University of California, Los Angeles

School of Engineering and Applied Science Department of Electrical

and Computer Engineering

ECE110L Lab Manual

Fall 2021
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES
School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
*****************************************************************************
EE110L Experiment #1

Analog Discovery and Series/Parallel Circuits

*****************************************************************************
Topics
 Resistors & Photoresistors
 Introduction to Analog Discovery 2 (AD2) and basic instrumentation
Objectives
 To learn the color code and power rating for resistors and become familiarized with
 To become familiar with basic circuit construction, and operation of the AD2 device
 To learn how to measure voltage, and resistance with the voltmeter and the impedance analyzer on
Analog Discovery 2
 To experimentally verify equivalent resistance
 To use a voltage divider circuit as a light sensor
Background
In this first assignment, you will become familiar with some of the common laboratory equipment. Become
comfortable with everything in this assignment before next week. Each assignment builds upon previous
assignments. If you are confused or lost today, ask for help. The longer you wait, the more time you waste, and
your confusion will show up on your grade.

Terminology:
DC direct current: This means that the voltage is not time varying,
unless you turn it on or off.
Series
Parallel
Shunt
AD2 Analog Discovery 2
Power Supply In this lab, your power supply is a DC Voltage Source
Voltage
Current
Resistance
Power

1
Theoretical Background
What is a resistor
A resistor is a fundamental circuit element. A resistor converts the energy of electrons which flow through it
into heat. The more heat produced for a given flow or electrons, the larger its resistance. Heat is created by the
transfer of energy from the electrons into the material of the resistor.

To know how much power is dissipated by sending electrons through a resistor, we multiply the resistance by
the square of the current. We measure heat in the same units as energy - calories or Joules. So, we have an
equation for the heat power dissipated by a resistor:

We can feel the heat, and sometimes even see the glow of a resistor that is dissipating a lot of power. A light
bulb and heating filament of a toaster are good examples of this. Each resistor has a resistance. The higher the
resistance, the more heat will be generated for a given flow rate of electrons. The color code labels resistance
values for many resistors:

Resistor Color Code

Black – 0 Orange – 3 Blue – 6 White – 9
Brown – 1 Yellow – 4 Violet – 7 Gold – (-1)
Red – 2 Green – 5 Gray – 8 Silver – (-2)

Resistor tolerances (+ or - %)
No Band – 20% Silver – 10% Gold – 5%

How to read a resistor's value

Bands of color on a resistor are read in the following manner:

The first two bands (starting with the band closest to one edge of the resistor) indicate the first two digits (the
mantissa) of a resistor's value; the third band is an exponent of 10, and indicates the number of zeroes following
the first two digits.

Figure 1: Color Bands of Typical Resistors

For example:
brown-black-red is 10 times 102, or 1000 ohms
red-green-yellow is 25 times 104, or 250,000 ohms

Multiples of 1000 are called kilohms, multiples of 1,000,000 are called Megaohms or . Thus, the first
example would be 1 ; the second example would be 250 . (Note that gold or silver third bands represent

2
negative exponents and are used to express resistance down to the nearest hundredth of an ohm, e.g., brown-
red-silver would be 0.12 .)

The fourth band called "tolerance" indicates the degree of uncertainty, or accuracy of the resistor from its
nominal (color coded) value. A 1 resistor with 5% tolerance will have an actual resistance anywhere from
950 to 1050 ohms, since 50 is 5% of 1000. There is a fifth band which indicates reliability failure rate of the
resistor and will not be a concern in this course.

Since there are only a few resistor values necessary to cover the entire spectrum of resistance values (because of
the uncertainty or tolerance of 5% and 10% resistor values), not every possible color combination of resistors is
available for use. The following table shows the mantissas for resistance values available with 5% tolerance.
For those resistors available with 10% tolerance, eliminate every other value in this table. For resistors available
with 20% tolerance, eliminate every other value from the table of 10% tolerance values.

Nominal Values of Resistors with 5% Tolerance

10 18 33 56
11 20 36 62
12 22 39 68
13 24 43 75
15 27 47 82
16 30 51 91

Notice that the difference between adjacent values is approximately 10%. This is because each resistor may
measure up to 5% more or 5% less than its nominal (color-coded) value.
For example, a 300 , 5% resistor may measure anywhere from 285 to 315 .

Photoresistors
Photoresistors are light sensitive resistors. They sense incoming light, and adjust their resistance based upon the
amount of light incident upon the. Most photoresistors provide low resistance in the presence of bright light,
and high resistance in the dark. As with all resistors, there is no polarity of photoresistors – they may be plugged
into your circuit in either direction.

Equivalent Resistance
The equivalent resistance of two or more resistors in series is given as:

The equivalent resistance of two or more resistors in parallel can be found through:

Skills you should master

Know the color code for Resistors

Be able to identify the value of a resistor by its color bands. By looking at the color code, it should be obvious
which direction you are reading a resistor from by looking at the colors in each band. For instance, if you see
gold or silver as either the first or second band, you should immediately realize you are reading the resistor
backwards.

3
Know which values of resistors are commonly available, and which are not
Not every possible color combination for resistor values is available. The 5% tolerance resistors are generally
available in steps which are spaced by 10%. A 5% tolerance is available and should be used for that application.
There is a chart in the laboratory which lists the available resistors and their tolerances.

Well-designed circuits work with resistors which may be off by 20% or more from their nominal values. If a
precise resistance value is necessary, precision resistors, with tolerances below 1%, and adjustable resistors are
available. They are considerably more expensive.

Know how to determine the Power Rating of a resistor and how to calculate the power dissipated by a
resistor
The power dissipated by a resistor is the product of the voltage drop across that resistor and the current
through the resistor:

Another, perhaps more useful way of writing this is:

The diameter of most resistors identifies the maximum power which they can safely dissipate. The following
table should be taken as a guide for reading the power ratings of your resistors. Some resistors, especially those
which can dissipate more than 1 Watt, will have their power rating printed on them.
Approximate Diameter Power Rating
1/16” 1/4 Watt
1/8” 1/2 Watt
7/32” 1 Watt
5/16” 2 Watt

Getting started with Analog Discovery 2 and the breadboard

Visit https://digilent.com/reference/test-and-measurement/analog-discovery-2/getting-started-guide/ and follow
all steps to ensure the hardware is properly interfacing with the software: WaveForms. The breadboard is where
the components (resistors, capacitors, pin headers, etc.) are placed, and is usually configured in row/column-
shorted fashion. For example, in the breadboard shown in Figure 2, 1A through 1E are shorted and 2F through
2J are shorted as well.

Figure 2: Breadboard connection

4
The Voltmeter
There are two voltmeter channels on Analog Discovery 2 with pins 1+/1- as channel 1, and pins 2+/2- as
channel 2. Jump wires are used to connect both channels to the breadboard and components.

Figure 3: Voltmeter channels pin map

In the WaveForms software, open the Voltmeter applet (Figure 4) from the left column and the DC voltages
across 1+/1- and 2+/2- will be readily available when you click run.

Figure 4: Voltmeter applet in WaveForms software

The power supplies and grounds

Analog Discovery 2 provides one positive and one negative programmable power supplies with pins V+/V-.
The maximum available supply range is [-5V, +5V]. Ground pins are also available labelled as ↓.

Figure 5: Power supplies pin map

5
Do not forget to connect the grounds to the circuit to form a loop. Jump wires are used to connect both supplies
and grounds to the breadboard and components. In the WaveForms software, open the Supplies applet from the
left column and the supply voltages will be available when enabled.

Figure 6: Power supplies applet in WaveForms

The impedance analyzer
The impedance analyzer is used to measure the resistance/capacitance/inductance of a component. Within the
scope of 11L, resistance measurement is of the most interest. The use of the impedance analyzer involves
multiple pins and a reference resistor. The impedance analyzer requires the specific connection shown on the
right. The box labelled R is the resistor to be measured. An additional is also needed, connected between
AD2 ground and 2+ pin. 1- and 2- must also be grounded.
W1
1+

2+

1kW

And 1- & 2-
Figure 7: Impedance analyzer pin map
To measure the resistance, in the WaveForms software, open the Impedance applet from the left column.
Follow the settings shown below. The averaging time can be set longer if the impedance reading is jittery. Make
sure resistor is selected in the workspace.

Figure 8: Impedance analyzer applet in WaveForms

6
Lab
1. Ohm’s Law and Measuring Voltage and Current
Retrieve the following resistors: , , and . Using the Run button, measure the resistance of each
of the above resistors using the Impedance Analyzer and record the values. You will use them for your
theoretical calculations ahead.

W1
1+

R to be measured

2+

1kW

And 1- & 2-

Figure 9: Setup for resistor measurement

Build the circuit illustrated in Figure 9 on your breadboard using the previously obtained resistors. Set the
voltage in the Impedance Analyzer to 1V and remember to include the reference resistor in the connection.
Note that due to the non-ideality of the impedance analyzer, the voltage across R to be measured may not be
exactly equal to 1V, and subsequent measurements may not repeat exactly.

Using the resistor values listed above, verify Ohm’s Law by recording the voltage, current, and resistance in the
circuit in each case from Analog Discovery 2. Record your experimental values in the table below.
Resistance ( ) Voltage (V) Current (A) Measured
Resistance ( )
100
470
1000
Discussion
 How did the values of resistance vary from their given values based on color code? Were they within the
given variance?
 How does Ohm’s Law hold for your experimental results?
 AD2 cannot measure the current directly, which is needed to determine the resistance of the test resistor.
Based on your observation, how does AD2 impedance analyzer produce the value for the current through
the resistors? HINT: think about the reference resistor.
 Why must 1- and 2- also be grounded in this portion of the experiment?

7
2. Equivalent Resistance
Build the following resistive network shown in Figure 10. Once again, measure the values of resistance using
the Impedance Analyzer (setup of Figure 1) before performing analysis. , , .

R1
R3
R2
A B
Figure 10: A simple resistive network

Calculate the equivalent resistance as measured across nodes A and B. Measure the resistance across A and B
using the Impedance Analyzer. Does this agree with your theoretical equivalent resistance value? If not, why?

3. Voltage and Current Dividers

Construct the voltage divider in Figure 11 with values: , . Use the V+ power supply in
AD2 for the 5V voltage source. You will be measuring the voltage across each resistor with the Voltmeter
Instrument in AD2 and comparing the readings with theoretical results.

R1

5V

R2

Figure11: A voltage divider

Based on the voltage divider of Figure 11, you are now asked to design a sensor circuit which translates the
lighting in the environment into a voltage value through the use of a photoresistor. A photoresistor’s resistance
decreases with increasing brightness of light.
1. Replace with the photoresistor. This is now the component
across which the output voltage will be measured.
2. Change the resistor such that the output of the circuit would be approximately 50% of the input
voltage in standard room lighting, but roughly 5V in darkness. Use the 5V supply as the power source as
in previous sections.
3. Using this circuit, measure the output both in normal lighting, and in darkness.

8
Next, construct the following current divider shown in Figure 12 with values: , ,
.

R1

5V

R2 R3

Figure 12: A current divider

Measure the voltage across each resistor with the voltmeter inside AD2 and compute the branch current using
Ohm’s Law.

Discussion
 How did the voltage and current divider compare with theoretical
expectations?
 How does the resistance of the photoresistor change as you alter the level of light?

9
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES
School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
*****************************************************************************
EE110L Experiment #2

Kirchhoff’s Laws and Equivalent Source Transformation

*****************************************************************************
Topics
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
 Equivalent source transformations
Objectives
 To experimentally verify Kirchhoff’s Laws
 To understand how to apply Thevenin and Norton equivalence theorems

Theoretical Background
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the sum of the voltages in a loop of a circuit must sum to zero.

Figure 1: KVL example:

10
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the total current going into a node must equal the total current
leaving the node.

Figure 2: KCL:

Equivalent Source Transformation

With Ohm’s Law in mind, a voltage source in series with a resistance R, is equivalent to a current source with
current V/R, in parallel with R. This equivalency is illustrated below.
R

V V/R R

Figure 3: Equivalent source transformations

Thevenin Equivalent Theorem

Thevenin Equivalent circuits can be used to convert a source circuit network down to an equivalent circuit
containing only a single voltage source and resistor such that the current and voltage as seen at the load will
remain the same. Similarly, Norton Equivalent circuits can convert a circuit into an equivalent circuit
consisting of a single current source and a resistance parallel.

To find the equivalent resistance, Set all sources to zero (remove voltage sources and replace with a short;
remove current sources and replace with an open).

Figure 4: De-activate the active sources

11
Then, determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit with removed sources as seen from the terminals. This
equivalent resistance gives the Thevenin/Norton resistance. With the sources in place, the open circuit voltage
(with no load across the terminals) gives the Thevenin Voltage.

Figure 5: Finding open-circuit voltage and equivalent source resistance for the Thevenin circuit

Similarly, if we short circuit the load, the short circuit current is equal to the Norton Current. With these values
known, one can construct the equivalent circuits as pictures in Figure 1, with a single source and resistor.

Figure 6: Finding short-circuit current and equivalent source conductance for the Norton circuit

Lab
1. Kirchhoff’s Laws Analysis of Circuits
Build the circuit illustrated in Figure 7 with the following resistor values: , , ,
, .
R2 R4

R1
R3 R5
5V

Figure 7: Kirchhoff’s laws analysis

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Laws, find the theoretical values of the voltage and current across each
resistor. Measure each of the voltages and compute the branch currents (using Ohm’s law), and compare with
the theoretical and experimental values.

Discussion
 Do your experimental results obey Kirchhoff’s Laws?

12
2. Thevenin/Norton Equivalent
Build the circuit illustrated in Figure 8. Measure and record the values of resistance of each resistor you use.
Use .

5.6kW 4.7kW

1.2kW
-5V RL
+5V
B

Figure 8: Thevenin/Norton equivalent circuit analysis

Calculate the Thevenin equivalent voltage ( ), Norton equivalent current ( ), and Thevenin resistance
( ) values using theoretical analysis, and record these values in the table below. Also measure the actual
values of the open circuit voltage (that is, the voltage at terminals Ⓐ and Ⓑ, , without RL attached), and
equivalent resistance ( ) across the nodes Ⓐ and Ⓑ of the circuit using the voltmeter and impedance
analyzer in Analog Discovery 2. Note that to measure the equivalent resistance, you need to de-activate both
voltage sources (remove them and replace them with a short). Compute the short-circuit current ( )
accordingly.

VTH, V IN, mA RTH/N, VOC, V ISC, mA Req,

Now, build the Thevenin equivalent circuit. Use the closest resistor value to the required one. To build the
variable voltage supply needed for the Thevenin Equivalent circuit, adjust the power supply in Analog
Discovery 2 as appropriate. Verify the equivalency by measuring the voltage across the load resistor for the
constructed Thevenin equivalent circuit, and compare with the results of the original circuit.

Discussion
 How did the voltage across the load compare between the original circuit and Thevenin equivalent
circuit?
 If our goal is to achieve maximum power dissipation across the load resistance, what load is the best
choice? How does this value compare with the Thevenin equivalent resistance?

13
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES
School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
*****************************************************************************
EE110L Experiment #3

Simple Resistive Networks

*****************************************************************************
Topics
 Principle of superposition
 Wheatstone bridge
 Thermistors
 Potentiometers

Objectives
 To measure and experimentally verify the principle of superposition
 To understand the operation of the Wheatstone bridge, and to apply to constructing circuits with sensors

Theoretical Background
Principle of Superposition
Superposition is a property of linear systems, which may be expressed mathematically as
, where f is a linear system function (for example the transfer function of a circuit) and
x and y re independent inputs. Circuits with only resistor, capacitor, and inductors are linear circuits. That is,
they represent a linear function. The voltage at any node or current through any branch is a linear function of
the source values.

The Principle of Superposition states that for a linear circuit, the voltage at any node (or current at any branch)
can be calculated as the algebraic sum of the voltages (or currents) caused by each source acting alone. One at a
time, isolate each source by removing other sources (remove voltage sources and replace with a short; remove
current sources and replace with an open). The sum of the responses will give you the same solution as if all
sources were active at once. This can simplify the analysis of circuits containing multiple sources.

Example of Superposition
Consider the following circuit:

56Ω 33Ω

10V I, V 56Ω 100mA

Figure 1: Superposition Example Circuit

14
First, deactivate the independent current source by making it an open circuit. Find the desired voltage across
and current through the resistor.

56Ω 33Ω

10V I V 56Ω

Figure 2: Current Source Replaced with Open Circuit

By voltage division, . Clearly, .

Next, replace the current source and deactivate the independent voltage source by short circuiting it. Find the
desired voltage across and current through the resistor.

56Ω 33Ω

I V 56Ω 100mA

Figure 3: Voltage Source replaced with Short Circuit

By current division, and .

Now, combining the voltages and currents due to each source acting alone, the voltage
and currents from both sources can be determined.

This can be verified by solving the original circuit by using Kirchhoff’s current Law at the top center node.

Bridges and Sensors

A simple readout circuit for a resistive temperature-sensor, as you should be aware, is a voltage divider (Figure
4). By placing the sensor as one of the resistors in the divider, the output voltage follows the resistance of the
sensor element, i.e., the output voltage increases as the sensor's resistance increases.

15
 Vs

Rsensor Vout

Figure 4: Voltage Divider Resistive Sensor Readout Circuit

Alternatively, the sensor could be swapped in place of the other resistor, causing the output voltage to decrease
as the sensor's resistance increases. Typically, R is chosen to equal Rsensor at its nominal (room temperature)
value.

This circuit has two obvious disadvantages:

1. The output voltage is biased away from zero. This is a problem. For a photoresistive sensor, this means
that the output voltage in the dark or light is biased away from zero.

2. The output voltage signal is susceptible to variation on the input supply. That is, if changes by an
amount , will be changed. This is not good because we prefer that any changes in will be
caused by Rsensor. If is supplied by a battery, then as the battery is used, its voltage will drop,
causing a drop in . If is supplied by a power supply that plugs into the wall, then there will be a
small "ripple" in , oscillating at 60 Hz.

To eliminate those problems, engineers use the Wheatstone Bridge. The Wheatstone Bridge looks like two
voltage dividers in parallel, sharing the same source. This circuit has the property that when
.

R1 R2
Vs +V-
R3 R4

Figure 5: Wheatstone Bridge

Any of the resistors of the bridge may be replaced by a resistive sensor. If, for example, we position the sensor
in place of , and choose , , and such that = 0, then increases when the sensor's resistance
increases. The relative change in the output voltage of this circuit is much greater than the relative change in
output voltage from the voltage divider circuit.

16
Typically, the remaining 3 resistors are selected to equal the nominal resistance of the sensor. This has the
advantage of setting the nominal output voltage of the circuit to zero.

If changes with time, what is the corresponding change in V for the Wheatstone Bridge?

If we choose to have our sensor as , and set , , and equal to the nominal resistance of the sensor, then
the equation becomes

If we assume , and that the nominal value of , then this equation can be
simplified as

Therefore, we can see that the contribution of to V is as a higher order term (it has a product of 2
differential quantities) and can be ignored.

Thermistors
Thermistors are temperature sensitive resistors. They sense their ambient temperature and adjust their resistance
based upon that temperature. Thermistors may have a positive or negative temperature coefficient. That is, their
resistance may go up or down with an increasing temperature. Their temperature coefficient is determined by
the materials which compose the thermistor. As with all resistors, there is no polarity of thermistors - they may
be connected to your circuit in either direction.

Potentiometers
To produce a perfect balance in a Wheatstone bridge, a variable resistor is necessary. These are sometimes
called Potentiometers or adjustable resistors. The are 3-terminal devices. Physically, a potentiometer consists of
a conductor with nonzero resistance and a terminal at each end, just as any other resistor, but it also has a
“wiper” terminal which may be positioned anywhere along the conductive material of the resistor.
wipe
r
T1 T2
T1

Wiper
T2
Figure 6: Potentiometer Construction and Symbol

17
The resistance between terminals 1 and 2 remains fixed regardless of the position of the wiper. The sum of the
resistances from the wiper to terminal 1 and the resistance from the wiper to terminal 2 equals the resistance
from terminal 1 to terminal 2.
Most potentiometers are manufactured in a circular shape, such as this:

Figure 7: Physical Diagram of a Conventional Potentiometer

The wiper is attached to a shaft (out of the plane) which is rotated in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction
to the CW or CCW terminal. As a variable resister, terminals CCW and W (or CW and W) are connected to the
circuit. Commonly, the unused terminal will be connected to the wiper to reduce unwanted capacitance.

Lab
1. Superposition
Build the circuit illustrated in Figure 8. Remember: the voltage sources are grounded internally in the AD2
hockey puck.
a) Measure the voltage and compute the branch current across the middle resistor (470Ω) with both sources
in place.
b) Zero out the +5V source (remove and replace with a short), and once again record the voltage and
current across the middle resistor (470Ω).
c) Next, replace the +5V source, and this time zero out the -5V voltage source (remove and replace with a
short). Repeat measurements across the middle resistor.
680W 1kW
470W

+5V -5V

Figure 8: Superposition test circuit

Compare the theoretical analysis of superposition by analyzing the circuit with each source acting alone and
compare with the acquired experimental data.

18
 Sources 470Ω Resistor Voltage 470Ω Resistor Current
(Computed)
+5V only
-5V only
Sum of above
Both sources

Discussion
 How did the theoretical results compare with experimental values?

2. Wheatstone Bridge
Design, build, and calibrate a thermistor temperature sensor circuit. Use the thermistor you have been provided
with. Your circuit output voltage should range from 0 Volts at room temperature to 0.5 Volts at 98.6°F, (body
temperature).
The trick here is to set up the circuit as a Wheatstone bridge. Consider power dissipation of all circuit elements.
Calibrate your circuit at room temperature and at body temperature by pinching the thermistor between your
fingertips, (using masking tape to insulate the wire leads electrically, of course). If you have trouble finding
exact values to give a perfect balance at zero volts, use a variable resistor from the stockroom.
Lower the supply voltage by 10%. How does your output voltage change at room temperature and at body
temperature?
Discussions:
 What are the restrictions on the design choice of thermistor resistance value, so that the bridge accurately
gives 0.5 Volt of output at 98.6°F? Remember that half-Watt resistors get rather warm. Therefore, consider
the power dissipation in the thermistor.
 Draw the schematic of the Wheatstone Bridge circuit you used with the thermistor.
 What was the output voltage at room temperature? What was the output voltage at body temperature?

19
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES
School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
*****************************************************************************
EE110L Experiment #4

Circuits in Sinusoidal Steady State

*****************************************************************************
Topics
 Ohm’s law for AC Circuits
 Frequency domain analysis of RC and RL circuits

Objectives
 To verify ohm’s law for resistive and non-resistive circuits
 To find amplitude and phase of current and voltage in RC and RL circuits

Theoretical Background
Electrical Impedance
Electrical impedance or impedance in short describes a measure of opposition to alternating current (AC). It
extends the concept of resistance to AC circuits, describing not only the relative amplitudes of the voltage and
current, but also the relative phases. When the circuit is driven with direct current (DC) there is no distinction
between impedance and resistance; the latter can be thought of as impedance with zero phase angle.

The symbol for impedance is usually , which represents a complex number. represents the magnitude of,
and represents the phase of .Consider an AC supply applying a voltage , across a load , driving a
current . Under this circumstance all the variables represent complex values. Ohm's law for AC circuits is
given as follows:

Just as impedance extends Ohm's law to cover AC circuits, other results from DC circuit analysis such as
voltage division, current division, as well as Thévenin’s, and Norton's theorem can also be extended to AC
circuits by replacing resistance with impedance.

Impedance of individual elements

The impedance of an ideal resistor is purely real and is referred to as a resistive impedance:

20
In this case, the voltage and current waveforms are proportional and in phase. Ideal inductors and capacitors
have a purely imaginary impedance. The impedance of inductors increases as frequency increases: ,
while the impedance of capacitors decreases as frequency increases: .

In both cases, for an applied sinusoidal voltage, the resulting current is also sinusoidal, but 90⁰ out of phase with
the voltage. However, the phases have opposite signs: in an inductor, the current is lagging; in a capacitor the
current is leading.

In circuits with resistive and imaginary impedances, the phase difference between voltage and current will vary
between −90° and +90°. For instance, in the circuit below with a resistor R and capacitor C in series, the total
impedance of the circuit is = R + 1/(jωC) = R − j(1/ωC), after rationalizing the square root in the
denominator. (Remember, in the electrical world, j is the imaginary number.) If ω=1000 rad/s, R=1000 Ω, and
C = 1 μF, then = 1000 − j1000 Ω = 1414⦨ −45°, after converting from rectangular to polar. If the circuit is
driven by =10 , then the current i=10⦨0° / 1414⦨−45° = 7.07⦨45° mA.

Figure 1: RC Circuit Example

The voltage across the resistor is =iR=(7.07⦨45° mA)(1 KΩ)=7.07⦨45° V. Therefore, by KVL, the voltage
across the capacitor is − =10⦨0°−7.07⦨45°=7.07⦨−45°, after the appropriate complex arithmetic. As
you can see, all of the calculations done above mirror those done with DC circuits, with the only difference
being the use of complex arithmetic, which you have studied before.

Bode Plots
Bode plots are the frequency responses of the circuit by applying a variable frequency wave generator ( ) at the
input and measuring the transfer function as a function of frequency.

Vs Vout

Figure 2: Generic Network Transfer Function

21
For example, consider the simple Low Pass Filter circuit below.

+
vs C vOut
-

Figure 3: 1st-order RC Low Pass Filter

The transfer function , which we call the Gain Function, can be written as follows:

Since H is a complex function, to see its variation with frequency we must plot both magnitude and
phase functions vs. frequency.

For the magnitude function we usually define the dB Gain as follows:

Let us first consider the behavior of this function at very low and at ve ry high frequencies,

For , (which means )

For , (for example at , )

At ,

The dB Gain function vs. frequency is shown in a coordinate plane with a linear vertical axis for the Gain and a
logarithmic horizontal axis for the frequency. The linear approximate functions for and are
shown with broken lines. These lines are not true at or near f but if continued they intersect at . The actual
variation of dB Gain is shown as a solid line with a value of - 3 dB at and approaching the approximate
curves asymptotically at low and high frequency ends. The frequency is often called the "3dB frequency" or
"break frequency". At high frequencies the slope or "roll-off rate" of the function is 20 dB/decade. (A
decade is a frequency band where the highest frequency is 10 times the lowest frequency).

For the phase variation of the function H vs frequency, we can write it as,

So that, considering the plot of the term in the complex plane, we can see that,

22
The plot of which is shown on the right of Figure 4. The Gain and Phase functions plotted in this fashion are
called “Bode Plots”.

3dB Frequency

-20dB/dec

fo fo
Figure 4: dB Gain Function and Phase vs Frequency Plot (Bode Plots)

The Network Analyzer in Analog Discovery 2

This tool plots the magnitude and phase responses of a transfer function across the frequency of interest. The
waveform generator outputs a frequency-sweeping source. The two oscilloscope channels on Analog Discovery
2 measure the phasors across the source (input) and load (output), respectively.

Figure 5: Network Analyzer Pinmap

In the WaveForms software, open the Network applet from the left column and the magnitude and phase
responses of the network will be plotted when you click single. Pay attention to the starting and stopping
frequency to correctly reflect the circuit behavior below and above the corner frequency. With a larger number
of samples or a larger number of points per decade, the plot becomes smoother. Make sure in the magnitude
panel, the tool is plotting relative to channel 1, which is the measured source phasor. The top and bottom
numbers in dB are useful to zoom in at a specific area of interest.
For more information on the Network Analyzer, visit: https://digilent.com/reference/test-and-
measurement/guides/waveforms-network-analyzer

23
 Figure 6: Magnitude and Phase Plots in Network Analyzer

Lab
1. Frequency domain analysis of 1st-order circuits
Using , , , and , build the RC and RL circuits illustrated in Figure
7.
R1 C

+ +
vs C vO vs R1 vO
- -

R2 L

+ +
vs L vO vs R2 vO
- -

Figure 7 RC and RL networks

Apply a sinusoidal wave to the input with (70.7 mVrms) amplitude and frequency ranging from
100Hz to 100kHz. Adjust the settings in the Magnitude and Phase boxes to get a

24
good look at the curves developed. See the lecture slides. Plot and for frequencies within the range
(take a screenshot of the Network Analyzer output for each of the above circuits).
For the C-R circuit in the upper right above, record the magnitude and phase of at 1 KHz. Use
these numbers to calculate the current in the circuit at that frequency, using the calculations outlined above.
Remember that the magnitude plot is in decibels, and:

.
Express in both polar and rectangular forms.
Also, compute the current in the same C-R circuit analytically.
Discussion:
 Compare the difference between the theoretical value with the measured value.

25
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES
School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
*****************************************************************************
EE110L Experiment #5

Resonant Circuits, LC Filters and Mutual Inductance

*****************************************************************************
Topics
 RLC resonance circuits
 LC lowpass and bandpass resonance filters
 Mutual Inductance

Objectives
 To understand the resonance circuits and their frequency response
 To synthesis and test lowpass and bandpass LC filters
 To understand mutual inductance analysis and measurement

Theoretical Background
Series resonance circuits
A series resonance circuit, comprising a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor in series is shown in Figure 1.
L C

+
Vs R VOUT
-

Figure 1: Series RLC resonance circuit

Here we focus not on the time-domain response, but on the frequency domain response. You can analyze this
circuit by recognizing that it is merely a voltage divider:

where is the transfer function of the circuit which can be rewritten as:

26
where is the resonance frequency, and is the quality factor. and are
the frequencies where is 3dB below the peak. We will soon present a more physical meaning of the
quality factor.

If you consider ( ) when ω is very small and when ω is very large, the denominator magnitude gets very
large. So ( ) gets very small at both low and high frequencies. This means that the transfer function is
bandpass, and the circuit of Figure 1 is essentially a bandpass filter centered at . The magnitude of the
transfer function peaks to 1 at , and the phase is zero. At very low or high frequencies, the magnitude
approaches zero, and the phase is ±90⁰.

Quality factor and bandwidth

In a 2nd-order resonance circuit, the quality factor is a measure of how much energy is dissipated in the lossy
element (the resistor) compared to the energy stored in the reactive elements (the capacitor, and the inductor),
and is formulated as:

The left front wheel of your car has a low Q by design. The shock absorber is the dissipative or lossy element in
that subsystem. OTOH, a tuning fork has a larger Q. It is designed to maintain its oscillation for as long as
possible. Its vibrations are very small, so the bending is far from the material’s elastic limit, also the friction
with air is minimized. These two properties keep the energy dissipation low and the Q high.

Mutual Inductance
Faraday's Law states that the induced voltage in a coil equals the rate of change of the flux times
the number of turns in that coil. It may be written mathematically as

Mutual induction occurs when the flux in one coil is caused by current through another coil. Mutual induction is
slowly becoming a popular means for energy transmission without the necessity for contact between terminals
by conductors. Energy is transferred as flux rather than as current, from one part of a circuit to another.

While iron cores are often used in transformers to guide flux from one coil to another, transformers can actually
be made by merely positioning two coils in close proximity to each other. Part of the flux from one coil may
pass through the second coil, inducing a voltage across it.

Examining the voltage induced across one coil by the flux generated by another coil, we see that the flux from
the first coil that reaches the second coil is expressed as

where is a constant dependent upon the magnetic path taken by the flux lines reaching the second coil. This
coupling constant is dependent on the distance between the coils, falling to zero at large distances.

27
We can express the voltage induced across the second coil in terms of the voltage applied to the first coil as
follows:

Where M is the Mutual Inductance of the system.

Lab
1. Bandpass filter based on series resonance circuit

a) Using , construct the circuit of Figure 1. Measure and record the inductor series
resistance ( ). Use a 1KΩ resistor as the reference resistor.

b) Construct the circuit of Figure 1. Choose and such that the circuit has a resonant frequency of
4.1kHz, and a 3dB bandwidth of 2.3kHz. Ignore the inductor series resistance for the moment.

c) Using the Network Analyzer in the AD2, measure and plot the magnitude of the transfer function
from 1kHz to 20kHz with >100 points per decade.

Discussion:

 Explain physically why the circuit is a bandpass filter.

 Find the circuit resonant frequency from the measured plot and compare against the expected value.
 Compute the theoretical circuit Q using the equation in the background section and the values for the
resistor R, L, and C.
 From the Network Analyzer plots, find the filter 3dB bandwidth by determining the two frequencies
where | ( )| is 3 dB below the peak.
 Compute the Q of the circuit using the equation in the background section (ω1 and ω2 are the two
frequencies determined in the previous step).
 Compare this measured Q to the theoretical Q computed just above.
 Now recompute the theoretical Q, but adding the inductor resistance to the resistor resistance. Compare
this new theoretical Q to the measured Q.
 Move the C and L to the output one at a time and record magnitude and phase responses using the
Network Analyzer.

28
2. Mutual Inductance
Construct the following circuit using similar inductors: Use a 1KHz, 20V (p~p) voltage for .

L L
Vs Vout (to oscilloscope)

Figure 2: Mutual Inductance Between Two Coils

Determine the maximum mutual inductance of the system with the two coils. Vary the location and orientation
of one inductor with respect to the other, until you find the position with the greatest voltage on the secondary
coil. Obtain data and draw a curve of the mutual inductance (M) vs. distance between inductors (1 < d < 6cm).

Discussions:
 How does the proximity of the secondary coil to the primary affect the voltage across the primary?
 Write an equation for the output voltage that includes both self-inductance and mutual inductance.
 How does the mutual inductance compare to the self-inductance of the coils you are using? Write down
, , , and the coupling coefficient

 Does the mutual inductance scale linearly, quadratical1y, or cubically with the reciprocal of the
distance between the two coils? Justify your answer numerically based on your data.
 General Motors has decided that mutual inductance is a safer alternative for charging
electric cars than plugging a power cord into the car? Why?

29
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES
School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
*****************************************************************************
EE110L Experiment #6

Transient Response of the 1st-Order Circuits

*****************************************************************************
Topics
 Step response of first order circuits
 Initial conditions and transient response
 Twin-T Notch Filter
 Rejection Ratio
 Attenuation
Objectives
 To understand and investigate the natural and step response of first order capacitive and inductive
circuits
 To design a first-order circuit with certain characteristics
 To design and measure an advanced RC filter
Theoretical Background
Capacitors
Capacitors store energy in the form of an electrostatic field between the two plates as current flows through
them, and charge accumulates upon the plates. The charge of a capacitor is given as:

Which leads to the following relation:

Or alternatively:

RC Circuits
We may derive the linear differential equation of the RC circuit in Figure 1:

30
 R

+
vi C vo
-

Figure 1: RC Circuit

The step response ( ) of the RC circuit for the voltage across

the capacitor is:

Inductors
Inductors are a passive circuit element which stores energy within magnetic fields generated by a change in
current. The relationship for the voltage across an inductor is a function of the change in current given as:

RL Circuits

+
vi R vo
-

Figure 2: RL Circuit

The linear differential equation of the RL circuit in Figure 2 is:

The step response of interest for the current is given as:

Time Constant
The time constant is defined as the time it takes the step response to gain a value of (approximately
0.63) of its final value. For the RC circuit, the time constant , which is easily seen from the equation
above. For the RL circuit, .

31
Twin-T Notch Filter
The Twin-T Notch Filter is a very useful filter. It is used to reject signals at a particular frequency, called the
null frequency. Theoretically1 it can obtain nearly an infinite rejection at its null frequency. Using the
components readily available in the stockroom, you should be able to reject signals at the null frequency by at
least 30 dB.

R kR

Vs Vout

C C/k

bR C/b

Figure 3: A Twin-T Notch Filter

The Twin-T Notch Filter is comprised entirely of resistors and capacitors. This is advantageous, for many
circuit designs because inductors are not typically used in circuit designs where space is at a premium.
Additionally, using common component values, this filter can be tuned from very low frequencies to very high
frequencies. Any combination of resistors and capacitors arranged in two T filter configurations, as shown
above, may be used, with b and k arbitrary constants, chosen by the circuit designer.

The general equation for the gain of a Twin-T Notch Filter may be expressed as

At the notch frequency ( ), the frequency where the attenuation is maximum, the gain of
the Twin-T Notch Filter reduces to

From the generalized equation for the gain of the Twin-T Notch Filter, it should be obvious that
this filter can have a gain of zero at its notch frequency whenever

32
Most designers choose the component relations shown on the right for simplicity and because the relation
between components is then expressed by an easily remembered ratio.

R R

Vs Vout

C C

R/2 2C

Figure 4: A Twin-T Notch Filter with k=1, b=0.5

By changing the relations between the components, filters with different quality factor Q may be obtained. For
example, with k = 1, Q = 0.25 and with k = 100, Q = 0.5. Choosing k greater than 100 will not have an
appreciable effect on improving Q. Also, the roll-off rate and roll-on rates may be adjusted to nearly any shape
desired.

Filter Terminology
Another convenient quantity is the Rejection Ratio. This quantity is commonly used to describe a notch filter. It
is the ratio of the maximum output signal to the minimum output signal. The minimum output signal is found at
the null, or notch, frequency of the filter. The maximum output signal is typically found far from the null, or
notch, frequency. Again, the Rejection Ratio is commonly reported in dB.

The oscilloscope in Analog Discovery 2

There are two oscilloscope channels on Analog Discovery 2 with pins 1+/1- as channel 1, and pins 2+/2- as
channel 2. Flywires must be used to connect both channels to the breadboard and components.

Figure 5: Oscilloscope Pinmap

33
In the WaveForms software, open the Scope applet from the left column and the transient voltages across 1+/1-
and 2+/2- will be readily available when you click run.

Figure 6: Oscilloscope Interface

Two settings regarding the time and amplitude resolutions of the oscilloscope are on the right and are boxed.
Time resolution (mS/div) means each horizontal interval captures how many mS of the signal. Amplitude
resolution (mV/div) means each vertical interval spans a certain mV of the input signal. It is common practice
to adjust the time and amplitude resolutions so that at least one or two periods of the signal spans the entire
visible area.

The waveform generator in Analog Discovery 2

There are two independent waveform generator channels on Analog Discovery 2 with pins W1 as channel 1 and
W2 as channel 2. Flywires are used to connect either channel to the breadboard and components. Do not forget
to connect ground pins to the circuit to form a loop.

Figure 7: Waveform Generator Pinmap

34
In the WaveForms software, open the Wavegen applet from the left column and the desired signals will be
available at W1 and W2 when enabled.

Figure 8: Waveform Generator Interface

Measuring capacitor and inductor with the impedance analyzer

In the first lab we touched on how to measure resistance with impedance analyzer, and in this section the
measurement of C and L with impedance analyzer is shown below.

Figure 9: Impedance Measurement Interface

Select the element type from the pull-down menu as capacitance or inductance and set the testing frequency to
10kHz. The readings should be readily available. It is strongly recommended to measure C and L at a multitude
of frequencies, such as 1kHz/10kHz/100kHz to see how the readings change over frequency. It is also
recommended that the reference resistor to be swapped with larger ones for smaller capacitances and larger
inductances, and vice versa. The following table outlines recommended pairing table between reference resistor

35
and capacitors and inductors to be measured at 1kHz.

Table 1: Recommended Paring of RLC

Lab
1. RC Circuit Analysis
Construct an RC circuit as illustrated in Figure 1. Use a 4.7nF capacitor, and 33kΩ resistor. Set the AD2
waveform generator to output a square wave of peak-to-peak. Set the offset such that the input voltage
ranges from 0-1V. Finally, choose an appropriate frequency with a period of 5 to 10 times the time constant to
allow the output voltage to reach steady state. Connect one channel of the oscilloscope to view the input
voltage, and the other channel to read the output voltage of interest. As shown below, set the oscilloscope to be
edge triggered based on the input voltage at 0.5V and appropriate resolution, which will enable easier viewing
of the waveform. You can also try Auto Set as a starting point.

Figure 10: AD2 oscilloscope configuration

To use the cursors on the AD2 oscilloscope, click X Cursors and Y Cursors as shown above. Note that you can
drag the waveform (time position) to facilitate the measurement. Experimentally measure the time constant of
the RC circuit and compare with the theoretical value you have calculated. This can be done by setting one
cursor at approximately 63.2% of the final voltage value and the other on the edge at which the input signal
changes, and then reading the time difference.
AD2 supports up to 100MHz sampling rate and it can be adjusted in the expandable Time panel as shown
below. In Auto Set mode, the sampling rate is tied to the time resolution.

Figure 11: AD2 sampling rate

36
Discussion
 How does the experimental time constant compare with the theoretical values?
 How does zooming in time resolution (mS/div -> S/div) change the sampling rate and your measurements?
 Explain what happened when you increased the frequency of the input.

2. RL Circuit Analysis
Maintaining a similar set-up as in the RC circuit, construct an RL circuit with a 150mH inductor and 1kΩ
resistor (Figure 2). Measure and record the resistance of the inductor you are using. Note that the inductor
resistance is relatively large, more than 100 . The inductor is often important and significantly alters the
performance of the circuit.

Obtain an experimental value for the time constant of the RL circuit. Measure the voltage response of the
inductor as well with the oscilloscope.

Discussion
 How does the experimental time constant compare with the theoretical value?
 When calculating the theoretical time constant of the RL circuit, should the resistance of the inductor be
included?
 How does the response of the RL circuit compare with the response of the RC circuit?

3. Twin-T Notch Filter

Construct the 60Hz notch filter as shown Figure 4 in the Theoretical Background section. Measure the
frequency response (with sine waves) and the null frequency. You can use the oscilloscope to observe the time
domain waveform or use the network analyzer to observe the frequency domain behavior.

Discussion
 What is the attenuation at 60 Hz?
 What is the attenuation at the null frequency?
 What is the rejection ratio of your filter?
 How does this compare with the best rejection ratio you could obtain from a RLC circuit?
 How high a Q does your filter achieve?
 Connect a piece of wire of about 10” length to the tip of your probe and plug your probe directly into
your scope, leaving the ground clip open. (Your probe and wire are now acting as an antenna, as you
learned in Exp. #4.) Observe how your antenna picks up 60 Hz signals.
 Now, plug the probe into Vs of your 60 Hz notch filter circuit, and bring Vout and Gnd to the
oscilloscope. Remember to leave the Gnd pin of the probe disconnected. What happened to the 60 Hz
signal you observed previously?

37
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES
School of Engineering and Applied Science
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
*****************************************************************************
EE110L Experiment #7

Operational Amplifiers
*****************************************************************************
Topics
 Operational amplifiers (op amps)
 Negative feedback op amp Circuits
 Common-Mode Gain
 A positive feedback Op-Amp square wave oscillator
Objectives
 To analyze basic amplifier structures using op amp in negative feedback
 To analyze an active filter and link the frequency response concepts into the real filters
Theoretical Background
Opamp Basics
The opamp (short for operational amplifier) is a voltage-controlled voltage source (amplifier) with a very high
gain. It has a very large input impedance (ideally infinite) and very small output impedance (ideally zero).
Figure 1 depicts both the circuit symbol, as well as the equivalent model.
Rout
+VCC
VIN+ VOUT
VIN+ +
VOUT RIN V1 + A0V1
-
VIN- -
VIN-
-VCC

Figure 1: Opamp symbol and its equivalent circuit.

The OPA705 opamp, a very commonly used opamp, is available in several packages. The most common is
the 8-lead dual in-line package (DIP). In Figure 2, you can see the number of the pins and the description
for each. It should be noted that pins 4 and 7 are negative and positive power supply connections to the op-
amp. In all opamps, even if not shown explicitly, these pins must be connected to the power supply
rails. The power supply voltages, as well as input and output voltages are referenced to the common
ground of the circuits. Connect the positive supply pin (7) of the op-amp to the V+ pin on Analog
Discovery 2, and negative supply pin (4) to the V- pin. Set the power supplies in WaveForms to +5V and

38
-5V. You may ignore the NC (no connect) pins (pins 1 5, and 8).

NC 1 8 NC
IN- 2 7 V+
IN+ 3 6 OUT
V- 4 5 NC
OPA 705
Figure 2: OPA 705 8-Pin DIP Package

Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is formed when a path between output and negative input is established.

Rf

R1
VIN
VOUT

Figure 3: Inverting Amplifier

This circuit (Figure 3) utilizes negative feedback to amplify the negative of the input signal.

Applying Kirchhoff’s law at the node,

This equation for the gain is independent of the open-loop gain A of the op-amp.

39
 Rf

R1

VOUT

VIN

Figure 4: Non-inverting Amplifier

This circuit (Figure 4) utilizes negative feedback to amplify the input signal.

Applying Kirchhoff’s law at the node,

This equation for the gain is independent of the open-loop gain A of the op-amp.

Positive Feedback
Thus far, only "negative" feedback has been discussed. Negative feedback is when the output signal is fed back
and combined with the input such that the output will be based on the difference between the input and the
output. As the output approaches the intended value, this difference reduces, and the change in output will
gradually decrease.

Positive feedback is the opposite. When positive feedback is employed, instabilities are exploited. For example,
with positive feedback, once the input goes a little bit positive, the output will go a little bit positive, but since
there is positive feedback, then the input will sense the increase of the output signal and, therefore, cause the
output to increase further. This process goes on and on to the limit of the op-amp. With an ideal amplifier
employing positive feedback, a small positive input voltage would result in a large positive output voltage.
Similarly, a small negative input voltage would result in a very large magnitude negative output voltage.

40
Figure 5 illustrates an op-amp circuit using both positive and negative feedback. This circuit is an oscillator.
That is, its output has two stable levels - very positive and very negative.

R1

VOUT

R2
R3

Figure 5: Op-amp circuit with positive feedback

To analyze this circuit, first one node voltage may be predicted. Since there is positive feedback, it is a safe
assumption to take the output voltage at saturation. So, when is high, then the voltage at the non-inverting
input is determined by the voltage divider law with and . Also, the output voltage will begin charging the
capacitor C. This charging will occur until the voltage at the capacitor gets to be more than the voltage at the
non-inverting input, at which time the output will suddenly drop to low.

With the output low, the voltage at the non-inverting input, again, may be calculated by the voltage divider law.
The voltage at the inverting input is the voltage on the discharging capacitor. When the capacitor is sufficiently
discharged (to have a more negative voltage than the non-inverting input), then the output will jump, again, to
high. Since the output eventually got to what we predicted it would be at, this explanation is valid, and the
process repeats itself.
This analysis may be more analytically explained by following the voltage on the capacitor. This analysis starts
where the output first jumps to high.

The voltage across the capacitor can be expressed by the exponential equation, with two constants and .

Where . When the capacitor has charged to the point at which the output voltage changes, that will be half
of the period of oscillation. At that half-period time:

41
At . After that time, the value of ( ) changes sign and the output voltage goes to the negative
saturation voltage. The process repeats. The period of this oscillation is:

Lab
1. Unity gain buffer design
Often due to its nonzero resistance, a source may not be able to drive a given load properly. Consider Figure 6
left, where a source with a resistance of is driving a load resistance of . The objective is to make
as close to as possible. Explain why the circuit on left does may not work properly. Does all of make it
to ?
Rs = 1k Rs = 1k

+
RL = 1k

RL = 1k
Vs VL Vs VL
-
-

Figure 6: Voltage dividers: Passive versus one with unity gain buffer.

To remedy this, one may insert a unity gain buffer between the source and the load as shown on the right.
The op amp configuration in the right half of Figure 6 is a unity gain buffer. The buffer can provide
additional drivability to the load as it benefits from its high input impedance (meaning that it demands very
little current from whatever is connected to its input), low output impedance, and because active circuits
are supplied by an external voltage source.
Implement both circuits shown in Figure 6. Use an input frequency of 1kHz, and a magnitude of 1V for the
source. Monitor the load and source voltages ( and ) and explain the difference between the
circuits in the discussion.
Discussion:

 Do both circuits have same transfer function ( )?

 Explain why the two circuits have different transfer functions, and therefore different results.

42
2. Inverting and non-inverting gain amplifier design

R2

R1
VIN1
VOUT
VIN2
R3
R4

Figure 7: Differential amplifier based on inverting/noninverting amplifiers

Shown in Figure 7, we can obtain the transfer function from two distinct inputs to the output. The transfer
function is given below:

If we choose , and , then:

which is essentially a differential (or a subtractor) amplifier.

Implement the circuit shown in Figure 4. Set up . Make sure the two waveform
generator channels are synchronized as shown below.

Figure 8: Synchronize channels in the waveform generator

a) Use input frequency of 1kHz, and magnitude of 1V for . Terminate (connect to zero or
your reference ground), and find , and the transfer function from to the output.
b) Repeat with terminated but connected to the source.
c) Next use , and report .
d) Finally, choose and measure the values for .
Discussion:
 We would like to use the principle of superposition to determine the overall transfer function. As
the first step, determine the transfer function from to the output, terminating as in Step 2a
above. In the same way, terminating , find the transfer function from to .
 Determine the measured output with both and present based on the results of part a.
(This is the superposition). Now assuming , and , calculate the theoretical .
 Using the results of Part 2c, calculate the common mode rejection ratio. Assume that the differential
mode gain = 1. Report its value in dB.

43
3. Positive feedback and Oscillator
Construct the following circuit. This circuit uses positive feedback. It is not trivial to analyze this circuit. Observe
and record the capacitor and output voltages of this circuit. Explain how this output signal is generated. (A circuit
similar to this is used in the laboratory to test your op-amps.)

R1=100k

C=0.01uF

VOUT

R2=1k
R3=10k

Figure 9: Oscillator built from positive feedback around the opamp

44