The decay constant varies from
material to material. The larger it is the more active, that is, the more radioactive the material is.

Solving this equation for N we get,

N  N oe  t the radioactive decay law

where No represents the original number of nuclei

present in the sample and e is the natural
exponential whose value is e = 2,718….

The number of parent nuclei present in a sample

decreases exponentially with time as shown in the
accompanying graph for a sample of 14C, whose
half-life is 5 730 years.

Since activity is dependent on the number of nuclei present, it too decreases exponentially with
time according to a similar equation:

A  Aoe  t

If we have to solve for t (the time it takes for the number of nuclei to decrease from No to N, or the
time it takes for the activity to decrease from Ao to A) we take natural logs on both sides of either of
the above equations and derive:

ln N  ln N o   t or ln A  ln Ao   t

Half-life: The rate of decay of an isotope is more usually expressed in terms of its half-life.

Defn: The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for one half of the original material to decay.

If we substitute N = ½No into the previous equation, t becomes T1/2 (the half-life of the material) and
we get:

0,693
T1/ 2 


Values for T1/2 vary considerably: from 10-22 s to 1028 s (ie 1021 years).

Eg: A laboratory prepares a 6 g sample of 13N (T1/2 = 600 s).

1. Calculate the initial activity of the sample.
2. How long will it take for its activity to drop to less than 106 Bq?
122 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Radioactive dating: By measuring the current activity of a sample it is possible to determine

the number of parent nuclei still present in the sample. By comparing this
number with the number of daughter nuclei present the age of the sample
can be determined.

Cosmic rays striking the upper atmosphere provide neutrons, which in turn produce the radioactive
14
C isotope according to the reaction:
14
7
N  01n  157 N  146 C  11H

Although this isotope makes up only an extremely small fraction of all carbon (1,3  10-10 %), it is
chemically indistinguishable from “ordinary” carbon, so it forms CO2 in the normal way and is
eventually ingested by all living organisms as part of their normal dietary carbon intake.

14
Being radioactive, 14C undergoes -decay according to the equation: 6
C 147 N  0
1
e

The organism maintains its levels of 14C (by eating) – until it dies, after which its 14C-to-12C ratio
starts to drop. After 5 730 years only half of the original amount of 14C remains. After another
5 730 years only a quarter (½)2 remains … and so on. By measuring activity levels and
determining how many half-lives have elapsed, archaeologists can calculate how long ago the
organism stopped ingesting fresh 14C.

After about 60 000 years 14C levels are too small to detect, and other isotopes with longer half-lives
238
(such as 92
U, found in the rocks surrounding fossils) are measured instead.

Eg: How many 14C nuclei are still present in a sample with an activity of 3,83  1010 Bq? If
the sample originally contained 8,00  1022 14C nuclei, how old is it?

Radiation detectors: The majority of detectors make use of the fact that radiation ionises the
material through which it passes.

Photographic emulsions: The track of ionisation shows up when the emulsion is developed.

Electroscope: The leaves on a charged electroscope fall as ions neutralise the top plate.

Geiger-Müller tube: The potential difference between the central wire and the outer tube (103 V) is
just insufficient to ionise the gas in the tube. Incoming radiation, however, produces several
ions. The electrons freed in the process accelerate towards the wire electrode, causing an
avalanche of further ions and electrons along the way.

The arrival of this swarm of electrons at the wire

(a) causes a pulse at the counter and
(b) drops the potential between the wire and the tube, thereby switching off the avalanche and
resetting the device.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS 123

Scintillation counter: Radiation striking an atom in the scintillation crystal (scintillator) produces
photons. Each such photon which strikes the photocathode produces, in turn, a photoelectron
which is then accelerated towards the first of several dynodes in the photomultiplier tube. The
avalanche process which follows ensures a readably large signal being sent to the counter.

Semiconductor detector: Radiation passing through a reverse biassed diode forms ions which
allow for a brief period of conductivity. In other words, a pulse is sent to a counter.

Bubble chamber: Bubbles form around the track of ions caused by radiation passing through a
superheated liquid (ie a liquid above its boiling point) and show up well under side-lighting.
Earlier cloud chambers, which depended on droplets forming in a supercooled vapour (like jet
trails), were less effective owing to the low density of material.

Radio-isotopes: Bombarding otherwise stable nuclei with high energy subatomic projectiles
(accelerated in devices called accelerators, cyclotrons or betatrons) excites
these target nuclei and often creates radioactive isotopes, known as radio-
isotopes, in so-called “capture reactions“.

Suitable projectiles include -particles and -particles, as well as protons, electrons and neutrons.
(Neutrons are particularly suitable since their lack of charge enables them to approach nuclei
without being deflected.)

Examples: The first artificial transmutation (Rutherford, 1919):

14
N  4
He  17
O  1H
7 2 8 1

The discovery of the neutron (Chadwick, 1932):

9 Be  4 He  12 C  1n
4 2 6 0

Production of plutonium fuel in a breeder reactor such as Koeberg:

238 U  1n  239 Np  0 e  239 Pu  2 0 e
92 0 93 1 94 1
124 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Uses of radio-isotopes: The uses of radio-isotopes (such as those produced at the National
Accelerator Centre at Faure) depend on their several useful properties:
1. They have the same chemical properties as the stable isotopes (so they behave the same
way, are absorbed the same way, etc), but they can be traced.
2. Decay produces radiation and particles with useful effects and known penetrative abilities.

Radio-isotopes are used for:

Tracers: For the detection of leaks; the measurement of rates of biological
absorption and flow; automatic switching in pipe lines, etc.
Gauging: To measure the thicknesses of extremely thin or inaccessible
materials;
to determine the densities of fluids (eg fruit juices, milk).
Cell destruction: For sterilisation, pest control, cancer treatment etc.
Man-made fuels: Breeder reactors produce more fissionable material
than they consume!

Ionisation effects: All ionising radiations (including X-rays) are dangerous as far as living
tissue is concerned. (Ionisation disrupts normal cellular activity, leading to
cell death or genetic mutation.)

The lethal dose (for humans) is 500 rem (roentgen man equivalent) absorbed over a “reasonably
short” period. (A roentgen is the amount of radiation which will cause a charge of +1 or –1 in 1 cm3
of dry air.) For genetic effects, the absorption time is immaterial.

Lethal doses for other organisms vary considerably: cows 180, insects between 2 000 and
100 000 rem.

"Background" radiation levels

sun 30 mrem
earth 90 (but up to 12 000!!)
humans 22
television 10
Koeberg (at fence) 10

Energy from nuclei: Accurate measurements of relative atomic masses in (for example) the
fission reaction below bear out Einstein's prediction:

E  mc 2

In this way, each atom produces about one million times more energy than in a normal chemical
reaction.

Energy units: The energies associated with individual nuclear particles are extremely small and
the joule becomes cumbersome, so instead we use the electron-volt.

Defn: The electron-volt (eV) is the energy an electron has after it has been accelerated
through a potential difference of 1 V.

1 eV = 1,6 x 10-19 J
NUCLEAR PHYSICS 125

Fission: 235
92 U  01n  141
56 Ba 
92
36 Kr 
 3 01n  E = mc 2  [200 MeV]

The process: 1 nº  3 nº is the essence of the chain reaction.

235
U forms only 0,7% of naturally occurring uranium, so enrichment is necessary (to increase
the percentage to 3,25%).

The basic design of a fission reactor, such as Koeberg, is shown.

The major problem with fission reactors in general and breeder reactors in particular (aside from
the issue of operating safety) is the storage of radioactive waste. The containing and burying of
nuclear material (at Vaalputs in this country) is only a short-term solution. Long-term solutions
have yet to be found.

Fusion: Fusion is a much "cleaner" reaction, since it produces no radioactive material. Moreover, the
reaction produces more energy than fission.

The difficulty at present is that fusion occurs only at incredibly high pressures as well as a
temperature of about 108 ºC. On earth such conditions are available only inside a fission
reaction – "cold" fusion is not yet a commercial reality.

Under the specified conditions, ionised deuterium atoms (deuterons) co-exist with their
unbonded electrons in a plasma and collide with each other, fusing and forming helium:
2
1H  21H  32 He  01n  E 3,27 MeV

The fusion process which drives the sun, known as the proton-proton cycle, is even more efficient:
1
1H  11H  21H  e    0,42 MeV
1
1H  21H  32 He   5,49 MeV
3
2H  32 He  42 He  11H  11H 12,86 MeV

Eg: The sun’s mass is about 2,0  1030 kg and its radius is 6,96  108 m. If its surface
temperature is 5 800 K, calculate
 the radiant power of the sun
 the amount of mass it loses every second
 how long it will continue to shine at this rate
126 TUTORIAL NUCLEAR PHYSICS

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.1 The number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of Ba-137 is

A 56 B 81 C 137 D 193

1.2 Which of the following types of radiation has the greatest penetrative power?

A alpha particles B beta particles C gamma rays D X rays

1.3 The product of the gamma decay of the aluminium isotope 27 Al is

13
27 26 Al 27 Al 27
A 12
Mg B 13
C 13
D 14
Si

1.4 When 213Bi decays into 213Po, it emits

A an alpha particle B a beta particle C a gamma ray D a proton

1.5 Radioactive polonium 214 Po decays by the emission of an alpha particle to

84

A 214 B 210 C 214 D 210

83 Bi 82 Pb 85 At 83 Bi

1.6 The half-life of a certain radioactive isotope is 6 hours. If we start out with 10,0 g of the isotope,
after one day there will be

A none left B 0,6 g left C 1,6 g left D 2,5 g left

1.7 After ten years 75 g of an original sample of 100 g of a certain radioactive isotope have decayed.
The half-life of this isotope is

A 5 years B 7,5 years C 20 years D 40 years

1.8 The half-life of a certain radioactive element is 3 seconds. Starting with n atoms

A there will be n/4 atoms remaining after 12 seconds

B there will be n/8 atoms remaining after 24 seconds
C three-quarters of the atoms will have decayed after 6 seconds
D seven-eighths of the atoms will have decayed after 21 seconds

1.9 The isotope Bi-210 has a half-life of 5 days. The time taken for seven-eighths of a sample to
decay is

A 3,4 days B 10 days C 15 days D 20 days

1.10 By "chain reaction" is meant

A the joining together of protons and neutrons to form atomic nuclei

B the joining together of light nuclei to form heavy ones
C the burning of uranium in a special type of furnace called a nuclear reactor
D the successive fissioning of heavy nuclei caused by neutrons emitted during the fission of
other nuclei
NUCLEAR PHYSICS TUTORIAL 127

1.11 The sun's energy comes from

A radioactivity
B nuclear fission
C the conversion of helium to hydrogen
D the conversion of hydrogen to helium

EXERCISES

2. Complete the following nuclear reactions:

2.1 6 Li
3
? 7 Be
4
 01n

2.2 10 B
5
 ?  73 Li  42 He

2.3 35 Cl
17
? 32 S
16
 42 He

3. A nucleus of 15N is struck by a proton. A nuclear reaction then takes place with the emission of
either a neutron or an alpha particle. Give the atomic number, mass number, and chemical name
of the remaining nucleus in each of these cases.

214 214
4. The lead isotope 82
Pb decays into the bismuth isotope 83
Bi .
4.1 Write down the balanced equation for the transformation.
4.2 Name the kind of decay which occurs .

5. Plutonium-239 captures a neutron and releases gamma radiation. The resulting radio-isotope then
undergoes -decay. Write down balanced nuclear equations to illustrate these processes.

6. How many disintegrations per hour occur in a 25 mBq sample of radium?

7. If the half-life of radium is 1 600 years, how long will it take for 15/16 of a given sample of radium to
decay?

8. The activity of a sample of Th-90 is observed to be 12,5% of its original amount 54 days after the
sample was prepared. What is the half-life of Th-90?

9. An archaeologist determines that an old bone fragment contains only 3,125% of its original 14C
content.
9.1 How long ago did the animal die?
9.2 What percentage of the original isotope would remain after 60 000 years?

10. By listing briefly (in table form) their major advantages and disadvantages, compare fission and
fusion reactions as sources of energy.

11. A nuclear reactor operates at a 109 W power level. Calculate the amount of
11.1 energy produced each day
11.2 mass lost each day
D A T A
DATA D–1

TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS and ASTRONOMICAL DATA

TABEL 1: FISIESE KONSTANTES en ASTRONOMIESE DATA

Name/Naam Symbol/Simbool Value/Waarde

Acceleration due to gravity

g 10 m/s2
Swaartekragsversnelling
Speed of light in vacuum
c 3 x 108 m/s
Spoed van lig in vakuum
Rest mass of electron
me 9,11 x 10–31 kg
Rusmassa van elektron
Rest mass of proton
mp 1,67 x 10–27 kg
Rusmassa van proton
Rest mass of neutron
mn 1,67 x 10–27 kg
Rusmassa van neutron
Elementary charge
e 1,60 x 10–19 C
Elementêre lading
Coulomb's constant
k 9 x 109 N m2/C2
Coulomb-konstante
Planck's constant
h 6,63 x 10–34 J s
Planck-konstante
Avogadro's constant
NA 6,02 x 1023 mol–1
Avogadro-konstante
Molar gas constant
Molêre gaskonstante
R 8,31 J/(K mol)

Standard temperature
Standaard temperatuur T 273 K

Standard pressure
Standaard druk p 105 Pa / 1 atm / 760 torr

Triple point of water Ttr 273,16 K

Drievoudpunt van water ptr 6,10 x 102 Pa
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Stefan-Boltzmann-konstante  5,67 x 10–8 W/(m2 K4)

Gravitational constant
G 6,67 x 10–11 N m2/kg2
Gravitasiekonstante
Speed of sound in air
343 m/s
Spoed van klank in lug
Earth: radius
Re 6,37  106 m
Aarde: radius
emissivity
uitstraalvermoë  0,61

Sun: radius
R 6,96  108 m
Son: radius
mass
M 1,99  1030 kg
massa
distance from Earth
AU 1,50  1011 m
afstand van Aarde
D–2 DATA

TABLE 2: COEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION AT 20 °C

TABEL 2: UITSETTINGSKOËFFISIËNTE BY 20 °C

Linear/Liniêr  [K–1] Volume  [K–1]

aluminium ethanol
2,5 x 10–5 1,1 x 10–3
aluminium etanol
brass glycerol
2,0 x 10–5 5,0 x 10–4
geelkoper gliserol
brick or concrete mercury
1,2 x 10–5 1,8 x 10–4
baksteen of beton kwik
glass (Pyrex) petrol
3 x 10–6 9,5 x 10–4
glas (Pyrex) petrol
glass (ordinary) water
9 x 10–6 2,1 x 10–4
glas (gewone) water
iron or steel
1,2 x 10–5
yster of staal
lead air (and other gases)
2,9 x 10–5 3,4 x 10–3
lood lug (en ander gasse)

TABLE 3: SATURATED VAPOUR PRESSURE OF WATER

TABEL 3: VERSADIGDE DAMPDRUK VAN WATER

T [°C] p [Pa] T [°C] p [Pa] T [°C] p [Pa]

–50 4,0 20 2,33 x 103 70 3,12 x 104

–10 2,60 x 102 25 3,17 x 103 80 4,73 x 104
0 6,11 x 102 30 4,24 x 103 90 7,01 x 104
5 8,72 x 102 40 7,37 x 103 100 1,01 x 105
10 1,23 x 103 50 1,23 x 104 120 1,99 x 105
15 1,71 x 103 60 1,99 x 104 150 4,76 x 105

TABLE 4: SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES

TABEL 4: SPESIFIEKE WARMTEKAPASITEITE

c [J/(kg K)] c [J/(kg K)] c [J/(kg K)]

air glycerol mercury

715 2 352 139
lug gliserol kwik
aluminium human tissue petrol
911 3 470 2 142
aluminium menslike weefsel petrol
copper ice rock/sand
390 2 053 800
koper ys rots/sand
ethanol iron/steel water
2 400 470 4 200
etanol yster/staal water
glass lead wood
756 130 1 700
glas lood hout
DATA D–3

TABLE 5: MELTING & BOILING POINTS, SPECIFIC LATENT HEATS

TABEL 5: SMELT- & KOOKPUNTE, SPESIFIEKE LATENTE WARMTES

Melting Point Boiling Point

f [J/kg] v [J/kg]
Smeltpunt [ºC] Kookpunt [ºC]
ethanol
–114 1,05 x 105 78 8,5 x 105
etanol
lead
327 2,5 x 104 1 750 8,7 x 105
lood
silver
961 8,8 x 104 2 193 2,3 x 106
silwer
tungsten
3 410 1,84 x 105 5 900 4,8 x 106
wolfram
water
0 3,33 x 105 100 2,26 x 106
water

TABLE 6: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES

TABEL 6: WARMTEGELEIVERMOË

k [W/(m K)] k [W/(m K)] k [W/(m K)]

air copper human tissue

0,023 380 0,2
lug koper menslike weefsel
aluminium cork silver
200 0,042 420
aluminium kurk silwer
asbestos down iron/steel
0,16 0,025 40
asbes dons yster/staal
brick or concrete glass water
0,84 0,84 0,56
baksteen of beton glas water

TABLE 7: REFRACTIVE INDICES

TABEL 7: BREKINGSINDEKSE

n n

air/vacuum glass (light flint)

1,00 1,58
lug/vakuum glas (ligte flintglas)
benzene glycerol
1,50 1,47
benseen gliserol
diamond polystyrene
2,42 1,59
diamant polistireen
ethanol water (20°C)
1,36 1,33
etanol water (20°C)
glass (fused quartz) water (ice 0°C)
1,46 1,31
glas (gesmelte kwarts) water (ys 0°C)
 D–4 DATA

TABLE 8: DENSITIES (at 20°C)

TABEL 8: DIGTHEDE (by 20°C)

 [kg/m3]  [kg/m3]  [kg/m3]

air (0°C) ethanol mercury

1,29 0,79 x 103 13,6 x 103
lug (0°C) etanol kwik
aluminium glass petrol
2,7 x 103 2,6 x 103 0,68 x 103
aluminium glas petrol
blood gold uranium
1,05 x 103 19,3 x 103 18,95 x 103
bloed goud uraan
bone granite water (ice 0°C)
1,9 x 103 2,7 x 103 0,917 x 103
been graniet water (ys 0°C)
carbon dioxide (0°C) helium water (4°C)
1,98 0,179 1,00 x 103
koolsuurgas (0°C) helium water (4°C)
concrete iron/steel water (sea 4°C)
2,3 x 103 7,8 x 103 1,025 x 103
beton yster/staal water (see 4°C)
copper lead water (steam 100°C)
8,9 x 103 11,3 x 103 0,598
koper lood water (stoom 100°C)

TABLE 9: ELASTIC MODULI TABLE 10: VISCOSITIES

TABEL 9: ELASTISITEITSMODULUSSE TABEL 10: VISKOSITEITE

E or/of Y [N/m2] T [°C]  [Pa s]

aluminium water
7,0 x 1010 0 1,8 x 10–3
aluminium water
brass
10,0 x 1010 20 1,0 x 10–3
geelkoper
brick
1,4 x 1010 100 0,3 x 10–3
baksteen
bone blood, whole
1,5 x 1010 37 ~4 x 10–3
been bloed, heel
cast iron engine oil (SAE 10)
10,0 x 1010 30 200 x 10–3
gietyster enjin olie (SAE 10)
concrete ethanol
2,0 x 1010 20 1,2 x 10–3
beton etanol
granite glycerol
4,5 x 1010 20 1 500 x 10–3
graniet gliserol
marble air
5,0 x 1010 20 0,018 x 10–3
marmer lug
nylon
0,5 x 1010
nylon
steel
20 x 1010
staal
DATA D–5

TABLE 11: FORMULAE

TABEL 11: FORMULES

sf = si + vit + ½a(t)2 m F k

q1 q2
V r2
vf = vi + at
p F
2 2
A E  F V
vf = vi + 2as q s

F = ma p = gh
Vw
q
m1 m2
F G pabs = gh + patm
r2
q = It
Ff = FN V  As  Av
t t I V
p = mv R

p1   gh1  1 2  v12  …
w = Fs P = VI
… p2   gh2  1 2  v2 2
Ep = mgh R  r1  r2  
F   A dv
Ek = ½ mv2 dy
1  1  1 
R r1 r2
P w
t  vD
NR 

 = Fr R 
A

F A
Y E = mc2 pV = nRT
 

 = oT sin A  D
c  sin1ˆ  actual depth  2
1 n2 
v sin 2ˆ apparent depth sin A
2
V = VoT

1  1  1
Q = mcT f do di

Q = m v = f

Q T T
 kA 2 1 n = d sin n1v1 = n2v2
t 

Q
  A To 4  Ts 4  E = hf = W + Ek n1 sin1 = n2 sin2
t
M O D E L A N S W E R S
MEASUREMENT and MATHEMATICS (p8) MODEL ANSWERS A–1

1.1 B 1.2 A 1.3 D 1.4 B

2.

2.1 2 2.4 2

2.2 3 2.5 4

2.3 5 2.6 1
3.

3.1 0,031 45 kg 3.4 0,946 dm3

3.2 54 km/h 3.5 0,50 m2

3.3 2,23  107 g 3.6 3,787  1013 km

4.

4.1 3,56  102 4.3 4,776 4  104

4.2 9,6  10-2 4.4 2,7  10-8

5.

5.1 10,6 m 5.6 4,9

5.2 16,5 cm2 5.7 2,48

5.3 2,36 kg 5.8 3

5.4 13 373 s (?) 5.9 145,98

5.5 10 cm3 or 1,0  104 mm3 5.10 1011

6.

( 2 ) = (1 − 6 ).V = (1 − 6 ).45 = 21 cm ;
3 3
6.1 (a) for sphere: − 34 .. 3

− 4 . = (1 − 4 ).V = (1 − 4 ).45 = 10 cm
3 . 2
(b) for cylinder: 3

6.2 (a) Vcube = 3  = 3,56 cm  SAcube = 6  2 = 6  3,562 = 76 cm2

(2)
2 2
SAsphere = 4.. = . = 40 cm2

percentage reduction in surface area = 76 − 40  100 = 48%

76

(b) SAcylinder = 2  . 2 + . . = 32 .. 2

= 60 cm2
4

percentage reduction in surface area = 76 − 60  100 = 21%

76
A–2 MODEL ANSWERS VECTORS (p12-14)

1.1 A 1.2 D 1.3 A 1.4 B 1.5 D 1.6 B 1.7 B 1.8 C

7.

7.1 70 km
N
7.2
40 km, W
 233°
30 km, S
50 km, 233°

8. N N N
4 m, W 4 m, E

4 m, S 3 m 3m
4 m, N
R = 7 m, 0° R = 1 m, 180° R = 5 m,
3m 53° or 307°

9. .4N N
R = 5 N, 6,9° 4N
30°
3N
60° 
3N

10. N N
5 000
120° 120°  = arc tan = 51°
4000
4 000 N  4 000 N
5 000 N
R = 6 400 N, 171°
R 5 000 N

11.
R = 5 m/s2, at 53° to
amarble =
train’s acceleration
atrain 4 m/s2

atrain = 3 m/s2

12.

R = 35 N, at
12.1 20 N 7.2 30° to 20 N
… 20 N
20 N
R = 40 N, at 60° … 120°
0° to 20 N 20 N

7.4 20 N R = 20 N, at
7.3 R = 28 N, at 60° to 20 N
20 N
45° to 20 N 120° … 60°
20 N
…
20 N
7.5 R = zero
VECTORS (p12-14) MODEL ANSWERS A–3
13.

N
13.1 R2 = 5402 + 1202 – 2.540.120.cos45°  R = 463 km/h
R  ujet =
8.2 sin  = sin 45   = 11°  bearing = 191°
540 km/h 120 463
45°
uwind =
8.3 s = u.t = 463  0,5 = 232 km
120 km/h
14.

14.1 sacross = uacross.t 9.2 sdownstream = uriver.t

 225 = 1,5  t = 1  150 = 150 m

15.
 t = 150 s
9.3 uriver = 1 m/s
 = arc cos 1 = 48° upstream to the bank
 1,5
uboat = R = 1,12 m/s
1,5 m/s  9.4 s = u.t  225 = 1,12  t  t = 201 s

15.1 65 km/h
  = arc cos 65 = 83°  direction = 173°
500
R
10.2 R = 496 km/h
500 km/h
s = u.t  100 = 496  t  t = 0,2 h (12 min)

16. N
40° cos70 = 5  A =15 m, north
A
B A
A  B =15 m, 140°

70° 70°
10 m 5m

17.
R  = arctan 9
9 m/s 3
   = 72° to the horizontal
3 m/s

18.

18.1
N
18.2 6N
10 N R = 10,8 N 10,8 N 67°
10,8 N
10 N

4N 8N 68° 68°
… … … RT = 10,2 N,
45° 4N 45°
55°
6N 6N

(…but rather use components for this question)

19. Bicycle: sbike = ½ (2..r) = 2. km s = u.t  2. = 36  t  tbike = 628 s

Canoe: scanoe = d = 2  2 = 4 km  4 000 = 7  t  tcanoe = 571 s
Time saved = 628 – 571 = 57 s
A–4 MODEL ANSWERS KINEMATICS (p19-20)

1.1 C 1.2 B 1.3 B 1.4 ? 1.5 B 1.6 A 1.7 C 1.8 A

20.

(30  2) + (40  1)
20.1 v = s = = 33,3 km/h
t 3
(30  2) + (−40)  1
v = s = = 6,7 km/h, north
t 3

20.2  t 1 = 10 = 1 h t 2 = 10 = 1 h
s1 = u1.t1  t total = 1 + 1 = 7 h
30 3 40 4 3 4 12
v= s 10
= 7 + 10 = 34,3 km/h
t 12

21.

21.1 v = u + a.t  v7s = 0 + 0,6  7 = 4,2 m/s and v12s = 7,2 m/s

21.2 s = u.t + ½.a.t2  s5s = 0 + ½  0,6  52 = 7,5 m and s8s = 19,2 m

21.3 v 0 − 8 = s = 19,2 = 2,4 m/s

t 8
22.

22.1 v2 = u2 + 2.a.s  v= 0 + 2  10  405 = 90 m/s

22.2 s = u.t + ½.a.t2  405 = 0 + ½  10  t2 t=9s

23.

23.1 s = u.t + ½.a.t2  400 = 0 + ½.a.102  a = 8 m/s2

v = u + a.t = 0 + 8  10 = 80 m/s

23.2 (a) (b) (c)

400 80 8
a [m/s2]
s [m]

v [m/s]

300 60 6
200 40 4
100 20 2
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
time [s] time [s] time [s]

24.

24.1 u=0 s = u.t + ½.a.t2  20 = 0 + ½  a  62

t=6s  a = 1,11 m/s2
s = 20 m v = u + a.t = 0 + 1,11  6 = 6,66 m/s

The second interval starts where the first interval finishes, so u for the second
interval is 6,66 m/s. (The acceleration remains constant at 1,11 m/s2.)

s = u.t + ½.a.t2
u = 6,66 m/s a = 1,11 m/s2
s = 6,6610 + ½1,11102 t = 10 s
s = 122 m s = train length

24.2 v = u + a.t = 6,66 + 1,11  10 = 17,8 m/s ie 17,8  3,6 = 64 km/h

25.

25.1
 KINEMATICS (p19-20) MODEL ANSWERS A–5

25.1.1 s = area under graph  s0-3 = ½.(12 + 3).3 = 22,5 m, SE

25.1.2 sT = s0-3 + s3-6 + s6-8 = 22,5 + (3  3) + ½.(3 + 9).2 = 43,5 m, SE

25.2

25.2.1 a0 − 3 = slope = v = 3 − 12 = –3 m/s2  a0-3 = 3 m/s2, NW

t 3
25.2.2 a3-6 = zero

25.2.3 a 6 − 8 = 9 − 3 = 3 m/s2, SE
2

25.3
43,5
s (m) D
C
31,5

22,5 B

15

A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 time (s)

26. s2 = u2.t2 + ½.a.t22

s1 = ?  3 = u2  0,15 + ½  9,8  0,152
2
2m
g = 9,8 m/s  u2 = 19,27 m/s
v1 = 19,3 m/s
u2 = 19,3 m/s x v12 = u12 + 2.a.s1
th
7 3m
floor s2 = 3 m  19,272 = 0 + 2  9,8  s1

y  s1 = 18,9 m

28 m Each floor is 4 m high

 18,9 m  4+ floors
 cleaner was cleaning 12th floor

27. Let the trip be 60 km long, which must be covered in 1 hour.

s
t1 = 1 = 30 = ¾ hour  there is only ¼ hour left for the remaining 30 km:
v1 40
s
v 2 = 2 = 30 1
= 120 km/h
t2 4
A–6 MODEL ANSWERS DYNAMICS (p24-26)

1.1 B 1.2 A 1.3 D 1.4 C 1.5 C 1.6 A 1.7 C 1.8 A

28.
2.

2.1 F = m.a  3 = 2,5  a  a = 1,2 m/s2

2.2 v = u + a.t = 0 + 1,2  5 = 6 m/s

2.3 s = u.t + ½.a.t2 = 0 + ½  1,2  52 = 15 m

2.4 s = u.t + ½.a.t2 = 6  5 + 0 = 30 m

2.5 the above answers assume the body was initially at rest!

3. v = u + a.t  0 = 200 + a  25  a = 0,22 m/s2

3,6
F = m.a = 50 000  0,22 = 11,1 kN

80
4. F = m.a = m. v = m  3,6  F = 44,4  10  m (W = 10.m)
t 0,05
 F = 44,4 "g's"

5. Fsystem = msystem.asystem  40 = (8 + 12).a  asystem = 2 m/s2, right

T = F8kg = m8kg.a8kg = 8  2 = 16 N

6. y Fup = T F = m.a
a = –4 m/s2
 T + W = m.a
 T + (–64 000) = 6 400  (–4)
W = m.g = 6 400  (–10)
 T = 38,4 kN

7. ( +ve; W = m.g = 25  (–10) = –250 N)

F = m.a  Fup + W = m.a  T = Fup = m.a – W
7.1 T = 25  2 – (–250) = 300 N

7.2 T = 25  (–4) – (–250) = 150 N

7.3 T = 25  (–10) – (–250) = 0 N (lift is in free fall)

8.

8.1.1 v2 = u2 + 2.a.s  0 = 122 + 2  a  18  a = 4 m/s2, upwards

8.1.2 ( +ve) F = m.a  Fup + W = m.a

 Fup + 2 500  (–10) = 2 500  4  Fup = 35 kN
DYNAMICS (p24-26) MODEL ANSWERS A–7

9.

9.1 ( +ve, and using g = –10 m/s2: W = –500 N)

A: Fup = 600 N  F = 600 + (–500) = 100 N, up
F = m.a  100 = 50  a  a = 2 m/s2, upwards
v = u + a.t = 0 + 2  2 = 4 m/s
ie lift accelerates upwards from rest at 2 m/s2, until it is travelling at 4 m/s, up
B: F = 500 + (–500) = 0 a=0
ie lift is moving upwards at a constant 4 m/s

C: Fup = 300 N  F = 300 + (–500) = –200 N, ie 200 N, down

F = m.a  –200 = 50  a  a = –4 m/s2, ie a = 4 m/s2downwards
ie lift is moving upwards, slowing down from 4 m/s to rest at a rate of 4 m/s2.
D: Lift has stopped.
9.1.1
9.1.2

9.2 v = u + a.t  0 = 4 + (–4).t t=1s

9.3 s = u.t + ½.a.t2  s1 = 0  2 + ½  2  22 = 4 m

s2 = 4  6 + ½  0  62 = 24 m
s3 = 4  1 + ½  (–4)  12 = 2 m
 sT = 30 m, upwards

mB  10
10. Fsystem = msystem.asystem  asystem = T = FBA = mA.asystem
(mA + mB )
10.1 (a) a = 50  10 = 6,25 m/s2, right (b) T = 30  6,25 = 188 N
( 30 + 50 )

10.2 (a) a = 0,5  10 = 2 m/s2, right (b) T = 2  2 = 4 N

( 2 + 0,5 )
10.3 (a) a = 1  10 = 5 m/s2, right (b) T = 1  5 = 5 N
(1 + 1)

11.

11.1 (→ +ve) Fsys = msys.asys  50 + (–30) = (3+2+5).a  a = 2 m/s2, right

11.2 ( +ve)
F3 = m3.a3  Fup + W3 = m3.a3  Tleft = Fup3 = 32 – 3(–10) = 36 N
F5 = m5.a5  Fup + W5 = m5.a5  Tright = Fup5 = 5(–2) – 5(–10) = 40 N

11.3 v = u + a.t = 0 + 2  1 = 2 m/s, right

11.4 s = u.t + ½.a.t2 = 0 + ½  2  12 = 1 m

A–8 MODEL ANSWERS DYNAMICS (p24-26)

12. ( +ve) s = u.t + ½.a.t2  405 = 0 + ½  a  102  a = 8,1 m/s2

F = m.a  W + Fair R = m.a  Fair R = 2  8,1 – 2  10 = –3,8 N
ie Fair R = 3,8 N, upwards

13.

13.1 ( +ve) F = m.a  W + Fup = m.a

 T (= Fup) = m.a – m.g = 15  (–4) – 15  (–10) = 90 N

13.2 v2 = u2 + 2.a.s = 0 + 2  (–4)  (–10) = 80

Ek bottom = ½.m.v2 = ½  15  80 = 600 J
Ep top = m.g.h = 15  10  10 = 1 500 J  E"heat" = 1 500 – 600 = 900 J

13.3
14.

14.1 Do not hold on firmly, but rather allow your hands to slide down the rope.
14.2 ( +ve) F = m.a
 W + Frope = m.a  700 + (–600) = 70.a  a = 1,43 m/s2, down
v2 = u2 + 2.a.s = 0 + 2  1,43  12  v = 5,86 m/s

14.3 v2 = u2 + 2.a.s  5,862 = 0 + 2  10  s  s = 1,72 m

MODEL ANSWERS UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION (p28)

1.1 D 1.2 C 1.3 D

m .m m2
2. F=G 1 2  6,67  10-9 = 6,67  10-11   m = 3 kg
r2 ( 0,3 )2
FRICTION (p31-32) MODEL ANSWERS A–9

1.1 D 1.2 A 1.3 D 1.4 D 1.5 D 1.6 C 1.7 A

2.

2.1 y
300.sin30°
FN 30°
x Ffr = –300.cos30° = –260 N
Ffr 300.cos30°
W = m.g = –2 000 N
ie Ffr = 260 N opposite to motion

2.2 FN + 300.sin30° + W = 0  FN = –150 – (–2 000) = 1 850 N, up

 Froller on lawn (ie reaction to FN) = 1,85 kN, down

2.3 Ff = .FN  260 =   2 000   = 0,13

2.4
3.

3.1
y
FN
Ffr
W = W.sin40°
= W.sin 40 = tan40° = 0,84
Ffr
W⊥ = W.cos40° 
x
W = m.g
FN W.cos 40

3.2 Ff = .FN = 0,6  (2  10  cos40°) = 9,19 N

F = m.a  W + Ffr = m.a  (2  10  sin40°) + (–9,19) = 2  a
 a = 1,83 m/s2
v2 = u2 + 2.a.s = 0 + 2  1,83  1  v = 1,91 m/s

3.3
4.

4.1 Ff = .FN = 0,7  m  10 = 7.m

F = m.a  7.m = m.a  a = 7 m/s2, backwards
v2 = u2 + 2.a.s  0 = u2 + 2  (–7)  25  u = 18,7 m/s = 67 km/h

4.2 s  1/a and a  Ffr    snon skid = sskid  0,7 = 25  0,7 = 17,5 m
1,0 1,0

5. ( +ve) F = m.a  600 + (–800) = 80.a  a = 2,5 m/s2 down

s = u.t + ½.a.t2  –8 = 0 + ½  (–2,5)  t2  t = 2,5 s

6. a = 0,5 m/s2 F = m.a

x
 40 + (0,25  m  (–10)) = m  0,5
Ff = .FN 40 N
mA = 13,3 kg
A–10 MODEL ANSWERS FRICTION (p31-32)

6.1
7.

7.1 y
FN W = m.g = 275  10 = 2 750 N
Ffr
W = W.sin25° F = W + Ffr = W.sin25° + .FN
W⊥ = W.cos25°
x
W = m.g
 F = 2 750  sin25° – 0,1  2 750  cos25°
 F = 913 N

7.2 F = m.a  913 = 275.a  a = 3,32 m/s2

v2 = u2 + 2.a.s = 0 + 2  3,32  5  v = 5,76 m/s
7.3 y
FN = 2 750 N Ff = .FN = 0,1  2 750 = 275 N
Ffr
x
F = m.a  –275 = 275.a  a = –1,00 m/s2
W = –2 750 N v2 = u2 + 2.a.s  0 = 5,762 + 2  (–1)  s
 s = 16,6 m

8. y
FN
F = m.a
Ffr Frictionless: m.g.sin45° = m.africtionless
W = W.sin45°

x W⊥ = W.cos45°  africtionless = 7,07 m/s2

W = m.g
s = u.t + ½.a.t2
 a 1
t2
 aw fr = ¼ africtionless = 1,73 m/s2

With friction: Ffr + m.g.sin45° = m  1,73  Ffr = 5,34.m N

Ffr 5,34.m
FN = m.g.cos45° = = = 0,75
FN m  10  cos 45

9. FN = –W = 160 N
y
x FN
Ff = .FN = 0,25  160 = 40 N, left  Fstring = 40 N
B Fstring
Ffr
 WB = –40 N ie WB = 40 N W
10.

10.1 F = m.a
Fstring 30 kg Ffr
50 kg: 500 + Fstring = 50  4 Fstring

 Fstring = –300 N 50 kg x

30 kg: +300 + Ffr = 30  4 W = 500 N y

 Ffr = –180 N, ie 180 N, right

10.2 Ff = .FN  180 =   300   = 0,6

11.

11.1 Tleft = 24 N; Tright = 40 N 11.2 k = 0,33

MOMENTUM (p34-36) MODEL ANSWERS A–11

1.1 B 1.2 B 1.3 D 1.4 A 1.5 A

2.

3. total pbefore = total pafter  m1.u1 + m2.u2 = (m1 + m2).v

60  7 + 0 = (60 + 5)  v  v = 6,5 m/s

4.

4.1 zero 4.2 zero 4.3 vm = –2.v2m

5. total pbefore = total pafter  (m1 + m2).u1 = m1.v1 + m2.v2

 (5 000 + 100)  500 = 5 000  v1 + 100  1 000  v1 = 490 km/h

6. total pbefore = total pafter  m1.u1 + m2.u2 = (m1 + m2).v2

 0,008  u1 + (9  0) = (9 + 0,008)  0,4  u1 = 450 m/s

7.

7.1 PB = m.u = 2  2 = 4 kg m/s, right [taking right as positive]

7.2 PB = m.v = 2  6 = 12 kg m/s, right

7.3 (m.v)gained by A = –(m.v)lost by B = –(12 – 4) = –8 ie 8 kg m/s, left

7.4 (m.v)gained by A = mA.(v – u)  –8 = 4  (3 – u)  u = 5 m/s, right

8.

8.1 0 = m1.v1 + m2.v2  0 = (200  v) + (1  (–600))  v = 3 m/s, opp to proj

8.2 F.t = m.v  1 800  t = 200  3  t = 1/3 s

8.3 v = u + a.t  0 = 3 + a  1/3  a = 9 m/s2, opp direction to speed

s = u.t + ½.a.t2 = 3  1/3 + ½  (–9)  (1/3)2 = 0,5 m

9. total pbefore = total pafter  m1.u1 + m2.u2 = (m1 + m2).v

 16  3 + 4  (–5) = (16 + 4).v  v = 1,4 ie v = 1,4 m/s in dirn of 16 kg

10. total pbefore = total pafter  m1.u1 + m2.u2 = (m1 + m2).v2

 10  5 + (15  0) = (10 + 15)  v  v = 2 m/s

11.

11.1.1  +ve m.v = m(v – u) = 0,6.(10 – (–15)) = 15 kg m/s, upwards

11.1.2 F.t = m.v  F  0,15 = 15  F = 100 N, upwards

12. total pbefore = total pafter  m1.u1 + m2.u2 = m1.v1 + m2.v2

 {4  9} + {8  (–12)} = {4  (–7)} + {8  v2}  v2 = 4 m/s, north
A–12 MODEL ANSWERS WORK, ENERGY & POWER (p41-42)

1.1 C 1.2 C 1.3 A 1.4 C 1.5 D 1.6 C 1.7 A

13.

14. Ep lost = m.g.h = 2  10  4 = 80 J

2
 
15. Ek lost = ½.m.v2 = ½  1 000   80  = 247 kJ
 3,6 

m.g.h 80  10  (3  4)
16. P= w = = = 480 W
t t 20

17. Ep initial = m.g.h = 5  10  3 = 150 J

v2 = u2 + 2.a.s = 0 + 2  10  3 = 60
 Ek = ½.m.v2 = ½  5  60 = 150 J = Ep ini

18.

18.1 v2 = u2 + 2.a.s = 0 + 2  10  20  v = 20 m/s

 vrebound = 0,8  20 = 16 m/s
 pafter = 0,2  16 = 3,2 kg m/s

18.2 Ek lost = Ek before – Ek after = ½  0,2  (202 – 162) = 12 J

18.3 Ek lost = Ep gained  ½.m.v2 = m.g.h  162 = 2  10  h  h = 12,8 m

19. Each second w = 16 000 J and s = 40 m

w = F.s  16 000 = F  40  Ffr = 400 N

20.

20.1 total pbefore = total pafter  mA.uA + mB.uB = mA.vA + mB.vB

 +ve  4  uA + 2  2 = 4  3 + 2  6  uA = 5 m/s

20.2 Ek before = (½.m.u2)A + (½.m.u2)B = ½(4  52 + 2  22) = 54 J

Ek after = (½.m.v2)A + (½.m.v2)B = ½(4  32 + 2  62) = 54 J  elastic

20.3 Ek gained = Ep lost  ½  m  52 = m.g.h  h = 1,25 m

WORK, ENERGY & POWER (p41-42) MODEL ANSWERS A–13

21.

21.1

3.cos18°
18° 3m

3m
h = 3 – 3.cos18° = 0,15 m

Ek lost = Ep gained  ½.m.v2wood+bullet = m.g.h  ½  v2wood+bullet = 10  0,15

 vwood+bullet = 1,73 m/s (mass of bullet = 3,250 – 3,235 = 0,015 kg)
total pbefore = total pafter  mb.ub + mw.uw = (m.v)wood+bullet
 0,015  ub + 3,235  0 = 3,250  1,73  ub = 375 m/s

21.2 Ek = ½.m.v2 = ½  0,015  3752 = 1,06 kJ

21.3 w = F.s  1 055 = F  20  10-2  F = 5,27 kN

21.4 mb.vb + mg.vg = 0 = (0,015  375) + (0,95  vg)  vg = 5,92 m/s backwards

21.5 F.t = m.v  F  0,1 = 0,95  5,92  F = 56,3 N

21.6 same as above: F = 56,3 N

22. Motor’s Pout = 0,9  5 000 = 4 500 W; crane’s Pout = 0,4  4 500 = 1 800 W

F = m.g = 400  10 = 4 000 N P = w = F.s = F.v

t t
 1 800 = 4 000  v  v = 0,45 m/s

23.

23.1 total pbefore = total pafter  mA.uA + mB.uB = mA.vA + mB.vB

+ve 2  (–6) + 4  uB + = 2  7 + 4  (–2)  uB = 4 m/s, left

23.2 Ek before = (½.m.u2)A + (½.m.u2)B = ½(2  62 + 4  42) = 68 J

Ek after = (½.m.v2)A + (½.m.v2)B = ½(2(7)2 + 4(2)2) = 68 J  elastic

23.3 Ek gained = Ep lost  ½  m  42 = m.g.h  h = 0,8 m

23.4 F.t = m.v  F  0,02 = 2.{7 – (–6)}  F = 1,3 kN, left

24.

24.1 Elastic  Ek before = Ek after  ½  4  122 = ½  4  vX2 + ½  8  vy2 (1)
p before = p after  4  12 = 4.vx + 8.vy (2)
(→ +ve) Solving (1) and (2)… vx = 4 m/s, left and vy = 8 m/s, right

24.2 Ek lost = Ep gained  ½  m  82 = m  10  h  h = 3,2 m

A–14 MODEL ANSWERS SOLID STATICS (p47-50)

1.1 D 1.2 B 1.3 D 1.4 B 1.5 B 1.6 D 1.7 D

2.

2.1

7 500 N
Fchain 20° F = 7 500.tan20° = 2,7 kN
20° Fchain = T
F
7500
W
T= = 8,0 kN
cos20
F

2.2 20° → 90° F = 7 500.tan90°… ??!

3.
50 N  = atan 75/50 = 56°
75 N
 bearing = 315° – 56°
E
 E = 90 N, 259°
4.

4.1 F1
F2
FN
F1
FN 30° Fg FN 30° Fg = m.g = 50 N
F2
Fg

F1 = 50.tan30° = 29 N

4.2 F2 = 50.sin30° = 25 N
5.

5.1 F = (–3) + 2 + (–4) = 5 N, down y 2N

6m 4m
5.2 A = 2  6 + (–4)  10 = –28 N m, A
B
C x
3N 4N
ie 28 N m, clockwise
B = (–3)  (–6) + (–4)  4 = 2 N m, anticlockwise
C = (–3)  (–10) + 2  (–4) = 22 N m, anticlockwise
5.3 E = 5 N, up
A = (–28) + E.r = (–28) + 5  r = 0  r = 5,6 m from A

6. F = 0  (–36) + F + (–20) = 0 y F
 F = 56 N, up r

x
x = 0  56.r + (–20  0,14) = 0 0,14 m

–36 N –20 N
 r = 5 cm ie 5 cm from the 36 N end
SOLID STATICS (p47-50) MODEL ANSWERS A–15

7. F = 0  (–50) + F + (–30) + (–40) = 0 y F

r
 F = 120 N, up
0,5 m 0,5 m
x
x = 0  120.r + (–30  0,5) + (–40  1) = 0
–50 N W =–30 N –40 N
 r = 46 cm ie 46 cm away from the 50 N end

8. F = 0  FL + (–750) + (–200) + FR = 0 y
FL FR
 FL + FR = 950 N, up 1,5 m 1,5 m

x
x = 0  (–7501) + (–2001,5) + (FR3) = 0 1m
–750 N W = –200 N
 FL = 350 N and FR = 600 N

9. O = (–30  4) + (–50  10) + (–20  15) = –920 ie 920 N m clockwise

10. F = 0  P + Q = 620 N y P Q
1m 6m 2m
5m
3m x
x = 0 –250 N –150 N –100 N –120 N

 (–250–1) + (–1503) + (–1005) + (Q6) + (–1208) = 0

 Q = 277 N, up and P = 620 – 277 = 343 N, up

11. Taking anticlockwise moments as positive… 3N 5N 6N

A = (–10) + (–12) + (–7) + (18) + (8) = –3  3 N m, cw A 8N

2m 1m
B = (7) + (10) + (24) + (–16) + (–18) = +7  7 N m, acw 7N
O
1m 2m
C = (18) + (7) + (–12) + (–10) + (–16) = –13  13 N m, cw B C 4N

9N
D = (–6) + (12) + (–8) + (4) = +2  2 N m, acw

12.

y
12.1 F = 0 FB + 3FB + W = 0  W = –4FB FB FM = 3FB
L
x = 0  (–4FBr) + 3FBL = 0 x
r
r= 3/
4L ie 3/
4 way along pole from boy W

12.2 F = 0  2FB + 3FB + W = 0  W = –5FB y

FBB =2FB FM = 3FB
x = 0  (2FBr) + (–5FB 3/ 4L ) + 3FBL = 0 r

3
/4 L 1
/4 L x
 r = ½ of 3/4L
W
A–16 MODEL ANSWERS SOLID STATICS (p47-50)

13. F = 0  P + Q = 7 600 N y P Q
5m
2,5 m
x = 0
x
1m 1m 1m
 (–1600–1) + (–32001) + (–4002) + 1 600 N
400 N 800 N
1 600 N
3 200 N
(–8002,5) + (–16005) + 5Q = 0
 Q = 2 480 N and P = 5 120 N

14.

14.1 O = F  r = Fh.r.sin = 500  1  sin30° = 250 N m, clockwise

14.2 Fv  1  sin120° = 250  Fv = 289 N, up

14.3 Fmin  1  sin90° = 250  Fmin = 250 N, at right angles to the beam

F
15. Y = stress = A = F.  20  1010 = 10  10 4  50  = 80 mm
  .A
   4 ( 2  10 −2 )
strain 2

16. Y = F.  20  1010 = 5  105  8  = 5,6 mm

 .A
  ( 6  10 −2 )
2

17.

17.1 stress = F = 200 = 6,03  108 Pa

A 
4
(0,65  10 )
−3 2

−3
17.2 strain =  = 3,2  10 = 6,4  10-4
5

Y = stress = 6,03  10−4 = 9,4  1011 Pa

8
17.3
strain 6,4  10

18. r1 = 3.cos(90°–) = 3.sin and r2 = 5.cos r1 y r2

x = 0  x
90°–

 6
16
W  ( −3.sin  ) + 10
16
W  5.cos  = 0 3 cm
5 cm
 6  3.sin = 10  5.cos 6
16
W 10 W
16

 sin  = tan  = 50   = 70°

cos  18

19.
 = arc tan 60
80 Fwire T = Fwire = 300 = 498 N
60 cm   = 36,9° 300 N sin37
 37°
300 = 398 N
Fbar Fbar =
80 cm tan37
FLUID STATICS (p57-58) MODEL ANSWERS A–17

1.1 B 1.2 C 1.3 D 1.4 A 1.5 B 1.6 D 1.7 A 1.8 A 1.9 C

−3
2.  = m = 548  10−6 = 7,31  103 kg/m3  RD = 7,31
V 75  10

3. V =m =…

(a) V = 0,3 = 2,21  10-5 m3 (b) 2,22  10-2 m3 (c) 1,47  10-6 m3
13,6  103

4. m = .V (a) m = 0,917  103  3 = 2,75  103 kg (b) 0,678 kg

5.

mg
6. RD = V = 66 − 3 = 1,26
mw
V
53 − 3
7.

7.1 Wwater displaced = Fup = 380 – 320 = 60 N  6,12 water  6,12 dm3
Walloy 380
7.2 RD = = = 6,33
Wwater 380 − 320

= 0,35 − 0,10 = 1,67

Wacid
8. RD =
Wwater 0,35 − 0,20

9. pabs = .g.h + patm = (1 025  10  100) + 105 = 1,13 MPa (11 atm)

10. pabs = .g.h + patm  2  107 = 1 900  10  h + 105  h = 1 047 m

11. (a) Vfat = 4  10-5 m3  mfat = .V = 865  4  10-5 = 3,46  10-2 kg
fat
skim Vskim = 9,6  10-4 m3  mskim = mmilk – mfat
−2
 skim = m = 1,053 − 3,46 −410 = 1 061 kg/m3
V 9,6  10

(b) fat Vfat = 2  10-5 m3  mfat = .V = 865  2  10-5 = 1,73  10-2 kg
skim
Vskim = 9,8  10-4 m3  mskim = 1 061  9,8  10-4 = 1,04 kg

 2% = m = 1,04 + 1,73  10 −2 = 1 057 kg/m3

V 10 −3
A–18 MODEL ANSWERS FLUID STATICS (p57-58)

12. V=m and A= V

 h
−4
(a) VCu = 1 = 1,12  10-4 m3  ACu = 1,12  10 −9 = 140 m2
8900 800  10
−5
(b) VAu = 1 = 5,18  10-5 m3  AAu = 5,18  10−9 = 65 m2
19300 800  10

13. Fup = Wdispl water = (.V)displ water  g = 1 000  0,25..(5  10-2)2  10 = 20 N

 scale reading = 150 – 20 = 130 N

14. Fup on block = (90 + 130) – 100 = 120 N = Wdispl water

Woak
 RDoak = = 90 = 0,75
Wwater 120

15. mA = 800.VA and mB = 1 800.VB

mtotal 800.VA + 1800.VB
mix = = = 1 400  400.VB = 600.VA
Vtotal VA + VB

VA 400 2
 = = or 2:3
VB 600 3

16.

16.1 msolution = .V = 1 180  10  10-3 = 11,8 kg  msalt = 0,24  11,8 = 2,83 kg

16.2 10 kg salt  10 = 41,7 kg solution  Vsolution = m = 41,7 = 35,3 dm3

0,24  1180

MODEL ANSWERS FLOW DYNAMICS (p63-64)

1.1 B 1.2 D 1.3 B 1.4 C 1.5 D 1.6 A 1.7 C

2. V = A.v  10  12  3 = 0,5  v  v = 0,4 m/s

t 0,5  3 600

3. p = .g.h + patm = 1 000  10  35 + 105 = 450 kPa

4. A1.v1 = A2.v2 (4 )
 3. .15 .vsmall = .30 .1
2

4
2
( )  vsmall = 1,33 m/s

−3
5. V = A.v  0,5  10 = A  0,5  A = 10 cm2
t 1
FLOW DYNAMICS (p63-64) MODEL ANSWERS A–19

6. F.t = m.v F = m.v = 50  20 = 1 000 N

t
7.

v1
7.1 (a) .r12.v1 = .r22.v2  r2 = r1. = 6. 2,5 = 3 mm
v2 10
v1
(b) r2 = r1. = 6. 2,5 = 1,5 mm
v2 40
7.2 V = A.v = .(6  10-3)2  2,5 = 2,83  10-4 m3/s = 1,7 /min
t

8. p = ½..v2 = ½  1,29  (150  3,6)2 = 1,1 kPa

9.

9.1 p2 – p1 = ½..(v22 – v12) = ½  1,29  (1502 – 1202) = 5,22 kPa

150 000
9.2 p = F  5 225 =  A = 28,7 m2
A A
10.

10.1 V = A.v  15  10 −3 = 20  10 −4  v  v = 7,5 m/s

t
10.2 p1 + .g.h1 + ½..v12 = p2 + .g.h2 + ½..v22
 p1 – p2 = 1 000101,5 + ½  1 000  7,52 – ½  1 000  32  p = 38,6 kPa

11. v = 2.g.h = 2  10  0,65 = 3,61 m/s

V = A.v  V = (7  150)  10-6  3,61  (5  60) = 1,14 m3  1,14 tonnes

t

12.

12.1 v = 2.g.h = 2  10  0,7 = 3,74 m/s

12.2 V = A.v = 2  10-4  3,74 = 7,48  10-4 m3/s = 0,748 l/s

t

13. v = 2.g.h = 2  10  2 = 6,32 m/s

V = A.v = 3  10-4  6,32 = 1,9  10-3 m3/s  1,9 kg

t

.v.D
14. NR =  2 000 = 1000  v −30,05  v = 0,04 m/s
 1  10

SIGHT (p66) MODEL ANSWERS

2. .
3.

 2,0 = 3  10
8
4. n= c  v = 1,5  108 m/s
v v

v g nd 2,42
5. = = = 1,61 times slower
v d ng 1,5
A–20 MODEL ANSWERS REFLECTION (p70)

1.1 B 1.2 D 1.3 D 1.4 B

2. 12°

3. f = ½ r = ½  16 = 8 cm 1= 1 + 1  1= 1 + 1  di = 40 cm
f do di 8 10 di

di
magnification = = 40 = 4
do 10

ie image is 40 cm in front of mirror, enlarged 4, real, inverted

4. f = ½ r = ½  60 = 30 cm 1= 1 + 1  1 = 1 + 1  di = –60 cm
f do di 30 20 di

magnification = −60 = –3
20
ie image is 60 cm behind mirror, enlarged 3, virtual, erect

di do
5. magnification = = 1  di = f = ½ r = ½  36 = 18 cm
do 9 9

1= 1 + 1  1 = 1 + 9  do = 180 cm
f do di 18 do do

6. f = ½ r = ½  (–45) = –22,5 cm 1= 1 + 1  1 = 1 + 1  di = –9 cm
f do di −22,5 15 di

= −9  size = −9  7 = -4,2 cm
di
magnification =
do 15 15

ie image is 9 cm behind mirror, 4,2 cm high, virtual and erect

= −1 = i
di d 1= 1 + 1 =1–6
7. magnification =  f = –20 cm
do 6 1 f do di

8.

8.1 concave mirror

di
8.2 (a) magnification =  5 = 12  do = 2,4 m
do do

(b) 1 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 f=2m  r = 2.f = 4 m

f do di 2,4 12
REFRACTION (p74-76) MODEL ANSWERS A–21

1.1 D 1.2 C 1.3 C

2.
3. .

 1,47 = 3  10  v = 2,04  108 m/s

8
4. n= c
v v

ˆ
5.  of reflection = 60° 1n2 = sin1  1,5 = sin60   of refraction = 35,3°
sin2ˆ sin2ˆ

6. n= 1 = 1 = 1,54
sin(crit ) sin 40,5
7.

7.1 crit  = arc sin1/n = arc sin(1/1,5) = 41,8°

7.2 gnd = gna  and = (1/1,5)  2,42 = 1,61
7.3  crit  diamond w.r.t. glass = arc sin(1/1,61) = 38,3°
8.

8.1 1 = 1 + 1  1 = 1 + 1  di = 300 cm Image real, inverted, 2x magn

f do di 100 150 di
8.2 1 = 1 + 1  di = –300 cm
100 75 di
ie Image is virtual, erect, 4x magn, 300 cm in front of lens

9. 1= 1 + 1  1 = 1 + 1  di = –11,2 cm
f do di −14 56 di

 image size = −11,2  20 = –4 cm

image size di
magnification = =
object size do 56

Image is virtual, erect, 4 cm high, situated 11,2 cm in front of lens

10.

10.1 1= 1 + 1 = 1 + 1  f = –21 cm
f do di 400 −20
10.2 1=0+ 1  f = –20 cm
f −20

11. di = (1/3)do = 3 cm 1= 1 + 1 = 1+ 1  f = 2,25 cm (convex)

f do di 9 3

12. 1= 1 + 1 = 1  do = 4,5 cm, Image is real, inverted, (8x magn)

f do 8do 4
1= 1 + 1 =1  do = 3,5 cm, Image is virtual, erect, (8x magn)
f do −8do 4

13. do + di = 12,5 and di = 24do  do + 24do = 12,5  do = 0,5 m

di = 24do = 12 m 1= 1 + 1 = 1 + 1  f = 48 cm
f do di 0,5 12

14. 1 = 1+ 1 = 1 + 1  fT = 20 cm Power = 1/0,2 = 5 dioptres

fT f1 f2 12 −30
A–22 MODEL ANSWERS REFRACTION (p74-76)

sin A + D sin 46 + 32
= 1,61  v = 3  10 = 1,86  108 m/s
8
15. n=c = 2 = 2
v sin A sin 46 1,61
2 2
16.

actual depth 6
16.1 1n2 =  1,33 =  apparent depth = 4,5 m
apparent depth apparent depth
16.2
2m  1̂ 1,6 m
 = arc tan (1,6/4) = 21,8°

x y' 4m
y
 1 = 90° – 21,8° = 68,2°
2̂
ˆ
6m n = sin1 = 1,33  2 = 44,27°
sin2ˆ

y= 6 = 8,38 m
cos 44,27

y
apparent distance y' = = 6,3 m
1,33

apparent depth x = y'.sin = 6,3  sin21,8° = 2,3 m

17. actual thickness

app thickness = = 0,67 cm
1,5

1 cm 1 cm
Apparent distance of image = 2(0,67 + 50)
actual
= 101,33 cm
5m 5m
I O
18. bnw
apparent = bna  anw = (1/1,5)  1,33 = 0,89
0,67 cm
realdepth
app depth water = = 4 = 4,51 cm
n 0,89
benzene: 6 cm
realdepth
app depth water = = 6 = 4,00 cm
water: 4 cm n 1,5

 Total apparent depth = 8,51 cm

19.2 m realdepth
d 135°
app depth d' = = d
 n 1,33
d' d
 = arc tan(d/x) = arc tan = 37° 1,33
d d
 angle between two “halves” = 37°+ 135° = 172°

−3
 35  10 = o
object size do d
20. =  do = 0,078 m
image size di 9 20
1= 1 + 1 = 1 + 1  f = 7,75 cm
f do di 0,078 20
REFRACTION (p74-76) MODEL ANSWERS A–23

image size di 1 = 0,1

21. magnification = =   do = 1 000 m
object size do 10000 do

Ground area = 30 000 cm  30 000 cm = 9 km2

22.
x x n = sin x = 1,33, but sin y = sin(90° – x) = cos x
y sin y
2m

y  sin x = sin x = tan x = 1,33  x = 53°

sin y cos x

COLOUR (p78) MODEL ANSWERS

1.1 A 1.2 C 1.3 D 1.4 A

THE NATURE OF LIGHT (p83-84) MODEL ANSWERS

1.1 B 1.2 D 1.3 A 1.4 A 1.5 B 1.6 A 1.7 C 1.8 D

1.9 D 1.10 B 1.11 D

2.

3. n. = d.sin d= 1 m   = arc sin(1  500  10-9  106 = 30°

10  102
4

4. n. = d.sin  = 1 (1
2 4  103  100 )
 sin34 = 699 nm

5.

5.1

5.2

5.3 ( b) E = h.f  3,3  10-19  6,63  10-34  f  f = 4,98  1014 Hz

6.

6.1 E = h.f = 6,63  10-34  3  108 = 6,63  10-19 J

300  10 −9

6.2 h.f = W + Ek  Ek = 6,63  10-34 – 5  10-19 = 1,63  10-19 J

6.3 h.f = W  6,63  10-34  f = 5  10-19  f = 7,54  1014 Hz
7.

7.1 blue … fblue > fred … E  F

7.2 Ammeter reading increases. Intensity  number of photoelectrons emitted.

7.3 No. Some of the photon’s energy must be used to overcome the work function.
A–24 MODEL ANSWERS TEMPERATURE &EXPANSION (p87-88)

1.1 A 1.2 D 1.3 B 1.4 B

2.

3. The inside of the (metal) lid also expands outwards (i.e. the hole gets bigger).
Since metal’s -value is larger than glass’s, the lid gets bigger more quickly.
4. concrete  steel
5.  = ..T = 100  1,2  10-5  40 = 4,8  10-2 m or 48 mm
6.

6.1  = ..T = 0,316  1,2  10-5  (150 – 20) = 4,93  10-4 m

  (7  10 −3 )2 F
A = .d =
2
6.2 and Y = stress = A
4 4 strain 

F  0,316
 20  1010 =  F = 1,2  104 N
−
3,85  10  4,93  10
5 − 4

7. new = old.(1 + .T)  9,997 = 10  (1 + 2  10-5  T)

 T = –15°C  Tnew = 5°C

8. new = old.(1 + .T)  1 = 0,998  (1 + 1,7  10-5  T)

 T = 118°C  Tnew = 136°C

9. Anew = new  bnew = 458.(1 + 1,210-5  60)  69.(1 + 1,210-5  60) = 31 648 m2
Aold = 458  69 = 31 602 m2  A = 31 648 – 31 602 = 46 m2
V = V..T = 1,8  106  1,2  10-5  60 = 3 888 m3

10. (a) V20 = V0.(1 + .T)  1 = V0.(1 + 9,5  10-4  20)  V0 = 0,981

 0 = m = 680 = 693 kg.m-3

V 0,981
(b) V30 = V20.(1 + .T)  V30 = 1.(1 + 9,5  10-4  10)  V30 = 1,009 5

 30 = m = 680 = 674 kg.m-3

V 1,009 5
At 0°C, 1 kg occupies 1,44 and  costs R3,61c per kg
At 30°C, 1 kg occupies 1,48 and  costs R3,71c per kg

( ) ( )
10.1

2 2
86 400 86 401
11. T = 2  24  60  60 = 2 old
 = g; and = g
g g old
2 new
2
 

new
−1  86 4012  1
new = old(1 + .T)  T =  old 
 = − 1  −5
= 1,16°C
 2  10
2
 86 400
11.1

(m V ) m V(1+T )  −4
12. RD Fe:Hg = m Fe RDnew = m Fe
= RDold  1 + 1,8  10 −5 50
( V )Hg  V(1+T ) 
Hg
1 + 3  1,2  10  50
= 0,576  1,007 = 0,580 i.e. 58% submerged
HEAT (p93-96) MODEL ANSWERS A–25

1.1 B 1.2 B 1.3 A 1.4 A 1.5 B 1.6 A 1.7 A 1.8 A

1.9 D 1.10 D

2.

2.1 C = m.c = 0,1  390 = 39 J/K

2.2 C = 0,25  470 = 117,5 J/K

2.3 mice = .V = 917  20  10-6  C = 0,018 34  2 053 = 37,6 J/K

2.4 C = 0,375  4 200 = 1 575 J/K

3.

3.1 Q = m.c.T = 1  2 352  (49 – 39) = 23,5 kJ

3.2 Q = 0,1  130  100 = 1 300 J

3.3 Q = 250  4 200  45 = 47,3 MJ

4. C = m.c  273,3 = 0,3  c  c = 911 J/(kg K)  aluminium

5. C = m.c  1 175 = 0,5  c  c = 2 350  glycerol

6. heat lost = heat gained ie (m.c.T)M = (m.c.T)water

 0,1  c  600 = 1  4 200  20  c = 1 400 J/kg/K

7. heat gained = heat lost

(m.c.T)par + (m.c.T)cal = (m.c.T)Cu
0,2  c  2 + 0,05  390  2 = 0,02  390  118  c = 2 203 J/kg/K

8. heat gained = heat lost

(C.T)cal + (m.c.T)water = (m.c.T)iron
56 (T – 20) + 0,118  4 200  (T – 20) = 0,2  470  (75 – T)
 T = 28°C

9. Q = m.c.T = Ep = m.g.htotal  0,25  4 200  5 = 0,5  10  htotal

1 050
 htotal = 1 050 m  number of drops = = 525 times
2

10. Q = k.A. T2 − T1 = 40  0,5  423 − 413 = 10 kW

t 2  10 −2
A–26 MODEL ANSWERS HEAT (p93-96)

11. Q = k.A. T2 − T1  Q = 0,84  ( 0,75  1,5 )  (288 − 285)  Q = 1,7 MJ

t 60  60 6  10 −3

12. Q = k.A. T2 − T1  800  10 = k  5  10 4 

3
32  k = 55,6 W/(m K)
t 60  60 0,4  10 −2

Q = k.A. T2 − T1  3,6  10 = k  1  1−2

5
13.  k = 0,0417 W/(m K)
t 24  3 600 10
Q (18 − 0)
 = 0,0417  0,75  1,8   Q = 2,19 MJ
24  3 600 4  10 −2

14. Q = k.A. T2 − T1  10 = k   ( 20  10 −3 )  3,8

2
 k = 209 W/(m K)
t 0,1

15. Q = m.c.T = ½ (Ek = ½.m.v2)

 m  130  (327–27) = ½ (½  m  v2)  v = 395 m/s

16.
17.

17.1 Q = m.c.T = 0,24  390  (1 000 – 20) = 91,7 kJ



17.2
t 2 (
Q = ..A. T 4 − T 4
1 )
 91,7  10 = 0,3  5,67  10 −8  5,4  10 −3  (1 273 4 − 293 4 )
3
 t = 381 s
t

18. P = ..A.T 4 = 5,67  10-8  (4..52)  (273 + 700)4

I = P  30 000 = 1,6  102
7
 R = 6,51 m
A 4..R
19.

19.1 Q = k.A. T2 − T1 = 40  15  600 − 55 = 5,45  107 W

t  6  10 − 3
19.2 Each second: Q = m.c.T  5,45107 = m4 2006  m = 2 163 kg
2163
V=m= = 2,16 m3/s
 1000
19.3 i.e. 2,16  103 /s
PHASE CHANGES (p100-102) MODEL ANSWERS A–27

1.1 D 1.2 D 1.3 D 1.4 C 1.5 C 1.6 B 1.7 B 1.8 A

130
Q = (m.c.T)steam + m.
2.
3.
4.

5. f + (m.c.T)water + m. f
100
Q = 0,05.(201030 + 2,26106 + 4200100 + 3,33  105)
 Q = 154 kJ
0

6. total heat lost = total heat gained heat lost heat gained
314°C
(m.c.T)metal = m. v + (m.c.T)”ice” water+ (C.T)cal metal
m.c.T

0,7c294 = 20°C

8030 + 0,1420020 + 0,04(420020 + 3,33105) C.T m.c.T m.c.T

 c = 130 J/(kg K)  lead 15°C

calorimeter water
m.lf

7.

7.1 Q = (m.c.T)water + (m.c.T)Al = (1,7  4 200 + 0,5  911)  90 = 683 595 J

P = w.t  2 600 = 683 595  t1  t1 = 263 s or 4 min 23 s
7.2 Q = m. v = 1,7  2,26  106 = 3,84 MJ
P = w.t  2 600 = 3,84  106  t2  t2 = 24 min 38 s

8. Q = m.c.T + m. f = ½ (Ek = ½.m.v2)

 130  (327–27) + f = ½ (½  5062)  f = 2,5  104 J/kg

9. total heat lost = total heat gained

(m.c.T)alcohol + (C.T)cal = 24 975 + 5 922
(0,3  c  41,2) + (30  41,2) = 30 897  c = 2 400 J/(kg K)

10.

10.1 total heat lost = total heat gained heat lost heat gained
metal 126°C
(m.c.T)metal = (m.c.T)water + m. v + (m.c.T)”steam” water m.c.T 100
m.lv

0,2c100 = 0,1282942006 + water

26
0,00171.(420080 + 2,26106) m.c.T
 c = 384 J/(kg K) 20°C

10.2 copper or brass

11. Q = (m.c.T)water + m. f + (m.c.T)ice

 Q = 50 000.(4 200  15 + 3,33  105 + 2 053  10) = 2,08  1010 J
10
 Q = 2,08  106 = 5 785 kW h
3,6  10
A–28 MODEL ANSWERS PHASE CHANGES (p100-102)

12. m. f + (m.c.T)ice water = (m.c.T)cal + (m.c.T)water

 0,014( f + 4 200  10) = (0,075  390  20) + (0,056  4 200  20)
 f = 3,36  105 J/kg

13. Q = m.c.T + m. f = 2.(4 200  15 + 3,36  105) = 7,98  105 J

14. m. v + (m.c.T)hot water = (m.c.T)cal + (m.c.T)water

 0,002( v + 4 200  70) = (0,077  390  20) + (0,054  4 200  20)
 v = 2,27  106 J/kg
15.

15.1 Q = k.A. T2 − T1 = 0,023  1  25 = 19,2 W

t 0,03
15.2 w = P.t = 19,2  60  60 = m. f = m  3,33  105  m = 208 g

16. Consider a 1 m2 area of pond surface…

Vnew ice = A  h = 1 0,01 = 0,01 m3 mnew ice = .V = 917  0,01 = 0,917 kg
Q = m. f = 0,917  3,33  105 = 3,05  105 J

Q = k.A. T2 − T1  3,05  10 = 2  1 
0 − (−10)
5
 t = 763 s or 12 min 43 s
t t 0,05
PHASE CHANGES (p100-102) MODEL ANSWERS A–29

1.1 C 1.2 C 1.3 D 1.4 C 1.5 B 1.6 C 1.7 C

2.
3.

4. p.V = n.R.T  3 x 105  2,77  10-3 = n  8,31  (273 + 227)  n = 0,2 mol

5.

105  VSTP
 900  2,5 =
p1.V1 p2.V2
5.1 =  VSTP = 0,021 dm3 or 21,2 cm3
T1 T2 ( 273 + 17 ) 273

5.2 n = 0,021 = 9,5  10-4 mol OR p.V = n.R.T …

22,4

500  V2
 250  5 =
p1.V1 p2.V2
6. =  V2 = 3 m 3
T1 T2 273 + 27 273 + 87

7. v new = 3 .Vold  new = m = 1,20 = 0,80 kg/m3

2 Vnew 3 2  1

p1.V1 p2.V2 150  V1 p2  1 2 V1

8. =  =  p2 = 273 kPa
T1 T2 300 273

V1 V2 50
9. =  = 100  T2 = 586 K or 313°C
T1 T2 273 + 20 T2

10.

10.1

10.2 p.V = n.R.T  p  375 x 10-6 = 0,031  8,31  (20 +273)  p = 201 kPa
p1 p2 p2
10.3 =  201 =  p2 = 402 kPa
T1 T2 293 (313 + 273)

11.

11.1 p.V = n.R.T  180  103  20  10-3 = n  8,31  300  n = 1,44 mol

 180  20 = 185  21
p1.V1 p2.V2
11.2 =  T2 = 324 K (51°C)
T1 T2 300 T2

11.3 No. Boyle’s law applies to a fixed mass of gas (but tyre was inflated), at
constant temperature (but the tyre got hotter).

( ) −3
12. Consider 1 mole of N2:  = m = 14  2  10 = 1,25 kg/m3
V 22,4  10 −3
A–30 MODEL ANSWERS HEAT (p55-58)

1.1 C 1.2 B 1.3 B

2.

9 ( +3  10 )  ( −5  10 )
Q1.Q 2 −6 −6
2.1 F1 = k. = 9  10 . = –84,4 N ie 84,4 N attraction
r2 ( 4  10 −2 )2
2.2
( )
new charge on each sphere = 3 + −5 = –1 C
2 ( )
 F2 = 9  10 .
( −91  10 −6 ) 2
= +5,63 N ie 5,63 N repulsion
( 4  10−2 )2
3.

3.1 (a) QA = 109  1,6  10-19 = +1,6  10-10 C (b) QB = –1,6  10-10 C
q1.q2 (1,6  10 −10 ) 2
3.2 F = k.  2,56 x 10-9 = 9  10 9.  r = 0,3 m
r2 r2
4.

4.1

4.2

 V J C N.m C N 
4.3  m = m = m = C 

4.4 Newton II & F where s is the distance across the gap

s
constant E  const F  const a

2000
4.5 E= V = = 40 kN/C, to the right
s 50  10 −3

4.6 F = Q.E = –9  10-9  4  104 = –3,6  10-4 N, ie 3,6  10-4 N → +ve plate
F = m.a  3,6  10-4 = 4  10-10  a
 a = 9  105 m/s2 towards +ve plate

5.
 = arc sin 30
50
= 36,9°
 
50 cm W = m.g Fele = 0,02  tan 36,9° = 0,015 N
= 0,02 N
q2
 0,015 = 9  109 
30 cm 30 cm
Felectrostatic
( 60  10−2 )2
 q = 7,75  10-7 C
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS (p116-118) MODEL ANSWERS A–31

1.1 D 1.2 A 1.3 A 1.4 C 1.5 B 1.6 C 1.7 D 1.8 B

1.9 C 1.10 B 1.11 C 1.12 B

2.
3.

3.1 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 0,726  Rp = 1,38 

Rp r1 r2 r3 3 4 7

4. Q = I.t  48 = I  6 I=8A V = I.R = 8  4 = 32 V

5.

5.1
5.2
V1 = V2

5.2.1 1 = 1+ 1 + 1 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6  Rp = 2,5 
Rp r1 r2 r3 15 15 15 15

Vtot
A1 : Itot = = 5 =2A
R tot 2,5

V5 5
5.2.2 A2 : I5 = = =1A
R5 5

= 63 = 2 
r1.r2
6. R = RT = r1 + r2 = 2 + 4 = 6 
r1 + r2 6 + 3
V
Itot = tot = 18 = 3 A V1 : V = I.R = 3  4 = 12 V V2 : 18 – 12 = 6 V
R tot 6
V
A2 : I6 = 6 = 6 = 1 A
R6 6
7.

7.1 … stays the same … decreases

7.2 … decreases … increases … decreases

8. thickness  diameter A  d2 2d4A

2  original
Rnew   1 Roriginal ie R’s are 2:1 and since P  1 , P’s are 1:2
4  A original 2 R

2 2
9. P= V  60 = 220  R = 807 
R R
10.

= 12  4 = 3 
r1.r2
10.1 Rs = r1 + r2 = 3 + 9 = 12  R =
r1 + r2 12 + 4
V
10.2 (a) A1 : Itot = tot = 12 = 4 A
R tot 3
V
(b) A2 : I4 = 4 = 12 = 3 A
R4 4
(c) V : V9 = I9.R9 = (4 – 3).9 = 9 V
A–32 MODEL ANSWERS ELECTRIC CIRCUITS (p116-118)

10.3 Power = I2.R = 32  4 = 36 W

10.4 Q = I.t = 4  60 = 240 C

Vtot 12
10.5 A1 : Itot = = =1A
R tot 12

10.6 V : V9 = I9.R9 = 1  9 = 9 V

11.

V5 5
11.1 Rs = r1 + r2 = 2 + 3 = 5  I5 = = =1A  A1 : I = 1 A
R5 5

= 8  24 = 6 
r1.r2
R =  RT = 6 + 5 = 11 
r1 + r2 8 + 24
V1 : VT = IT.RT = 1  11 = 11 V
V2 : V = I.R = 1  6 = 6 V
V
A2 : I8 = 8 = 6 = 0,75 A
R8 8

11.2 (a) Q = I.t = 1  30 = 30 C

(b) Q = (1 – 0,75)  5  60 = 75 C
2 2
11.3 P = V = 6 = 1,5 W
R 24
12.

13. w = P.t
Per day: stove: 3,3  72 60 = 3,96 kW h
light bulbs: 6.(0,1  6) = 3,60 kW h
miscellaneous: = 1,60 kW h
geyser: 3  108 60 = 5,40 kW h
DAILY TOTAL: 14,56 kW h

Per 30-day month: 14,56  30 = 437 kW h

 Monthly cost = 437  35c = R152.88c

PHYSICS 1 Assignment 1 FLUIDS

1.1 A cylinder of base area 80 cm2 is filled to a depth of 10 cm with brine (relative density 1,2).
The weight of the brine is

A 0,8 N B 6,4 N C 8N D 9,6 N

1.2 The gauge pressure on the base of the cylinder in the question above is

A 1,2 Pa B 1 000 Pa C 1 200 Pa D 8 000 Pa

1.3 The total cross-sectional area of all the capillaries in the human circulatory system is 0,25
m2. If blood flows through the system at the rate of 100 cm3/s, the average speed of blood
in the capillaries, in mm/s, is

A 0,4 B 4 C 25 D 400

1.4 An object floats in oil. The buoyancy force the object experiences is equal to
I the object's own weight
II the mass of the displaced oil
III the weight of the displaced oil

A I only B II only C III only D I & III only

1.5 If material X has a density of 850 kg/m3, then a cubic metre of material X would have a
mass of

A 0,85 kg B 85 kg C 850 kg D 8 500 kg

1.6 A cube of wood with 2 m sides has a density of 500 kg/m3. The weight of the cube is

A 1 000 N B 2 000 N C 4 000 N D 40 kN

1.7 A 607,5 gram bar of a shiny metal has a volume of 225 cm3. The density of the metal in SI
units

A 2.7 g/cm3 B 2.7 x 103 g/cm3 C 41 x 10-3 kg/m3 D 2.7 x 103 kg/m3

1.8 Calculate the force exerted by a solid iron cube of which the sides are 3,0 cm long.(𝜌𝜌 = 7.8 x
10 kg/m3)
3

A 702 N B 70.2 x 103 kg C 117 N D 70.2 N

1.9 The hydrometer is an instrument used to measure

A humidity
B water consumption
C the rate of fluid flow
D the density of a liquid
1.10 The sketch shows a cross-section through a farm dam which is 3 m deep and which has a
bottom area of 700 m2 and a top (water) surface area of 1 000 m2. The gauge pressure at point X in
the dam is 1 000 m2
A 700 x 10 x 3 Pa 3m
B 1 000 x 10 x 3 Pa X
700 m2
C 700 x 1 000 x 10 x 3 Pa
D 1 0002 x 10 x 3 Pa

1
PHYSICS 1 Assignment 1 FLUIDS

Question 2 Water flows through a pipe and

out through small exit holes. The water pipe has 30cm
an inner radius of 15,00cm and the
fountainhead has 5 water exit holes, each with a
radius of 5 cm. The water moves through the pipe at a velocity of 0,500 m/s. Calculate the velocity
at which the water leaves each of the five exit holes. (4)

Question 3 A bottle full of water has a mass of 45 grams; when full of mercury its mass is 360 g.
If the mass of the empty bottle is 20 g, calculate the density of mercury in SI units. (3)

Question 4 A piece of silver (Ag) metal with a mass of 194,3 g is placed in a graduated cylinder
containing 242,0 mL of water. The volume of water now reads 260,5 mL. From these data calculate
the density of silver in SI units. (3)

Question 5 A wooden block, whose volume is 16 cm3, has a hole with a volume of 1,0 cm3 drilled
into it. The hole is filled with lead. Will the block sink or float in water?

(Show calculations and motivate your answer.)

5.a Assume that the density of lead is 11 g/cm3 and that the density of wood is 0,50 g/cm3.

1. find the weight of the wood. (2)

2. find the weight of lead. (2)

3. find the total weight of wood and Pb. (2)

4. find the bouncy of water on the wood. (2)

5. Explain your answer. (2)

2
PHYSICS 1 Assignment 1 Optics

1.1 A ray of light strikes a plane mirror as shown.

The angle of reflection will be

A 25° B 50°

C 65° D 75°

1.2. The image in a convex mirror is always

A diminished and real

B erect, virtual and diminished

C inverted, virtual and diminished

D virtual, enlarged and laterally inverted

1.3. A convex lens is 24 cm from an object. It forms an image half the size of the object. The
focal length of the lens is

A +8 cm B +12 cm C 48 cm D –48 cm

1.4. Refraction

A is the bending of a stick as it enters water

B occurs when a ray of light strikes a plane mirror

C is caused by a wave changing speed as it enters a new medium

D is what makes underwater objects appear deeper than they really are

1.5 The reason you cannot see your own image reflected in a flat sheet of white paper is that

A the paper is not a reflecting surface

B the reflection off the paper is too diffuse

C the paper absorbs too much of the light shining on it

D the angles of reflection of the rays are not equal to their angles of incidence

1.6 A red object viewed in green light will appear

A yellow B magenta C black D white

1.7 A ray of light strikes a plane mirror as shown. The angle of reflection
will be
25°
A 25° B 50°

C 65° D 75°

1.8 When an object is placed between F and the lens in the case of a convex lens, the nature of
the image is always

A enlarged and real

B diminished and real

1
PHYSICS 1 Assignment 1 Optics

C enlarged and virtual

D diminished and virtual

1.9 The refractive index of the liquid in the accompanying ray diagram is

A 0,63

B 0,71

C 1,41

D 1,58

1.10 When a wave enters a new medium there will definitely NOT be a change in its

A speed

B frequency

C wavelength

D direction of propagation

1.11 In the electromagnetic spectrum

A infra-red radiation has the greatest wavelength and lowest frequency

B radio waves have the greatest wavelength and highest frequency

C radio waves have the smallest wavelength and highest frequency

D radio waves have the greatest wavelength and lowest frequency

1.12 An electromagnetic wave is transmitted at a frequency of 108 Hz. Its wavelength is

A 0,03 m B 3m C 30 m D 300 m

1.13 A prism separates white light into spectral colours because

A light waves of different frequencies move at different speeds in material media

B constructive interference causes first and second order images

C the frequencies of the colours change on entering the prism

D the degree of refraction is independent of wavelength

1.14 A concave mirror is 24 cm from an object. It forms an image double the size of the object.
The focal length of the mirror is

A –24 cm B 8 cm C 16 cm D none

1.15 An X ray wave has a frequency of 3 x 1016 Hz. The period of the wave, in standard SI units, is

A 0,33x10-16 B 108 C 105 D 3,33 x 10-4

[30]

2
PHYSICS 1 Assignment 1 Optics

Question 2

An object of 2 cm high is located at a distance of 5 cm from a convex lens of focal length of

3 cm.
2.1 Draw a ray diagram (to scale) to show how an image is formed and describe the
nature of the image.
(5)
2.2 Determine the image distance by calculation.
(3)
2.3 Calculate the magnification.
2.3.1 Compare your ray diagram with your calculated values. Discuss the results.
(5)
2.4 Define the following terms/phenomenon.
(a) Refraction.
(b) Diffraction.
(c) Total internal reflection.
(3)
2.5 A ray of light is passing from water to air as shown in the diagram. Complete the path
of the ray with correct direction (emerging angle) and explain the reason for each direction.
(6)

θ > θc θ < θc
Air Air Air

Glass
θ critical
angle
(a) (b) (c)

2.6 The refractive index of water is 1.33. Determine the critical angle.
(3)
2.7 White light is incident on a glass prism as shown in the diagram. Draw the deviated
directions of Red and Violet rays. Explain the reasons for the deviation of different
colours.
(2)

2.8 State Snell’s Law in words. Explain with a clearly labelled diagram. (3)

[30]

3
TEMPERATURE & HEAT PHYSICS ASSIGNMENT 3 1

Course
S. Name
Name
Student No

1.1 The process of energy transfer from a body at a higher temperature to one at a lower temperature is
known as

A kinetic energy
B potential energy
C internal energy
D heat

1.2 A body X at a high temperature is in contact with body Y at a low temperature. Which of the following
assertions are correct?
I Heat will flow from X to Y until the two bodies have the same internal energy
II Heat will flow from X to Y until the bodies are at the same temperature
III The internal energy of X will decrease, and that of Y will increase until the bodies are at the
same temperature
IV Both bodies will increase their internal energy until they are at the same temperature

A I & II B II & III C III & IV D I, II & III

1.3 During a change of phase, a substance experiences NO change in

A volume
B temperature
C potential energy
D kinetic energy

1.4 A change of x C° is exactly the same as a change of

A (273,19 + x) K B (273,16 + x) K C (x – 273) K D xK

1.5 460 J are required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of iron by 1 C°. The amount of energy, in joules,
required to raise the temperature of 500 g of iron by 10 C° is

A 460 x 10 x 0,5
B 460 x 500 x 10
C 460 x (10 + 273) x 0,5
D 460 x (273 – 10) x 0,5

2. 90 g of zinc at 85°C are added to 200 g of water at 15°C in an insulated cup. The highest
temperature of the final mixture is 18°C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of zinc. [5]
PHYSICS 1 Assignment 3 Electricity

1.1 Two small, identical objects, a certain distance apart, carry equal charges. The electrostatic
force between them is F newtons. If the charge on each object, as well as the distance
between them is doubled, the new force between them, in newtons, is

A F/4 B F/2 C F D 4F

1.2 If 30 joules of work are done in moving a charge of 4,5 C between two points in an electric
field, the potential difference between these points, in volts, is

A 4,5 B 6,7 C 25,5 D 135

1.3 An electric light bulb is labelled 12 V; 2 A. When operating correctly

A its resistance is 24 Ω
B the power of the bulb is 6 W
C it should draw more than 6 A
D it consumes 120 J of energy every 5 seconds

1.4 Which of the following arrangements provides an effective resistance of 10 Ω?

A B C D
5Ω 5Ω 5Ω
5Ω 15 Ω 10 Ω
5Ω 5Ω 5Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω

1.5 Two metal spheres, X and Y, are in contact with each other. Without touching them, a
charged insulator is brought close to the spheres, as shown.
The spheres are now separated, after which the insulator is
removed.

Which of the following is correct?

A X and Y carry opposite charges of equal magnitude

B X and Y carry like charges of equal magnitude
C X and Y will both be charged, but Y more so than X
D Y will be charged, but X will be neutral

1.6 Three 5 Ω resistors all connected in a circuit CANNOT give a combined resistance of

A 1,5 Ω B 3,33 Ω C 7,5 Ω D 15 Ω

1.7 The kW h is a unit of

A energy B power C time D electricity

1.8 Which one of the following is NOT a property of electric field lines?

A they run from north to south

B their pattern is always three dimensional A
4Ω
C they are closest together where the field is strongest
D they always start perpendicular to the surface of a conductor
S 4Ω
1.9 The resistances of the battery and ammeter in the given circuit are
negligible. When switch S is closed, the reading on the ammeter

A drops to zero
B is halved
C is doubled
D increases slightly

1
PHYSICS 1 Assignment 3 Electricity

Question 2
2.1 If two charges having 5μC and -6μC, calculate the distance between the
charges, if the force between them is 3N. (3)
A B
2.2 Draw the field lines, clearly showing the directions.
(2)
2.3 If these charges are brought in contact, what will be the Total charge
when they are in contact? (2)
2.4 What will be the Charge on each, if they are separated again? (2)
2.5 What will be the force between them (now), if they are at a distance of 10 cm? (4)
[13]
Question 3

The circuit diagram shows water being heated by an immersion heater with a resistance of 40 Ω.
(Assume that the 100 V power supply has no internal resistance.)

Calculate: 100 V

3.1 The total resistance (4) R=60Ω

3.2 The reading on the ammeter (4) A
3.3 The reading on the voltmeter (4)
V
[12]

40Ω