ELEMENTS OF DRAMA

Introduction

What is drama?

Drama is the act of portraying a story in front of an audience. It involves the characters
and events of the story being brought to life on a stage by actors and their interactions
(verbal and non-verbal) through its events.

It can be defined as a dramatic work that actors present on stage. A story is

dramatized, which means the characters and events in the story are brought to life
through a stage performance by actors who play roles of the characters in the story and
act through its events, taking the story forward. In enacting the roles, actors portray the
character’s emotions and personalities. The story progresses through verbal and non-
verbal interactions between the characters, and the presentation is suitably
supplemented by audio and visual effects.

Through the characters involved, the story has a message to give. It forms the central
theme of the play around which the plot is built. While some consider music and
visuals as separate elements, others prefer to club them under staging which can be
regarded as an independent element of drama. Lighting, sound effects, costumes,
makeup, gestures or body language given to characters, the stage setup, and the props
used can together be considered as symbols that are elements of drama. What dictates
most other dramatic elements is the setting; that is the time period and location in
which the story takes place.

Theme
The theme of a play refers to its central idea. It can either be clearly stated through
dialog or action, or can be inferred after watching the entire performance. The theme is
the philosophy that forms the base of the story or a moral lesson that the characters
learn. It is the message that the play gives to the audience. For example, the theme of a
play could be of how greed leads to one’s destroyal, or how the wrong use of authority
ultimately results in the end of power. The theme of a play could be blind love or the
strength of selfless love and sacrifice, or true friendship. For example, the play Romeo
and Juliet, is based on a brutal and overpowering romantic love between Romeo and
Juliet that forces them to go to extremes, finally leading them to self-destruction.

Plot
The order of events occurring in a play make its plot. Essentially, the plot is the story
that the play narrates. The entertainment value of a play depends largely on the
sequence of events in the story. The connection between the events and the characters
in them form an integral part of the plot. What the characters do, how they interact, the
course of their lives as narrated by the story, and what happens to them in the end,
constitutes the plot. A struggle between two individuals, the relation between them, a
struggle with self, a dilemma, or any form of conflict of one character with himself or
another character in the play, goes into forming the story’s plot. The story unfolds
through a series of incidents that share a cause-and-effect relationship. Generally, a
story begins with exposing the past or background of the main and other characters,
and the point of conflict, then proceeds to giving the central theme or climax. Then
come the consequences of the climax and the play ends with a conclusion.

Characters
The characters that form a part of the story are interwoven with the plot of the drama.
Each character in a play has a personality of its own and a set of principles and beliefs.
Actors in the play have the responsibility of bringing the characters to life. The main
character in the play who the audience identifies with, is the protagonist. He/she
represents the theme of the play. The character that the protagonist conflicts with, is
the antagonist or villain. While some characters play an active role throughout the
story, some are only meant to take the story forward and some others appear only in
certain parts of the story and may or may not have a significant role in it. Sometimes,
these characters are of help in making the audiences focus on the play’s theme or main
characters. The way in which the characters are portrayed and developed is known as
characterization. Here is a list of characters in Romeo and Juliet.

Dialogue
The story of a play is taken forward by means of dialogs. The story is narrated to the
audiences through the interaction between the play’s characters, which is in the form
of dialogs. The contents of the dialogs and the quality of their delivery have a major
role to play in the impact that the play has on the audiences. It is through the dialogs
between characters that the story can be understood. They are important in revealing
the personalities of the characters. The words used, the accent, tone, pattern of speech,
and even the pauses in speech, say a lot about the character and help reveal not just his
personality, but also his social status, past, and family background as given by the
play. Monologues and soliloquies that are speeches given to oneself or to other
characters help put forward points that would have been difficult to express through
dialogs. “What’s in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell
as sweet” from Romeo and Juliet in which Juliet tells Romeo of the insignificance of
names or “To be, or not to be”, a soliloquy from Hamlet are some of the greatest lines
in literature.
Setting
The time and place where a story is set is one of its important parts. The era or time in
which the incidents in the play take place, influence the characters in their appearance
and personalities. The time setting may affect the central theme of the play, the issues
raised (if any), the conflict, and the interactions between the characters. The historical
and social context of the play is also defined by the time and place where it is set. The
time period and the location in which the story is set, affect the play’s staging.
Costumes and makeup, the backgrounds and the furniture used, the visuals (colors and
kind of lighting), and the sound are among the important elements of a play that dictate
how the story is translated into a stage performance. The Merchant of Venice has been
set in the 16th century Venice. Romeo and Juliet has been set in the era between 1300
and 1600, perhaps the Renaissance period which is the 14th and 15th centuries.

Performance
It is another important element of drama, as the impact that a story has on the
audiences is largely affected by the performances of the actors. When a written play is
transformed into a stage performance, the actors cast for different roles, the way they
portray the characters assigned to them, and the way their performances are directed
are some important factors that determine the play’s impact. Whether an actor’s
appearance (includes what he wears and how he carries himself on stage) suits the role
he is playing, and how well he portrays the character’s personality are determinants of
how well the play would be taken by the audiences. Different actors may play the
same roles in different renditions of a play. A particular actor/actress in a certain role
may be more or less accepted and appreciated than another actor in the same role. As
different actors are cast for different roles, their roles are more or less appreciated
depending on their performances. The stage performances of a play’s characters,
especially those in lead roles, directly affect the success and popularity of a play.

Music
This element includes the use of sounds and rhythm in dialogs as well as music
compositions that are used in the plays. The background score, the songs, and the
sound effects used should complement the situation and the characters in it. The right
kind of sound effects or music, if placed at the right points in the story, act as a great
supplement to the high and low points in the play. The music and the lyrics should go
well with the play’s theme. If the scenes are accompanied by pieces of music, they
become more effective on the audiences.

Symbol

A symbol is something which stands for, or represents something else. Symbols are
often used in drama to deepen its meaning and remind the audience of the themes or
issues it is discussing. A prop often has a particular significance that an audience will
instantly recognise when used symbolically in the work.
 Dramatic Genres

Tragedy

Just from the word tragedy, you can assume that the ending will be sad. But there is
more to a tragedy than a play with no happy ending. You can tell if a play is a tragedy
if it includes:

 A protagonist with a tragic flaw

 Circumstances that quickly get out of control – and not in a funny way
 Darker themes than a melodrama, such as human suffering, hatred, or poverty
 Features the downfall of a previously heroic or well-liked character
 An irredeemable ending that results in one or more characters’ deaths
 Reaches a tragic catharsis

Shakespeare has any number of tragedies to choose from. But few can rival Othello for
its cruel villain, its hero’s tragic downfall, and its desperately sad ending. Othello loses
everything he has ever loved or wanted because he can’t trust that he deserves the life
he has.

Aristotle's concept of tragedy

1. 1. Aristotle’s Concept of Tragedy Submitted to: Dr Shahid Imtiaz By: Maria

Aleem Anam Sultana
2. 2. Aristotle’s Definition of Tragedy. “the imitation of an action, serious,
complete, and of a certain magnitude, in a language beautified in different parts
 with different kinds of embellishment, through actions and not narration, and
through scenes of pity and fear bringing about the ‘Catharsis’ of these
emotions.”
3. 3. 1. “the imitation of an action that is serious complete, and of a certain
magnitude ” This means that a good tragedy deals with one issue that is very
“serious.” You can’t have a tragedy about something trivial like breaking a
fingernail. “Magnitude” here means ‘size’. The tragic plot must have a certain
magnitude or ‘length’. It should be long enough to allow the change from
happiness to misery but not too long to be forgotten before the end. Action, too
short, cannot be regarded as proper and beautiful for its different parts will not
be clearly visible. Its different parts must be well-related to each other and to
the whole. It must be an ‘organic’ whole.
4. 4. 2. in a language beautified in different parts with different kinds of
embellishment “By 'language embellished,' I mean language into which rhythm,
'harmony,' and song enter. By 'the several kinds in separate parts,' I mean that
some parts are rendered through the medium of verse alone, others again with
the aid of song.” 3. through actions and not narration To narrate a story is
simply to tell the story, like telling a friend what happened over the weekend. In
a play, the story must be dramatized or acted out.
5. 5. 4. and through scenes of pity and fear In a tragedy, the events or episodes in
the play should lead the audience to feel very sorry for the main character—the
tragic hero. The audience should also feel afraid for the hero as he moves
toward a destructive end.
6. 6. 5. bringing about the ‘Catharsis’ of these emotions.” As the play moves
along, the events should build up the emotions of pity and fear. A catharsis is a
purging, or cleansing of the emotions--a release of tension. In a tragedy, this is
often a moment of revelation when the tragic hero “falls flat on his face,” and
the audience can finally “explode.”
7. 7. These will be described from least important to most important. The last four
elements (Thought, Diction, Melody, and Spectacle) are the least important, but
Aristotle felt they must be done well for the play to succeed. Thought is the
power of saying whatever can be said and should be said at each moment of the
plot. Do the lines spoken by the actors make sense? Are they saying what
should be said at each particular moment in the play? Diction is the actual
composition of the lines that are recited. Thought deals with what is said, and
diction deals with how it is said. There are many ways to say something. A
good playwright composes lines that say something extremely well. In a good
play, some lines are so well constructed that the audience can leave the play
quoting the lines exactly.
8. 8. Melody and Spectacle are accessories. The Greeks sometime used musical
accompaniment. Aristotle said the music(melody) has to blend in with the play
appropriately. Spectacle refers to the staging of the play. Again, as with
melody, the spectacle should be appropriate to the theme of the play.
9. 9. Character Character is the second most important element of tragedy. Each
character has an essential quality or nature that is revealed in the plot. The
moral purpose of each character must be clear to the audience. The characters
 should have four main qualities. A. No matter who they are (hero or slave), the
characters must be good in some way, but not perfect. Wicked characters may
be introduced if required by the plot. B. The characters should act appropriately
for their gender and station in life. They must have the traits of the profession or
class to which they belong.
10. 10. C. The characters have to have believable personalities means they must
have likeness. By likeness he means that the characters must be life-like. D.
Each character must act consistently throughout the play. In other words,
nothing should be done or said that could be seen as “acting out of character.”
11. 11. Hamartia (meaning for clarity) The hero's error or frailty (hamartia) is often
misleadingly explained as his "tragic flaw," in the sense of that personal quality
which inevitably causes his downfall or subjects him to retribution. However,
overemphasis on a search for the decisive flaw in the protagonist as the key
factor for understanding the tragedy can lead to superficial or false
interpretations. . In a more sophisticated philosophical sense though, the hero's
fate, despite its immediate cause in his finite act, comes about because of the
nature of the cosmic moral order and the role played by chance or destiny in
human affairs. Hamartia would thus be the factor that delimits the protagonist's
imperfection and keeps him on a human plane, making it possible for the
audience to sympathize with him.
12. 12. Aristotle’s Concept of Pity and Fear “Pity is occasioned by undeserved
misfortunes And fear by that of one like ourselves.” “Actions capable of this
effect must happen between persons who are either friends or enemies or
indifferent to one another. If an enemy kills an enemy, there is nothing to excite
pity either in the act or the intention…But when the tragic incident occurs
between those who are near or dear to one another—if, for example, a brother
kills, or intends to kill, a brother, a son his father, a mother her son, a son his
mother, or any other deed of the kind is done—these are the situations to be
looked for by the poet.”
13. 13. Aristotle’s Concept of Catharsis Catharsis refers to the effect of the tragedy
on human heart. Catharsis means cleansing of the heart from the harder
passions by arousing the feelings of pity and fear through the sufferings and
death of a tragic hero. It is Catharsis which transforms disturbing emotions into
what Milton calls “Calm of mind, all passions spent” that’s why Herbert Read
considers Catharsis a medical term, which stands for purgation.
14. 14. Plot Plot is the most important of the six elements that is the action of the
play. “Hence, the Plot is the imitation of the action: for by plot I here mean the
arrangement of the incidents.” 1. There must be Unity of Plot. This means “one
complete action.” Any events or episodes must be necessary to the main issue
and must also be probable or believable. Hence the incidents and the plot are
the end of tragedy; and the end is the chief thing of all:’ writes Aristotle “the
plot then is the first principle, and as if it were, the soul of a tragedy. Character
holds the second…thus tragedy is the imitation of an action, and of the agents
mainly with the view of the action.”
15. 15. “which has a beginning, a middle, and an end. A beginning is that which
does not itself follow anything by causal necessity, but after which something
 naturally is or comes to be. An end, on the contrary, is that which itself
naturally follows some other thing, either by necessity, or as a rule, but has
nothing following it. A middle is that which follows something as some other
thing follows it. A well-constructed plot, therefore, must neither begin nor end
at haphazard, but conform to these principles.”
16. 16. The Three Unities The unity of action: a play should have one single plot or
action to sustain the interest of the spectators and it can also lead him to proper
purgation. The unity of time: the action in a play should not exceed the single
revolution of the sun. The unity of place: a play should cover a single physical
space and should not attempt to compress geography, nor should the stage
represent more than one place.
17. 17. Aristotle emphasizes only one of the three unities, the Unity of Action; he is
against plurality of action as it weakens the tragic effect. There might be
numerous incidents but they must be related with each other, and they must all
be conducive to one effect. As regards the Unity of Time, Aristotle only once
mentions it in relation to dramatic Action. Comparing the epic and the Tragedy,
he writes: “Tragedy tries, as far as possible, to live within a single revolution of
the sun, or only slightly to exceed it, whereas the epic observes no limits in its
time of action.”
18. 18. 2. A good plot has Peripety or Discovery--sometimes both. Peripety is the
change from one state of things at the beginning of the play to the exact
opposite state by the end of the play. This could be something like the change
from being rich to being poor, or from being powerful to being powerless, or
from being a ruler to being a beggar. The change that takes place in a tragedy
should take the main character (and possibly other characters) from a state of
happiness to a state of misery. Discovery is a change from ignorance to
knowledge. This often happens to the tragic hero who starts out “clueless” and
slowly learns how he himself created the mess he ends up in at the end of the
play.
19. 19. 3. Change by itself is not enough. The character involved in the change
must have specific characteristics to arouse the tragic emotions of pity and fear.
Therefore, Aristotle said that there are three forms of plot that should be
avoided. A. A totally good man must not pass from happiness to misery. This
will make the audience angry that bad things happened to him. They won’t pity
him so much as be angry for him. B. A bad man must not pass from misery to
happiness. This won’t appeal to the audience at all because they won’t want to
see evil rewarded. C. A bad man can not pass from happiness to misery. The
audience will not feel sorry for him because they will believe he got what he
deserved.
20. 20. The true tragic hero cannot be too good or too bad, but he must end up in
misery. Aristotle concluded that the best tragedy centers on a basically good
man who changes from happiness to misery because of some great error. For
example, he might have a good quality, like pride, that gets out of hand. 4. The
plot of a tragedy also involves some horrible or evil deed. The tragic hero either
does it consciously, does it out of ignorance, or mediates it (makes it easy for
the deed to happen). For the audience to be horrified by the evil deed, the evil
 has to be done to someone important to the tragic hero. If the hero kills his
enemy, the deed won’t seem so bad. On the other hand, if the hero kills
someone he doesn’t care about, the audience won’t care much either. To make
it really horrible for the audience, Aristotle suggested that the evil deed should
be done to a family member.
21. 21. Conclusion According to Aristotle, the end of poetry is to give pleasure, and
tragedy has its own pleasure beside. Proper aesthetic pleasure can be possible
only when the requirements of morality are satisfied. Verse and rhyme enhance
the pleasure of poetry. Peripeteia and Anagnorisis heighten the seductive power
of the action. Pure pleasure results from the exercise of our emotions and
thoughts on the tragic action. In addition, Aristotle's work had an overwhelming
influence on the development of drama long after it was compiled. The ideas
and principles of the Poetics are reflected in the drama of the Roman Empire
and dominated the composition of tragedy in Western Europe during the
seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries.

Tragicomedy

When you combine the elements of a comedy and a tragedy, you get a tragicomedy!
Tragicomedies are more complex than a drama with a few jokes, or a comedy with a
serious scene. Some ways to tell if you’re watching a tragicomedy are if it has:

 A serious storyline told in a humorous, sardonic, or snide way

 Tragically flawed characters whose actions don’t result in death
 An ambiguous theme
 Broad characters who act in classically comical ways
 Neither a happy nor a comic ending

Classic dramas mainly dealt in clear-cut comedy, tragedy, or melodramatic styles. But
many modern dramas are considered complex enough to be tragicomedies. Tennessee
Williams’ A Streetcar Named Desire has enough elements of a comedy to keep it out
of the tragedy genre – but no one can claim than Blanche DuBois is anything but a
tragically flawed character. It is the quintessential modern tragicomedy.

Opera

Operas are dramas in which the characters sing each line rather than speaking. The
entire production is set to a musical score. You can tell you’re watching an opera if it
includes these attributes:

 Musical soliloquies known as arias

 Plot-driving passages that can be non-melodic
 A libretto (text) set to a musical score
 Subject matter that is tragic, comic, or melodramatic
  Can incorporate an element of dance, but typically relies on singing
performances
 Elaborate sets, costume design, and production

One of the most famous operas of all time is Giacomo Puccini’s La Boheme. It tells
the tragic story of Rodolfo, Mimi, and the world of French Bohemia. Set to one of
opera’s most memorable scores, the story reveals itself over the course of a year.

Melodrama

When you hear drama, you probably think of melodrama. Melodramas tell a serious
story in serious ways. Not sure if a drama is a melodrama? Check if it includes the
following:

 Character tropes such as heroes, heroines, villains, mentors, etc.

 Sweeping stories of romance or serious topics
 Larger-than-life plots and circumstances (or very small stories told in big ways)
 Exaggerated character reactions
 Clear literary themes
 Flawed characters who must overcome their faults in order to reach their
resolution
 Ending that is sometimes happy, sometimes unhappy

Consider Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House when referring to a melodrama. Nora’s over-

the-top reactions place the play right into the definition of melodrama. The ending is a
mix of both happiness and hope for Nora, and sadness and despair for Torvald.

Musical Drama

It’s tempting to put opera and musical drama into the same category. However, their
production proves that there are significant differences between the two. But how can
you tell a musical drama apart from an opera? Use this checklist:

 Periods of standard storyline interrupted by songs

 Characters often singing in unison to express feelings
 Songs as plot-changing devices
 Dramatic or comedic storylines
 Catchy, distinctive musical score
 Often lots of singing and dancing
Comedy

Comedy is a type of drama that aims to make the audience laugh. Its tone is light and it
mostly has a happy ending. The classic conception of comedy came from the Ancient
Greek theatre, where comedy first emerged as a form of drama.

Comedy, in contrast to tragedy, remained a general and amorphous genre,

encompassing ineffective as well as effective examples. No comic masterpieces have
been singled out as supreme comedies (though Shakespeare's plays are given high
ranking), and plays that do not measure up to some classical standard have not in
general been drummed out of the genre, though occasionally this sort of qualifying
spirit can be seen when a dud is denigrated as "mere farce."

There are many characteristics that make up a comedy. Characteristics such as mistaken
identity, battle of the sexes, and jumping to conclusions are what set the comedic story
apart from the tragedy. Within a comedy, no matter how much fault, and dismay may
appear within the story, there always seems to be the classic ending of “…and they all
lived happily ever after…” Comedies capture the viewer with a sense of compassion and
love for the characters in the story. Each character has their own essence, to which they
pertain a flaw of some sorts, which the audience can relate to. With the relation to
characters there is defiantly a certain interest that is grabbed by the actors, which sucks
the audience into the show.

Comedy can be further divided into subcategories, for example, lampoon, farce, satire,
black comedy.