CHAPTER TWO

FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF SETS

IT 107 – Discrete Structures for IT

Part 1 ★ By Enumeration or Roster Method

- In this method, the elements of a set
Introduction and Preliminary Topics are listed or enumerated (in any order
but without repetition) and enclosed in
★ SET – any well-defined collection, group, braces. Each element is separated from
list, aggregation, or class of distinct the others by commas.
objects.
Examples:
★ Well-defined means that the membership
 A is the set of all even natural
in the set should be clear.
★ Distinct means that each object is different numbers between 20 and 40.
from the other objects within the set, such  C is the set of subjects offered in
that in cases of duplication, only one the 2nd semester for 1st year IT
occurrence of the objects is listed in the students
set.  Set V is the set of consonants in
★ Elements or Members – objects in the set. the word “STRUCTURES”
Examples are articles, people, conditions, ★ By Defining or Rule Method
places, letters or numbers. - Instead of listing the member of the
set, the rule method is used to define
Examples of Well-Defined sets: the elements of the set. The “set
builder notation” {𝑥 | 𝑃(𝑥)}
★ The set of bachelor degrees offered in the Examples:
state universities.  𝐴 = {𝑥│𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙
★ The set of letters of the Filipino alphabet. 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 40}.
★ The set of odd numbers less than 100.  𝐶 = {𝑥│𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛
★ The set of numbers 1,3,5,7,9 and 11. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝐼𝐶𝑇}.
★ A collection of coins.  𝑉 = {𝑥│𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒
★ An aggregate of live projects. 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑 "𝑆𝑇𝑅𝑈𝐶𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐸𝑆"}.

SET NOTATIONS Things to keep in mind:

 The set builder notation is an efficient
notation for describing sets.
★ SET – uppercase letters A,B,C,…,X,Y,Z  The symbol “ : ” can also be used instead
★ ELEMENTS/MEMBERS – lowercase of the vertical bar.
letters a,b,c,…,x,y,z and are enclosed in  Other letters can also be used instead of
braces { }. “x” such as v, w, y, z, etc.
○ a∈ A
○ a∉ A

KINDS OF SETS
TWO METHODS OF WRITING SETS

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CHAPTER TWO
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF SETS
IT 107 – Discrete Structures for IT

★ J={x∨x is an even number between 7

1. FINITE SET and 8}
 A set with k distinct elements,
where k ∈ N .
5. UNIVERSAL SET
 The given elements are limited or
 Set of all possible elements under
countable and its last element can
consideration.
be identified.
o Note: universal sets are
Examples: denoted by the uppercase
★ A={x∨x is a positive integer less than letter “U”.
17 }
Examples:
★ C={x∨x is an odd integer between
500 and  1000} ★ 𝑈= {𝑎,𝑏,𝑐,…,𝑥,𝑦,𝑧}
★ 𝑈= {1.0, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.0, 2.25, 2.5,
2. INFINITE SET 2.75, 3.0, 5.0}
 A set whose elements are unlimited
or uncountable. 6. SUBSETS, SUPERSET & PROPER
■ Note: the infinity of the set SUBSET
is denoted by three dots  A is a subset of B denoted by
{…} found at the end of the A ⊆ B , if every element of A is
listings. in B.
Examples:  If A is a subset of B, then we
★ D={0,1,2,3 , … } can say that B is a superset of
★ E={x∨x is a negative odd integer} A, and write B⊇ A .
★ F={x∨x is a proper fraction}  A is a proper subset of B,
denoted by A ⊂ B if A ⊆ B and
A≠B.
3. UNIT SET / SINGLETON SET
○ Note: Every set is a
 A set with only ONE ELEMENT.
subset of itself. The
Examples: empty set is a subset of
★ G={ x∨x is an integer greater than 10 but every set. The symbol “
less than 12} ⊆ ” is called an
★ H={x∨x is a number between 68 and 70} inclusion symbol.
Examples:
4. EMPTY SET / NULL SET / VOID SET
Consider the sets:
 A set containing NO OBJECTS or
ELEMENTS. A={ 1,2,3 };
 The braces with no elements { } or B= { 4,3,2,1 };
the symbol “ ∅ “ are used to denote C={ 1,2,3,4,5,6 }
and empty set. Then, we can say that:
A ⊆ B , A ⊂ B , A ⊆ C , and A ⊂C
Examples:
B⊇ A and C ⊇ A
★ I ={x∨x is an integer greater than 0 but
Also, ∅ ⊆ A , ∅ ⊆B and ∅ ⊆ C
less than -1}

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FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF SETS
IT 107 – Discrete Structures for IT

10. COMPLEMENTARY SETS

7. EQUAL SETS  Two sets are complementary sets if
 A=B , if and only if A ⊆B AND they are disjoint and if when
B⊆ A . The symbol “≠” is used to combined collectively they form
denote if two sets are not equal. the Universal set.
 The notation for the complement of
Examples:
A is AC .
{ 1,2,3 , 4 }={ 4,3,2,1 }
{ 2,3 , 4 }= {an integer between 1∧5 } Examples:
Let 𝑼={𝟎,𝟏,𝟐,𝟑,…,𝟗} and
8. EQUIVALENT SETS 𝑨={𝟎,𝟐,𝟒,𝟔,𝟖}.
 Two sets A and B are equivalent if
they have exactly the same number Then 𝑨𝑪={𝟏,𝟑,𝟓,𝟕,𝟗}
of elements.
 The symbol for set equivalence is ≈ 11. POWER SETS
 The set of all subsets (proper or
Examples:
not) of a set A is called the power
Consider the sets:
set of A.
A={ 1,2,3 };
 The notation for the power set of A
B= { a ,b , c } ; is P ( A ).
C={ μ , ε , α }  The number of elements in the
Then power set of the given set can be
A ≈ B , A ≈ C , and B ≈C verified by the formula|P ( A )|=2n.

9. DISJOINT SETS / NON- Examples:

INTERSECTION If we let 𝑨={𝒂,𝒃,𝒄}, then |𝑨|=𝟑 and |𝑷(𝑨)|
 Two sets A and B are disjoint if =𝟐^𝟑=𝟖.
they have no elements in common.
o Note: The empty set is non- 𝑷(𝑨)=[∅, {𝒂}, {𝒃},{𝒄}, {𝒂,𝒃},
intersection from any set {𝒂,𝒄}, {𝒃,𝒄}, {𝒂,𝒃,𝒄} 𝒐𝒓 𝑨]
and from itself since it has
no element common with 12. PRODUCT SETS
the elements of the sets.  The product set of two sets A and
B is defined as the set of all
Examples:
ordered pairs (a, b) for which the
★ The sets { 3,7,9,18,21 } and { 1,17,4 } are
first element a is from set A and
disjoint.
the second element b is from set B.
★ The set of positive numbers is disjoint
|A x B|=|A|∙|B|
from the set of negative numbers.
o Note: 1. “ 𝒙 ” is used for
★ The set of numbers less than 100 and the
the operations and 𝑨 𝒙 𝑩 is
set of numbers greater than 100 are
read as “𝑨 cross 𝑩”
disjoint.
o 2. 𝑨 𝒙 𝑩≠𝑩 𝒙 𝑨

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FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF SETS
IT 107 – Discrete Structures for IT

Examples:
VENN-EULER DIAGRAM
Let 𝑨={𝟏,𝟑,𝟒}, 𝐁={𝐚,𝐛,𝐜}. Find 𝑨 𝒙 𝑩 and 𝑩 𝒙
𝑨.
★ Leonard Euler & John Venn
Solution: Both sets 𝑨 and 𝑩 have 3 elements, so ★ A pictographic interpretation of sets,
each cross products has 9 members. where sets are represented by enclosed
areas in the plane and is represented by the
disks/circles, ovals, cloud-like shapes, and
a. 𝑨 𝒙 𝑩= {(𝟏, 𝒂), (𝟏, 𝒃), (𝟏, 𝒄), (𝟑, 𝒂), (𝟑, 𝒃)
striped or shaded.
(𝟑,𝒄), (𝟒,𝒂), (𝟒,𝒃), (𝟒,𝒄)} ★ The universal set U is represented by the
points inside the rectangle.
b. 𝑨 𝒙 𝑨= {(𝟏, 𝟏), (𝟏, 𝟑), (𝟏, 𝟒), (𝟑, 𝟏), (𝟑, 𝟑)
(𝟑,𝟒), (𝟒,𝟏), (𝟒,𝟑), (𝟒,𝟒)}

13. CLASSES OF SETS

 The set of sets or collection of sets
and some of its subsets in a given
set is called class of sets or classes
of sets.
o Note: Brackets [ ] are used OPERATIONS ON SETS
instead of braces to enclose
the set of a class. 1. UNION
 The union of two sets A and B,
Examples:
denoted by A ∪ B , is the set of all
Let M = { p , q , r , s }
elements which are in at least A or
Let P=¿ be the class of subsets of M which B.
contain exactly 3 elements of M .
Then,
P= [ { p , q , r } , { p ,q , s } , { p , r , s } , { q , r , s } ]
The elements of P are the sets:
{ p , q , r } , { p , q , s } , { p , r , s }∧ {q ,r , s }

Part 2 2. INTERSECTION
Venn-Euler Diagram, Operations &  The intersection of two sets A and
Applications B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of
all elements which belong to both
A and B.

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FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF SETS
IT 107 – Discrete Structures for IT

3. COMPLEMENT 5. SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE

 The complement of a set A ,  The symmetric difference of the
denoted by A∁ is the set of sets A and B, denoted by A ⊕ B ,
elements which belongs to the consists of those elements which
universal set U but which doesn’t belong to A and to B but not both
belong to A . A and B.
A ⊕ B=( A ∪B )−( A ∩ B)
or
A ⊕B=( A−B ) ∪ ¿)

4. DIFFERENCE
 The difference of A and B,
denoted by A−B , is the set of
elements which belong to A but EXAMPLES: Given the Venn diagram for the
which does not belong to B. sets U , A , B and C .
o Note: The notation A−B is
read as “ A minus B”. Some
texts denote A−B by A ¿,
or A B

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FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF SETS
IT 107 – Discrete Structures for IT

B and subtract the number of

elements that shared A and B .
★ Two Sets
- Joint sets: | A ∪ B|=¿ | A|+|B|−| A ∩ B|
- Disjoint sets: | A ∪ B|=¿ | A|+|B| because
A ∩ B=∅, then | A ∩ B|=0
★ Three Sets
★
| A ∪ B∪C|=|A|+|B|+|C|−| A ∩ B|−|A ∩C|−|B ∩C|+|

 A=¿ Examples:
 B=¿ 1. Find the cardinal number of the set
 C=¿ A={ c ,h , r , i, s , t , i, a , n } .
 U =¿ 2. If B={ x∨x is a natural number lessthan 8 }
 A ∪B=¿ , how many elements are there in B?
 A ∪ C=¿ 3. Let A=45 laptop; B=35 desktop, how
 B∪C=¿ many computers are there in all?
 A ∩ B=¿ 4. Let
 A ∩C=¿ A={C , O , M , P ,U , T , E , R , S , C , I , E , N ,C , E }
 B∩ C=¿ and
 A−B=¿ B={I , N , F ,O , R , M , A ,T , I , O, N , T , E ,C , H , N ,O , L ,
 B−C=¿ . What is the cardinality of A ∪B ?
 C− A=¿ 5. If A={a , b , c , d , e }, B={c ,d , e , f , g , h },
 U −B=¿ C={a , c , d , f , h , j ,l }. Find | A ∪ B∪ C|.
 U −( A ∩ B ∩C )=¿
 ( A ∪B )∁=¿
 ∁ ∁ APPLICATION TO WORD
B ∪C =¿
 A ⨁ B=¿ PROBLEMS

APPLICATION OF THE ∪ & ∩ OF Example 1:

In the BSIT class, it is expected that 39 students
SETS
will take Mathematics in the Modern World
(MMW), 35 will take Discrete Math, and 16 will
★ ADDITION PRINCIPLE take both.
○ The number of elements in A ∪B , • How many students will be taking MMW
denoted by | A ∪ B| also known as only?
cardinal number can be determined • How many students will be taking Discrete
by adding the number of elements
Math only?
in A to the number of elements in
• How many students are there in class?

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FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF SETS
IT 107 – Discrete Structures for IT

Example 2:
In the CICT, 125 male students are enrolled in the
Basketball class, 135 in the Chess class and 100 in OTHER APPLICATIONS
the Volleyball class. Of these students, 3 are in
both the Basketball and Chess classes, 6 are in ★ The Least Common Multiple (LCM) of a
both the Chess and Volleyball classes, and 4 are in set of counting numbers is the smallest
number common to all the sets of
both the Basketball and Volleyball classes. Two
multiples of the given number. One
of these students are enrolled in all three classes.
method of finding the LCM is by the use
What is the total number of enrolment in all
of Venn-Euler diagram.
classes?
STEPS:
1. Find the prime factorization of each of the
two numbers.
2. Put the prime factors into a Venn diagram
with one circle for each of two numbers,
and all factors they share in common in the
intersection.
3. To find the LCM, just multiply all of the
prime numbers in the diagram.
Example 3: 4. To find the GCF (Greatest Common
In a survey involving 125 factory workers, it was Factor), just multiply all of the prime
found that 56 finished job X, 46 finished job Y, 52 factors in the intersection.
finished job Z, 17 finished jobs X and Y, 23
finished jobs Y and Z, 24 finished jobs X and Z, Example 1:
12 finished all the three jobs. How many workers Find the LCM & GCF of 48 and 180 using Venn
finished at least: diagram.
• None of these jobs? 48 =
• Exactly one of these jobs? 180 =
• Exactly two of these jobs?

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IT 107 – Discrete Structures for IT

string is 1, if a i belongs to A and is 0 , if a i

doesn’t belong to A .
Example 1:
Let P={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14 } , and the
ordering of elements of P has the elements in
increasing order; i.e., a i=i.
• What bit string represents the subset of all
even integers in P ?
• What bit string represents the subset of all
odd integers in P ?
• What bit string represents the subset of
integers exceeding 7 in P ?

Example 2:
★ To find the bit string for the complement
Find the LCM & GCF of 18, 30 and 45 using
of the set ( A∁ ) from the bit string for that
Venn diagram.
set, simply change each 1 to a 0 and each 0
18 =
to 1. Like taking the negation of each bit.
30 =
45 =
Example 2:
Let { 1,2,3,4,5 }and { 1,3,5,7,9 }be the bit strings
1 11 11 0 0 0 0 0and
1 0 10 1 0 10 1 0, respectively, with
{ 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 }as the universal set.
Use bit strings to find the (a) Union and
(b) Intersection of these sets.

COMPUTER REPRESENTATION OF
SETS

★ Suppose the Universal set U is finite, so

that the number of elements of U is not
larger than the memory size of the
computer being used. And let a 1 , a2 , … , an
represent a subset A of U with the bit
string of length n , where the i th bit in this