Signal Encoding

Techniques

Dr. Sumit Srivastava

Dept. of CSE, BIT Mesra Ranchi
Email:- [email protected]
 References
▪ Tanenbaum and David J Wetherall, Computer Networks, 5th Edition,
Pearson Edu, 2010
▪ Computer Networks: A Top-Down Approach, Behrouz A. Forouzan,
FirouzMosharraf, McGraw Hill Education
▪ Larry L. Peterson and Bruce S. Davie, “Computer Networks – A
Systems Approach” (5th ed), Morgan Kaufmann/ Elsevier, 2011
▪ Data Communications and Networking, Behrouz A. Forouzan, TMH
▪ Data and Computer Communications, William Stallings, PHI
▪ Computer Networks, Andrew S. Tanenbaum, PHI Version 2 CSE IIT,
Kharagpur
▪ Internetworking with TCP/IP; Principles, Protocols, and Architecture,
Douglas E. Commer, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall of India

9/24/2021
 Introduction
• Data
– digital
– analog
• Signal
– digital
– analog
• Data Encoding (converted into)
➢ Converting source data → into communication signal
– digital to → digital
– digital to → analog
– analog to → digital
– analog to → analog
 Introduction
❑Digital data, digital signals: simplest form of digital encoding of digital
data
❑the equipment is less complex and less expensive than digital-to-
analog
Using Line coding Technique.
❑Digital data, analog signal: A modem converts digital data to an analog
signal so that it can be transmitted over an analog medium.
❑Analog data, digital signals: Analog data, such as voice and video, are
often digitized to be able to use digital transmission facilities.
❑Analog data, analog signals: Analog data are modulated by a carrier
frequency to produce an analog signal in a different frequency band, which
can be utilized on an analog transmission system
❑Eg:Voice transmission

Q)What type of signal we should use?

It depends on the situation and available bandwidth
 Data can be encoded in either form of
signals

Analog Signals

Analog Data

Voice
(sound waves)
Telephone Analog Signal

Digital Data

Binary Voltage Analog Signal

pulses Modem (Carrier frequency)
 Data can be encoded in either form of
signals

Digital Signals

Analog Data

Analog data Digital Signal

CODEC

Digital Data

Digital data Digital Digital Signal

Transmitter
 Signal Encoding Techniques

• Digital signaling: For digital signaling, a data source g(t), which

may be either digital or analog, is encoded into a digital signal
x(t).

• Analog signaling: The basis for analog signaling is a

continuous constant-frequency fc signal known as the Carrier
signal. E.g. AM or FM

• Baseband signal: The input signal may be analog or digital and

is called the modulating signal or baseband signal.
– Baseband signals are the fundamental group of frequencies in an analog or
digital waveform that may be transmitted along a channel. Examples of a digital
baseband signal may be Ethernet signals operating over a LAN
 Encoding is required because

• Signals are carried by the physical medium

• The performance of medium will vary depending on the
kind of signal, with varying characteristics in terms of
– Attenuation
– Error rate
– Distance
– Noise influence
– etc….
Encoding

signal
 Modulation

signal

10
 Modulation
• Modulation is the process of encoding source data onto
a carrier signal with frequency fc.
—The frequency of the carrier signal is chosen to be
compatible with the transmission medium being used.
—Modulation techniques involve operation on one or
more of the three parameters: amplitude,
frequency, and phase
• According to the input source signal m(t) (either analog
or digital), which is called baseband signal (or
modulating signal) , the carrier signal fc(t) will be
modulated into modulated signal s(t).

11
 Signal Encoding Techniques

• The electromagnetic signal is generated at the physical layer

• The electromagnetic signal could be analog or digital signals that
must carry the data(message).

• The data must be encoded into signals:

– Data Encoding is done to produce a analog or digital signal
– Modulation of a analog/digital data is used to produce an analog signal

• This analog signal can then be transmitted over a

network/communication link.

12
 Which one of the 4 combinations to
choose?
• Digital data/Digital signal
– Equipment for encoding is less complex
– Digital transmission has less errors
• Analog data/Digital signal
– Digital transmission can be done on the existing analog medium – good
return on investment (ROI)
– Digital transmission has less errors
• Digital data/Analog signal
– Some high data rate mediums are analog (e.g. optical fiber)
– most of the unguided media are analog (e.g. Wireless)
• Analog data/Analog signal
– Can be transmitted easily and cheaply; different position on the
spectrum can be shared on the same media (e.g. Frequency-division
multiplexing)
Data Encoding
 Data Encoding

• digital data to digital signal

• analog data to analog signal
• digital data to analog signal
• analog data to digital signal

15
 Properties that need to be considered
while encoding
• At least 5 properties need to be considered
when encoding any form of data to any signals
1. Signal spectrum requirement
2. Signal synchronization capability
3. Signal error-detecting capability
4. Signal interference and noise immunity
5. Cost and complexity of the encoding/decoding
equipment.

16
 Encoding

• Unfortunately we will not be able to achieve all the first

four properties at the cheapest cost by a single encoding
technique.

• Hence cost is an last 5th important factor that needs to be

considered as well

• Each encoding technique will satisfy (either fully or

partially) only a sub-set of the properties.

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 Some Popular Encoding Schemes of
Digital data to Digital signals

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 Terminologies
• Unipolar
— If all signal elements have the same algebraic sign (all positive
or all negative), then the signal is unipolar.
• Polar
— One logic state represented by positive voltage, the other by
negative voltage
• Data rate
— Rate of data transmission measured in bps: bits per second
• Duration or length of a bit
— Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit
• Modulation rate
— Rate at which the signal level changes
— Measured in baud: signal elements per second
• Mark and Space
— Mark: Binary 1
— Space: Binary 0
 Interpreting Digital Signals
➢Receiver needs to know
⚫ timing of bits - when they start and end

⚫ signal levels

➢Four factors affecting signal interpretation

⚫ signal to noise ratio

⚫ data rate

⚫ Bandwidth

• An increase in data rate increases bit error rate (BER).

• An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate.
• An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate.
➢ Another factor that can improve performance:
Encoding scheme: the mapping from data bits to signal elements
Line Coding Schemes
 Unipolar

▪ All signal levels are on one side of the time axis - either
above or below

▪ NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of this

code. The signal level does not return to zero during a
symbol transmission.

▪ Scheme is prone to baseline wandering and DC

components. It has no synchronization or any error
detection. It is simple but costly in power consumption.
 Unipolar NRZ scheme

In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis,
either above or below. In Non-Return-to-Zero, the signal does not return to
zero at the middle of the bit, where positive voltage defines bit 1 and the
zero voltage defines bit 0. Costly. the normalized power (the power needed
to send 1 bit per unit line resistance) is double that for polar NRZ.
Disadvantage: DC Component and Synchronization.
 Polar - NRZ
◼ The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.

◼ Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two

voltages. E.g. +V for 1 and -V for 0.

◼ There are two versions:

◼ NZR - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one

symbol and negative for the other

◼ NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of

change in polarity determines the value of a symbol.

E.g. a “1” symbol inverts the polarity a “0” does not.
Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes
 Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes
• Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) with L (Level) and I (Invert).
• In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
• In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the
value of the bit. If there is a long sequence of 0s or 1s in NRZ-L,
the average signal power becomes skewed.
• In NRZ-I this problem occurs only for a long sequence of 0s. The
synchronization problem.
• Another problem with NRZ-L occurs when there is a sudden
change of polarity in the system. NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an
average signal rate of N/2 Bd. NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC
component problem.
 Polar - NRZ
◼ In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the
value of the bit. In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of
inversion determines the value of the bit.

◼ NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average signal rate

of N/2 Bd.

◼ NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC component

problem and baseline wandering, it is worse for
NRZ-L. Both have no self synchronization &no
error detection. Both are relatively simple to
implement.
 Polar - RZ

◼ The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage

values. +, 0, -.
◼ Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either
from high to zero or from low to zero.
◼ This scheme has more signal transitions (two per
symbol) and therefore requires a wider bandwidth.
◼ No DC components or baseline wandering.
◼ Self synchronization - transition indicates symbol
value.
◼ More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has
no error detection capability.
Polar - RZ
Polar - Biphase: Manchester and Differential
Manchester
◼ Manchester coding consists of combining the
NRZ-L and RZ schemes.
◼ Every symbol has a level transition in the middle:
from high to low or low to high. Uses only two
voltage levels.
◼ Differential Manchester coding consists of
combining the NRZ-I and RZ schemes.
◼ Every symbol has a level transition in the middle.
But the level at the beginning of the symbol is
determined by the symbol value. One symbol
causes a level change the other does not.
Polar biphase: Manchester and
Differential Manchester schemes
 Polar biphase: Manchester and Differential
Manchester schemes

◼ In Manchester and differential Manchester

encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is
used for synchronization.

◼ The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and

differential Manchester is 2 times that of NRZ. The
is no DC component and no baseline wandering.
None of these codes has error detection.
 Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary

◼ Code uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to represent the

symbols (note not transitions to zero as in RZ).

◼ Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the other

alternates between + & -.

◼ Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the “0”

symbol is represented by zero voltage and the “1”
symbol alternates between +V and -V.

◼ Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.

Bipolar schemes: AMI and Pseudoternary
 Bipolar C/Cs

◼ It is a better alternative to NRZ.

◼ Has no DC component or baseline wandering.

◼ Has no self synchronization because long runs of

“0”s results in no signal transitions.

◼ No error detection.
 Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary

◼ Code uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to

represent the symbols (note not transitions to
zero as in RZ).
◼ Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the
other alternates between + & -.
◼ Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the
“0” symbol is represented by zero voltage and
the “1” symbol alternates between +V and -V.
◼ Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.
 Multilevel Schemes

◼ In these schemes we increase the number of data

bits per symbol thereby increasing the bit rate.

◼ Since we are dealing with binary data we only have 2

types of data element a 1 or a 0.

◼ We can combine the 2 data elements into a pattern of

“m” elements to create “2m” symbols.

◼ If we have L signal levels, we can use “n” signal

elements to create Ln signal elements.
 Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary

◼ Code uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to

represent the symbols (note not transitions to
zero as in RZ).
◼ Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the
other alternates between + & -.
◼ Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the
“0” symbol is represented by zero voltage and
the “1” symbol alternates between +V and -V.
◼ Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.
 Code C/Cs
◼ Now we have 2m symbols and Ln signals.

◼ If 2m > Ln then we cannot represent the data

elements, we don’t have enough signals.

◼ If 2m = Ln then we have an exact mapping of one

symbol on one signal.

◼ If 2m < Ln then we have more signals than symbols

and we can choose the signals that are more distinct
to represent the symbols and therefore have better
noise immunity and error detection as some signals
are not valid
◼ In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data
elements is encoded as a pattern of n signal
elements in which 2m ≤ Ln.
 Representing Multilevel Codes

◼ We use the notation mBnL, where m is the length of

the binary pattern, B represents binary data, n
represents the length of the signal pattern and L the
number of levels.

◼ L = B binary, L = T for 3 ternary, L = Q for 4

quaternary.
Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme
 Multilevel: 8B6T scheme
◼ The eight binary, six ternary (8B6T) is used with 100BASE-4T cable.
◼ 8
Signal has three levels (ternary) 2 = 256 different data patterns and
6
3 = 729 different signal patterns.
◼ There are 729 - 256 = 473 redundant signal elements that provide synchronization,
error detection and provide DC balance.
◼ The first 8-bit pattern 00010001 is encoded as the signal pattern - 0 - 0 + + with
weight 0; the second 8-bit pattern 01010011 is encoded as - + - + + 0 with weight +1.
The third 8-bit pattern 01010000 should be encoded as + - - + 0 + with weight +1.
◼ The receiver can easily recognize that this is an inverted pattern because the weight
is -1.
 4D-PAM5

◼ Four-dimensional five level pulse amplitude

modulation (4D-PAM5)
◼ The 4D means that data is sent over four wires at the
same time. It uses five voltage levels, such as -2, -1,
0, 1, and 2.
◼ However, one level, level 0, is used only for forward
error detection.
◼ Gigabit LANs use this technique to send 1-Gbps data
over four copper cables that can handle 125 Mbaud.
◼ The extra signal patterns can be used for other
purposes such as error detection.
 4D-PAM5

◼ Four-dimensional five level pulse amplitude

modulation (4D-PAM5)
◼ The 4D means that data is sent over four wires at the
same time. It uses five voltage levels, such as -2, -1,
0, 1, and 2.
◼ However, one level, level 0, is used only for forward
error detection.
◼ Gigabit LANs use this technique to send 1-Gbps data
over four copper cables that can handle 125 Mbaud.
◼ The extra signal patterns can be used for other
purposes such as error detection.
Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme
 Multitransition: MLT-3
◼ The multiline transmission, three-level (MLT-3) scheme
uses three levels (+V, 0, and -V) and three transition rules to
move between the levels.
1. If the next bit is 0, there is no transition.
2. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0, the next level
is 0.
3. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0, the next level is
the opposite of the last nonzero level.
◼ The three voltage levels (-V, 0, and +V) are shown by three
states (ovals).
◼ It turns out that the shape of the signal in this scheme helps to
reduce the required bandwidth.
◼ MLT-3 a suitable choice when we need to send 100 Mbps on a
copper wire that cannot support more than 32 MHz.
◼ 1 = level change. 0 = no change.
Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme
Summary of line coding schemes
 Block Coding

Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB

coding;
it replaces each m-bit group with an
n-bit group.
Block coding concept
Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line
coding scheme
4B/5B mapping codes
Substitution in 4B/5B block coding
8B/10B block encoding
 More bits - better error detection

◼ The 8B10B block code adds more redundant bits and

can thereby choose code words that would prevent a
long run of a voltage level that would cause DC
components.
 Redundancy

◼ A 4 bit data word can have 24 combinations.

◼ A 5 bit word can have 25=32 combinations.

◼ We therefore have 32 - 26 = 16 extra words.

◼ Some of the extra words are used for control/signalling

purposes.
 Scrambling

◼ We are looking for a technique that does not increase

the number of bits and does provide synchronization.
◼ We are looking for a solution that substitutes long
zero-level pulses with a combination of other levels to
provide synchronization.
◼ One solution is called scrambling.
◼ It is done at the same time when encoding.
◼ Two common scrambling techniques are B8ZS and
HDB3.
 Scrambling
• Use scrambling to replace sequences that would produce
constant voltage
• Main idea:
—Sequences that would result in a constant voltage are
replaced by filling sequences that will provide
sufficient transitions for the receiver’s clock to maintain
synchronization.
—Filling sequences must be recognized by receiver and
replaced with original data sequence.
—Filling sequence is the same length as original
sequence.
• Design goals:
—No dc component
—No long sequences of zero-level line signals
—No reduction in data rate
—Error detection capability
 Scrambling
◼ Two common scrambling techniques are B8ZS and
HDB3.
◼ Bipolar with 8-zero substitution (B8ZS): In this
technique, eight consecutive zero-level voltages are
replaced by the sequence 000VB0VB.
◼ High-density bipolar 3-zero (HDB3) : Two rules

1. If the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution is

odd, the substitution pattern will be 000V, which makes the total
number of nonzero pulses even.

2. If the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution is

even, the substitution pattern will be B00V, which makes the
total number of nonzero pulses even.
 B8ZS

• Bipolar With 8-Zeros Substitution

• Based on bipolar-AMI, whose drawback is a long string
of zeros may result in loss of synchronization.
• If octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage pulse
preceding this octet was positive, encode as 000+-0-+
• If octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage pulse
preceding this octet was negative, encode as 000-+0+-
• Causes two violations of AMI code
• Unlikely to occur as a result of noise
• Receiver recognizes the pattern and interprets the octet
as consisting of all zeros.
 HDB3
• High-Density Bipolar-3 Zeros
• Based on bipolar-AMI
• String of four zeros is replaced with sequences
containing one or two pulses.

Number of Bipolar Pulses since last

substitution
Polarity of Odd Even
Preceding Pulse
- 000- +00+

+ 000+ -00-
B8ZS and HDB3
 AMI used with scrambling

•For example: B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros

with 000VB0VB.
•The V stands for violation, it violates the line encoding rule
•B stands for bipolar, it implements the bipolar line
encoding rule
 Comparison of Encoding Schemes
Ways of evaluating or comparing the various encoding techniques:
1.Signal Spectrum - Lack of high frequencies reduces required bandwidth, lack of
dc component provide isolation.
2.Number of signal levels: two levels (for binary) , or multilevel

Two data levels, two signal levels Two data levels , three signal levels
3.Clocking - need for synchronizing transmitter and receiver either with an
external clock or with a sync mechanism based on signal
4.Error detection - useful if can be built in to signal encoding
5.Signal interference and noise immunity - some codes are better than others
6.Cost and complexity - Higher signal rate (& thus data rate) lead to higher costs,
 Data Encoding

• ✓ digital data to digital signal

• analog data to analog signal
• digital data to analog signal
• analog data to digital signal
 Modulation
• is a process of encoding an analog (or digital) data on to an
analog carrier signal whose frequency, say is f c Where f c is a
high frequency
• Input – analog (digital) data – called baseband or modulating
signal m(t)
• Output - analog signal - carried modulated signal s(t)
Amplitude Modulated Signal
M(t) ʘ Fc(t)

Analog Data
modulating Signal m(t)
High Frequency Signal
Fc(t)
Communication channel
 Modulation
Modulation:
The process by which some characteristics of the carrier,
ie(amplitude/frequency/phase) is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal
➢main use is public telephone system

⚫ has freq range of 300Hz to 3400Hz

⚫ use modem (modulator-demodulator)

➢encoding techniques

⚫ Amplitude shift keying (ASK)

⚫ Frequency shift keying (FSK)

⚫ Phase shift keying (PSK)

 Modulation Techniques

• is to vary one of the following three aspects of the carrier

signal

• Amplitude of the carrier (Amplitude modulation (AM))

• Frequency of the carrier (Frequency modulation (FM))

• Phase of the carrier (Phase modulation(PM))

• Example – AM and FM radio stations for the first two

respectively
 Modulation Techniques

Analog
Modulation
Techniques

Amplitude Modulation

Phase Modulation

Frequency Modulation
Modulation Techniques
 Data Encoding

• ✓digital to digital
• ✓analog to analog
• digital to analog
• analog to digital
Digital Data, Analog Signal – Modulation
Techniques
Digital Data

Amplitude
Shift keying

Frequency
Shift keying

Phase
Shift keying
 Amplitude Shift Keying
• encode 0/1 by different carrier amplitudes
– usually have one amplitude zero
• susceptible to sudden gain changes s(t) = A * Sin (2π f t + θ)
• inefficient A = Amplitude
f = carrier frequency
• used for
θ = Phase Angle
– up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
– very high speeds over optical fiber

“0” = 0 * Sin (2π f t + 0)

“1” = A * Sin (2π f t + 0)

 Binary Frequency Shift Keying
• most common is binary FSK (BFSK)
• two binary values represented by two different
frequencies (near carrier)
• less susceptible to error than ASK s(t) = A * Sin (2π f t + θ)
A = Amplitude
• used for f = carrier frequency
– up to 1200bps on voice grade lines θ = Phase Angle
– high frequency radio
– even higher frequency on LANs using co-axial cable

“0” = A * Sin (2π f1 t + 0)

“1” = A * Sin (2π f2 t + 0)

 Multiple FSK
• Each signalling element can also represent more than
one bit
– then more than two frequencies are required (e.g:2 bits – 4
frequencies for 00, 01, 10 and 11)
• More bandwidth efficient
• However more prone to error
 Phase Shift Keying
• phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent
data s(t) = A * Sin (2π f t + θ)
• binary PSK A = Amplitude
– two phases represent two binary digits f = carrier frequency
• differential PSK θ = Phase Angle
– phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather
than some reference signal

“0” = A * Sin (2π f1 t + 0)

“1” = A * Sin (2π f1 t + 180)

 Quadrature PSK
• get more efficient use if each signal element represents more
than one bit
– e.g.. shifts of /2 (90o)
– each element represents two bits
– split input data stream in two & modulate onto carrier & phase shifted
carrier
• can use 8 phase angles & more than one amplitude
– 9600bps modem uses 12 angles, four of which have two amplitudes

“11” = A * Cos (2π fc t + 45)

“10” = A * Cos (2π fc t + 135)
“00” = A * Cos (2π fc t + 225)
“01” = A * Cos (2π fc t + 315)
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• QAM used in asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) and some
wireless communication
• combination of ASK and PSK
• logical extension of QPSK
• send two different signals simultaneously on same carrier
frequency
– uses two copies of carrier fc, one shifted by a phase angle of 90°
– each carrier is ASK modulated
– two independent signals over same medium
– demodulate and combine for original binary output
 QAM Modulator
send two different signals simultaneously on same carrier frequency
uses two copies of carrier fc, one shifted by a phase angle of 90°
each carrier is ASK modulated
two independent signals over same medium
demodulate and combine for original binary output
 Data Encoding

• ✓digital data to digital signal

• ✓analog data to analog signal
• ✓digital data to analog signal
• analog data to digital signal
 Analog Data, Digital Signal
• Need to convert
– analog data into → digital Data
> called digitization
– then digital data to → digital signal

• Digitization Principle: Take the amplitude of the

signal at different intervals and convert the signal
value into digital data.
 Analog Data, Digital Signal

➢digitization is conversion of analog data into digital data which

can then:
⚫ be transmitted using NRZ-L

⚫ be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L

⚫ be converted to analog signal using one of the modulation

techniques
➢Codec (coder-decoder) : device used for converting analog data to
digital form . two principal techniques used in codecs :
⚫ pulse code modulation

⚫ delta modulation
Digitizing Analog Data
 Analog Data, Digital Signal

• analog to digital conversion is done using a

codec (coder-decoder)
• Conversion is done at least in two different
ways
– pulse code modulation (PCM)
– delta modulation (DM)
 An example
• Let the analog data be as shown
in the left picture

• Find the amplitude of the signal

at regular intervals (say at t1, t2,
t3, t4, t5, t6 in the figure)

• Express each amplitude in a

binary form.
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 • e.g. a signal voltage level, say at
t2 is represented as binary code
code # [15] in base10= [1111]2
which is binary - digital data
 An Example (cont’d)

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 How often you need to sample the analog
data?
• If you want to decode the original signal from its
digital data, then the sampling theorem specifies the
minimum rate at which you need to sample the
analog signal
– “If a signal f(t) is sampled at regular intervals of time at a rate
higher than twice the highest signal frequency, then the samples
contain all the information of the original signal” (Stallings
DCC8e)
– e.g.. 4000Hz voice data, requires 8000 sample per sec
– Note that these are analog samples, referred to as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM) samples
– The PAM samples must be assigned to a binary code to
complete the digitization of the original analog signal

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 PCM Block Diagram

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 Delta Modulation
• analog input is approximated by a staircase function
– can move up or down one level () at each sample interval
• has binary behavior
– since function only moves up or down at each sample interval
– hence can encode each sample as single bit
– 1 for up or 0 for down

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 Delta Modulation Example

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 Delta Modulation Operation

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 PCM versus Delta Modulation
• DM has simplicity compared to PCM
• DM is easier to implement compared to PCM
• DM has worse SNR compared to PCM
• PCM has better SNR compared to DM
• PCM has issue of bandwidth being used
– e.g. for good voice reproduction with PCM
> want 128 levels (7 bit) & voice bandwidth of 4khz
> need 8000 x 7 = 56kbps
• data compression can improve on BW issues..
• PCM is the choice and still growing demand for digital signals
– Due to use of repeaters, TDM(no intermodulation noise), and efficient
switching
• PCM is preferred to DM for analog signals

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 Summary

• We looked at signal encoding techniques

– digital data to digital signal

– analog data to analog signal
– digital data to analog signal
– analog data to digital signal

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 Thank You

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