This comprehensive instructional reference

Concrete includes detailed information on:

• Concrete Behavior
• Evaluating Concrete Problems

Repair and • Surface Repair

• Stabilization and Strengthening
• Protection

Maintenance Dedicated to quality assurance and technical

excellence, the author provides the concrete
repair industry with a much-needed reference

mustrated guide designed to facilitate adherence to the

highest standards in the design and execution
of concrete repair and maintenance projects.
·Problem Analysis About the Author
Peter H. Emmons is President of Structural
·Repair Strategy Preservation Systems, Inc., the nation's largest
dedicated concrete repair contractor,
• Teclmiq_ues headquartered in Baltimore, MD. Mr. Emmons
holds a B.S. degree in Civil Engineering from
the University of Maryland, has over twenty years
Peter H. Emmons experience in structural concrete repair, and
has been involved with over 3,000 concrete
repair projects. He is the author of several widely
distributed publications, including '/be
Guidebook for Repair and Maintenance of
Here is the tool you need to clearly understand Parking Structures (1988) , and the highly
and successfully carry out concrete repair respected quarterly publication, Repair
and maintenance projects-with confidence! Techniques (1989). He is noted for his articles
In this book you will find a detailed, yet and presentations addressing topics such as
concise presentation of over 220 concrete the importance of drying shrinkage values in the
repair and maintenance topics. Issues are selection of repair materials, and innovative
examined within the framework of analysis, techniques for the repair of post-tensioned
strategy development, and repair techniques, structures, as well as for development of a
with extensive and superbly detailed patented waterstop repair system which has
illustrations to guide you in the proper filled a critical need in the repair of leaking
planning and execution of repairs. waterstops.
Written by Peter H. Emmons, President of Mr. Emmons provides industry leadership
Structural Preservation Systems, Inc. , and a through the International Association of
national authority on concrete repair, Concrete Concrete Repair Specialists (IACRS), serving as
Repair and Maintenance, Illustrated was a member of the Board of Directors and as
technically reviewed and edited by James chairman of the Technical Guideline
Warner, world-renowned concrete repair Committee, which produced the first industry
consultant and educator, and Alexander M. guidelines for concrete removal around exposed
Vaysburd, Ph.D., an expert in concrete reinforcing steel. He is also a member of both
technology with more than 30 years the 546 Repair Committee and the 364
experience in the industry. Rehabilitation Committee of the American
This indispensable book provides extensive Concrete Institute (ACI).
information about problem analysis, strategy Mr. Emmons is committed to fostering the
development, engineering aspects, material development of a much-needed strategic
criteria, and repair and maintenance methods. alliance between contractor, engineer, supplier,
Designed for ease of use by all participants and owner to successfully address the complex,
in the repair and maintenance interactive requirements of effective concrete
process-owners and facilities managers, repairs.
engineers, architects, material suppliers and
contractors-the book's unique format
provides a highly structured, fully illustrated Published by:
examination of each topic. R.S. Means Company, Inc.
A Southam Company
100 Construction Plaza, P.O. Box 800
Kingston, MA 02364-0800
617 -585-7880
jacket and Book Design by Nonnan R. Forgtt
Concrete
R~air and
Maintenance
Illustrated
·Problem Analysis
·Repair Strategy
·Techniques
COPYRIGHT 1994

R.S. MEANS COMPANY, INC.

CONSTRUCTION PUBLISHERS & CONSULTANTS
100 Construction Plaza
P.O. Box 800
Kingston, MA 02364-0800
(617)585-7800

So utham
Coni&tructlon
lnformecion
Network

In keeping with the general policy of RS. Means Company, Inc.. its authors, editors, and
'
e ngineers apply diligence and judgment in locating and using reliable sources for the
infonnation published. However, no guarantee or warranty can be given, and all responsibility
and liability for loss or damage are hereby disclain1ed by the authors, editors, engineers and
publisher of this publication with respect to the accuracy, correccness, value and sufficiency of
the data, methods, and other infonnation contained herein as applied for any purpose or use.

The editors for this book were Mary Greene and Neil Smit; production and art was managed by
Helen Marcelia; composition by Publication Services, Inc. The book and jacket were designed by
Norman R. Forgit.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in

any form or by any means without prior written permission of R.S. Means Company, Inc.
Printed in the United States of America

10987654 3

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

ISBN 0-87629-286-4
To all employees of Structural Preservation Systems, Inc.
and all past, present and future clients.
Table of Contents

Part One-Concrete Behavior I

Section 1: Introduction to Embedded Metal Corrosion 8
Embedded Metal Corrosion Process 9
Corrosion-Induced Cracking and Spalling 10
Reduction in Structural Capacity 11
Chloride Penetration 12
Cracks and Chlorides 13
Cast-in Chlorides 14
Carbonation 15
Structural Steel Member Corrosion 16
Dissimilar Metal Corrosion 17
Post-Tension Strand Corrosion 18
Additional Sources of Information 19
Section 2: Disintegration Mechanisms 20
Introduction to Disintegration Mechanisms 21
Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals 22
Freeze-Thaw Disintegration 23
Alkali-Aggregate Reactions 24
Sulfate Attack 25
Erosion: Cavitation 26
Erosion: Abrasion 26
Additional Sources of Information 27
Section 3: Moisture Effects 28
Introduction ro Moisture Effects 29
Drying Shrinkage 30
Moisture Vapor Transmission 31
Volume Change-Moisture Content 32
·Curling 33
Additional Sources of Information 34
Section 4: Thermal Effects 35
Introduction to Thermal Effects 36
Thermal Volume Change 37
Uneven Thermal Loads 38
Uneven Thermal loads: Continuous Spans 39
Restraint to Volume Changes 40
Early Thermal Cracking of Freshly Placed Concrete 41
Thermal Movements in Existing Cracks 42
Uneven Thermal Loads: Cooling Tower Shell 43
Fire Damage 44
Additional Sources of Information 45
Section 5: Load Effects 46
Introduction to load Effects 47
Reinforced Concrete: Basic Engineering Princirles 48
Cracking Modes: Continuous Spans 49
Slab/Beam-to-Column Shear 50
Cantilevered Members 51
Continuous Structures 52
Columns 53
Post-Tensioned Members 54

Pel er 1-l. Ernmon.~/C~ln.c_'r"Clt: lkpa1r ;,1ntl Main tt'.'r'lmlc;t"

ro R. S. Me;m~ Curnp:1ny, f<1ng:"'mn. MA vii
 Cylindrical Structures: Buried Pipe 56
Cylindrical Structures: Tanks 57
Connections: Contact Loading 58
AclditionaJ Sources of Information 59
Section 6: Faulty Workmanship: Designer, Detailer, Contractor 60
Faulty Workmanship: Introduction 61
Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement 62
Improper Post-Tensioned Cable Drape 63
Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement: Highly Congested 63
Improper Bar Placement: Location of Stirrups 64
Premature Removal of Forms 65
Improper Column Form Placement 65
Cold Joints 66
Segregation 66
Improper Grades of Slab Surface.s 67
Construction Tolerances 67
Plastic Settlement (Subsidence) Cracking 68
Plastic Shrinkage Cracking 68
Honeycomb-Rock Pockets 69

Part Two-Concrete Evaluation 11

Introduction 75
Testing Methods for Cono-ete Evaluation 76
Table A: Test Methods 77
Condition Survey Procedure 78
Section 1: Service and Exposure Conditions 79
Section 2: Visual and Exploratory Investigation 80
Section 3: locating Delaminated Concrete:
Acoustical Emission Methods 8l
Section 4: Corrosion Activity Measurements 82
Section 5: Chloride Content 83
Section 6: Depth of Carbonation 84
Section 7: Petrographic Analysis 84
Section 8: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Impact Echo Method 85
Section 9: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity Methods 86
Section 10: Locating Voids, C.-acks, Honeycomb: Remote Viewing
Inside Structure 87
Section 11: Locating Embedded Reinforcing Steel 88
Section 12: Monitoring Movements 89
Section 13: Bond Strength of Overlays and Coatings: Pull-off Testing 90
Section 14: In Situ Compressive Strength: Rebound and Penetration
Methods 91
Additional Sources of Information 92

l'~.tcr 1-1 . EmnlOf'l~/t:;ot\r.. ret~ R..:-p:1lf and MalntCll:l1l('C

viii ~ R. S. Mc:;u).' C:ninp:111)~ King~1 on . !di\
 Part Three-Surface Repair 93
Introduction 97
Flow Chart of General Procedures 98
Anatomy of Surface Repairs 99
Section L Analysis, Stt·ategy & Design 100
Introduction to Analysis, Strategy & Design 101
Performance Requirements 102
Struetural Needs 103
Types of Stress Acting on Repairs 104
Performance Requirements, Examples 105
The Challenge of Placing Loads into Repairs 108
Cause/Effect Design Error 110
Repair Problem-Analysis and Strategy 112
Aclclitional Sources of Information 114
Section 2: Material Requii'ements 115
Introduction to Material Requirements 116
Selection Process Flow Chart 117
Checklist, User Needs 118
Checklist, Service/Exposure Conditions 119
Checklist, Placement Conditions 120
Establishing Material Properties 121
Establishing Material Properties: Load Carrying Properties 122
Establishing Material Properties: Service/Exposure Prnperties 123
Establishing Material Properties: External Load Properties 124
Establishing Material Properties: Constructibility & Appearance Properties 125
Volume Change Effects: Introduction 126
Volume Change Effects: Summary of Volume Change Mechanisms 127
Volume Change Effects: Drying Shrinkage Process 128
Volume Change .Effects: Selecting Low Shrinkage Materials 129
Additional Sources of Information 131
Section 3: Material Selection 132
Introduction to Material Selection 133
Summary of Repair Materials 134
Repair Material Ingredients 136
Section 4: Surface Preparation 137
Introduction to Surface Preparation 138
Genera! Surface Preparation Procedures 139
Surface Preparation: Recommended Layout of Surface Repairs 143
Recommended Removal Geomeu·y 144
Removal Methods: Partial Depth 145
Removal Methods: Full Depth 146
Section 5: Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection 147
Introduction to Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection 145
General Procedure 149
Reinforci.ng Steel Repair 150
Reinforcing Steel Cleaning 151
l\einfomng Steel Protection 152

Pe ter 1-1. Enrn \~m.v"C~ont,:rcr t.: Rep llir :md !l.fain1cn.111.LC' IX.

© R_ S. Mc:in... Ct ~mr:1f\~'. Km~_-ann, .\11\

 Section 6: Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete 154
Inrroduccion to Bond ing Repair Materials to Existing Concrete 155
Measuring Bond Strength 156
Evaluating Bond Strength 158
General Procedures 160
Bonding Agencs 163
Additional Sources of Information 164
Section 7: Placement Methods 165
Introduction to Placement Methods 166
Summary of Methods 168
Dry Packing 170
Form and Cast-in-Place 171
form and Pump 172
Grouted Preplacecl Aggregate 177
Dry Mix Shotcrete 178
Wet ML'< Shotcrete 180
Full Depth Repair 181
Overlays 182
Summary of Overlay Materials 183
Hand-Applied 184
Additional Sources of Information 185

Part Four-Strengthening and Stabilization 187

Introduction to Part Four 191
Section 1: Techniques/Design Considerations 193
Introduction to k chniques/Design Considerations 194
Summary of Techniques 195
Passive and Active Design 197
Macerial Behavior 198
Attachmem of Steel to Concrete 199
Section 2: Beam Shear Capacity Strengthening 200
Introduction co Beam Shear Strengthening 201
I nternally Placed Passive Shear Strengrhening 202
Beam Shear Capacity Strengthening at Moving Hinge 203
External Post-Tensioned Straps 204
Section 3: Shear Transfer Strengthening Between Members 205
introduction to Shear Transfer Strengthening Between Members 206
Dowel Shear Device 207
Drilled Hole Shear Transfer Device 208
Grouted Subgrade 209
Cantilevered Shear Arm 210
Section 4: Stress Reduction Techniques 211
Installing New Expansion Joint in Continuous Concrete Frame 212
Lateral Ground Movement Isolation (Seismic Isolation) 213
Section 5: Column Strengthening 214
Column Compressive Strengthening by Section Enlargement 215

Pe-1er H Emmtin....1C:t,n t·rc1c: H:tpal f and Maint1:::11:im:c:

x c K S. i\k;m' (;om p;m~·. K.illg....lPO. MA
 Shear Capacity Strengthening Using Shear Collars 216
Beam-Column Moment Capacity Strengthening 217
Confinement Strength ening 218
Section 6: Flexural Strengthening 219
Summary of Methods 220
External Post-Tensioned Reinforcement 22 1
Span Shortening Techniques 222
Bonded Steel Plate Reinforcement 223
Correction of Deflected Member with I3onded Steel Plate 224
Concrete Overlay and Section Enlargement 225
Wall Strengthening 226
Section 7: Connection Stabilization and Strengthening 227
Reconstruction of Corbel Bearing 228
Externally Mounted Compression Struts 229
Externally Mounted Bearing Assembly 230
Section 8: Crack Stabilization 231
Performance Requirern ems for Crack Repairs 232
Understanding Crack Movements 233
Cause/Effect Design Errors 235
Quality Control 236
Techniques for Placing Adhesives into Fractured Concrete 237
Additional Sources of Information 238

Part Five-Protection 239

Introduction to Part Five 242
Section 1: Strategies 243
Introduction to Strategies 245
Controlling Chloride-Induced Corrosion -New Concrete 246
Controlling Chloride-Induced Corrosion - Existing Concrete 248
Controlling Chloricle-Incluced Corrosion in Cracks and Construction Joints 250
Contro lling Carbonation-Inclucecl Corrosion 251
Controlling Carbonation 252
Controlling Aggressive Chemical Surface Damage 254
Controlling Freeze-Thaw Damage 256
Controlling Freeze-Thaw Damage Behind Surface Repairs 257
Controlling Water Flow Through Structures 258
Controlling Water Leakage Through Plaza Deck Systems 260
Section 2: Methods 263
Introduction to Methods 264
Surface Applied Protection: Impregnation 266
Surface Applied Protection: Coatings 267
Smface Applied Protection: Sur facing (Plastering, Rendering, Overlayment) 268
Surface Applied Protection: Elastomeric Membranes (Liquid and Sheet Applied) 269
Surface Applied Protection: Problems/Concerns 270
Su rface Applied Protection: Pile Jacketing 271
Surface Applied Protection: Water Control Grouting (Intercept Penetration) 272
Surface Applied Protection: Water Control Grouting (Material Performance) 273

PcLcr H. Emnmn:ci/Conn c..·u.: l~•.:p;ur :ind M aim i:n:1n((;'

~ R. S. Me:m~ Cump:1n~·. J<in g·qon. M .-\ xi
 Surface Applied Protection: Water Conrrol Grouting (Positive Side Penetration) 274
Surface Applied Protection: Water Control Grouting (Pipe Joints) 275
Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals (Pressure-Rated Waterstop Joints) 276
Surface App~ied Protection: Joint Seals (Water Control Rout & Seal) 277
Surface Applied Protection: Joim Seals (Load Supporting/Rout & Seal) 278
Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals (Traffic Bearing Expansion Joints) 279
Altering Electro-Chemical Behavior: Impressed Current Cathodic Protection 280
Additional Sources of Information 281

Glossary 283

Index 289

Pc.:tt'r H. E111m0t1s;Cont:rt.·[t:: l\t:p<ur aml Molnu:n<11'K.1?

xii 0 R .S. M~itns Comp.1ny. King.smn, f\1A
Introduction

Concrete repair is a complex process, The dynamics of new materials inter-

presenting unique challenges very acting with in-place materials is still an
different from those experienced in emerging science. Enhanced methods
the field of new concrete construction. of analysis, improved strategies and
Concrete repair must successfully techniques and new materials will
integrate new materials with old mate- facilitate quality growth of the concrete
rials, forming a composite capable of repair industry. This book is designed
enduring the exposures of use, the to guide and support that growth
environment, and time. through its emphasis on the practices
Concrete repair, which began with the of quality analysis, careful strategy
first concrete placement, came of age development, and proper selection of
as the nineteen sixties, seventies, and technique and materials.
eighties produced a proliferation of The book presents the philosophy that
concrete structures. Today, concrete owners, engineers, material suppliers,
repair is a major industry supporting and contractors all need to understand
the needs of virtually every concrete the basics of each discipline repre-
structure. Each structure requires sented in the repair process. The
routine repair and maintenance, rang- contractor must understand concrete
ing from simple protective coatings to deterioration mechanisms in order to
repair of spalling concrete to strength- understand surface preparation. Tbe
ening of under-designed componenrs. engineer must understand material
With the growth of any marketplace behavior, including both physical cured
come new players eager to participate. properties and the chemical uncured
Jn the concrete repair business, this behavior, in order co properly specify a
includes contractors, engineers, archi- successful repair material. The manu-
tects, and material suppliers. What facturer of repair materials must not
newcomers find is an industry in need only apply sound chemical principles,
of technical definition and guidelines but also understand the engineering
for standard practice- the lack of aspects of how repair materials will
which can lead to poorly designed interact with an existing substrate
repairs, ill-conceived materials, and under load carrying conditions. The
poorly executed field procedures. AJI too owner must be a generalist familia r
often , the results are premature repair with concrete problems and potential
failures. solutions.
The purpose of this book is to present The 'book's style of delivery is intended
concrete repair as an integrative pro- to support the purposes, philosophy,
cess of analysis, strategy, and tech- and needs outlined above, using easily
nique, relating concrete behavior understood graphics with explanatory
directly to the field repair process. The text. Wherever possible, each topic is
author stresses the critical importance contained on one page, presenting an
of continuity between engineering, inclusive unit of information . Each
materials, and technique, as well as the page contains illustrations designed to
need for sound technical knowledge help the reader visualize a particular
and effective communication within mechanism or strategy.
the project team. The book raises ques-
tions and provides ideas for solutions.

PclCr H . l!m1no nsiC<Jncrc1c Repair ;ind Ml.iiuemmc~

e R S. Me ans Company. Kin&ston. MA xiii
 Many of the authot"s experiences, scope of defects. Parts Three, Fom,
including fail ure experiences, are used and Five of the book deal with the
as case studies. Understanding what to strategy ancl techniques necessary co
avoid can be the most valuable infor- repair and maintain a particular struc-
mation gained from reading this book. cure or member. Pan Three "Sur face
The use of flow charts throughout the Repair," is the most comprehensive,
book provides continuity between pages including a discussion of engineering
and seccions. Metric conversions are aspects, material requirements, surface
shown for most English units. The book preparation ancl material placement
is designed co be easily understood by techniques. Pan Four "Stabilization and
all who participate in the process of Strengthening," includes discussion of
concrete repair and maintenance. various t.echniques co stabilize or
The book has been organized in a strengthen a member or structure. The
fashion similar to the progression of discussion is oriented cowards ideas
seeps found in a typjcal repair project. for possible solutions. Pan Five "Pro-
ft begins with an extensive discussion cection," is a broad category including
of concrete behavior, addressing ele- techniques and strategies for water-
ments which may lead co defects, proofing, and barriers to unwanted
deterioration or damage. The section exposure or service con.clitions.
chat follows addresses evaluation
techniques commonly used to analyze
the behavior and establish the general

Peter H . F.mmun~/Conl'.n~1c tkl)<'if .-nd ~.binlcn:tnl'e

xiv C R S. Mc;ins (( 1mp:iny, Kingston. M1\
Acknowledgn1e11ts

I wish to extend my appreciation and • Larry Knab, Mike Sprinkel, James

gratitude to the following people: Clifton and the National Institute of
• Brandon Emmons, Illustrator, for Standards and Technology (NIST) for
contributing his extraordinary ralent, providing significant technical reports
creativity, time and patience; and for reviewing the section on bond
• Alexander Vaysburd, Ph.D., Technical performance criteria;
Editor, for contributing painstaking • TI1omas]. Pasko, Jr., of the Federal
research, and for sharing his dedica- Highway Administration, for contribut-
tion, enthusiasm, and technical ing his highly professional advice;
expertise; • James E. Roberts of Caltrans for
• James Warner, Technical Editor and sharing his experiences in seismic
Consultant, for applying his vast strengthening;
technical knowledge and experience • James B. Emmons, for providing the
to the process of clarifying and re- cover phorograph;
fining technical contem; • Margo Gray, for her meticulous word
• Susan Hodinko, Management Consult- processing;
ant, for providing guidance, clariLy, • Kelly Page, for her editing contribu-
meticulous editing and moral support; tions, and
• James E. McDonald and Wate1ways • Brenda, Becky, Megan, and Brandon
Experimental Station, U.S. Army Corps for their unwavering patience, encour-
of Engineers, for providing a broad agement and support.
range of technical reporrs and strong • For offering their encouragement and
support of rhe need to establish comments,
performance criteria for dimensionally • Rob Lambe, Ph.D., of Fosroc,
compatible repair materials; • Pete Popovic of Wiss, Janney, Elstner
• Paul Carter and Alberta Transporta- Associates,
tion and Utilities for contributing • Ephraim Senberta of Master Builders
invaluable technical reports on repair • Steinar Helland of Selmer Noiwav '
material performance, and for review- • Patrick Sullivan, Professor' of City''
ing the section on shrinkage of repair University, London, UK., and
materials; • Jorge Bernal, Professor, Dept. of Civil
• Milt Collins and the International Engineering, Universiclad Nacional el
Association of Concrete Repair Spe- Nordeste, Republica of Argentina.
cialists (lACRS), for extending support
and encouragement, for sharing
IACRS guidelines, and for providing
metric conversions;
• Thomas Kline and Construction Tech-
nology Laboratories (CTL), for contrib-
uting technical reports and important
technical knowledge of concrete
behavior ancl evaluation;

Pc t..:..- H _ F.mmooSlCom:n:te Repair and Maimcnance

© R. S. ~ie:Jm: Con1p:my, King~1or1, fl.l A xv
Symbols

Solar exposure affecting thermal

v
loading

y
e
a

Lr1
Temperature change arrow
indicates direction ot change s
r Change in time. Years, months, days are
used to approximate amount of time.

Exposure to moisture
6 M
66 0
n
t
h
s
r
fP
Exposure to liquids

~
Exposure to aggressive
chemicals

(J
.......
·;
Exposure to chlorides
Soil

.'
>I

Corrosion products

l 6 ~ J\J\f'u
°C
F<eew-thaw cycles

1 / Corrosion on bar

Reinforcing steel bar

l\'lt:::r H. Emmons/Concrc1c Kep:iir ~md Mai111eoancl..'

xvi () R. s. Menn=' Ct.11np~nr. IGngs1on. f\tA
~·.o·u
~
. .· Use caution, unclear as to right
answer.

·v···.·o. . .·. .
. .
··.: ·o·· .. . D

Concrete
.
.. Electrical power source

l
.· ' .

··.·.·. >·:·.:·.;>)···. .
.·
..
/;---\
~··
.(_/.· .

L
Concrete

· . ·'

Barrier to exposure or service

·.·. conditions

Large aggregate

Shear stress

Applied loads
Penetration or movement

Compression

Tension

0
Identifies a wrong approach to a
particular problem

a change resulting in
decrease

a change resulting in
increase 0 Barrier to the exposure specified
within the symbol

xvii
What You Need To Know
Before Using This Book

The book uses extensive references to • Additional reading materials to further

publications of the American Concrete one's knowledge are referenced at the
Institute (ACI). Much of the technical end of each section.
knowledge available about repair is The graphics used in this book utilize
contained in rh e five-volume AC! symbols representing certain condi-
Manual of Concrete Practice. For tions or exposures. A symbol library is
more information about ACI, write: provided following the introduction.
American Concrete Institute, PO. Box
19150, Redford Station , Detroit, Michi-
gan 48219. Other sources of informa-
tion include:
• American Society of Testing and
Materials (ASTM)
More information can be obtained by
writing:
American Society of Testing and
Materials
1916 Race Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103-1187, USA
• Imernacional Associarion of Concrete
Repair Specialists (lACRS)
More information can be obtained by
writing:
International Association of Concrete
Repair Specialists
P.O. Box 17402
Dulles International Airport
Washington, DC 20041

Pt:rcr H. Emmons/Connt:1t.! Hcp~tir :md M;linu:n:tn'e-

XVJU r..~ n S. Me:ms Comp :rny, K1ngs, nn. MA
Part One
Concrete
Behavior

Part One
Sections
Section 1: Introduction to Embedded Metal Corrosion 8
Embedded Metal Corrosion Process 9
Corrosion-Induced Cracking and Spa lling 10
Reduction in Structural Capacity 11
Chloride Penetration 12
Cracks and Chlorides 13
Cast-in Chlorides 14
Carbonation 15
Structural Steel Member Corrosion 16
Dissimilar Metal Corrosion 17
.. Post-Tension Strand Corrosion 18
.. . ~
. •' ·
Additional Sources of Information 19
Section 2: Disintegration Mechanisms 20
Introduction to Disintegration Mecha nisms 21
Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals 22
Freeze-Thaw Disintegration 23
Alkali-Aggregate Reactions 24
Sulfate Attack 25
Erosion: Cavitation 26
Erosion: Abrasion 26
Additional Sources of Information 27
Section 3: Moisture Effects 28
Introduction to Moisture Effects 29
Drying Shrinkage 30
Moisture Vapor Transmission 31
Volume Change- Moisture Content 32

P~tcf H.. E1\'l.1non~;Coc1c.:r<:.ll! lkpair :t11d M:wimen:1n<.·, ;,.·

~ H. S. M~:tn> Comp~my, l<ing..::ion, M.A 3
 Curling 33
1 Additional Sources of Inform ation
Section 4: Thermal Effects
Introduction to Thermal Effects
34
35
36
Thermal Volume Change 37
Uneven Thermal Loads 38
Uneven Thermal Loads: Continuous Spans 39
Restraint to Volume Changes 40
Early Thermal Cracking of Freshly Placed Concrete 41
Thermal Movements in Existing Cracks 42
Uneven Therm al Loads: Cooling Tower Shell 43
Fire Damage 44
Additional Sources of Information 45
Section 5: Load Effects 46
Iocrocluction to Load Effects 47
Reinforced Concrete: Basic Engineering Principles 48
Slab/Beam-co-Column Shear 50
Cantilevered Members 51
Continuous Structures 52
Columns 53
Post-Tensioned Members 54
Cylindrical Structures: Buried Pipe 56
Cylindrical Structures: Tanks 57
Connections: Contact Loading 58
Additional Sources of Information 59
Section 6: Faulty Workmanship: Designer, Detailer, Contractor 60
Faulty Workmanship: fntroduction 61
Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement 62
Improper Post-Tensioned Cable Drape 63
Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement: Highly Congested 63
Improper Bar Placement: Location of Stirrups 64
Premature Removal of Forms 65
···...:
Improper Column Form Placement 65
Cold Joints 66
Segregation 66
Improper Grades of Slab Surfaces 67
Construction Tolerances 67
Plastic Settlement (Subsidence) Cracking 68
Plastic Shrin kage Cracking 68
Honeycomb- Rock Pockets 69

l\:cc:r H. Emmon.~/Con crc1 ~ m!p111r :rncl Malnt~nanc~

4 If> Jl S ~fo:ms Co n1p;my. Kingsto n , MA
 Introduction

6 Exposure
66 Conditions

fJ I ~ re @•
'
1,1.

' '''
,11
'
Service
Conditions

Service Loads

+
·. . . · ..· .
·. ..
. . .

Design
Deficiencies

Material
Interaction

Construction
Deficiencies

.· •, .' ..· . ·. · .·

Disintegration Spalling Cracking Leakage Wear Deflection Settlement

Peter M. Em.non~ \.onr r~tt: R~pa ir :ind Ml imt"n;tn"-"C

~ R. S. M..•.ins Com~1ny. KJo~-;ton. MA 5
Introduction
to Part One
Concrete does not always behave as
we would like; some of the undesirable
Effect Cause behavior can be seen as disintegration,
spalling, cracking, leakage, wear, de-
flection or settlement. Developing
effective repair strategies requires an
understanding of what caused the
I undesirable behavior. Understanding
the cause allows the repair strategy tO
Design
Leakage address both the cause and the effect
I ..... (behavim). The result is a successful,
Defect ,.. Materials
I I long lasting repair.
Settlement Construction
A variery of factors influence concrete
Overloading
behavior. These factors include: de-
Deflection sign, materials, construction, service
Chemical loads, service conditions and exposure
Spill conditions. Most of the observed
Wear
I ..._ behaviors are a combination of these
Damage .,,.. Earthquake
I I factors working together. The discus-
Spalling Fire sion of concrete behavior in this sec-
tion has been subdivided into six
Freeze-Thaw categories. The first two categories,
Disintegration Embedded Metal Corrosion and Disin-
Erosion tegration, address deterioration mecha-
Cracking Corrosion of nisms. The next three, Moisrure Ef-
Metals fects, Thermal Effects and Load Effects,
....
Delamination l Deterioration I

I
.... Alkali-Aggregate
Reaction
address exposure and service condi-
tions. The last category addresses
defects due to improper workmanship.
Scaling Sulfate Attack

PeLLT H l~m monc>.JeonLreie R~p:..lr ;md M:1iruenonce

10 R. S. Me::in:-; Company, King:;1011, MA 7
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 1: Embedded Metal Corrosion

Section 1:
Embedded Metal Corrosion
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Embedded Metal Corrosion Process
Corrosion-Induced $palling
Reduction in Structural Capacity
Chloride Penetration
Cracks and Chlorides
Cast-in Chlorides
Carbonation
Structural Steel Member Corrosion
Dissimilar Metal Corrosion
Post-Tension Strand Corrosion

.. ,'

·.· ..
. . . . . ..
·..
·.. , • ... .
.
. ·. :... .. ~ . ": .: . : . ·.

..... .... :·.· . .. . ; .

·
·. :
. . :
•'
·. •' . :. . . .. ... . . ~ .

.. . . .. . :. ·.
. . .•
. . . .. .
.·· : .

. . .. . .: ··.·

: .. : . ·. . ·-·:. .· ... .
.. :....
. ..
: . :.
,• ,•
.. ·..
·
. .. ·
.
· .. · ~~-~~

. . ·-. : . : ._· ·. .... . ·.. - .

. •. . .
. . .. . .
..
. .. .
. .
·-_.•

·. · . ·
. ,.

·· ·- @····:
'
/

.:·:-.."'.:· : .- . .·. ( ( :·:.··,. . . . :·:: . ::.:·. <···:.-.· "<' ·.·.

<:.: ..... >)
o I

•·...•.•.·~· ··8g§ .·. .·<. ········.· ········> .•._•.·.•····@ •·.•_.·....·•.·<·_··· ' '

> •...·.. . . . . . ....

. . . . .. • . . . .. .. ·
. . . '. .. :.. . ' . .. ... . .. . . : : . . .·-.. ... : ·.. .: _: . ·..· . . ·.· .

. . . · .. ·. ·. -·...... . :· ·. ··: : . . .: . : .
'. · . . • .·· ·:: . . .

':. ·.· .-: .. . ..·

:.. . ~- . ·.
·.· .... . .... .. ·. .. • .. ; . ·.
. . .
.. .
'
. . •' ' . . .•
.· . ··; ·· .. · ··· .. : · > "
.... : ... ·. :

Pt:ler H . Emmons/Colicrete Repaif aocl M~ i nicnnncc

8 @ R. S, Mcan;i; Comp~my. J<1ng.:ili..m. MA
Embedded Metal Corrosion Process

U.8
Acidic Alkaline Concrete is a high alkalinity material.
~
- The pH of newly produced concrete is
0.7
usually between 12 and 13. In this
range of alkalinity, embedded steel is
0.6 ~-

t
protected from corrosion by a passivat-
0.5 l ing film bonded to the reinforcing bar
surface. However, when the passivating

'\ '
Corrosion film is disrupted, corrosion n1a}' take
Rate 0.4 .. place.
mm/yr I Corrosion is an electrochemical pro-
0.3 cess requiring an anode, a cathode,
and an electrolyre. A moist concrete
0.2
"'i.. matrix forms an acceptable electrolyte,

'
and the steel reinforcement provides
0.1 the anode and cathode. Electrical
~ current flows between the cathode and
0 ~ anode, and the reaction results in an
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 increase in metal volume as the Fe
(lron) is oxidized into Fe(OH)2 and
pH of Concrete Fe(OH)3 and precipitates as FeO OH
Relationship between pH and (rust color) 1. Water and oxygen must
be present for the reaction to take
corrosion rate place. In good quality concrete the
corrosion rate will be very slow. Accel-
Corrosion Inhibitors Corrosion Promoters: erated corrosion will take place if the
pH (alkalinity) is lowered (carbonacion)
High quality concrete -Oxygen or if aggressive chemicals or dissimilar
High pH (Alkalinity) -Water metals are introduced into the con-
concrete protects -Stray electrical currents crete. Other causes include stray
steel surface from -Uneven chemical electrical currents and concentration
cells caused by an uneven chemical
corrrosion. environment around
environment.
reinforcement
-Environments that lower the
pH (alkalinity)
-Chlorides

·. ..· -: . ·. ...
.. .
. . .·

1
.· • ' . :··· .
Clifton, JR., Predicting the Remaining Service
Life of Concrete, National Institute of Stan·
dards ancl Technology Report NIST!R 4712.

Peter li. l:.mnmnsiConc.n::ce N<·p.-1r and Ma111tenanLc

0 n. s Mlt':Jn.S C..:ompao~~ King.ston, lvlJ\ 9
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 1: Embedded Metal Corrosion

Corrosion-Induced Cracking and Spalling

Corrosion
Cracking and spalling of concrete
induced by steel corrosion is a func-
tion of the following variables:
C = Concrete Cover
1. Concrete tensile strength
2. Quality of concrete cover over the
reinforcing bar
3. Bond or condition of the interface
between the rebar and surrounding
concrete
4. Diameter of the reinforcing bar
5. Percentage of corrosion by weight
of the reinforcing bar

0 With a cover-co-bar diameter ratio

(CID) of 7, concrete cracking scans
when corrosion reaches 4 percent ,
whereas, with a CID racio of 3, only 1
percent corrosion is enough to crack
d = Bar Diameter
the concrere1 (See cable below).

Cover Con-osion % to
CID Ratio Bar Size
in./Inm Cause Cracking

7 3.5/89 #4 4%

3 1.5/38 #4 1%

1 Al-Sulaimani,Kaleemullah, Basunbul and

Rasheed, "Influence of Corrosion and Crack-
ing on Bond Behavior and Strengrh of Rein-
forced Concrete Members," ACI Structural
Journal, March-April 1990, p220.

Pl:lcr 11. Emmons/Com.:ret~ n~p:1ir :md M:.iinicmmcc

10 Cl R. S. Mt:ttn~ Cump;my, K.ing.... 1o!l. MA
Reduction it1 Structural Capacity

The srrucrural capaciry of a concrete

member is affected by bar corrosion
and cracking of surrounding concrere.
The research conducted on flexural
beams found that in steel with more
than 1.5 percent corrosion, the ulti-
mate load capacity began to fall, and at
4.5 percent corrosion, the ultimate
load was reduced by 12 percent-
probably a result of reduced bar
diameter. 1
It can be surmised that, in compressive
members, cracking and spalling of
concrete reduces the effective cross
section of the concrete, thereby reduc-
ing the ultimate compressive load
capacity.

Loss of Section

1AJ-Sulaimani, Kaleemullah, Basunbal and

Rasheed, " l nAuence of Corrosion ancl Crack-

ing on Bond Behavior and Strength of Rein-
forced Concrete Members," ACI Srrurn1ral
journal, March-April 1990, p.220.

l\:1cr 1-1 F.nm um.;;lf.:C>nvc1...: Rep:1ir :ux l M;1io1~n:tncc

<:i R. S. f\k;lns Cnn1p:tn}'. Krngs1011, ~·11\ 11
Pan One: Concrete Behavior Section 1: Embedded Metal Corrosion

Chloride Penetration

Chlorides can be introduced into

concrete by coming inro contact with
environments containing chlorides,
such as sea water or de-icing salts.
Penetration of the chlorides stans at
the surface, then moves inward. Pene-
tration takes time, depending upon:
1. The amount of chlorides coming
into comact with the concrete.
Chorides penetrate into Moisture and
concrete with the help of~ oxygen 6
@ ·. '
i/ ·
2. The permeability of the concrete.
3. The amount of moisture present.
surface moisture. 6 6 :,:_~. : Eventually the concentration of chlo-
''' ' rides in contact with the reinforcing
r r . .. .~ . steel will cause corrosion when mois-
ture and oxygen are presenr. As the
rust !ayer builds, tensile forces generated
y by expansion of the oxide cause the
concrete to crack and clelaminate.
Spalling of che clelaminarion occurs if
:I the natural forces of gravity or tra ffic
wheel loacls act on the loose concrete.
When cracking and delarnination
When chlorides penetrate to
reinforcing steel corrosion begins. progress, accelerated corrosion cakes
place because of easy access of corro-
sive salts, oxygen, and moisture. Corro-
sion then begins to affect rebars buried
further within the concrete.
The concentration of chlorides neces-
sary to promote corrosion, among
other factors, is greatly affected by the
concrete's pH. It was demonstrated
that a threshold level of 8,000 ppm of
chloride ions was required to initiate
corrosion when the pH was 13.2. As
the pH was lowered to 11 .6, corrosion
was initiated wi th only 71 ppm of
chloride ions.1
Further penetration of chlorides
results in further corrosion,
delamination and spalling.

1
Hausmann, D.A., Steel Corrosion in Concrete,
Malerials Protection, November, 1967, pp.
12-23.

Pi:ter H Enm10ns..Co11t.TClC tkp:1ir :uu.I Maiu1e11:1nrc:

12 CJ R_ S M(-J 1h Con1p:1ny. KingSlOI\ . MA
Cracks and Chlorides

Crack or
1--,-----..,.-...., .--....,..f'--.------J Construction Cracks ancl construction joints in ACI 224R-90 presents the following
Joint concrete permit corrosive chemicals table of tolerable crack widths in
such as de-icing salts to enter the reinforced concrete:
concrete and access embedded rein-
forcing steel.

Exposure Tolerable Crack Width

Condition (In.) (mm)

Dry air, protective membrane 0.016 0.41

Surface-
Introduced
Chlorides
~.&
6
66
w Humidit)', moist air, soil 0.012 0.30

De-icing chemicals 0.007 0.18

' , .. ·
y
Seawater and seawater spray; wetting
0.006 0.15

!i and drying

Water-retaining structures* 0.004 0.10

':'Excluding non pressure pipes.

Note: 0.004 inches is equal to the width of a human hair. A crack of this width is almost unno-
ticeable unless the surface is wetted and allowed to dry.

Steel corrosion may take place even in

a high alkaline environment if chlo-
rides are present. Chlorides are nm
consumed in the corrosion process,
but instead act as catalysts to the
process and remain in the concrete.

The corrosion process is progressive, begin-

ning at the intersection of the crack with the
reinforcing bar, then progressing along the bar.

Pe1er H. F.mrnon:\/Cont.:rcu.! Rep:tir' :m<I M:tintcn:..ncc

© R S. Mc.::m~ Comp~n~'. Kinp_l'cun. i\tA 13
Parr One: Conrrele Behavior Section 1: Embedded Metal Ccnrnsion

Cast-in Chlorides

Concrete with Cast-in Water Soluble Chlorides

Chlorides can be found in reinforced Chlorides occur in either wa ter soluble
.o . .. • . t . . • • •
• •0 I I ' I ' • • • ' •• , 0.
concrete even before the strncture is or acid soluble form. Chlorides used as
in service. Chlorides may be intro- admixtures are water soluble, while
duced deliberately as an accelerator, or those found in aggregate sources rnay
in the form of natural ingredients be only acicl soluble. Water soluble
found in some aggregates. Concrete chlorides are the most damaging, since
made of beach sand or having seawa- they readily become free to attack
ter for mixing water will result in surrounding reinforcing steel.
cast-in chlorides. ACT 201.2R suggests the following
limits for chloride ion in concrete prior
Note: shaded area to placing concrete into service:
denotes level of moisture
penetration. % of Cl to weight
6 Service Condition
of cement
66
Prestressed concrete 0.06

Conventionally reinforced concrete in a moist

0.10
environment and exposed to chloride

Conventionally reinforced concrete in a moist

0.15
environment not exposed to chloride

Above-ground building construction where

no limit
Delamination concrete will stay dry

H
Choride content is generally
the same throughout the cross
section.

Pctc.::r H. F1nn1vn../Cont:rcle Repair and M.iin1t:"n:1n\.:c

14 0 ll. S.. Mt..--ans Compan~·. K.ing.;i:too. MA
Carbonation

Carbonacion of concrete is a reaction In good quality concrete, the carbon-

between acidic gases in the atmo- ation process is very slow. It has been
srhere and the products of cement estimated that the process will pro-
hydration. Normal air contains carbon ceed at a rate up to 0.04 in. (1 mm)
dioxide (C02) in relatively low concen- per year. The process requires con-
trations (0.03%). The level of carbon stant change in moisture levels from
dioxide in industrial atmospheres is, as clry to damp to dry Carbonation will
a rule, higher. Carbon dioxide pene- not occur when concrete is constantly
pH is lowered by the reac1ion ... trates inco the pores of concrete by unde r water.
C02 + H20 +Ca(OH) 2 --> CaC03 +H 20
diffusion and reacts with the calcium
Acidic Gases hydroxide dissolved in the pore water.
C02 As a result of this reaction, the alkalin-
ity of concrete is reduced to a pH
value of about 10, and, consequently,
concrete protection of the reinforcing
y steel is lost. The passivity of the pro-
tective layer on steel is destroyed .

!i When steel is depassivated and the

environment is acidic or mildly alka-
line, corrosion begins if moisture and
oxygen gain access into the concrete. 1

Corrosion takes
!I
place faster when
the pH is lowered.

1V.iysburd, A.M., Sabnis, G.M., and Sorokko,

R., Theoretical Aspects and Testing Methods
of Concrete Carbonation, Proceedings, Inter-
national Conference on Life Prediction of
Corrodible Structures, Hawaii, 1991, pp.
34/1-34/16.

Pe ter H t-~1l\11w11~cm.fn::li: Rt:pair and Maintci\anc.:t.·

Ci R. S. M1..·::ms Cu. np:tJ)y, Kingston, MA 15
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 1: Embedded Metal Corrosion

Structural Steel Member Corrosion

' ·.· . ', .· "

• , ' Corrosion of embedded metals in-
cludes structural members such as
., · steel beams cast into concrete to form
a composite member, or to provicle
fire protection. The top Aange of a
". beam is susceptible to corrosion when
Embedded
·. : ... . . .
"

Structural Member
a crack or construction joint intersects
the flange. Moisture and corrosive sales
are crapped on the flange, providing
an ideal environmenc for corrosive
activity. Corrosion on the top flange
exerts ajacking force on the concrete
above the Aange. When the force is
Aggressive sufficient, clelam ination occurs. Evi-
Environment dence of slab separation from the
Crack or Construction beam then becomes apparent from the
Joint over Embedded unclersicle of the slab.
Structural Steel

. · . ·.

.·.. .
..
.·.. .
:.· ..

. -:·

-...- - - - - Lifting of slab

. ~ " .. . .
from top of
flange by
expanding
corrosion
products.

l\:1cr 1-i. Etnmon:v'Cont.·ret~ Rc:p:i.i.- ;111CI M :1 i111 t:"n:tn'-.I.!

16 0 R. S. Mt"';111.. Cornp:.mr, l\ing.-..ton. MA
Dissin1ilar Metal Corrosio11

Steel
Aluminum Corrosion can take place in concrete
when two different metals are cast into
a concrete structure, along with an
adequate electrolyte. A moist concrete
Aluminum in macrix provides for a good electrolyte.
contact with This type of corrosion is known as
-. : · - fresh concrete galvanic. Each metal has a unique
tendency to promote electrochemical
. -: . : :: - liberates
activity. Gold, for example, is very
... :, . ... . hydrogen gas,
.. . . .. ·: ·· active, while zinc is inactive. Below is a
thereby list of metals in order of increasing
' .. · . .···· • ' ..·.- -:: .-
creating activity:
•' .· .
.: · · . .. localized 1. Zinc
porosity. 2. Aluminum
Note: shaded area 3. Steel
denotes level of moisture 4. Iron
penetration and active 5. Nickel
electrolyte. lf chlorides 6. Tin
are present, the process 7. Lead
is accelerated. 8. Brass
9. Copper
+ Electron flow _ 10. Bronze
athode o ~ Ano · 11. Stainless Steel
. ____ ~u 12. Gold
.··· · ... \on 0H flow· · .. . ·. When two mecals are in contact via an
active electrolyte, the less active metal
. - .. . . -·. ·. Qower number) in the se1ies is comx.!ed .
. . . . · · : -- .
One of the most common situations
.. · . · :··
found in concrete is the use of alumi-
num cast into reinforced concrete.
Corrosion occurs here. Aluminum was used as an electrical
Aluminum oxide causes conduit, and more recemly, as hand
rails. Aluminum has less activity than
expansion and cracking
steel; therefore, the aluminum is the
of surrounding concrete. metal that corrodes. The steel will
actually become cleaned, and the
aluminum surfaces will grow a white
oxide, which will cause tensile forces
co crack the surrounding concrete.
0

. . . .
. ·. - . . -
...
,•
. .
. .
. .
·.·-·

Pc..~1cr H. Emmon:v(;onlTitrc Rt"pJi f J l)cl ~bj1H<.:n:1n1.:~

~ It S. Ml'.l l lS W1np:l11~·- Ktng.-;con. M1\ 17
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 1: Embedded Metal Corrosion

Post-Tension Strand Corrosion

.. : §nbonded Post-Teos~ Stra~d Corrosion of unboncled post-tension

strands has become a common prob-
lem for structures exposed to aggres-
1 sive environmencs. Buildings exposed
to ocean salt spray and parking struc-
tures exposed ro de-icing salts are
typical locations for unboncled strand
corrosion. Unbondecl post-tension
strands are protected from corrosion
Aggressive
Environment l6 by protective grease and sheathing.
Aggressive agents can penetrate the
protective systems when inadequate
: :: :· concrete cover is subject to damage by
heavy wheel loads.
.. ..
..................... Another common problem is poor
Broken corrosion protection of the end an-
protective chorages clue to porous or cracked
sheathing
allows anchorage plug grour. Once corrosion
exposure to promorers enter the strand system,
corrosive corrosion may begin.
environment.
Corrosion of unboncled strands is a
serious condition. Unlike rnild rein-

;IL( ::± .--><tf+~

forcement, pose tension strands have

s
<7:.
er=.____
·.
• 7
stored energy from the stressing oper-
ation. It is .not uncommon for strands
to be srretchecl 8 inches (203mm) per
100 feet (30.5m). Corrosion of the
Collapsing broken strand may exrt strand reduces the cross section and
the structure at points of low cover results in an increasing stress level in
or at ends.
the strand. Breakage occurs when the
srress level exceeds the capacity of the
steel. When the breakage occurs, it can
be explosive, resulting in the freed
strand collapsing on itself ancl, in some
cases, exiting the structure at ends or
locations where low cover exists.
Locating broken strands may be dif-
ficult if the strands do not exit the
structme. Longitudinal cracking may be
Leakage Paths into an indication of a broken strnnd.
Strand System

Anchorage

if"i ' ®;cal) <

Protective Sheathing Types Grease
Plug Grout
Wedges--~

.. ·: · .
Push-thru Heat- Extruded
Breakout bars _ __,, sealed

l\.'t<:r H. C:mmori:>/C.:on l rt:: le lk p:m ~ tnd M:1in14.!nt1.ot.~c:

18 ~1 It S. f\·h:::m~ C:nmpan y, h'.1ng..:;mn, fl·IA
Additional Sources of Information

American Concrete Institute, SP-102, Steel Corrosion in Concre1e: Causes ancl

Restraints, Detroit, 1987.
ACI 201.2R-77, Guide to Durable Concrete.
ACI 318-83, Corrosion of Metals in Concrete.
Prorecrion of Steel in Prestressed Concrete Bridges, NCHRP Report No. 90, 1970.
Chloride Corrosion of Steel in Concrete, ASTM STP 627, American Society for
Testing and Materials, PhiJaclelphia, PA., 1977.

Pcler H. E1rnntm.lliJC01\lf"~h:: R\..'p;1ir ;111d A-la111le n:.111c:c

~ R. s. Me:trK Coinp~il\V, Ki11s.;rw1. 1\t.J\ 19
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 2: Disint93ration Mech;misms

Section 2:
Disintegration Mechanisms
The following topics are covered in
Disintegration this section:
Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals
Freeze-Thaw Disintegration
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
Sulfate Attack
Erosion: Cavitation
Erosion: Abrasion

Dismemberment Dissolution Erosion

A E •
F

fP
..
F
(} O{) E
QdDoO c
T
I

i c
A ~
Dissolution Abrasion
Aggregate u Cavitation
of
Swelling s
Aggregates
1\ 11 "Ii E

:D~/? ~
Dissolution
of Portland
i.? ~ Cement

~
Cement Matrix
Swelling Capillary Cavity
Swelling

~ /7
,??

~
~
Ice
j ~ Salt
Crystals

1\:-{cf H. E nimon~/Com..: r(' 1e Rq>~1ir aocl M;1i n 1e11:111ce

20 © R. S . M~:1t1.' Cu mp :1ny, K.illg."tP n , MA
Introduction to Disintegration Mechanisms

This section includes discussions of Water can be one of the most aggres-
various processes which cause the sive environments causing disintegra-
constituents of concrete to (1) dis- tion. If concrete is .saturated with water
solve, (2) be forced tO come apart and is subject to freezing, the expan-
(dismemberment) through expansive sive force of the increase in volume
volume change mechanisms, or (3) (ice compared to water) may cause the
become worn away through abrasion concrete to come aparr in small pieces.
or cavitation. Aggressive chemical Similar co tbe effects of ice is the
exposures (either man-made or natu- swelling of salt crystals in the concrete
ral) can cause the concrete to alter its surface subject to salt solutions.
chemical makeup, resulting in changes Not all disintegration mechanisms are
in its mechanical properties. Depend- caused by external factors. Alkali-
ing upon the type of attack, the con- aggregate reactions are internally
crete can soften or disintegrate, in part contained within rhe originally con-
or in whole. strncred concrete. They result in swell-
ing of the affected aggregate.

f~tt:r H Enm10n.~i'Cllf1t ft:'lt: r~\."p;1ir ~tnd M;1 intcn:mcc

oQ R. S. Mc:i.ns Comp:m~·. Ki11fi.St\m , 1'vL\ 21
Parr One: Concrete Behavior Section 2: Disintegration Mechanisms

Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals

Certain chemicals in solution will Acid attack on concrete is the reaction

attack various constituents of concrete. between the acid and the calcium
Aggressive chemicals can be catego- hydroxide of the hydrated Porrland
rized as follows: cement. The reaction produces water
1. Inorganic acids soluble calcium compounds, which are
leached away. When limestone or
2. Organic acids
dolomitic aggregates are used, the
3. Alkaline solutions acid may dissolve chem.
4. Salt solutions
5. Miscellaneous

C:J·
. · (} . Oo·0CJ
0 Acids dissolve
<J silica and dolomitic
aggregates.

!i
0
(] . 0 0 .o 0

y
~-- -- - ---------

'
tp ~ ------- - ----------~

'
'

H
O· 0 0
(}
o•.a ·o 0
.CJ

~1er H . F.tnmnns;C0t1cre!'1e Repair :i1\tl M:1in1t.'n:1m.:e

22 rt!l R. 5. Mc;ln.-. Curnp:my. IGng.'ttrnl. i\V\
Freeze-Thaw Disintegration

Capillaries (Exaggerated)
Freeze-thaw disintegration or deterio-
ration takes place when the following
conditions arc present:
1. Freezing and thawing temperature
cycles within the concrete
2. Porous concrete that absorbs water
(water-filled pores and capillaries)
Freeze-thaw deterioration generally
occurs on horizontal surfaces that are
exposed to water, or on vercical sur-
faces that are ar the wacer line in
submerged portions of structures. The
Small flakes break away from concrete. freezing water contained in the pore
Tension Micro-cracking 6 structure expands as it is converted
into ice. The expansion causes local-
ized tension forces that fracture the

Capillary Cavity
Swelling
r surrounding concrete matrix. The
fracturing occurs in sma!J pieces, work-
ing from the outer surfaces inward.
The rate of freeze-thaw deterioration is
a function of the following:
1. Increased porosity (increases rate)
2. Increased moisture saturation
(increases rate)
3. Increased number of freeze-thaw
cycles (increases rate)
4. Air entrainment (reduces rate)
5. Horizontal surfaces that trap stand-
ing water (increases rare)
6. Aggregate with small capillary
Pore and Capillary swelling causes tension cracking. structure and high absorption
Freezing water in pore structure expands fracturing (increases rare)

i
aggregate and spalling surrounding concrete

/';ffff/ ·c

Pt-h.::' H Emmc.>nM.0 1k;reu: Repair :inti Ma1nren0J nl"\:

tO R. 5. Mc:.n.s Comp:rn~-. Kin~t on , MA 23
Parr One: Concrete Behavior SectiM 2: Disintegration MeC'hanisms

Alkali-Aggregate Reactions

c:;:~>oQ ·-.· · v . f? ...SJ Alkali-aggregate reactions (AAR) may

·v· - o.;. .
create expansion and severe cracking
.:- .".P.---o-.·D-· -cJ·O" of concrete structures and pavements.
:~.: :o:.-...
>. ..···, .. The mechanisms that cause alkali-
aggregate reaccions are not fully under·
-:.· . i=J.J:\2..J " '0'2:?· . :- stood. What is known about chis type
of reaction is that certain aggregates,
such as reacrive forms of silica, react
with potassium, sodium, and calcium
Reactive silica or hydroxide from the cement and form a
silicate in the aggregate
react with alkali in the y
gel around the reacting aggregates.
cement. \Xfhen the gel around the aggregate is
exposed to moisture, it expands,
H creating forces that cause tension
cracks to form around the aggregate.
[Moisture contenr of the concrete must
be approximately 80 percent: relative
humidity at 70°F- 75°F (21°c.24°C).]
A gel forms on the Unconfined concrete undergoing AAR
aggrega1e surface when y exhibits tell-tale signs of surf-ace map
sutticient moisture is cracking 011 exposed surfaces. Once
present.

!i the cracking has formed, more mois·

ture penetrates the concrete, accelerat-
ing the alkali-aggregate reaction and
allowing additional freeze-thaw
damage.
When gel is -----.....-c-- -- - - - ---;---------,---.-.
The alkali-aggregate reaction may go
exposed to
unrecognized for some period of time,
moisture, swelling y
possibly years, before associated severe
takes place.

!i
distress will develop.
Swelling of
Usually, testing for the presence of
gel causes
alkali-aggregate reaction is cond uctecl
surrounding
hy petrographic examination of con-
concrete to grow,
crete. Recently, a new method capable
causing tension of monitoring possible reaction has
and compressive been developed. This method utilizes
stresses. the uranyl (uranium) acetate fluores-
cence technique and is rapid and
economical. 1

1 Handbook for the Identification of Alkali-

Silica Reactivity in Highwai' Structures,
SHRP-C/FR-91-101, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., 1991.

l~tc"r 1-J. Emmuns/Conc:n:lc Rep:Jir :rnd M:Jinrcn:.1111..:c

24 e R. S. ML":i11" \.omp;my, Kingswo , ~M
Sulfate Attack

• Chemical Runoff
·Streams
·Oceans
I r- Soils The presence of soluble sulfates (prin-
cipally those of sodium, calcium and
magnesium) is common in areas of
mining operations, chemical and paper
6 milling industries. Sodium ancl calcium
66 Water-Borne Sulfate
are the most common sulfates in soils,
water and industrial processes. Magne-
sium sulfates are less common, but
more destructive. Soils or waters
containing these sulfates are often
caUed "alkali" soils or waters.
All sulfates are potentially harmful to
concrete. They react chemically with
cement paste's hydrated lime and
hydrated calcium aluminate. As a result
of this reaction, solid products with
volume greater than the products
entering the reaction are formed.
The formation of gypsum and ettring-
ite expands, pressurizes and disrupts
the paste. As a result, surface scaling
66 Sulfate ions + Cement Matrix Gypsum + Ettringite and disintegration set in, followed by
6 mass deterioration.
Sulfate resistance of the concrete is
improved by a reduction in water-
cement ratio and a.n adequate cement
factor, with a low tricalcium aluminate
and with proper air entrainment. With
proper proportioning, silica fume
(microsilica) , fly ash and ground slag
generally improve the resistance of
concrete t0 sulfate attack, primarily by
reducing Lhe amount of reactive ele-
Ettringite and gypsum expand,
ments (such as calcium) needed for
disintegrating the cement expansive sulfate reactions.
matrix.

Pcl l."r" H. Em1l m n.;/(11ncn.:l t: Kcp:.iir and M :1 in1t:n:mre

© R S. Mt'...,n!> Company. Kinp.ston. i\iA 25
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 2: Disintegration Mechanisms

Erosion

Cavitation
Dam Cavitation causes erosion of concrete
surfaces resulting from the collapse of
vapor bubbles formed by pressure
· ..·.. · changes within a high velociLy water
flow. When vapor bubbles form, they
flow downstream with the water. When
they enter a region of higher pressure,
they collapse (implode) with great
impact. The formation of vapor bub-
bles and their subsequent collapse is
called cavitation. The energy released
Cavitation Area upon their collapse causes "cavitation
damage." Cavities are formed near
curves and offsets, or at the center of
.. • .. vortices. Cavitation damage results in
the erosion of the cement matrix,
leaving harder aggregate in place. At
higher velocities, the forces of cavita-
Circulating debris tion may be great enough to wear
causes additional away large quantities of concrete.
abrasion damage.
Cavitation damage is avoided by pro-
ducing smooth surfaces and avoiding
protruding obstructions to flow.
.. ···
·

2. Vapor forms in Abrasion

low pressure Abrasion is the wearing away of the
areas. surface by rubbing and friction. Gener-
3. Collapsing air ally, the surface is uniformly worn
bubbles cause away, including the cemem matrix and
water to jet aggregates. Factors affeccing abrasion
with extreme resistance include:
force at surface
below vapor
1. Compressive strength
1. CuNed surface causes bubbles. 2. Aggregate properties
localized high velocity. 3. Finishing methods
4. Use of toppings
Abrasion Damage-worn 5. Curing
Aggregate and Matrix

~rer H . En1mnns/Concrtl t: Repair ao<l Malmco:tncc:

26 (l R. S. Mca11s Co111p:t.n)'. K.i.n~sron. MA
Additional Sources of Information

Performance of Concrete, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada, 1968.

Woods, H., Durabili ry of Concrete Construction, American Concrete Institute and
Iowa Stare University Press, 1968.
Arni, Fl..T., Resistance to Weathering, ASTM STP 169A, American Society for Tesring
ancl Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
Gordon, W.A., Freezing and Thawing of Concrete- Mechanisms and Control,
Monograph 3, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1966.
Handbook for Identification on Alkali-Silica Reactivity in Highway Structures,
SHRP-C/FR-91- 101, Washington, D.C., 1991.
A.CI 210R-87, Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic Structures, Manual of Concrete
Practice, Part 1, 1991.

Pcl(:!r 1-1 . F.n11non.;K.:uocrcte Rep:-tir :ind i\t 1i1uc:n:mt:e

0 R. S. Mt::1ns Co mp.-1oy. Kinp.s1on. M.I\ 27
Part One: Concrete Behavior Seccion 3: Moisture Effects

Section 3:
Moisture Effects
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Drying Shrinkage
Moisture Vapor Transmission
Volume Change-Moisture Concent
Curling

~lcr H F.mmons/C<xK rt:H! lk p;iir and M:1inrit!f\.1 nc.:

28 © R. S. i\11,::m s Company, KinA,...,ton, t-.•li\
Introduction to Moisture Effects

Concrete is like fresh-cut trees made Concrete behaves in a similar fashion.

into lumber. The lumber is wet when In fresh concrete, the space between
cut, but immediately begins to dry to a the particles is completely filled with
moisture level equal to the surround- water. The excess water evaporates
ing environment. As the wood dries, it after the concrete hardens. The loss of
also reduces in volume and, in some moisture causes the volume of the
cases, splits under the stress of shrink- paste to contract. This, in turn, leads
age. Even seasoned wood changes to shrinkage stress and shrinkage
volume as the moisture level in the cracking. Like wood, concrete also
wood changes with seasonal variations changes volume in response to ambi-
in humidity. Wood doors are easily ent humidity changes.
opened in the winter when humidity is Previous sections deal with the role of
low, but swelJ and may be difficult to moisture in freeze-thaw disintegration
close during the humid summer and the corrosion process. This section
months. deals with the role of moisture in
volume change effects and the effect of
vapor transmission through concrete.

Pc-1cr H Em11wn ~;(~rnl< T(' tc R~p~1ir :ind .M.ain:ren~nL'<::

{) R. S. /'-.·le;mt> Con 1p;1ny, K~ng:stun. MA 29
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 3: Moisture Effects

Drying Sl1rinkage

20 feet long
On exposure to the atmosphere,
concrete loses some of irs original
water through evaporation and shrinks.
Normal weight concrete shrinks from
Freshly Placed Concrete 400 ro 800 microstrains (one micros-
trnin is equal to 1 x
0.15 inches= - 6 10- 6in./in. (mm/mm)).
H
1----------------- ·-~·1

/---'-----'------~-----''---
I
Unrestrained Example of Drying Shrinkage
slab length = 20 feet (6m)
= 600 microstrains
drying sh1inkage
0.15 inches= ~ ~ shrinkage of slab = 0.15 inches
;~
. _ ______, (4mm)

Cured Concrete Restrained not Reinforced

Reinforcing Bar ----~\ / l \

Uniformly Spaced Cracks
~
Drying shrinkage, if unrestrained,
results in shortening of the member
without a build-up of shrinkage stress.
~
. ~~ f . ·~ ~~. If the member is restrained from
moving, stress build-up may exceed
Cured Concrete Res1rained and Reinforced
the tensile strength of the concrete.
This over-stressing results in dry
shrinkage cracking. Correct placement
of reinforcing steel in the member
distribures the shrinkage stresses and
controls crack widths.
Factors affecting drying shrinkage

Factor Reduced Shrinkage Increased Shrinkage

Cement type type I, II cype Ill

Aggregate size lY/ (38 mm) 3/,( (19 mm)

Aggregate type quartz sandstone

Cement content 550 lb/cy (325 kgtm3) 700 lb (415 kgtm3)

Slump 3" (76 mm) 6" (152 mm)

Curing 7 days 3 clays

Placement
60°F (16°C) 85°F (29°C)
temperature

Aggregate
washed dirty
stare

Pt-tcr H. Emmnn.-;/Cor-..,:r.:h:: Rc:p:ur J 11cl M:lin1c-i1:in1.~

30 r> R. S. Mt::m~ CompJtl)', Kio!l:Sl<)n , ~1'\
Moisture Vapor Transmission

Water vapor travels through concrete

when a structural member's surfaces
are subject to different levels of rela-
ti ve humidity (RH). Moisture vapor
travels from high RH to low RH. The
amount of moisture vapor trnnsmission
is a function of the RH gradient be-
tween faces, and the permeability of
the concrete.

Moisture Vapor Transmission (mvt)

Typical Sfab on Grade Low RH

Moisture moves from high moisture level in subgrade through slab to dryer conditions above the slab.

Moisture vapor also moves into and out of the pore structure of concrete as differences occur in relative humidity. Moisture
vapor moves from high humidity to low humidity. Vapor also moves with changes in temperature. When the temperature
rises, vapor expands and moves out of the pore structure.

·.· .. . :· . .. . ·
. . . .

Exaggerated Pore Structure within Concrete

Pete r 1-1. EmnmostConc: n::tc Rcp:tir :md M: 1ln1cn;111c~

0 R. S. 1\<lc::m t" Com(Y.1ny, King.')u)n, MA 31
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 3: Moisture Effects

Volun1e Change-Moisture Content

Concrete changes length depending Establishing values for the amount of

upon its moisture content. Moist shrinkage or expansion caused by a
concrete that dries out will shrink, change in moisture content can be
while clry concrete that becomes moist carried out by estimating, based on dry
will expand. Concrete may follow shrinkage values. Drying shrinkage
seasonal changes: hot , humid summers values are based on an initial 100
generate higher moisture contents, percent moisture content reduced tO
while colcl, dry winters reduce mois- an ambient relative humidity of about
ture contents. 50 percent.

Concrete with Low Moisture Content

RH

RH+

\;
, • : .
Concrete with High Moisture Content grows in volume relative to
concrete with low moisture content.

l\:l t'f H. r:mmon~.,Conc:retc R«1l:1i r :111d i\.tt im c-n:tncc

32 (1 It S. Me.:ins <:omp:111y, King~ion , MA
Curling

Curling is a common problem with Temperature gradients across a slab

slabs cast on grade. Curling is caused can create the same problems as
by uneven moisture ancl temperature moisture gradients. The typical situa-
gradients across the thickness of the tion is solar heating of the slab's top
slab. Curling is increased as drying surface, causing a higher temperature
shrinkage progresses. Slab surfaces are on this surface. The top surface then
usually dry on top, where they are has a tendency to grow in lengrh
exposed to air, and moist on the relative to the bottom surface. Stress
bottom, where they are exposed to relief occurs when the slab curls
soil. The drier surface has a tendency clownward.
to contract in length relative to the
moist bottom surface. The contraction
of the top surface can only be relieved
by the slab curling upward.

LJ~nl

1.-------11 Slab on Grade

---~

.;~ 1p;;;;:;:;, · / 07~ '~». ~ ~, ~ ,· "'

Slab Curl
Ory Environment at

Top surface contracts ...

I Slab/Air Interface

tr- Mois1ure
Gradient

Moist Environment at
...while bottom surface remains the same length Slab/Soil Interface

The slab curls upward when 1he top surface contracts when
dryer than the slab's bottom surface.

fuu~r H. Emmon:i./Cuncrete Ht p:1ir ac'Kt M:lin1cnancc

Cl n ~- M t':'.m..' Comp otly, Kin~ton . MA 33
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 3: Moisture Effects

Additio11al Sources of I11forn1ation

ACI 209R-82, Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete

Structures.
Mincless, S., Young, JF., Concrete, Prentice Hall, Inc., 198 1, pp. 481-519.
Emmons, P.H., Selecting Concrete Repair Materials for Long-Term Durability, Pro-
ceedings of the 2nd National Concrete Engineering Conference, Chicago, 1992.

~lt:r M. F.mmon::a./C(incrclC H1..:p:1ir ;:m<I M11fn1en:m1..e

34 © R. $. Me;.io:-. (om p :my, K1ngsrnn. /\1A
Section 4:
Thermal Effects
The following topics are covered in
thls section:
Thermal Volume Change
Uneven Thermal Loads
Uneven Thermal Loads:
Continuous Spans
Restraint to Volume Change
Early Thermal Cracking of Fceshly
Placed Concrete
Thermal Movement<> in Existing Cracks
Uneven Thermal Loads: Cooling
Tower Shell
Fire Damage

~c l~r H ~mm<.in,../Co rn.:ri:;te Repair a!ld Maimertancc

0 k . S. Mc,:i. ns Cnm1rn nr. Kin f(S ton, MA 35
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: Thermal Effects

Introduction to Thern1al Effects

The effect of temperature on concrete

structures and members is one of
volume change. The volume relation-
ship to temperature is expressed by
the coefficient of thermal expansion/
contraction. Volume changes create
stress when the concrete is restrained.
The resulting stresses can be of any
type: tension, compression, shear, etc.
The stressed conditions may result in
undesirable behavior such as cracking,
spalling and excessive deflection.

Pl!ter J-1. Em mo1l VConuetc Repair :tor.I M:.1i1ucnamt'

36 it) H $ . Me:ms Ct1mpa11y. KJ1J.,."C-'> lon. MA
Thermal Volume Change

Concrece, like all materials, changes

volume when subjected co temperacure
changes. An increase in temperature
increases the volume of concrete;
conversely, a decrease in temperature
reduces che volume of concrete. The
thennal coefficient of concrete is
approximately 5 x 10 - 6 in/inf F (9 x
10- 6 mm/mmfC). A change of 100°F
(38°C) in a 100' (30.Sm) length will
change the overall length by 7/8
11

(22mm).

100' long

r °C+

100°F
1 - - -l> l\+ 718'
I

Pet~r 1-1 EnunonS/Concn:tc Repair :lnd M~imenarKC

C R. S. ~ic':ms Comp:1nr. Kin8-"'IOl"I. MA 37
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: Thermal Effects

Uneven Thermal Loads

Temperature gradiencs exist in many

structures. The temperature on the
surface of a deck slab exposed to
direct sunlight may reach 118°F (48°C),
while the underside of the deck may

r,
I -I be only 78°F (26°C)-a 40°r (22°C)
difference known as diurnal solar
heating. This causes the top surface to
have a tendency to expand more than
the bottom surface. This results in an
upward movement during heating, ancl
a downward movement during cooling.
A precasc double-T shaped structured
member with a 60' (18m) span can

1'"' t 0. 75"
+6
move Y4" (19mrn) upward at midspan
from normal diurnal solar heating,
causing the encls to rotate and stress
the ledger beam bearing pads and
concrete.

i 78°f
60 fl span
Note: Cantilever
portion moves in
opposite direction to
center of span, in
proportion to length
of cantilever.

l\::1el' H . Emnw ns/C0t1cn..'tc Rqx1ir :.rnd i\·l:lin1cn:tn<.'e

38 C' R. S. ML::tlis Cnmpany. King:s1on, MA
 . .. . .. . . . .. . . Continuous Spans
. · ·! ... .
. ·. Diurnal solar heating affects strncwres
..
differemly depending upon their
.. configuration. Simple span structures
.. deflect up and down and are free to
' rotate at end supports. Continuous
structures may behave differently
..:.....;_.__

••I ....
~ because they are not free to rotate at

~
116"F supports. If enough thermal gradient
exists, together with insufficient tensile
capacity in the bottom of the member,
Afternoon
a hinge may form. Hinges may occur
randomly in newly formed cracks, or
.. may form in construction joints near

i
.. the columns. Hinges open and close
with daily temperature changes.
LH 78°F

Morning

. .. . . .. . ..
i 67"F

..
Active Hinges
{lypical)

.. . . ·.· • ' . ... ~

.. *
11-
rF ··::
..

Working Example of Temperature Gradients

Top of Slab 67°F

62°F

62°F 78°F

Bottom of Beam
64°F 78°F Air Temperature

PeK~r H . f:mmonsJ(oncre(c Repair :ln<l Main1c:n:1m.:~

Comp:m~·. King~qon. MA
© R S. Me:u \.I\ 39
Pan One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: Thermal Effects

Restraint to Volume Changes

If a structural member is free to de- cant. When stress build-up is relieved,

form as a result of changes in tempera- it will occur in the weakest portion of
ture, moisture, or loads, there is no the structural member or its connec-
build-up of internal stress. If the struc- tion ro other parts of the structure.
tural member is restrained, stress The stress may result in tension
build-up occurs and can be very signin- cracks, shear cracks, and buckling.

Working Example
Elastic modulus of concrete = 4,000,000 psi (2.8 x 10 4 MPa)
Length of concrete member = 100 feet (30.5m)
Temperature change = 100°F (38°C)
Thermal coefficient = 5 x 10-6 in/infF (9 x 10-6 mrn/mrn/'C)
Unit strain = (100°F) x ~ x 10-6 in/in!'F) = 500 x 10·6 in/in
(342 x 10- mm/mm)
Unit stress (if restrained) = 2,000 psi (14 MPa) = elastic modulus x unit strain
Force per square foot = 288,000 psf = 2,000 psi x 144 in 2/ft 2

~
-

r
Buckling

•'
'
.I -
·: ·· .
-- .
•' .:

,···
.

Shear Cracking

, • ..

Peti:r 1-1. £mmon~oncrc1c Re!p;1 ir itnd M:1intt"nancc

40 If> It S. Mr:;1n.) C..:omp:m)~ KJ1lS.'iln1l, MA
Early Thermal Cracki11g of
Freshly Placed Concrete
Concrete Placed with High Temperature Rise
Freshly placed concrete undergoes a
·. · .. ,·
temperature rise from the heat gener-
. . .'. ' ~:. . ated by the cement hydration. The
- · .. - .. : : : . ":· I t heat rise occurs over the first few
- · .· .
.·. -
. .. .. .... ... hours or days after casting, rhen cools
. . . . ...
· ·. _. : . · . .· ·. ~ .
·". -; .. to the surrounding ambient tempera-
·_.· .. . :.
. . .. ture. When cooling takes place two or
',' I ..

.· . . ..
• • • o
.. · .... ·. ·· :· · .·.... .
. .. .·. . · three days after casting, the concrete
. , . ... ·. has very little rensile strength. Weak
. •. ·. . ·.·. ·. . .·.·.... . . · ·.·. ": ... . .. -': .. .
tensile strength, coupled with a ther-
. · ..·. . . .. . . . .. . . . : . .·. . . : . ·_._:_. -..·.
'
mally contracting member, provide for
. .. ·. ~ .
. .. . . :. ···... '.. . . . . . . ·. . . . ::.. ~ . the likelihood of rension cracks.
Factors affecting early temperature rise
include:
When concrete cools, the member contracts. lt restraint - - - - 1. Initial temperature of materials.
occurs, tension develops, forming cracks. Warm materials lead to warm con-
. ~ ·.. crete. Aggregate temperature is the
most critical.
.. . · . ... . . ... . . -
2. Ambient temperature. Higher
. .· ·...: ~ ··.~·._:· :·: ··.·. ambient temperatures lead to
. . . .
. . ·. higher peaks .
. . ..
.. · . 3. Dimensions. Larger sections gen-
erate more heat.
4. Curing. Water curing dissipates
the build-up of heat. Tbenna!
shocking should be avoided.
5. Formwork removal time. Early
removal of formworl< reduces peak
temperature.
6. Type of formwork. Wood forms
Example of Temperature Rise 1 produce higher temperatures than
60 steel forms.
7. Cement content. More cement in
50 the mix means more heat.
ambient 8. Cement type. Type Ill cement
40 produces more hear than mosr
concrete other cements used.
oc 30 9. Cement replacements. Fly ash
reduces the amount of heat build-up.
43°C
20 Cooling

10 Wall 1 m thick
Cement 360kg/m3
0 6071b/cy
'O '1 '2 '3 '4 '9
Days After Casting lTunon, C.A., "To Crack or Not to Crack?",
Vol. 8, No. 11, Nov. 1974, pp 32-36.

Pcccr Ii . F.mmonNCon<.YC{C R(.'P:l'ir <LO<l Mairn...:nom4;c:

© It. S. Mean.~ Company. ·Kin~ton. ~LA 41
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: Thermal Effects

Thermal Movements
in Existing Cracks
Newly Cast Concrete, Restrained
Thermal stresses can be relieved in
ways other than by the formation of
cracks. Cracks thar were formed via
other mechanisms, such as dry shrink-
age cracking, may provide a location in
the member where thermal change
strain can be absorbed. The a-ack
moves with the same cycle as the
temperature cycle in the concrete
member. Thermal movement taken up
by these cracks reduces the movement
at planned expansion joints.

Crack is formed due to restrained dry shrinkage.

!i
Thermal changes acting on the structure finds
the crack; a rise in temperature closes the
crack.

1----,-1---

As temperatures fall, the crack opens as

the concrete contracts.

l'~t~r t-1 . EJnmnil.-;/C•m•.T.:"H! Rep:ur :11111 M:.1inu.~n:mn~

42 (S.) R. ~ M~;ins Comp;1n~·. Kinl{:,ton. M.A
Uneven Thermal Loads

2
Cooling Tower Shell
L1rge exposed cooung cowers can
undergo uneven thermal stresses as
the sun makes ics way from ease co
3
west. The cooling tower has a relatively
thin concrete shell, which is easily
heated by the sun. The sun's rays hit
only about 50 percent of the tower 's
shell at any one time. The portion of
the tower thac is being heated expands
in size relative to the cool side of the
rower. An egg-shaped cross section is
formed, which moves as che sun
moves, heating other portions of che
tower. Problems may occur in portions
of the tower where rigid framing is
connected ro rhe constantly moving
outer shell.

Cooling Tower Undergoing Dynamic Thermal Loading

2

Cool Side of Tower Width of Thermal Loading

P<"lt.'1" H . t-:mmo1l~/Co11crete R...·p .i.ir ; ind M:.i1111t·n:Hk.:C

Ci It S. M1..::1n:. Cump:.my, K111g.oe:tn n , MA 43
Pan One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: Thermal Effects

Fire Damage

70°F
fire affects concrete in extreme ways,
some of which are listed below:
1. Uneven volume changes in affected
members, resulting in distortion,
I I buckling, and cracking. The temper-
70°F ature gradients are extreme: from
ambient 70°F (21°C). to higher than
- Localized spalling
1500°F (800°C) at the source of the
fire and near the surface.
120°F 2. Spalling of rapidly expanding con-
crete surfaces from extreme heat
near the source of the fire. Some
aggregates expand in bursts, spal-
------- ling the adjacent matrix. Moisture
rapidly changes to steam, causing
localized bursting of small pieces of
30 minutes
concrete.
Cool Surface 3. The cement mortar converts to
Temperature \ quicklime at tempert1tures of 750°F
(400°C) , thereby causing disintegra-
150°F ~\ tion of the concrete.
4. Reinforcing steel loses tensile capac-
~--~~~~-------~ ity as the temperature rises.
5. Once the reinforcing sreel is ex-
posed by the spalling action, the
steel expands more rapidly than the
1200°F surrounding concrete, causing
60 minutes
High Surface buckling and loss of bond to adja-
cent concrete where the reinforce-
Temperature
ment is fully encased.

Connection to
Reinforcing Steel other members
experiences
Cracking from Excessive moment and
Bending thrust strains

Example used fromACI Fire Endurance Tests 216R Fig 7.1. t(b) Silica Aggregate 7" thick slab

l \:rc:r M Emnmn:"!Corn.:rae Repair :ind M:~ in1t:"n:1m..e

44 () R. S. Mt::1n."i Cc imp:tn\'. KinASIOn, MA
Additional Sources of Information

A5fM STP 169-A, Concrete and Concrete Making Materials, American Society for
Testing and Materials.
Behavior of Concrete Under Temperature Extremes, SP-39, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1973.
Neville, A.M., Hardened Concrete: Physical and Mechanical Aspects, Monograph 6,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971.

P4."'.'IN H. Eir11no n!"l!Co11act(' Rcp:iir and M;1int1,:o;m<.e

1.7 R S Mc-J n..- Cump:my. Km~~1nn. J\i.J\ 45
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 5: Load Effects

Section 5:
Load Effects
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Reinforced Concrete: Basic Engineering
Principles
Cracking Modes: Continuous Span
Slab/Beam-to-Column Shear
Cantilevered Members
Continuous Structures
Columns
Post-Tensioned Members
Cylindrical Strnctures: Buried Pipe
Cylindrical Structures: Tanks
Connections: Contact Loading

PettT M. 13nunon.....Conl~fCI<:' l<qlalr :uw.I M.:1in1cn:m1.:C"

46 © R. S M~~ms Cump:my, Ki ngs1on, i\1A
Introduction to Load Effects

Concrete structures and individual 1. Similar coefficients of thermal

members all carry loads. Some carry expansion.
only the weight of the materials they 2. Bond between rebars and concrete
are made of, while others carry loads prevents the slip of rebars relative
applied to the structure. All materials to the concrete.
change volume when subject to stress.
3. Good quality concrete adequately
Concrete is no exception. When sub-
protects reinforcing steel from
ject to tensile stress, concrete
corrosion.
stretches; wben subject to compressive
stress, it shonens. Reinforced concrete Concrete problems, such as excessive
is a composite of two materials: plain deflection, cracking, or spalling may be
concrete and reinforcing steel. Con- caused by volume change associated
crete possesses high compressive with load effects.
strength but little tensile strength , and
reinforcing steel provides the needed
strength in tension. Steel and concrete
work effectively together in a compos-
ite material for several reasons:

Live Loads Live Loads

Moving Loads
\JI ~ \~ \]/ i
~-
-----7 c t-- T ~

1~ s ?---- · T ~ ·
1~s

Compressive
Stress (C)

c Tensile Stress (T)

\t
Impact Loads Shear Stress (S)

Dead Loads
1t.s

T\.'tc-r /-! Emm<in:-;Com ...-<:lt: Kepair :ind Matmcn:Jn'"'-"C'

!~1 K :-). ,\ h.::u 1:-. <.:ornp:111r. Kin~;-.ton, MA 47
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 5: Load Effects

Reinforced Co11crete

Simply Supported Reinforced Concrete Beam

Basic Engineering
1. Unitorm loads applied Principles
Reinforced concrete is a structural
composite made up of two types of
Neutral Axis materials:
1. Concrete

D Rc;n10,dng B8':~7~ \
2. Reinforcing steel
Concrete has excellent compressive
2 B d fl t /
· earn e ec s / j Tension is~
\
3.Flexural
properties, but low tensile properties
(about 10 percent of its compressive
crack
under load. I greatest at \ . strength). Most concrete members are
forms.
; midspan. \ subject to tension forces. Slabs and
beams are the most common members
I \ subject to significarn tension.
I \ Reinforcing bars are placed in the

·.D.:
. Q ·v . .
. . n ·· :.·a··.· ·: ~_·Q.
-.v "
concrete to carry tension forces. A
simply supported beam with loading
from the rop experiences tension in ics

Compression
< .
•11.i ..<0. . 0 ..DOC>.··
. . . . . Q. ......
. . .. ..
bottom (maximum tension at mid-
span), while compressive forces are
acting in the top portion (ma,"'<imum

· o~~·.•\0~· ·
compression at midspan).
When reinforcing bars are subjected w
tension, they stretch . The concrete
around the reinforcing bars is conse-
quently subject to tension and
cJ .Q· ..
· · . (y·. 0 : _. . · stretches. When tension in excess of
tensile strength of concrete is reached ,
. . 0 . ..
transverse cracks may appear near the
reinforcing bars (unless prestressed).

Reinforcing Bar ~ Ten5'on (flexural)

crack is formed
when the tension
in the concrete
exceeds the
tensile strength of
the concrete.

Pe1er 1-1. .Einmon~o11cl'L"lC Rt::p:1lr :111tl Mainlt:n:uu.::c:

48 © I< S. Mt>:ms Comp:tn)'. Kin,l}•Hof\. ~·lA
Cracking Modes: Continuous Spans

Load Load Load Load

+ + + Continuous Concrete Beam

+I
\ f................
~

\
~

Flexural Cracks
Shear Crack

Combination Shear
and Flexural Crack
(diagonal tension crack)
Path and Location of Tension

......i'--- -t-- - - Shear Tension Steel

(Stirrup) holds the top and bottom
sections of the beam together.

Flexural/Shear Crack

I
- Flexural
Tension Steel

PC"llT H. Enrnmn:1o/Co ncn.:tc Rqx1lr :ind M:ii111c11:1m·L·

© R. ~- Me-:m~ Comp:111y, Kin!(Mo11 , MA 49
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 5: Load Effects

Slab/Beam-to-Colun1n Shear

Slab
Column connections to slabs and
Beam beams experience considerable shear
stress. Excessive stress produces cracks
in the beams and in the surrounding slab.

Column

i i i i i Applied Loads
r=============i

Slab and beam are inclined to fall from

supporting column.

Column Below

Diagonal
Shear
Cracks

Plan View of Punching Shear Crack Pattern

Column/beam shear cracking at connections

can be caused by horizontal movement. Hori-
zontal forces can accumulate from:
1. Volume changes caused by temperature
changes.
2. Elastic shortening caused by post-tension
forces.
3. Foundation movements caused by settle-
ment or earthquakes.

r cter 11. C::1 nnl(111~X:on1.-rt.'ll.' RL·p:tir :md ,\ fain 1<..'11:mcr;

50 iei It $ . Mc:;ms Co111p~111y, Krng.~ton, MA
Cantilevered Members

Cantileve1·ed members are supported l. TI1e negative moment steel must be

only on one side (balcony slabs are a placecl in the correct position near
Cantilevered Slab typical example). Tension forces are the member's top surface. Im-
acting in the member's top portion proper placement of the reinforcing
(top portion tension is also known as steel may result in bending failure
negative moment). Tension is greatest of a structural member.
at the memher's fixed end. Tension 2. Tension cracks that develop over
forces are carried by the reinforcing the negative moment steel are
steel located in the top portion of the natural canyons for moisture and
member. Two critical factors should be other corrosion-inducing sub-
considered when using cantilevered srances. Heavy corrosion results in
members: section loss and causes proportional
loss in tension capacity. Yielding of
reinforcing steel may result in
hinging and complete failure.

Applied Loads

~ ~ -~
Deflection
t
Location of Maximum
Tension
and Possible Cracks

• . . . :· ·. ·
. · · · ... ·. . . " .Concrete in compression
· .. · ·. · .: " .' Half 61 $lab~
on Bottoni
Note: Reinforcing steel
must be located in upper
portion of member to
properly carry tension loads.

l't!'lc:r 1-t. t-:mnuin,>'C.oncre lC Hc..:p :1ir ~uul M:11111l."n:ll1\.\.'

~ R. S. Mc:l1b Cump.1ny. Ki1\~.:\tQn, MA 51
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 5: Load Effects

Continuous Structures

Continuous Concrete Frame

Most cast-in-place structures are de-
I I signed as continuous members. Unlike
simple spans, continuous spans trans-
fer load to adjacent spans. For static
loadings, tension stresses usually occur
at the bottom (positive moment), at
midspan, and at the top (negative
- -
moment) over supports.
Concrete in negative moment areas
Applied Loading (tensile zone) may be subject to ten-
sion cracking. For example, in cantile-
t t t ttt t t ttt l t y vered construction, these cracks pro-
vide direct access for moisture and
other corrosion-inducing substances
into the concrete. Continuous struc-
tures such as parking and bridge decks
are also affected by moving loads,
which change the stress distribution in
adjacent spans, thereby causing rever-
sal deflections and vibrations. These
Negative Moment~:::
Possible Tension C r /
7 reversal deflections and vibrations at
breaks in the structure (expansion
joints) may pose maintenance prob-
lems for connecting joint systems.

Typical Deflection: 5-Span

Continuous Bridge
Repeated deflection reversals occur at
Point B, both while the vehicle is on
the bridge and just after the vehicle
has left the bridge. Continued stress
reversals and vibrations can induce
cracking, and widen and deepen exist-
ing cracks. Cracking is aggravated by
increases in span deflection. Cracking
+ occurs in planes of weakness, particu-
larly along the uppermost transverse
reinforcement.

....,..__ _ Dynamic Deflections

(Vibrations)

Vehicle Distance From Point A

Conceptual Diagram

l't:tt:r H. Ein11uH1!<ti<'~on"- rt·1 c:- Jlc:p:tir :md Mtt i nu.:~113™-'C'

52 0 R. S. Ml.'Jn:'i Company, t<.ing.-:rnn, MA
Columns

Maximum Compressive Strength

Columns are designed to carry vertical 1. Elastic shortening. Elastic short-
loads. Concrete, like aUmaterials, ening occurs as soon as loads are
stretches (lengthens) under tension, applied, and is equal ro stress (psi)
Stress (psi) and compresses (shortens) under divided by E (elastic modulus) .
40%of Max. compression. When concrete is com- 2. Creep shortening. Creep shorten-
Compressive pressed, the member shortens (vertical ing occurs over time and is affected
Strength strain) and bulges (horizoncal strain). by constant stress and long-term
Horizontal strain is equal co vertical loss of moisture (concrete matu-
E =Modulus of Elasticity strain times Poisson's Ratio (0.1-0.2). rity).
(psi) = stress I strain The bulge generates tension forces 3. Drying shrinkage. Drying shrink-
that are restrained by steel reinforce- age occurs over time with loss of
ment (column ties). Shortening of
moisture and is a time-dependent
columns consists of three components: process.
Srain (in/in x 1o-6 )

Relationship Between Applied

Stress and Amount of Shortening
y

Applied Load

t -
t:.- Elastic
- Shortening
n- Creep
/..- Shorteni ng
~

Column
I~ ~ ~

~~ ~
~ .~ ~
I
~
Bulge
~
fI ~ *-- ~

Tension Cracks

-
I

Working Example: Reinforced concrete column in 500'(153m) tall building under substained service stress of
1500 psi(10.3MPa) will shorten 8''(204mm) (2.5"(64mm) elastic, 2.5"(64mm) drying shrinkage, 0.5"(12mm) other).

Note: Bulge shown is exaggerated. Crack is shown to demonstrate tensile stress. Column lies resist tension stress.

Pt'ltT J-l . Ernmuns1Co1wn.:le Rcp~ir :md /\·la inil.! n:m ti::

© R. S. M~: ms Comp o
rny, t<.mg.~u:m, MA 53
P.art One'. Concrete Behavior Seclion 5: Load Effects

Post-Tensioned Members

Post- Post-tensioning of cast-in-place con-

Tensioned crete is an effective method of produc-
Frame ing durable, efficient structures. The
member is compressed with high-
rensile steel strands. The strands are
jacked from one end of rhe member,
and slippage of the strand through the
concrete is allowed with grease and
sheathing. The stretching of the
strands compresses the concrete to

Strands are
tensioned,
compressing
the concrete.
1
---j11--
1 _ _ _ _ _ __r----fif\~

_ __..____._ .. 1
offset any tension stress from future
service loads. The lack of tension in
the concrete reduces the potential for
tension cracking.
Upon stressing, the concrete shortens.
This is known as elastic shortening.
The amount of elastic shorcening
depends upon the modulus of elastic-
ity (E) ancl the unit stress to which the
concrete is compressed. After stress-

lrr,
ing, long-term shortening, known as
t:;,. creep, will take place. It may take over

nJ1
t:;.
;...;
1500 clays to reach ultimate creep.
Elastic
shortening
takes place
after
stressing.

:lL
6- 6-·
i-1
Additional
shortening
occurs as a
JfH y

result of
creep and
drying
!i
shrinkage

J\:lt'r M. t-:rn01un' C11mTctt· Repair ;1ml M.unh.:n;uu.:e

54 •'• R. S. M1."":H\.\ \.11m p:11l }'. Kmg..,1on. M.1\
 Restrained Volume Change
A common problem in post-tensioned for stress relief. The column designed
structures is lack of design consider- for vertical loads is subject to horizon-
ation of volume changes in members tal pulling in opposite directions,
caused by elastic ancl plastic (creep) thereby causing sever shear cracking.
shortening. Short columns in parking l11e shear is also aggravated by diurnal
structures with opposing post- solar heating if the structure is clireccly
tensioned framing are ideal locations exposed to the sun.

Working Example
Length of beam = 60' (18.3 m)
E = 4,000,000 psi (2.8 x 104 MPa)
Compression = 1,000 psi (6.9 MPa)
Elastic shortening= 0.18" (4.6 mm) = stress/E x L
= (1000 psi/4,000,000 psi) x (60' x 12")
11
Creep shortening = 0.36" (9.1 mm)= 0.18 (4.6 mm) x 2.0 (Creep Coefficienc)
Creep + Elastic= 0.54" = 0.36" (9.1 mm) + 0.18 (4.6 mm)
11

- -..·~ Direction of Pull

-1-- Short
Column

Direction of Pull .....

____
Shear Cracking

f't{cr H. EmmonS/C\mCrt"I<! Rcp.11r :ind Maimcnan.t.:c-

() R s. Means Com1l'O)', KiOll$lOO. MA 55
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 5: Load Effects

Cylindrical Structures

Buried Pipe
Buried pipes are loaded with surmuncl-
ing backfill and overburden. Nonuni -
fo rm loads surrounding the pipe may
result in dcformmion of the pipe.
Loads on rop ma)' exceed the load on
the pipe's underside. The pipe is
compressed in the vertical axis and
bulges along the horizontal axis.
Cracks may develop, forming hinges at
'l three possible locations: the crown
J (top of pipe) , and ar the two spring
line locations (side of pipe).

Crack in Spring
Line of Pipe
Pipe Deforms
under Load.

Pel~,. 1-L f.mm()n S/t:onc.. l'"t:lt' Rcp:nr- :.m d M;.iint1.::na1\c.;e

56 Cl R. S. Mc:m~ Comp:im'. KinJ:!."lon, MA

 Tanks Example:
Tanks are conscructed to hold liquids The tensile stress in a reinforced
and flowable solids. The loads imposed concrete tank wall is carried by rein-
on the tank are proportional co the forcement. Given three configurations
material's density and height of liquid on the right, all have equal tensile
in the tank. Pressure is greatest at the loads (L), but each configuration has
bottom and zero ar the top surface. rebars of a different diameter and
Internal pressure pushes against tbe cross sectional area (A). All bars have
tank wall, creating tension. The tension equal modulus of elasticity. The stress
forces must be carried by the reinforc- level is L/1.0A in Fig. A, L/2.0A in Fig.
ing steel that circles the tank. The B, ancl L/3.0A in Fig. C. Each bar will
amount of stress in che reinforcing elongate proportional co the scress
steel dictates how well the steel holds level. The bar in Fig. A will elongate
the concrete cogether, thereby prevent- three times the elongation of the bar
ing cracking. shown in Fig. C. The more elongation,
the more likely it is that the concrete
will crack.
ACI 350R-89, Section 2.5 recommends
a minimum of 0.28 percent ancl a
maximum of 0.60 percent shrinkage
and temperature reinforcement, de-
pending upon the grade of steel and
length between "shrinkage-dissipating"
joints.

Fluid ligureA
Loading

( \
Tension is '-------'

created by
figure B
loading.

Vertical cracks form

figure C
if horizontal
reinforcement
has
excessive
stress levels.

l't"' lt:: r H. f: mn"M >ns/Cuocrt:'lt" Repair anti fl.tunren:mct'

IQ R. S. Mt.•:ln.-t C:om p~my, t<.in3.,.1on. MA 57
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 5: Load Effects

Co11nections

Double T
Contact Loading
·• ·. In every structure, individual compo- Slabs cast on gracle are separa ted by
Rotation of~ nents come into contact. Precast struc-
tures are comprised of many compo-
construction joints. Shear transfer
between slabs at these joints are loca-
bearing .can ) nents, each interacting with others. tions where point loading can occur.
cause point loading. Point loading of contact points is quite Rolling loads place the joinr edges into
common, often resulting in excessive conract with one another, often creat-
tension and shear. Extremi ties and ing stresses chat spall and crack the
edges of members subject to r oint non-reinforced portions.
Ledger Beam loading are free to crack and spall Another common problem with pave-
when tension stresses exceed the ment slabs is the filling of the open
Spall from tensile capacity of the concrete. Em- joint with non-compressible debris,
Unreinforced bedded reinforcing steel is not a facror, preventing the joint from undergoing
Front Edge since most steel is embedded below free thermal expansion. Restrained
the contact point. volume change can induce very high
Precast doub!e-T stems resting on shear, compression and tension
Slab Construction Joint with Keyway ledger beams of ten point load the stresses.
franc edge of the non-reinforced por-
tion of the ledger beam . Point loading
can be a result of rotation (diurnal
solar heating) or length change from
seasonal thermal changes.

Cracking of Unreinforced Contact Points

·.. . ·

.·. . ·

Working Example: Dirt accumulation in joint restrains thermal movement.

E=4,000,000 psi (Modulus of Elasticity), unit strain= 0.0003 (thermal coef. x temp. change)
Stress = 1200 psi= E x Unit Strain = 4,000,000 psi x 0.0003 in/in = compressive stress

I I'---__O______.I ~,__,__________..._._O_I~
Debris fills joint ... then temperature rises, causing compressive forces to develop.

Pc1cr H . EmmrHl 'i/(.rnll:n::u: Repair ;md M:iimen:u1':c

58 fl It S Me:m s Comp:iny, Kings1un, ,\ lA
Additional Sources of Information

Wang, Chee-Kia and Salmon, CG., Reinforced Conuete Design, Thomas Y Crom-
well , Harper & Row Publishers, New York.
Notes on ACI 318-89, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete with
Design Applications, Portland Cement Association, 1990.
ACI 350R-89, Environmental Engineering Concrete Strucrures, ACI Manual of Con-
crete Practice, Part 4, 1991.

Pcrer 1-1. Emmon.'\/Concrl:ll' Rl'.:p.1ir :md .\l.11ntt!n:mt-e

Q lt. .S. Ml....tllS C~)mp:iny. Kmg.-. 1on, .MA 59
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 6; Faul91 Workmanship- Designer, Detailert Contraccor

Section 6:
Faulty Workmanship-
Designer, Detailer, Contractor
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement
Improper Post-Tensioned Cable Drape
Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement:
Highly Congested
Improper Bar Detailing: Location of
Stirrups
- Premature Removal of Forms
Improper Column Form Placement
Cold Joints
Segregation
Improper Grades of Slab Surfaces
Construction Tolerances
Plastic Settlement (Subsidence) Cracking
Plastic Shrinkage Cracking
Honeycomb- Rock Packers

Pc1 cr M. fu11mcms/Ctintre;-tt" Rep;tir :111d M:1illl('n:m..:e

60 0 H S. M1:ans Com~:-111~·. Kiog..,.1on, MA
Fattlty Workmanship: Introduction

Methods used to construct concrete potential for something to go wrong.

structures are different from methods Every building process includes a
used in other types of construction. sequence of necessary step-by-step
Concrete is one of the few materials in operations-from conceptual plan to
which raw ingredients are brought finished structure. Following is a Row
together at , or near, the construction chart of a typical building process.
site, where they are mixed, placed and Each box represents a category of
molded into a final product. There are problems that can arise in the building
so many variables affecting the produc- process.
tion of concrete that there is always a

/ \
Prepare Prepare
Design
....
..... Plans &
....
.....
Procure ....
..... Shop -
Materials
Specifications Details
'-

Fabricate &
~ Erect
Reinforcement
-..... Build &
Set
Formwork
.....
.....
Mix
Concrete
.........
Place
Concrete
-

/ "\

~
Strip ......... Cure
....
....
Completed
Formwork Structure
'-

l'cler H. Em1rnln..,,<:uncrclc lkpair and /\fairn'l..'.n:mn.:

fi.-.~· R S. Me:ms Com p :111y, Kingston, i\·IA 61
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 6: Faulty Workmanship- Desigrer, Det.ailer, Contractor

Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement

ACI-required concrete cover There are two important reasons to reinforcing steel requires adequate
for corrosion prntection control the proper location of reinforc- concrete cover to protect it from
ing steel in structures. First, reinforcing corrosion. The alkalinity of the con-
Cover steel is placed in concrete to carry crete is a natural corrosive inhibitor. If
Condition required tensile loads, and if the steel is mis- the concrete cover is inadequate, it will
in. (mm) placed, the concrete may not be able not provide the necessary long-term
co carry the tensile loads. Cantilevered protection. Shifted reinforcing bar
Concrete deposited on slabs, and negative moment areas near cages in walls or beams may also
3 (76)
the ground columns pose particular risk. Second, cause the reinforcing steel to Jose
proper cover.
Formed surfaces
exposed to weather
Tension crack may form in this area.
bars > #6 2 (51)
Proper location of Negatine Moment Steel
bars < #5 1.5 (38) : : : .-

Formed swjaces not

exposed to weather
Cantilever Slab
... · '.
beams, girders,
1.5 (38) ... ·. :
columns

slabs, waJJs, joists

Steel located too low to carry tension loads.
bars < #11 0.75 (19)
- - Shifted cage, not enough cover.
bars #14, #18 1.5 (38)

Area of Potential Rebar Corrosion

Pt-ccr t-J. Emnxms/Ct,nrrttc R.:p;1ir :ind M;.iin1e 1l'JOl:C

62 Q It s. ~k~os Comp:1ny. Ki~~ton, ~lA
Improper Post-Tensioned
Cable Drape
Drape as Constructed Crack forms directly above
cable drape.
Correct placement of post-tension
cable is critical to achieve the designed
structural load-c<lrrying cap<lcity. Im-
Beam End proper pl<lcement m<ly result in tension
... ·.. stress, causing the concrete to crack.
. . . ·.
. .. .. ' ·.. . . · :· ......
·~·· . Tbwimf ~·id~a~ .· ·.

·.·.
' "•ii'"·!•i..;;,... ',', '', •'•'' > ',' ' ,. ,'',' ,.,,,,. '. ,'' '' ''
·.··". · · · ·.. :·: .••••.1 .•..• '111ni11uil1~••i:;.,jj•.~:7-~.Mil--..~

Direction of Reaction Force

Proper Drape Location

Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement

• ' I ' • o
•'
:
.. ..
' • • 'o ' o ~ '
'
:• .~ ' ' • ' • o
Highly Congested
·. .
·' ·
. :. ·.
..: . . .
' . ·. .' . .'': : . :
. . ·'
. ·.
Reinforcement
... ..
';
Beams and columns <lre usu<llly heavily
. · ·. . . . . · '·.': .. :· :. reinforced members. Lap splices re-
·. : ..
. ·.: . ·· .. ·. . quire overlaps of bars and may result
"
..
·•' ·.
... : ~ ~ . :'.. • :- ·. ·.... ·
.. . ·•..... in a mat of steel that concrete mix
·_ cannot pass through during placement
;.., -·
.
·. . . .. :-:. and consolidation. The result is either
~=====~~~~===:~
a visible, or worse, a latent void
around the reinforcement.

Congested reinforcement prevents

concrete from filling arond bars.

Void

Pe1rr H. IJm ntou.~oncrcle Repair ;ind ~faintcn;1 nct.•

() R. S. Mc:m.., Comp.111y. K;ng,,.too, f\-l A 63
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 6: Faulty Workmanship- Designer, Detailer, Contractor

ln1proper Bar Placement

Location of Stirrups
Double-T members are a common forces in the cantilever are taken up by
element used in this type of construc- stirrups directly beneath the stem
cion. T's are generally supported by an location. Improper placement of the
inverred T-beam or ledger beam. The stirrups may result in a failure of rhe
cantilevered portion of the beam ledger beam support, and the
supports the double-T's stem. Critical double-T may then drop.

Typical Precast Parking Structure Configuration

Ledger
Beam

Improper Stirrup
Location

Proper Stirrup Location

Cut-Away View of Ledger Beam Reinforcement

Ji. ~mmon:s/(unnt"tc Rc=:pnir :rncl Mal o1 c1t111 t.c

64 P<.:l{T
© R, S. J\k•Jns Comp:1J1y, Kin,8;,,Um, Mt\
Premature Removal of Forms

/ - ; NewIy CastC oocce e Removal of forms (including shoring)

before rhe concrere has reached its
~.. Cr.ac·k·in·g··~t t~~.sl~b.~~~~. 1~t.~~ace is likely. proper strength may result in compres-
I / I . •'\ sion and tension stresses, causing
I .u" u· . u ru . u u ·.u . ·V \..) u .. u u cracking, deflection, and possible
·' .
. ,,.. ;.._
. " .,.. ". . ,.. ·,.. . .... . . .... . " collapse .
- 1 00 M
-
f(l IJ IX H
00 n
""==
.-II
II
..1
IT ....,.
~

-
Premature
Removal of
Forms and
Shoring

- -

Improper Column
Forn1 Placement
~
Slab~ Reduced shear area between column and slab may
(..... ...l result in potential punching shear failure. Cardboard cyUncler forms are widely
: . used in the construction of round
u . 0 0 0 " 0 0 0 0 0 .o columns. Typically, columns are cast
-.:r.:' . prior to the placement of the slab/

l'
0 0 0 0 () () 0 0

.o .. ·. beam formwork. The exact elevation of

~--------~ . , •
the slab/beam bottom may not be
'..... ,.. o.: . " ..·o ·. precisely determined when the col-
Form penetrates umns are cast. If the column is cast
slab system, too tall and penetrates the slah/beam
o: .. .. o .· reducing shear area. concrete, critical shear stresses may
·. ·.
occur because of inadequate shear
capacity area between the column and
the slab/beam. The smooth form
Waxed Cardboard ~ surface may not provide adequate
Column Form o· · ·· ·.o shear transfer.
" - - Column

P~ler Ii. Etmnon$/Ct itH'ft:k' RC."p:1 ir ;mt.I M:1in1t:11:rnL-e

Ci R $. Mc:rns Crn11p:10~·1 K.ing~1on, ,\.\A 65
Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 6: Faulty Workmanship- Designer, Detailer, Contractor

Cold Joints

Cold joints are places of discorttinuity

within a member where concrete may
not tightly bond to itself. Cold joints
New Placement on Hardened
may form between planned placements
(or Initial Set) Concrete and within a placement. Some con-
struction placement procedures re-
quire multiple lifts. A dam is a good
example, as are tall walls. To achieve
proper bond and water-tightness, the
surface of hardened concrete musr be
free of dirt, debris, and laitance.
Proper cleaning and placement proce-
dures sometimes are not followed or

:·V
. Q. are very difficult to achieve. The result
is a weak connection between place-
·o . .·
Laitance ments that could result in weakness or

o-.· . .·CJ. leakage at a later date.

The other type of cold joint may occur
..0 Hardened Concrete
within a planned placement if a part of
the concrete in one placement sets,
Q . D: and then the rest of the concrete is
·o·. placed on ir. During the set, laitances

o~ form, providing for a weakened plane.

Leakage may occur when the structure
is put into service.

Segregation
0 D
0 0 Segregation of concrete results in
0 nonuniform distribution of its constitu-
ents. High slump mixes, incorrect
methods of handling concrete, and
over-vibration are causes of this prob-
lem. Segregation causes upper surfaces
to have excessive pa~te and fines, and
Coarse aggregate may have excessive water-cement ratio.
falls to bottom. The resultant concrete may lack ac-
ceptable durability.

P~1~r H. F.111monsiConcre1c Rc-p:.nr :.i11d M:1i1m:n:m<.c

66 c~ n. S. Me2ns Cnmp;u1y, J<inys1on. IvlA
Improper Grades of
Slab Surfaces
Slabs requiring drainage for proper
nmoff need special attention. Drains
should be at low, not high points.
Proper slope-to-pitch for quick runoff
is important to prevent deterioration
and leakage within the structure.
Standing water provides concrete with
rhe potential for saturation, the worst
Water collects in low points. condition for a freeze-thaw cycle. The
quicker the water runs off the struc-
ture, the less leakage can occur
through joints and cracks.

Construction Tolerances
Structural members that are cast out of
I I tolerance pose aesthetic and structural
problems. Members cast out of toler-
ance may have improper concrete
I
cover and cross section, which may
I

I
produce eccentric loading.

:'
I
Out-of-Plumb Column
Tolerances for
I

I
Formed Surfaces
.. " ..,
I I
Variation from plumb in (mm)
I• I
any 10' length 1/4 (6)
I

' maximum entire

I
1 (25)
I length
'
I Variations from level
'
I
slab soffits 10' length 1/4 (6)

I .I maximum encire length 3/4 (19)

Variations in cross section

minus 1/4 (6)

plus 1/2 (13)

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Q R. $ . Me,ns Ccm1pany, King.~ton. MA 67
Part One: Concrete Behavior Sectioo 6: Faulty Workmanship- Designer, Detailer, Contractor

Plastic Settlement
(Sttbsidence) Cracking
Plastic seulement cracking is caused by
the settlement of plastic concrete
Probable Location
around fixed reinforcement, leaving a
for Bar Corrosion plastic tear above the bar and a possi-
ble void beneath the bar. The probabil-
ity of cracking is a function of:
·o ~
0
,~ · o<0
D 0
1. Cover

0
CJ
0
"
\J D
ov 0
o\J 2. Slump
3. Bar size
Setdement of plastic concrete is caused by:
Void Under Bar 1. Low sand conrenr and high water
content
As bleed water comes to surface, volume of concrete is reduced.
2. Large bars
3. Poor thermal insulation
Probability of Subsidence Cracking (%)* 4. Restraining settlement clue to irreg-
2" Slump 3" Slump 4" Slump ular shape
Cover 5. Excessive, uneven absorbency
#4 #5 #6 #4 #5 #6 #4 #5 #6
6. Low humidity
3/( 80.4 87.8 92.5 91.9 98.7 100 100 100 100 7. Insufficient time between top-out of
1" 60 71 78. l 73 83.4 89.9 85. 2 94.7 100 columns and placement of slab and
beam
11/i" 18.6 34.5 45.6 31.1 47.7 58.9 44.2 61.1 72
8. Insufficient vibration
2" 0 1.8 14.l 4.9 12.7 26.3 5.1 24.7 39 9. Movement of formwork

'-'NCHRP 297, Table 4, p. 11.

Plastic Shrinkage Cracking

Water Loss
through
Evaporation Ir ) / Plastic
Shriokage C<acks Plastic shri.nkage is caused by the
rapid evaporation of mix water (not
bleed water) while the concrete is in
its plastic stare and in the early stages
of initial set. Shrinkage results in
cracking when it produces tension
stress greater than the stress capacity
of the newly placed concrete. Plastic
shrinkage cracking rarely fractures
aggregate, bur separates around the

Jl. 'o~me
aggregate. Plastic shrinkage cracks may
lead to points of thermal and dry
shrinkage movement, intensifying the
Aap;d loss of waf" lhrnugh enpo<ahoo causes concrefe lo reduce ;, cracking.
If restrained, tension develops, which may cause cracking.

l't.:lt:f H . Ernmon~OllCfClC' R~pair :.tnd M :ti l'lft:O:Jl)Ct::

68 Ci R. $ Mtmo s Comp;my, f<inK<IOn, M A
Honeycomb and Rock Pockets

Honeycomb is a void lefr in concrete

due to failure of the rnorcar co effec-
tively fill the spaces among coarse
aggregate particles. Rock pockets are
generally severe conditions of honey-
comb where an excessive volume of
Vibrator aggrega te is found.

Primary Causes of
Honeycomb
Design of members
.: . .. .: .· _ff, ~ . . . . . . • highly congested reinforcement
. .. . . ... ·_ . -;: ~ r :~ . .. • narrow section
)- ~ ~ (
. • internal interference
• reinforcement splices
Forms
• leaking at joints
• severe grout loss
Construction conditions
• reinforcement too close to forms
• high temperature
• accessibility
Properties of fresh concrete
Loose fitting form allows
Rock pocket • insufficient fines
mortar to escape, rocks
remain • low workability
• early stiffening
Air voids • excessive mixing
• aggregate that is too large
Placement
• excessive free-fall
• excessive travel in forms
• lift that is too high
• improper tremie or drop chute
• segregation
Consolidation
• vibrator too small
• frequency too low
• amplitude too small
• short immersion time
• excessive spacing between insertion
• inadequate penetration

PClCf l·L Entmon:c;/COJl(fC."IC Rcp:llr' ancl M :tint·c:oa1h.e

© R. S. Me1ms Cump<1n"y: K.Jn~1on, MA 69
Part Two
Concrete
Evaluation

Part Two
Sections
Introduction 75
Testing Methods for Concrete Evaluation 76
Table A: Test Methods 77
Condition Survey Procedu re 78
Section 1: Service and Exposure Conditions 79
Section 2: Visual and Exploratory Investigation 80
Section 3: Locating Delaminated Concrete:
Acoustical Emission Methods 81
Section 4: Corrosion Activity Measurements 82
Section 5: Chloride Content 83
Section 6: Depth of Carbonation 84
Section 7: Petrographic Analysis 84
Section 8: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Impact Echo Method 85
Section 9: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: illtrasonic Pulse
Velocity Methods 86
Section 10: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Remote Viewing
Inside Structure 87
Section 11: Locating Embedded Reinforcing Steel 88
Section 12: Monitoring Movements 89
Section 13: Bond Strength of Overlays and Coatings: Pull-off Testing 90
Section 14: In Situ Compressive Strength: Rebound and Penetration
Methods 91
Additional Sources of I nformation 92

Pt::lt'r Ji. r:m1non:-./Con1.:r\!t e R~p:iJ r <lnd M:l lnlt.'fl:llll't_' 73

© H. S. M~~1n:-. Company. KJn~Sl(..H1 , ,\.!../\
Part Two: Concrete Evaluation

Yes
Effect Cause

Pt:l cr H . Emmo n,ICon..:rclt:' R.t:lXlir .me.I M:1i111~n:m"-1:

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Introduction to Part Two

This Part presents information on how to

conduce an evaluation of concrele in an
existing structure. A thorough and logical
evaluation of the current condition of the

---
.... Repair structure is the firsr step of any repair or
Evaluate
Analysis rehabilitation project.
.... Cona·ete can be defecrive for several re.asons,
~

including inadequate design, material selec-

A tion anclibr workmanship. Concrete can also
deteriorate or be damaged in use. Conse-
n quenrly, existing reinforced concrete may nm
be functioning as originall}' intended and
designed. Concrete in a structure has a mun-
ber of functions. First and foremost, as a
User structural matetial, concrete is designed to
Needs carry loads: for example, to provide a bearing
surface for traffic, including pedestrian and
vehicular. Concrete also provides prorection
to embeclclecl reinforcement. Reinforced
concrete is a composite material consisting of
concrete and reinforcing steel. The bond
between the individual constituents is most
,, critical for the properties of the composite
material. Embedded reinforcing steel must be
Cause adequately bonded to the surrounding con-
Useful Life Structural Needs
crete carrying the amicipated design loads.
?
Disfunction of concrete structures usually
Scope
occurs in some form of visible distress such
Urgency Effect of Repair as cracking, leaching, spalling, scaling, stains,
on Structure disintegration, wear, setdernenr, or deflection.
fur a more complete desoiption of concrete
Effect disfuncrion, see Pan 1, Concrete Behavior.
?
Cost
Constructibility The evaluation of concrete structures can be
Scope either a reactive or proactive process. Gen-
erally, evaluation takes place as a result of
User Technical some visible sign of distress, causing struc-
Performance Environment tural and/or durability concerns of poor
Requirements functional performance, which, in turn,
result in safety concerns.
The evaluation process is important in deter-
Aesthetics Safety
mining such factors as cause of the clisfunc-
tion and structural safery, and for establishing
a general scope of problems found . ·me
following sections will outline the most com-
mon methods used ro evaluate concrete.
Other sources of infonnation on concrete
evaluation can be founcl in the ACJ Manual
of Concrete Practice, ACI 201.lR Guide for
Durable Concrete and ACJ 207.3R, Practices
for Evaluation of Concrete in.Existing Massive
Structures fm Service Conditions.
Pc·lc1· 1-t. f:mmon..,C11n(n..~Lt: Rep:1i1· aocl M.1111tt•1,:1.1~\:
~ H. '). ~h~:n1,, Cot11p:111y. Kl1l,g,~1 011. M.t\ 75
Part Two: Concrete Evaluation Introduction

Testing Methods for

Concrete Evaluation

Mechanical Chemical Physical External Manifistation

Properties Make-up Condition (behavior)

Compressive Strength Electro-chemical Uniformity Cracks/spalls

-Core testing (1) Activity -Petrographic analysis (11) -Hammer sounding
-Windsor probe (3) -Half cell potential (9) -Pulse velocity (4) -Infrared thermography
-Rebound hammer (2) -El ectrical resistivity (10) -Windsor probe (3) -Impact echo
-Rebound hammer (2) -Pulse ve locity (4)
-Core testing (1) -Remote viewing (TV,
Quality of Concrete borescope)
Ultrasonic pulse velocity{4) Carbonation Depth -Exploratory removal
-Acid based indicators
(Phenolphthalein Solution)
Air-Void System
(15)
-Petrographic analysis (11)
Tensile Strength -X-ray diffraction Deflections from
-Pull off testing -Infrared spectroscopy Service Loads
-Splitting tensile Delaminations/voids -Load testing (ACI 437R)
strength (5) -Hammer sounding -Monitoring movements
-Chain drag
Alkali-Aggregate -Impact echo
Flexural Strength Reactions -Pulse velocity (4)
(6) (7) -Petrographic analysis (11) -Exploratory removal Movements of
-Uranyl (Uranium) -Remote viewing Service/Exposure
Acetate fluorescence (TV, Borescope)
method -Infrared thermography
Conditions
Abrasion resistance -Load testing (ACI 437R)
(8) -Monitoring movements

Chloride Content Location/Condition of

(12) (13) (14)
Bond Strength Embedded Metals Leakage
-Pachometer -Visual observations
-Pull off testing
-Radiography -Infrared thermgraphy
-Ground penetrating radar
-Exploratory removal

Temperature/moisture
Water permeability conditions
-Th ermocoupie
-Thermo meter
Air permeability
External Geometry
-Visual observations
Water absorption
(19)

Frost &freeze-thaw
resistance
(16) (17)

Resistance to deicing
Note: Figures in parentheses
denote number of standard salts
test in Table A (18)

l'ece;.·r H. 1-:mmons.'Omcrcu~ ReJ>:1jr <U\<I M:1h11cn~n'"·c

76 Cl R. S. Mca1lS Crnn1 lany. Kjog_"itnn, M:\
 TABLE A. STANDARD TEST METHODS FOR EVALUATING CONCRETE

NO. DESIGNATION TITIE

1 ASTtvl C 42 Obrnining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete

2 ASTM C 805 Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete

3 ASTM C 803 Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete

4 ASTM C 597 Pulse Velocity Through Concrete

5 ASTM C 496 Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens

6 ASTM C 78 Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading)

7 ASTM C 293 Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Center-Point Loading)

8 ASTM C 418 Abrasion Resistance of Concrete by Sandblasting

9 ASTM C 876 Half-Cell Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete

·-.
10 ASTM D 3633 Electrical Resistivit y of Membrane-Pavement Systems

11 ASTM C 856 Standard Practice for Petrographic Examination of Hardened Concrete

12 AASI-ITO T 259 Resistance of Concrete to Chloride Ion Penetration

13 AASHTO T 260 Sampling and Testing for Total Chloride Ion in Concrete and Concrete Raw Materials

14 AASHTO T 277 Rapid Determination of the Chloride Permeability of Concrete

- --
15 ASTM C 457 Microscopical Determination of Parameters of the Air-Void System in Hardened Concrete

16 ASTM C 666 Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing

17 ASTM C 671 Critical Dilation of Concrete Specimens Subjected to Freezing

- --·..---
18 ASTM C 672 Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to Deicing Chemicals

19 ASTM C 642 Specific Gravity, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete

J\::u.:r H . E1rnnrJn~/C.:t1rh.:n:tc- Rcp:tir :ind M:11 nte1t111t:t:

lt"'.'> R. S. J\k:ui~ Comp;tn)', King:-.tun . i\'11\ 77
Part Two: Concre[e Evalua[ion Introduction

Condition Survey Procedure

The steps in a typical evaluation of a 4. Final evaluation

concrete structure are: 5. Condition survey repon
1. Visual inspection (walk-through) The results of any evaluation, espe-
2. Review of engineering data cially determining the cause and scope
a. Design and construction of the problem, are only as accurate as
documentation che understanding and effort applied
b. Operation and maintenance to the process. A cursory review or
records walk-through inspection will noc pro-
c. Concrete (including materials duce as accurate an evaluation as an
used) records in-depth , detailed investigation involv-
d. Periodic inspection reports ing the necessary mapping, sampling,
3. Condition survey tes ting and exploratory efforts.
a. Mapping of the various
deficiencies
b. Monitoring
c. Joint su rvey
d. Sampling and testing
e. Nondestructive testing
f. Structural analysis

l'~ttT 1-1 Emm'-.111 s1ComTC' lt~ !kp:~i1' :md M:iin1t.·11:u,n:

78 © R S. ~kans Cnmpan~1, 1<111.,t.,wn, M:\
Section 1:
Service and Exposure Conditions
Concrete evaluation is not limited to is related to a service or exposure
studies of its physical condition, me- condition. The catalog of service and
d1anical properties, chemical make-up, exposure conditions presented below
and external maniifestation. Under- is a listing of some of the conditions ro
standing its interaction with the envi- be considered when analyzing concrete
mnment is equally impol'tant. In many behavior.
cases, the cause of a concrete problem

I Temperature
II Moisture
II Chemical
II Loading
I
I
.
High-Low
I
Relative Humidity
Range Type
I I
Moving
J
Contact Type:
Frequency Immersion, runoff Concentration Static
I I I

Form:
Duration Frequency Gas, Liquid, Solid Impact
I I I I

Freeze-thaw Cycles Duration Frequency Vibration

I I I I I I

Solar Exposure
[ Duration
Form:
Gas, Liquid, Solid

Protection at Early
= Size/Magnitude
Age?

Frequency

Duration

P(rer t-1 Emmon~;Concr(·tc Rqxiir !'l.n(I i\·L1Hncn:::t1H.:c

1£1 R S_ Me<)llS \.omp:111~; ~(lrlp,Stun , MA 79
Part Two: Concrete Evaluation

Section 2:
Visual and Exploratory Investigation
Any thorough investigation starts with Visual examination, mapping the
External Behavior
I a visual review of conditions. Key
indicators of problems are:
location of problems on paper, ancl
then reviewing these along with as-
Moisture Vapor Transmission l. Cracking (crazing) built drawings and construction
records can provide a general scope of
2. Surface distress
the problems and possible clues to
Leakage Thru Structure a. Spalling
causes.
b. Disintegration of the surface
c. Surface honeycomb Visual examination often results in
Deflections to Service Loads cl. Scaling many questions regard ing the extent
and details of deterioration/distress. A
3. Water leakage useful way co answer these questions is
Movements to Service/
a. Surface dampness
Exposure Conditions the exploratory removal of concrete to
b. Seepage or leakage through
expose hidden elements. Chipping and

L Physical Condition
I joinrs or cracks
4. Movements
a. Deflections
core drilling are the most common
exploratory methods.

I Air-Void System
I b. Heaving
c. Settlement
Voids 5. Metal corrosion
1 I a. Rust staining
Delam inations
b. Exposed post-tension cable
I I strands
c. Exposed reinforcing bars
Uniformity
I I 6. Miscellaneous
a. Blistering membranes ancl
Location/Condition of
Embedded Metals coatings
b. Ponding of water
Cracks/Spalls
c. Discoloration

External Geometry

Temperature/Moisture
Condition

Existing Stress Levels

. . . : ..
- ... . . : . . ·.([:I:>·· . :. .·:....... >..·. · .:. . . ·.... ..·>. ·.:.:.
..
. . . .-
. ·· :

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Section 3:
Locating Delaminated Concrete
Acoustical Emissions and Thermography Methods
I Physical Condition I Sounding of concrete with a hammer
provides a low-cost, accurate method
Automated electronic systems are also
available, eliminating the need for an
Air Void System
I for identifying delaminated areas.
When striking areas of delaminated
operator to listen for differences in
acoustic emissions. However, these
Voids concrete, the sound changes from methods have proved to give only a
I "ping" to a hollow sounding " puck." general picture of the areas of clelami·
Boundaries of clelarninations can easily nation. Consequently, they should be
Dela mi nations be determined by sounding areas used only for general assessment, not
I surrounding the llrst " puck" until for the detailed layout required for

i Uniformity

Location/Condition of
"pings" are heard.
Hammer-sounding of large areas gen-
erally proves to be extremely time
reconstrnction.
I nfrared thermography is a useful
method of detecting delaminations in
Embedded Metals consu1n ing. More productive sounding bridge decks. This method is also used
methods are available when working for other concrete components ex-
Cracks/Spalls wirh horizontal surfaces. Chain drag- posed to direct sunlight. The method
ging accomplishes the same result as works on the principle that, as the
hammer-sounding. As the chain is concrete heats and cools, there is
External Geometry
dragged across a concrete surface, a substantial thermal gradient within the
distinctly different sound is heard when concrete because concrete is a poor
Temperature/Moisture
Condition it crosses over a delaminated area. conductor of heat. Delaminations and
other discontinuities interrupt the heat
Existing Stress Levels transfer through the concrete. These
defects ca use a higher surface temper-
Hammer Sounding ature than the surrounding concrete
during periods of heating, and a lower
surface temperature than the sur-
rounding concrete cluring periods of
cooling. The equipment can record
ancl identify areas of clelamination and
indicate depth of delaminations below
the surface.
Marking Paint Note: Area of corrosion activi ty in
concrete is generally larger than area
of delamination.
Tests Large Area
~

Chain Drag
Sounding

CJ) " © :.·:"·.:~:·"···. :: 0

". ..:.-···

Corrosion Limits are Generally

Delamination Greater than Delamination Area

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·:ti K. !> M1::111~ Cump,my. King~mn. ~tA 81
Part Two: Concrete F.valua1ion

Section 4:
Corrosion Activity Measurements
{?emical Makeup j Corrosion of reinforcement is the
electrochemical clcgraclacion of steel in
concrete. It occurs when the passivity
Ir is generally agreed that the half-cell
potencial measurements can be inter-
prered as follows2:
Electro-chemical Activity of che sceel is destroyed by carbon- • Less negative than - 0.20 volts incli-
ation or by chloride ions and electro- cates a 90 percent probability of no
chemical cells develop. When steel corrosion.
Alkali-Aggregate Reactions corrodes in concrete, a potential differ- • Between - 0.20 and - 035 voles,
ence exists between the anodic half- corrosion activity is uncertain.
Chloride Content cell areas and the cathodic half-cell • More negative than - .035 volts is
areas on the steel. 1 This difference can indicative of a grearer than 90 percent
~arbonation Depth
be cletected by placing a copper- probabiliLy that corrosion is occurring.
copper sulfate half-cell on the surface
If positive readings are obtained, it
of the concrete and measuring the
usually means that insufficient mois-
pmential differences between the
ture is available in the concrete and
reinforcing steel and a wet sponge on
the readings are not valid. These tests
che concrete surface. The reference
do not indicate the race of corrosion:
cell connects the concrete surface to a
the measurements only manifest the
high-impedance voltmeter, which is
potential for corrosion at the time of
also conneccecl electrically to the
measurement.
reinforcing steel mac. The voltmeter
then reads the potential difference ac These half-cell methods cannot detect
the test location. These readings are corro::;ion in post-tensioned strands,
taken on a grid basis ancl converted nor can they detect corrosion when
inco pocenrial gradient mapping. reinforcing steel is discontinuous from
the voltmeter. However, half-cell mea-
surements are often useful because
Potential Reading they are easy to perform, and results
can be cleliverecl quickly at rela tively
low costs.
A full description of the above test
procedure and equipment is detailed
High-Impedance Voltmeter in ASTM C 876, Half Cell Potentials of
Reinforcing Steel in Concrete.

Copper/Copper Sulfate

Corrosion Activity Porous

Sponge
.·
.· .
Reinforcing

h~~~~~0~~~::-%~2~~~~~~~~Steel 1NCHRP Report 140, Durabilir11 of Prestresscd

Concrete Highway Structures, TRB, 1988, µ.22.
2NCHRP Report 312, Condition Surveys of
Concrete Bridge Components - User's Manual,
TRB, 1985, p. 35

P'--·rc:"r M. Emmon:-.1'Con1.1·..:h! H<::p:nr :1nc1 M:timt-n:in(("

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Section 5:
Chloride Content
Because the amount of chlorides sample from the abrasion of the rotary
Chemical Makeup present in reinforced concrete can drill bit against the side of the hole.
greatl)' affect its performance, chloride- Using a drill bit with a stepped-clown
Electro-chemical Activity ion content evaluation is an important bit diameter will reduce the chance of
testing method. 1r is clone by taking a conramination. Powdered samples are
sample of concrete from the structure, analyzed using a wet chemical
Alkali Aggregate Reactions
either by drawing pulverized concrete method. 1
using a rotary-percussion hammer Separating cast-in chlorides from
Chloride Content (preferably electric), or by taking cores chlorides that have entered the struc-
and then pulverizing the concrete in ture from the surface ca n be done by
the laboratory. Field pulverization comparing the chloride contem ac
Carbonation Depth
samples are generally taken at various various levels in the suspect member.
locations of the suspect member uncler Cast-in chlorides will generally have
investigation. similar chloride contents throughout
At each level of sampling, the pulver- the member, whereas chlorides that
ized material is collected ancl stored in have emered the concrete after casting
a clean container, the hole is vacuum will have higher concentrations at the
cleaned, and the nexr sample is drawn surface and lower levels forther into
at the next clesirecl depth . Where deep the member.
holes are to be drilled, care must be
taken to prevent conramination of the

Electric Rotary

[ Percussion
Hammer Drill

H Pulverized
Concrete
Sample

Rotary Chloride
Carbide I Analyser
Bit
I
I
I
I'
I

1
NCHRP Repon 118, Detecting Defects and
Field Laboratory Dererioration in Highway Srructures, TRB,
1985, p. 17.

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Part Two: Concrete Evaluarinn

Section 6:
Depth of Carbonation
Solution of Carbonation of concrete is the reaction face between carbonated and uncar-
phenolphthalein among acidic gases from the air, mois- bonatecl zones. The most commonly
1nethanol ~ ture, and the alkaline cement paste. To used indicaror for this purpose is a
determine the depth of carbonation, a solution of phenophtalein, which
Carbonated .-:.,,. fresh concrete surface must be ex- colors the concrete an intense reel
Layer (Clear) ..,- ·_) / posed. This can be clone by core (pink) at pH values greater than 10
shown hatched .. ·:-:/·_./ :.:,::/
on illustration ·,>/ .:: · ·' · sampling the suspect surface and and is colorless at pH values less than
splitting the core with a hammer and 10. The pH-indicators are not sup-
chisel. The position of the carbonation posed to give the exact pH value of
front is measured by spraying the the concrete, but merely ro measure
concrete surface with an acid-based the depth of the la11er altered by car-
indicawr which changes the colors at a bonation.
pH of about 10, indicating the inter-

Surfaces with pH below 10 (carbonated) will

have no change in color, wllh a pH above 10
the color of concrete will change to a pink color.

Section 7:
Petrographic Analysis
Po 0 c?D.()O~
0

·v·-·a" -o. .. ..."w .

. .· .. ·. · .. · .. · · . ·.
Petrographic analysis is a detailed
examination of concrete co determine
the formarion and composition of rhe
from the strucrure and are prepared by
either polishing or etching a surface of
the specimen. Petrographic examina-
·: ·~·:·Q. :.· ·.ai;?:.-·:· concrete and to classify its type, condi-
tion, and serviceability. The petro-
tion includes identification of mineral
aggregates, aggregate-paste interface,
graphic examination attempts to an- assessment of the structure, and integ-
swer two general, objective questions: rity of the cemenr paste. Petrographic
"What is the composition?" and "How examination helps determine some of
is it put toge ther~" 1 The petrographic the following mechanisms:
Chemical Makeup / examination helps to improve the 1. Freeze-thaw resistance
extrapolation from test results to
2. Sulfate attack
Electro-chemical Activity performance in situ. Together with
various other concrete tests, petro- 3. Alkali-aggregate reactivity
graphic analysis helps t0 determine 4. Aggregate du rability
Alkali Aggregate Reactions
why this concrete in siru behaved in 5. Carbonation
the wa)' ir did, and how it may behave
Petrographic exami nation is a highly
Chloride Content in the future. To perform this type of
specialized practice requiring sk illed
analysis, concrete specimens are taken
petrographers.
Carbonation Depth
1Mather, Katherine, Petrographic Examination,

ASTM STP 169-A, Concrete and Connete-

Making Materials, Philadelphia.

P'-'tl"r 1-t. Emmrn1:-;;C.01wrc:lr.:: R~pa i r a1KI Ma1mcnan.t:e

84 ~ R S. Mc:rn~ Cnmp:my. l(jng.slon , MA
Section 8: Locating Voids,
Cracks, and Honeycomb
[ Physical Condition l Impact Echo Method
Detecting flaws under the surface of
Air Void System
concrete has always been difficult.
Recent developrnenrs in instrumenta-
tion and computer technology can
Voids provide a reliable method of locating
voids, cracks, honeycomb, and other
flaws. The impact-echo technique
Delaminations works by impacting the concrete
surface with a short duration stress
Uniformity pulse that is reflected from defects and
exrernal boundaries back to a receiver
Location/Conditions of
(transducer). The signals received are
Embedded Metals converted inro a frequency spectrum
and are displayed on a computer
Cracks/Spalls
screen. Artificial intelligence software is
used to analyze these signals, predict-
ing the probability and depth of de-
External Geometry fects. The system works quickly, taking
approximately two seconds to process
Temperature/Matsture each readi ng.1
Condition

Existing Stress Levels

Computer Signal Display

Amplifier

Receiver
Impactor Transducer

Defect
lMaterials Journal of the American Concrete
Institute, Sept.-Oct. 1991, "Detecting Flaws in
Concrete Beams and Columns Usmg the
Impact Echo Method," by Yiching Lin and
Mary Sansalone.

Pclcr 1-f. Emmon!t/Cont.~rc1c R<"p:iir :ind i\ifaimco:rn<.:c

~· R. S. J\·k:ms Co mp:my, King.~l(.ln, J\l.J\ 85
Part Two: Concrele Evaluation

Section 9: Locating Voids,

Cracks, and Honeycomb
/_ Physical Condition
I Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Methods
Pulse velocity is the measurement of The pulse velocity method is an excel-
Air Void System the transit time of an ultrasonic pulse lent tool rapidly to compare concrete
I I between a transrnircer and a receiver. If uniformity from one part of the stn.1c-
the distance between the transmirter ture to another. Another valuable use
I Voids
I and the receiver is known, the veloci ty
of the pulse can be determined (dis-
of this technique is th e non-destructive
evaluation of cracks thar have been
Delaminations ra nee cliviclecl by time). In general, the nllecl with epoxy (epoxy injection) . ln
1 I more dense and strong (compressive) this case, the transmitter and receiver
the concrete being tested, the higher are fixed at a given distance apan, and
I Uniformity
I the velocity of the pulse.
To test concrete, contact between the
the assembly is placed perpendicular
to the crack, where pulse velociry
Location/Condition of
Embedded Metals concrete and the transmitter and measurements are taken. Calibration is
receiver is made with a coupling agem carried out in an uncracked section of
such as a petroleum je!ly. The velocity the concrete. Readings raken along the
Cracks/Spalls
of sound waves through the concrete repaired crnck are compared to the
is reduced by the presence of voids calibration reading of the uncrackecl
External Geometry or cracks. section (fully monolithic). A properly
repaired crack (one that is completely
TemperaturelMoisture Transit velocity is also influenced by filled wi th cured epoxy resin) will
the presence of reinforcing steel. If the
Condition
·- - - - - -·- display a transit velocity equal co that
reinforcing steel runs parallel to the of the uncracked section. The values of
Existing Stress Levels wave p1·opagat1·011, tl1e influe11ce of the
this method of quality assurance are
steel will be high, thus reducing the speed and the number of tests that
transit time. Transit velocity for reinforc- can be per formed. 1
ing steel will be 1.2X to l.9X, as com-
pared to concrete. There is a correlation
between pulse velocity and compressive lNCHRP Report 118, Detecting Defem and
strength, generally ± 20 percent. Dererioration in Highway Strucrures, TRB,
1985, p. 13

Velocity Meter

G2:23 41)
Sound travels shortest dislance. Wide crack: no signal received.
@@

Sound travels around crack, transit time Voids and Micro -cracks: sound travels
~ . I> increases. around with increase in transit time.

Receiver
)~)}.) )~)~5') Transmitter rDI ~ ~ \.· ~f--f- ·~
~ ~
Narrow crack: slight increase in transit time.

Pe1cr H . E nmt0ll."K::on~n:.tc 1ltpa1r ;ind M ainh:::n:.inn:

86 C R. S. ~k-:111~ Cc11np<1.oy, King.,.to n , MA
Section 10: Locating Voids,
Cracks, and Honeycomb
Physical Condition Remote Viewing Inside a
C Air Void Syst~
Structure
Since access to certain parts of struc-
tures may be limited, remote viewing
Voids I Viewot
Defect
may be the only way to inspect these
areas. Fiber optics (borescope), video
cameras, and periscopes are tools that
Delaminations I allow for remote viewing. The fiber
optics method utilizes a bundle of
UnlfQm'lity I glass fibers that transmit light to the
c::;:=::;:;=~ subject being viewed. Images are then
transmitted back to a lens for viewing
Location/Conditions of by eye or camera. With this method,
Embedded Metals views are limited to small areas, since
drilled holes can be as small as 1(2"
Cracks/Spalls (1.27 cm) for penerrarion of che bores-
cope. Use of video cameras and peri-
scopes requires larger drilled holes
External Geometry
and provide a larger viewing area of
the subject. However, there are now
Tempernture/Morsture video cameras available with less than
Condilion

Exislirlg Stress Levels

0 2" (5.08 cm) diameter.

Access
Hole

\:J"' . ">.: . .
... _,··er"·· .· :.cY -
". . . :-,·.,<< ... .:'
·.·~·.· .>0·· ·.
"·":.h·..:". o ·:,......
..

"· ... ._.. _. ('C·:

0 .·... .·.·. .•. ·6
.'·:-.. : : -. . .. ·: . ..~.· . ··:_ .._: · . ..... . .. · .·..
CJ ··•·· Q .· · · >-) ·. ...:.___,_.___,. . . . .
. " . ." .· ..·.
..-:·
. :·=v · · . -

·: ·. . . . - ..
·:·. :.

?e1cr H. Emmon:;/Conc.-c1e Rt•1l:1ir ;md .Maimt:1la1\CC'

0 R. S. Mt!:.in.\ Comp:11~}', K1ng..;1on. MA 87
Part Two: Concrete Evaluation

Section 11:
Locating Embedded Reinforcing Steel
Magnetic devices, known as pachome-
I Physical Condition
I ters or couermeters, are used to deter-
mine the location of embedded steel
Air Void System
reinforcement in concrete. If rhe size
I I of reinforcemem is known, the amount
of concrete cover can be determined.
Voids
I I In general, these devices can measure
cover to within 1/4" (6 mm) at 0 to 3"
Delaminations
(0 to 75 mm) from the surface. The
I I accuracy of the devices is dependent
on the amount of rei nforcing steel that
I
Uniformity

Location/Condition of
J is present in concrete. The more con-
gested the reinforcing, including multi-
ple layers, the less accurate the device
Embedded Metals becomes. In some cases, when other
bars interfere, the device cannat identi~1
Cracks/Spalls either location or depth of cover.
Calibration of the pachometer is rec-
External Geometry ommended in cases where there is
possible magnetic interference from
Temperature/Moisture metallic particles or additives, such as
Condition Pachometer Ay ash, in the concrete. Calibration can
be done by excavating the concrete,
Existing Stress Levels measuring the actual cover, and adjust-
ing the pachometer to the actual
measurement.
Pachometers are also reliable in locat-
ing post-tension strands when the
strands are 0 to 3" (0 to 75 mm) from
the surface.
Other devices, such as ground-pene-
rrari ng radar or x-ray, can be u.sed for
Sensing Device locating embedded metals when the
pachometer fails to provide the neces-
sary information. Ground-penetrating
radar can be used for locating reinforc-
ing steel bars or other non-magnetic
metals; however, x-ray is the most
accurate method. An x-ray works by
photographing the inside of the con-
crete in question, showing all embed-
ded objects (sim ilar to a chest x-ray).
X-ray exposure at each location will
take 30 minutes or more to penetrate
the concrete element. The thicker the
member, the longer the exposure time.

Reinforcing Steel
Cover

PCl l"L" 1-1 . C!mn1nn~tCrnu·rc11: H1.:j~lir :in!.l M;.1fntc-n;,1ncc

88 6;·J R !> jl.·h:a11:. Comp;u1~·. K.iilg~lrnl. MA
Section 12:
Monitoring Movements
Monitoring movement in structures is
External Behavior important when assessing the behavior
of the structure in response to changes
Moisture Vapor Transmission in loads, temperature, internal condi-
tions, and support at its foundation. The
monitrning of cracks can be conducted
Leakage Thru Structure with various tools including optical
comparitors, glued glass strips, glued-
Deflections to Service Loads in.-place crack gauges, LVDT's (electri-
cal transducen), and extensometers.
Movements to Service/ Changes in crack widths are generally
Exposure Conditions related to temperature changes, hut
can also be caused hy settlement,

l r
creep, and load-reJated strains. Expan-
sion joint movements can be measured
with hand rulers or dial gauges; how-
ever, actual deAection of members is
= best measured with dial gauges.

160
150 oc Deflection Dial Gage
140
130
120
110
Temperature
Monitoring

Crack Movemen1 Gage

Peh·r H. fanmo n" I~on<T-t>lc H:t'p .11r :inc.I j\fainl ~•l.1111..t'

,_, R. S. Mea n~ Comp:uw. Km~"t\'ll. Mi\ 89
Part Two: Concrete Evaluation

Section 13: Bond Strength of

Overlays and Coatings: Pull-off Testing
Determining the bond strength of
Mechanical Properties overlays and orher surface-bonded
materials can be accomplished rhrough
Compressive Strength in situ testing. One useful in siw test is
the pull-off test, which measures the
bond between two layers. In this rest, a
Tensile Strenglh
core is made through the surface layer
into the second layer, providing an
Flexural Strength isolated tesr location where the pull-off
tester can be attached. Once artachecl ,
Bond Strength the tester generates a tensile force on
the core until tensile failure occurs.
There are three types of possible
Permeability/Density tensile failure:
1. Failure in the submace layer.
2. Separation ar the interface between
Types of Tensile Breaks the substrate ancl the surface layer
(bond failure) .

'

'
D 3. Failure in the surface layer.
The testing device can also record the
force required m cause failure, which,
if divided by the surface area of the
specimen, will result in tensile strength
(psi). The results of a pull-off test are
ct=.:~::::=:3,-_ _j greatly influenced by aggregate size,
core size, the alignment of the device
. ·. -
.. ro the surface and the care taken in
performing the test. The results are
A. B. C. best used in a qualitative review of the
bond between materials.
Substrate Bond Surface
Failure Failure Material
Failure

Device is glued to surface. Tension is applied.

0
Oo SurtacQ.»a@ial
a "' Q 0 Bondt ine c'.)
... · ( ) . · -~r~te. ~-·

. .....Q.~ ~:.::" ej.· v:

Cored Hole through surface Material and into Substrate

l~lt:r 1-1 t!urnH1Jl.'i,1COlll. rt:!U:' lk p :iir :ind M ai1ue n:u11'l'

90 :(1 R. .S. Mt'<ITIS Comp:111 y, l-\mgs10 11, MA
Section 14: In Situ Compressive Strength:
Rebou11d and Penetration Methods
Rebound and penetration methods are
usecl to measure the surface hardness
.------- -·- - · - of concrete. Since surface hardness is
Compressive Strength proponional tO concrete compressive
strengch, these strengths can be pre-
dicted to within ± 25 percent. Re-
I Tensile Stre11gth bound methods (Schmidt Hammer or
Swiss Hammer) utilize a spring-loaded
plunger that impacts the surface,
I Flexural Strength
causing the mechanism w rebound.
The rebound is measured and com-
L Bolld Strength pared to the initial extension of the
spring, yielding a rebound number.
Rebound can be affected by the angle
I PermeabflitylDensity of rest, surface smoothness, type of
aggregate, carbonacion of concrete,
and the moisture content. When evalu-
L Physical Condition ating concrece, the rebound me[hod is
best used only to measure the general
I Air Void System uniformity of concrete and to iclenti~1
questionable areas that may require

I Voids further study.

Penetration methods 1 are similar to

I Delaminations
rebound methods, but use more pow-
erful energy to drive a probe into the
concrete surface. The Windsor Probe,
Uniformity the most common type of penetration
I method, drives a hardened alloy probe
Locanon/Conditions of
1/4 in. (6mm) in diameter into the
Embedded Mo!als concrete, using a powder charge. The
exposed length of the probe is mea-
Cracks/Spalls sured and is used to determine the
compressive screngrh. The accuracy of
determining compressive strength is
External Geometry subject to many variables, such as
aggregate type. Calibration of the
Tornporatura/Molsture Windsor Probe is best clone by obtain-
Condition ing and testing a concrete core from a
structure being investigated.
Existing Stress Levels

Swiss Hammer

1
NCHRP Report #118, and ASTM C 803.

Pe 1e r H. C:mmon~<:om:re:tt: Re1x1ir : md ~t.ai111emmt.-c

© R. S. Means Comp:.iny. K.ing~rnn. 11ti \ 91
Part Two: Concrete Evaluation

Additional Sources of Informatio11

Evaluation and Repair of Concrete Structures, Engineer Manual, EMl 110-2-2002, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, 1986.
Condition Surveys of Concrete Briclge Components-User's Manual, NCHRP Re-
port No. 312, TRB, Washingcon, D.C., 1985.
Detecting Defeccs and Deterioration in Highway Strnctures, NCHRP 118, 1985.
ASTM C 823 - Scandard Practice for Examination and Sampling of Hardened Con-
crete in Construcrions.
ACI 437R- Strengrh Evaluation of Existing Concrete Buildings.
Am erican Society for Testing and Materials, STP 169-A, Significance of Tests and
Properties of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, 1964.

Pe1t"r H . Emmnns/Crnll.Tl:.'lc.: lt(."p:ur and M;ilnicn an.:e

92 <1 R. S .\li::1ns Comp;my. Kingsmn. MA
Part Three
Surface Repair

Part Three
Sections
Introduction 97
Flow Chart of General Procedures 98
Anatomy of Surface Repairs 99
Section 1: Analysis, Strategy & Design 100
1ntroduction to Analysis, Strategy & Design 101
Performance RequirementS 102
Structural Needs 103
Types of Stress Acting on Repairs 104
Performance Requirements, Examples 105
The Challenge of Placing Loads into Repairs 108
Cause/Effect Design Error 110
Repair Problem-Analysis and Strategy 112
Additional Sources of Information 114
Section 2: Material Requirements 115
Introduction to Material Requirements 116
Selection Process Flow Chart 117
Checklist, User Needs 118
Checklist, Service/Exposure Conditions 119
Checklist, Placement Conditions 120
Establishing Material Properties 121
Establishing Material Properties: Load Carrying Properties 122
Establishing Material Properties: Service/Exposure Properties 123
Establishing Material Properties: External Load Properties 124
Establishing Material Properties: Constructibility & Appearance Properties 125
Volume Change Effects: Introduction 126
Volume Change Effects: Summary of Volume Change Mechanisms 127
 Part Three
Sections, continued
Volume Change Effects: Drying Shrinkage Process 128
Volume Change Effects: Selecting Low Shrin kage Materials 129
Additional Sources of lnformarion 131
Section 3: Material Selection 132
Introduction to Material Selection 133
Summary of Repair Materials 134
Repair Material Ingredients 136
Section 4: Surface Preparation 137
Introduction w Surface Preparation 138
General Surface Preparation Procedures 139
Surface Preparation: Recommended Layout of Surface Repairs 143
Recommended Removal Geometry 144
Removal Methods: Partial Depth 145
Removal Methods: Full Depth 146
Section 5: Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection 147
Introduction to Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection 145
General Procedure 149
Reinforcing Steel Repair 150
Reinforcing Steel Cleaning 151
Reinforcing Steel Protection 152
Section 6: Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete 154
Introduction to Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete 155
Measuring Bond Strength 156
Evaluating Bond Strength 158
General Procedures 160
Bonding Agents 163
Additional Sources of Information 164
Section 7: Placement Methods 165
Introduction to Placemenc Methods 166
Summar y of Methods 168
Dry Packing 170
Form and Cast-in-Place 171
Form and Pump 172
Grouted Preplaced Aggregate 177
Dry Mix Shoccrete 178
Wet Mix Shorcrete 180
Full Depth Repair 181
Overlays 182
Summary of Overlay Mmerials 183
Hand-Applied 184
Additional Sources of Information 185

l"t:t~r M. Emmon:;iConcrcte tkpaiJ' :tn<I M:11rUt:"1, :l nt:t·

96 it'> It S. i'«lc:ut..; C.:omp:my. l<i11gi,tun. MA
Introduction to Part Three

Surface repair of concrete has been The current state of the art techniques
practiced ever since the first concrete for surface repair requires a working
placement. Much has been learned and knowledge of material testing and
forgotten over this period. The process evaluation, structural engineering,
was once simple, with few choices for surface preparation tools and effects,
materials and placement techniques. material properties and behavior,
The current practice of surface repair environmental regulations ancl place-
is fa r more complex than in the past ment technology. Accomplishing dura-
for a number of reasons as indicated ble, effective repairs is not a sure
below. process. Much can go wrong, there are
• High performance concrete is used few redunclancies, and many steps
for new construction, (high strength , depend upon rhe success of orhers.
lightweight, containing different Building durable and effective surface
additives). repairs is an ever-imprnving process.
• Design practice is more precise. The following flow chart details these
• Concrete is used for many applica- major steps involved in surface repair:
tions involving aggressive environ- • Repair analysis, strategy and design
ments. • Material selection
• Atmospheric pollution ancl the use of • Surface preparation
de-icing salts are more prevalent. • Reinforcing steel cleaning, repair and
• Structures are more complex; includ- protection
ing post-tensioned, precast, and • Bonding surface repairs to existing
composite. substrate
• A wide variety of repair materials is • Placement techniques
available for special applications.
• More placement techniques are avail-
able for repair.

r\.'1r.:< H. Emmon:./Cont·i c::te Rep3lr ;md 1''1:\il1len:in<.:e

~· R S Mt!:m~ Comµ;my, Ktng.,11m. f\-1.1\ 97
Part Three: Surface Repair Tmmtluction

Flow Chart of General Procedures

Evaluate

Repair Analysis

Repair Strategy

Placement Material Structural

Method
Selection Selection Support Design

Layout Shoring

General
Removals

Edge Underculting of
Conditioning Bars

Reinforcing
Steel Cleaning
Concrete
Surface
Conditioning

Reinforcing
Bonding New to Steel Repair
Old

Application of Reinforcing
Repair Steel Protection
Materials

l'e{cr H. l~mmcms/Concrelt: lk:p:tir :111.d Mninrcnilm:c

98 © R. ~- Mc~n.s Coinp;1ny, K1 11g~LOfl, MA
Anatomy of Surface Repairs

Suriace
Preparation Repair
Deteriorated Surface Concrete I Steel System
-

Bonding New to Old

Reinforcing Steel Protection

Reinforcing Steel Cleaning

Contaminated
Concrete with Concrete Surface Conditioning
Chlorides or
Carbonation Removal of Contaminated Concrete
Undercutting of Exposed Reinforcing Steel
Delamination
Edge Conditioning

Pe1cr M. Emmons/Con<.:rc1c Rep;.11r :md M;1inte na1K c·

Ci H S. Mc.:.tn~ r.n1npaoy, K.i ng.~1on, MA 99
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 1: Analysis, Scracegy & Design

Section 1:
Analysis, Strategy & Design
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Introduction to Analysis, Strategy
& Design
Structural Needs
Types of Stress Acting on Repairs
Performance Requirements, Examples
The Challenge of Placing Loads
into Repairs
Cause/Effect Design Error
Repair Problem-Analysis ancl Strategy

l1t:lt"r H. Emmom./Concrc1c ~c:pair and M:thll t!11:ult~

100 ~ R S. ~·lt::111s Comp:1n1'. Kinn,:imn. t-.1A
Introduction to
Analysis, Strategy & Design

The process of solving concrete repair The section, "Smface Repair Analysis,
problems includes repair analysis, Strategy and Design, " covers the cause/
strategy and design. A comprehensive effect relationship in repair design,
evaluation must be conducted, includ- perfonnance criteria for repair methods
ing the scope of bmh the cause and and material selection, the structure's
effect of the deterioration. The results impact on repair effectiveness, and
of the evaluation, together with the some typical repair design errors.
user's needs or requirements, form the It is important to note that the scope
necessary external information to of this book precludes a detailed
begin the design process. The final examination of this enormous topic;
design presents a solution based on the discussion offered here is intended
considerations of durability, constructi- to provide the reader with a broad
bility and compatibility with the exist- framework to perform the design of a
ing structure. repair project.

.... Repair .... Repair

Evaluation ..- ..-
Strategy
.....- Analysis
~~
~ , ~~
~....-

User
-
Needs
,, Methods I Materials

Useful Life Structural Needs

Cause
?
Scope Effect of Repair
Urgency
on Structure

~,
Effect Cost
Constructibility
?
Repair I Protection
Scope
Technical
Performance Environment
Requirements

Aesthetics Safety

P~h.:1' M. Emmon.)f(onL1\:{(: Rcp;1ir .md Maintc1y,11lCc

((j It ~- J\'k::mi. Comp:mr. Ki ng.,.1un, ~·li\ 101
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 1: Analysis, Strategy & Design

Performance Requirements

Repair Surface deterioration problen1s are

Evaluation Repair diverse in nature. Each condition
Analysis Strategy
reql1ires a cleat· understanding of what
is expected of the repair. Three gen-
eral performance requ irements are
protection, appearance, and load
canying. The process of repair analy-
sis is to clecerrnine the exact function
of the repair so that necessary pmper-
ties of the repair material can be specified.

Etlect
?
Scope

Surface Repair

Yes Yes

Protection/Appearance Load Carrying

Both
(Cosmetic) (Structural)

Barrier to Aesthetic Wear Resistant Live Impact Dead

Unwanted Loads Loads Loads
Environment

Pi::tC'r J-J Emmtm~/Con L·rt:lt' Re!paii· and Maln1c 11~u1Lc

102 i&J It. S. ~h.: :111s Comr::iny, l(jng~rnn. ~lA
Structt1ral Needs

Repair
Analysis A concrete surface repair must replace To recreate the original load distribu-
damaged concrete, restore required tion, full load relief must be provided
structural function, protect itself and during the surface repair process.
possibly underlying concrete from Repair material muse be installed,
aggressive environments, ancl restore cured, and after the material reaches
any lost user performance requirements. the specified strength, loads would be
It is important to analyze all possible allowed on the member. Load relief
stresses in the repair material and at from members is typically provided
the interface between the repair and wirh temporary shoring and jacking.
the existing substrate. Stresses in the Relative volume changes caused by
repair are generated by relative volume drying shrinkage of the new material
changes between rhe repair and the place the repair into tension (assuming
existing concrete substrate, and by the repair material is restrained from
service loads carried by the repair. shrinkage by the bond between the
Stresses in the repair must be within repair material and the existing con-
the capacity of the new and existing. crete). In most applications, the desir-
materials. Othe1wise, failure may occur. able condition is to have the repair in
In many situations it is difficult to a compressive state so that compres-
achieve the stress-carrying function of sive loads can be carried. This topic is
the surface repair. Where a significant discussed in more detail in the follow-

~~
amount of material in the compression ing sections.
zone has been lost, loads redistribute
themselves around the damaged area.

~
Moving Loads
Live Loads

Thermal
f \V \V ..
\l;
Loading •'.
··- Slab

Moisture
Loading ~
(RH}
Column
Internal Loads
Impact Loads

Shrinkage Loads
-7-7-7 -7-7 -7~ f-f-f- f- f­
):/ ::/ ';'.'. ' .':'.= .':(;'''":><·.:~ . ..·.·'.:>::~: ·_,==:.'.){/')'':= :'·./::::: :'':'.'-~\' Overlay

Slab On
Grade

Concentrated Strain

l\..ot er H . 1!1n1000SJConcrclc Repair and l'<i\ailuenaocc

0 R. S. 1\ kJns Compan}'. King.Mon. M1\ 103
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 1: Analysis. Strategy & De.o;;ign

Types of Stress Acting on Repairs

· New . : Old Shear Bond

~ '. '
-£8·
. .. '.,J ~ , I
1 Settlomeol

. -->......:,,;.•: ~ - ·+ · ~ .: ~I Shrinkage

I
~----------~ EHects
or Thermal

t
j-.. Tensne Bond
. Overlay" . ·
· ·1 Uplift
Slab
Due to
I~----------~ Temperature

or Shrinkage
EHects

Uneven
Flexural Bond
__,_,~-------'----~.,.....i·.c,.,Support I
. ~

Checklist of Possible Forces Acting on

Tensile the Repair 1
• Structural Forces (Internal)
• Static Concentrated Loads (External)
• Moving Loads (Horizontal and Vertical)
• Impact Loads
Shear • Temperature Expansion
• Temperature Concraction
• Thermal Shock Expansion

t • Thermal Shock Contraction

,
• Internal Moistme Expansion
• Internal Moisture Contraction

-~~··
· · ... ..
Compressive • Concentrated Strain (Reflective Cracking)
Each of the above forces can act as one
or in combination. The orientation of
the force and the configuration of the
repair will dictate the type of stress
acting on the repair. Some typical stress
configurations are detailed in the fol-
Flexural lowing figures.
1Plum, D.R., Macel'ials-I-low to Select, Con-
struction Maintenance and Repair, Novembe11
December 1991, England, pp. 27-30.

Pcll·r H . F.mmons/C01ir.:re1~ f{cp :1ir ~n'KI ~1in1en:1110.::

104 © R. S. Me:.-:tn~ U.>tn11:1ny, Kinj::.~ tcm . MA
Performa11ce Requireme11ts Examples

Column

· .· . .. :·
..
Surface repair addresses
deep spalling in negative
moment area of connection
at points of high shear
stress.

·.. ,•

Slab

. . ,.
.· . ·

Repair Primary Repair Performance

Analysis Requirements (refer to
flow chart.)

1. Surface repairs are required

Methods I Maleilals to carry shear loads
2. Provide encased tensile

I
l
Repair I Protea.on I
reinforcement with necessary
load transfer
3. Provide for protection of
embedded reinforcement

Primary Repair
Performance
Requirements

1. Surface repair must ...

transfer structural loads
.'.. : . from the beam into the . '·
column
. .· · .
.• :

. · ..

Surface repair of
corbel addresses cracking
resulting from reinforcing
steel corrosion
Column

P~tt:r H . ~ mmon.vCom·rc ic Rt"_p:•ir :rnd .M:1im~n:mt.'<:

i) R $. Mc;1n:-. <..:tJtnp~uly, Klll~s1011, MA 105
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 1: Analysis, Strategy & Design

Performance Requirements Examples, continued

Railing

Repair Performance Requirements

1. Provide for D
protection of
embedded
reinforcement.

t:
2. Aesthetically
pleasing.
,. •. : .: . . .. . :· ·.
..
3. Will not come loose '.

from substrate. Cantilever Balcony Slab

(See flow chart for number reference.) • · -• · · · - :

~---------R-epa-ir---:~:--.., Surface repair

Analysis carries no
structural loads.

Surface repair
3 I address deep
spalling and repair of
balcony railing
Repair Performance Requirements attachment.
(See flow chart for number reference)
Live loads
1. Provide for
protection of
embedded
reinforcement.
2. Asthetically
--- ----- '
'
pleasing.
3. Will not come loose ,
from substrate. . .. .. .
4. Will carry
structural loads
from railing system.

.... _.... ~- ___ j Surface repair will

carry structural loads
associated with
railing anchorages
and applied live loads.

Pcccr I I. [ mmon!'/Conu etc H~p1tir and Mamtr:ri am:c

106 ~ It. $ . Me :m~ Comp~ny, K i n~., 101l, MA
 If stress level in
remaining Primary Repair
concrete is Performance Requirements
acceptable...
1. Provides for
Column protection of
embedded
reinlorcement.
I 2. Aesthetically
( pleasing.
3. Will not come loose
...then surface
repair is not from substrate.
required to carry Refer to flow chart for number references.
structural loads

Repair
Analysis

If remaining cross-
section is
overstressed ...

2 ', ·t ,.:._3
Column

Primary Repair
Performance Requirements

.. .!hen surface 1. Provides for protection

repairs are or embedded
required to carry reinforcement.
a portion of the 2. Aesthetically pleasing.
structural loads 3. Will not come loose
lrom substrate.
I! 4. Will carry a portion of
'l compressive loads.

Reier to flow chart lor number references.

l't.·1er H Emmu1t.VCtlfllf Ctc R'-·po1it and M;1irlh.-n:tnlc

( • R. S. M c-ans Co01p:111y. Kin~~ton, /'vl'\ 107
Part Three: Surface Repair Section L Analysis, Strategy & Design

The Challenge of Placing

Loads into Repairs

Column Repair
Columns carry compressive loads.
After surface deterioration, compres-
sive loads within the column are redis-
tributed around the affecced area,
increasing the stress level in the re-
maining cross-section. A surface repair
will not carry its share of stress unless
the compressive loads are removed
from the column during repair opera-
tions. Another factor that affects the
ability of the repair to carry the ex-
pected proportion of the load, is
drying shrinkage of the repair material.
Drying shrinkage reduces che volume
of repair material L·elarive to the exist-
ing concrete, and as a result, the
surface repair is not filling the origi-
nally prepared space. Excessive drying
shrinkage is evident when tension
Tensile - - - - ·
cracking appears on the surface of che
Bond
repair. This topic is discussed in more
Stress derail in the section, "Surface Repair
Material Requirements."

t Procedure for placing loads in repair

materials
1. Remove loads from member by
ll appropriare shoring and jacking
during repair procedure and matu-
rity of repair materials.
2. Select extremely low drying shrink-
age repair materials (See note).
3. Select repair materials with low
creep values over anticipated envi-
::: .. ronmental condirions.
Shear
Bond 4. Select repair materials with a com-
Stress patible stress-strain (E) relationship
ro the existing concrete.
Higher Stress Drying shrinkage Note: If the repair material has drying
Levels in Areas of repair material shrinkage of 500 microstrains, ir will
Where Loads Are Not reduces ability take an additional compressive strain
Redistributed to the Repair. to carry compressive of 500 microstrains in the member to
loads. Eventually, all the load is ·begin the process of making the repair
carried by the core concrete, load carrying.
which may become overstressed.

Vt:tt:I' H . f.m1non~/Concn:•c R'-'.' f)lir ::an c\ M:111\lt'll:uu:t:

108 Ci R. S. Mc:m~ Comp;my, Kiog!)I Cm . MA
 Stress Distribution in
Flexural Members
Compression Zone
Deterioration in compression zones of
flexural members results in redistribu-
tion of scress co the remaining sound
concrete section. Significant section
loss may result in overstress and exces-
sive deflection. Removal of loads
during repair operations allows the
repair to carry the expected propor-
tion of the loacl.

Stress Distribution in
Flexural Member's
Tension Zone

---
Beam
. -: Deterimation in tension zones of
flexural members exposes tensile steel
~7- £~--·· Column reinforcemenr. Most, if not all, tension
is carried by the reinforcing steel.
Repair does not participate in load sharing Loads do not usually redistribute
Member may deflect Stresses redistribute around deteriorated area. around the deteriorated area unless
the tension steel has lost cross-section
in the corrosion process. If the steel
.. : . has lost section, excessive deflections
may result. During the repair process,
relief of tens.ion loads is desirable and
is usually accomplished by temporary

~
support of the affected member. Active
shoring (shoring that carries the acting
Shoring and Jacking of Member
dead and live loads of the member)
will allow for repair of damaged rein-
Load relief during repair operation may enable forcing bars at a low stress level. After
the repair material to carry its share of stress.
completion of repairs and removal of
shoring, the repaired bars will be able
to carry che original loads.

Reinforcing steel carries most of loads in the tension zones.

l~l t'I' H Einmtin,r'(.onn·clc Ri:-p;1 ir :md M:tintcn:1nr.:c
ti R. S. Ml!.ms Comp:mr. King.;;rn11, MJ\ 109
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 1: Analysis, Srrate&y & Design

Cause/Effect Design Error

Repair of Surface Freeze-Thaw Deterioration

Without Removing the Cause
Freeze-thaw damage to concrete sur- with water and, upon freezing, may
faces is common. The effecc is surface disintegrate. Surface repairs that do
disintegration; the cause is water nm stop the internal flow of water into
saturation of the porous concrete concrete are susceptible to freeze-thaw
matrix and freeze-thaw cycles. damage and may have a short life
A common problem found with repair b~cause of_the continued freeze-thaw
of freeze-thaw damaged concrete cl1smtegrat1on behmd the surface
where the source of moisture is from repair. In some cases the d1sintegra-
wirhin the member is continued rion process is accelerated because of
disintegration behi~d the surface che clamming effect of rhe surface
repair. Internal sources of moistme are repair on the free flow of water mov-
typically found in structures such as 111g through the structure.
retaining walls, downstream faces of When chis condition exists, internal
clams, lock walls, and water retaining water flow should be cur off via grout-
tanks. Water under a pressure bead ing, external waterproofing technique~
will attempt to follow a path w a lower or drainage systems that route the Aow
pressure head. Paths are found of water through the sm1cture. Other
through cracks, construcrion joints, techniques utilize deep surface repairs,
expansion joints, and in some cases, that place the bond line below th e
porous concrete. Concrete adjacent to frost line.
a water path may become saturated

Repair Repair
Analysis
----
srraiegy

Waterflow

Scope

Surface Aesthetics
Deterioration

P~lt:f M . Emmons,iCom.:rc:oti:: lkp:iir :mtl ~·faim l!'mmcc

110 0 H S. Mc::m,. ; Comp:i11y. Ki ng_"i lOO, MA
 ·'.· ._ ... :~· .·
.. -~·:\J :

Crack in Member Allows

Water To Flow Through

. ·.. . :
Surface concrete absorbs water
and becomes saturated.

i
°C
6
Freeze Thaw 6 J\J\J\J
Disintegration of The 6
Surface

Surface Repair Is
Installed Without
Addressing The
Water Leakage

Water flow dams up behind repair

Freeze Thaw
Disintegration
Continues Behind The
Surface Repair 6
i. oc
At An
66 J\J\J\J
Accelerated Rate

l~tCI' H . t:mm.,in :-ICo•H..: rttC' Rep~ir :rnd M:1hm::1l~l fH.:1::

~ R. S. ~·l(': nb Cotnp:rn y, K.in~,.;ron. MA 111
Part Three: Surface Repair Seccion 1: Analysis, Strategy & Design

Repair Problen1

Analysis
faample: A parking structure has
spalling at the traffic surface of a
cast-in-place flat slab. Ir is decided that
an in-depth evaluation of the slab
should be performed to assess both
the problem (effect) and the cause.
The cause of concrete distress needs
to be known so areas of the deck not
yet affected can be conrroUecl with
preventive maintenance protective
Effect Cause strategies (if owner so desires). The
delaminated areas are located by chain
drag; corrosion activity is evaluated by
Primary I Secondary Primary Secondary half cell and chloride ion content
testing. The technical documentation,
I Cracking Moisture deck maintenance and use records,
Reinforcing Chlorides and results of the testing provide the
Steel IDelamination I From Cracking information needed to determine the
Corrosion Road Salts cause of concrete deterioration. Chlo-
Spalling _____, IInsufficient Bar Cover I ride ion content at the reinforcement
level is found in excess of [he level
High Permeability required for corrosion activity when
Concrete mois[ure and oxygen are present. It is
also found that spalling is limited to
Repair Solution
Repair Solution areas where reinforcing steel does nor
Preventive Maintenance have an adequate concrete cover.
Additional laboratory testing indicates
that slab concrete is highly permeable
Surface Repair and subject to progressive chloride
penetration under current conditions.
In rbis example, it is determined that
the cause of concrete distress (spalling
and clelamination) is chloride contami-
nation, which caused corrosion of
reinforcing steel. A secondary cause is
Minimize Cl Minimize Moisture Prevent inadequate cover of very permeable
Flow into moisture rebar concrete. Only after the cat1se and
slab Flow into slab corrosion effect are evaluated, can a durable
repair program be designed. If the
repair program require only replace-
ment of spaUed and delaminated
concrete with repair material, without
considerations of inadequate concrete
cover, chloride intrusion, etc., rhe
repair will be a short term solution.
Chloride Cathodic Coating
Sealer
Removal Protection Rebar?

Pete.- H. l;mmon:..iC:oncr<:tc Rep:iir and Mai1Hcn:i11cc

112 Q f{. S. Me:u\s Com1.):1ny. KinH~ton, MA
 Strategies
Five strategies to provide durable surface repairs when service/exposure condi-
tions involve surface applied chemicals which attack the reinforcing steel, causing
corrosion and related spalling:
" ..
. . Strategy 1
• Place durable repair material of a quality somewhat better than existing.
• Place reinforcing steel protective system(?)
Tbe repair system is redundant. Howeve1~ it is assumed that over a period of
time, cbemical contamination al the repair material may take place, requiring
the reinforcement steel protective system to provide the primary protection..
Strategy 2
• Place durable repair material of a quality somewhat higher berter than exisring.
• Place protective surface sealer, membrane, coating on surface.
The repair system is redundant, involving a surface applied coating The coating
will keep chemical from contacting the repair niaterial. This strategy may re-
quire pen'odic maintenance. If the protective system is elastomeric and capable
of bridging the cracks, additional protection to tbe reinforcing steel is provided.
Strategy 3
• Place enhanced repair material of a quality significantly higher than the original.
Tbe repair .~ystem bas no redundant features Tbe ~1stem relies on tbe quality of
tbe repair material to provide alt protection. Enhanced repair materials involve
tbe use offillers and adrnixtures that reduce penneability.
Strategy 4
• Place enhanced repair material of a significantly higher quality than the original.
• Place protective sealer, membrane, coating on surface
The repair system is redundant witb a primary barrier coating system applied to
.. ·
· the surface. A~)' failure of the barrier will result in the enhanced repair mate-
rial providing protection. This system may require periodic maintenance.
Strategy 5
? • Place enhanced repair material of a significantly higher quality than the original.
• Place protective sealer, membrane, coating on surface.
• Place reinforcing steel protective system(?)
This strate8J' involves two redwulancies. The primary barrier coating provides
necessa1y protection until failure. Upon failure, the enhanced repair material
and reinforcing steel protection assume responsibility.

P~tt'r fi. l!nunun..'\K.oncn:ic H~p~tir .:md Mctimcn;.111(c

i\D R. ~ ~..tus Comp;my. King.'i1on. MA 113
P'1rt Three: Surface Repair Section 1: Analysis, Strncegy & Design

Additional Sources of Information

Johnson, S.M. , Deterioration, Maintenance and Repair of Structures, McGraw-Hill

Book Co., New York, 1965.
Evaluation and Repair of Concrete Strnctures, Engineer Manual EM 1110- 2-2002,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1986.

P\.·~"f H. E.mmons/C\mcre1c lkp.tlr ;in d M~ t hncn:t t\l:'c

114 lfl) It S. Mc::m.,. Cornp:my. l\ing..;.t(11), MA
Section 2:
Material Requirements
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Introduction to Material Requirements
Selection Process Flow Chart
Checklist, User Needs
Checklist, Service/Exposure Conditions
Checkl ist, Placement Conditions
Establishing Material Properties:
Establishing Material Properties: Load
Carrying Properties
Establishing Material Properties:
Service/Exposure Properties
Establishing Material Properties: Exter-
nal Load Properties
Establishing Material Properties:
Constrnctibili q1 & Appearance
Properties
Volume Change Effects: Introduction
Volume Change Effects: Summary of
Volume Change Mechanisms
Volume Change Effects: Drying
Shrinkage Process Desiree! Properties
Volume Change Effects: Selecting Low
Shrinkage Materials
Additional Sources of Information

Pt·k r 11. Emmons·C:om..~n:te Her :ur ;mcl M a1111cn;mc:c

<!:-> K S ~ lt:.m-.. C:timp:m r . K 111g•m 111 , l\IA 115
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 2: Material Requirements

Introduction to Materials Requirements

Establishing Criteria for Surface Repair Materials

Selecting repair materials for surface Another clifficulr challenge is selecting
repair is an important and complex surface repair materials for structural
process involving an understanding of (load-ca1T}'ing) applications. Many
what is required of the repair by the would like the new repair material to
owner (use1) and engineer, service and assume the stress level which existed
exposure conditions, and installation originally. There are two obstacles to
technique. After requirements are achieving 100% repair efficiency (repair
established and material properties are efficiency = amou!l( of stress carried
defined, the selection of specific mate- by repair as compared to original
rials can be made. In some instances, concrete stress level). First, how is the
more than one material or system of repai r material loaded initially? AJe
materials wi ll satisfy the established loads removed from the structure
requirements. Final selection of rnateri- cluring repair? Second , how will rhe
a\s is made based on the relationship dimensional behavior relative to the
between cosl, performance and risk. substrate affect the repair's stress level?
Selecting repair materials requires an It is unlikely that one will find mareri-
unc\erstanclin.g of material behavior in als that fill the repair cavity completely,
Placemen/ rhe uncured ancl cured srates in rhe do not shrink during cure, and behave
Method anticipated service and exposure in the same way as the substrate when
Selec11on
conditions. One of the greatest chal- subjected to loads, temperature and
lenges facing the successful perfor- moisture change. Selecting materials is
mance of repair mmerials is their a job of compromise!
dimensional behavior relative to the
substrate. Relative dimensional changes
cause internal stresses within the
repair material and within the sub-
strate. High internal stresses may
resulc in tension cracks, loss of load-
carrying capability, delamination or
deterioration. Particular attention is
required to minimize these stresses
and to select materials that properly
address relative dimensional behavior.

Repair
Materials

Pelcf 11. 1!1111110t1~!Cont:n.·~I! Rt:'p:ur ;tml i\.i:timc:n:mcl"

116 M~:ms Comp;uly, J<in~'iton. MA
if, R. .).
Selection Process Flow Chart

/ "I
Material Selection
Process
'-..

What are the What will be the

user service and
/~
~
pertomance exposure
requirements? conditions?

Repair What will be the

operating
What are the
Analysis conditions
load carrying

~I /
during
requirements?
placement and
cure?

What placement
Has the original technique is
cause of cho!len?

~~
deterioration What
been characteristics
addressed? are required for
placement?
,,
What properties are
required to meet the
conditions and
',
requirements?

What materials or
systems will
provide the required
properties?
Repair

Strategy

/
,, "I

Choose material I
system with
optimum
cost
performance
risk
\, /

Peter H . Emmon~/Conl'!'t: 1e m::p:1ir and M:unlt;.'.n ;trt<:e

f'• It ~ i\·le~m ~ Com 1xiny, l<in~~lon, MA 117
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 2: Material Requirements

Cl1ecklist, User Needs

Material Selection What is the required appearance?

Process

What are the WhatwillbetJie

user
perlomance
servico and
exposure
Yes No Comments
~ I~
re qui<ements? condllions?

Repair hidden
What will be ttie
operaling
What are the conditions
Repair visible
~~
load carrying during
requirements? placement arid
cure?
Crack free
What is
Has tl1e onginal chosen Surface rexwre
cause ol placelJlefit
tecllnique?

~~
deterioration
been What
addtessed? characteristics
are required lor
placement?
What properties are
required to meet lhe
condilions and How will the repair work interfere
requirements?
with the use of structure?
Turn around time
What materials or
systems will
provide the reQ1Jired
PfOperties?

What is expected life of repair?

Choose matenat I
system with
optimum How long
cost
performance
risk
Maintenance interval

What is tolerance for a repair failure?

Type of failure-
0 cracking 0 disintegration 0 clelarnination 0 separarion

Effect of failure on personal injury

Effect of failu re on process interruption

Effect of failure on structural performance

Effect of fuilure on environment

PelC"f Ji. Emmo n :v'Coo ( f\.'lt:: Hc:pair ~\cl M=1 imc:nant~

118 ~ I~- S Mar\.' Com1~ny. King..mn, MA
Checklist, Service/Exposure Conditions

Material Selection What are the load carrying requirements?

Process
Dead loads Refer to surface repair anaf:vsis, strategy
Whal are lhe
use'
What wil be Ille
service and Live loads and design section.
pertornaoce
requirements?

"'"4 v expos..e
condilions?

Wllal will be lhe

operaling
What are the
load carrying
requilements?
~ v concl1ions
during
placemen! and
cure?
What will be the service/exposure conditions
surrounding the material?
Whal is
Has lhe original cil<Jsen Type

,,v
cause ol placement Atmospheric
delerHira 1ion lechr0que?
Concentration
been
addressed? ~ Wtial
characlerislics
gases
are required 1or
placement?
Duration
What properties are
0 Yes ONo
requ ired lo meet the
Frequency
conditions and
requ irements? Type
Chemicals
in contact Concentration
W hat materials or Duration
systems will
provide the rnqu~ed
D Yes O No
properties? Frequency
UV exposure Duration

Choose material I OYes 0 No Frequency

system with
optimum
cost
Moistu1·e Duration
performance
risk
conditions
0 Yes 0 No Frequency
Operating Range
Temperature Durarion

0 Yes DNo Frequency

Freeze-Thaw Cycles
OYes 0 No Commenc
Wheel
External Pedestrial
loading
Static
D Yes D No Impact
Liquids- static
Liquids-moving

Pcu~r H . Emnl(Jn:-,/(.unrrd t= Rt:p;ur ~m d M aint t:11 ann::

ofJ It. S. Mt':ms Company. t<ing..'\ion. MA 119
Part Three: Surface Repair Secrion 2: Material Requiremems

Checklist, Placement Conditions

Material Selection What will be the operating conditions during

Process
placement and curing?
Whal are lhe What will be the
user service and Access
pertomance e•poSIJl9
requi<ements?
~ IV conditions?

Wllal win be the

Wind Wind velocity
operating
Substrate
v
What are the condilions
load carrying during
requirements?
~ placement and
CU<e?
Temperature
Surrounding environment
W11a1 is
Has the o<igillat chosen Subsrrate

v
cause ot placement Moisture
deletioration techniqoe?
been
addo'esse<I? ~ What
charactefistics
Environmenr
•Ir
are required for
placemool?
What properties are
Turn-around time
required 10 meet the
conditions and
requirements? Vibrations
Loading
~ Deflection
What materials or
systems will
provide the required
properties?

What is chosen placement technique?

Choose material I
system wilh
What characteristics are required for placement?
optimum
cost
performance
Flowability
risk

Non-sag

Set time

What is geometric configuration of repair?

Exposed surface area

Thickness of repair

Size of exposed reinforcing bars/wwf

Spacing of reinforcing bars

Clearance between reinforcing bars

and substrate

Clearance between reinforcing bars

and exposed surface

I\::tet H Ein1on11s/CurH.n .-t('. R;:p.1ir :md M:11nlen,in1.:e

120 «? R. S. Mc:ans Comp:uiy, King:.:: 1on , ~·L\
Establishing Material Properties

I Material Selection
Process ]
Whal will be 1he Selecting repair materials chat will Example 2: Condition: Scee! wheel load
Whal are 1he service and
performance exposure successfully perform under anticipated travels over repaired joint nosing.
requirements?
~ v conditions?

What will be th e
service and exposure conditions re-
quires an understanding of how the
Response: Surface of repair is sub-
jected to impact loading (local crush-
operating service and exposure conditions affect ing at corner); repair material transfers
Whal are 1he conditions
load carrying during the repaired member (new repair load to bond line at substrate. (Bond is
~/
requirements? placemen! and
cure?
material, bond, substrate). For each stressed; delamination may occur.)
service/exposure condition, a response Understanding the repair material's
Has lhe ori ginal What is (an effect) is generated. The response response to a given service/exposure
cause of
deterioration
chosen
placement
may occur at different levels (locations) condition helps in detennining re-
been lechnique? within the repaired member, including quired material properties for a suc-
addressed?
~/ Whal
characterislics the surface, repair material, reinforcing cessful repair program. The following
are required for
placement?
steel, bond interface and the substrate. pages outline particular structural
What properties are
require<! to meet the Example 1: Condition: Calcium chlo- (load-carrying), service/exposure,
condilions and
requirements? ride and moisture deposited on sur- constructibility, and appearance condi-
... face. Response: Surface of repair is tions typical to many repair situations.
What materials or
subjected to chloride. Over time, the The following tables present positive
syslems will chloride will penetrate to the level of and negative properties to be consid-
provide the .re~ui red
properltes. reinforcement; corrosion will result. ered in the selection of a successful
•
Choose material I
repair material.
system with
oplimum cost
performance risk.
Level of influence
Surface affects

Repair Material affects

Light (UV)
Gases Reinforcing affects
Liquids Service I Exposure
Temperature Conditions
Interface affects
Loads

Substrate affects

Repair Material

. ··:.: : . .. ..
. .
. ' .
. : · ..· . . .· . -.
' .. . .... : .
._ .' ·. Existing
. .. . Substrate

Pc:ter M. Emmon~1Con1.:rl!tt' R.cpair and M :.11n1ert111Lc

it> R. $ .
r-.h.:: 1 n~ Comr:lf\)'. K111g:-.rnn, MA 121
Parr Three: Surface Repair Section 2: Material Requirements

Establishing Materials Properties

Load-Carrying Properties
Goal Results if the wrong material is selected Look for these Avoid these!
(performance (undesirable response) properties
requirements)

Bond to substrate Loss of bond, Tensile bond, low High internal stress
clelarnination, internal stress caused by thermal
detachment of incompatibility, drying
repair from shrinkage*
substrate

Load carrying as Does not carry Equal modulus of Low or high modulus
intended by the loads as anticipated, elasticity with of elasticity compared
euginee1· overstressing either substrate to substrate
substrate or repair
material

Carries loads Extremely low High compression

initially; but over compression creep creep
time, the repair
relaxes under creep
defor111ation.

Drying shrinkage Extremely low Sh rinkage ·~

causes material drying shrinkage*
to lose volume,
reducing its ability
to carry
compressive loads.

*Refer to Volume Change Effeccs included at the end of this seccion.

l~lt:r' t-J. Ennnun.../{~llnn'c"l ~ H~ pjir :.io t'I M:rnll ttfl~H\4.' e

122 ~ ~- S. Mc;m s Comp~n)', Ki11Fl;S!on. MA
Service/Exposure Properties
Goal Results if the wrong material is selected Look for these Avoid these!
(performance (undesirable response) properties
requirements)

Temperature
changes
ir I
c::=J
~ +--
_J

I
Shrinkage stresses
cause cracking in
repair material.
Equal rhennaJ
coefficient to
substrate*
Unequal thermal
coefficient to
substrate

Temperature
tr I ~
+-- __.. Compressive
stresses in
substrate causing
spalling.

Sh rinkage stresses
Equal thermal
coefficient to
substrate*

Low exotherrn
Unequal thermal
coefficient m
subsLrate

High exotherm
changes in repail'
material during
~°C in repair material
causing cracking.
during placement
and cure
during placement
and cure
! :i
placement I I
Atmospheric gases Moisture Corrode Low permeability High permeabiliLy,
reinforcing steel, at surface or cracking in repair
conditions
6 clissincegrate internally, no material
66 cement matrix. cracks

Chemical contact Moisture Corrode Low permeability, High permeability,

conditions reinforcing steel. at surface or cracking in repair

t!J
' ':
'·••.•1
' '
Disintegrate
cement matrix.
internally no cracks

Chemical resistance
to substance at
surface or internally
material

Lack of chemical
resistance

UV exposure Change in rnechan- High UV resistance Low UV resistance

v
ical properties of ar surface
repair material,
changes to modu-
lus of elasticity

j·~
Moisture Freeze thaw6 Dissintegration of Low permeability High permeability
conditions, cycles 66 cement matrix. at surface or
saturation internally

Moisture Changes in Shrinkage stresses, Low permeability, High permeability,

conditions internal
moisture
*Refer to volume change affects included at the end of this section.
6
66 t causing cracking. low drying
shrinkage*
high drying
shrinkage*

Pc 1er M. r:n1n1(1n~t>nL're1 c: lk p :ur ;ul.d M :.1 i1Ht.:n:1m:c

f) n S. Mt::rn..; Cumpan~" Kiog.,ton. ~-1./\ 123
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 2: Material Requirements

Establisl1ing Material Properties

External Loads/Properties
Goal Results if the wrong material is selected Look for these Avoid these!
(performance (undesirable response) properties
requirements)

Moving liquids Erosion of surface High density Low density

High compressive Low compressive

High tensile Low tensile

Moving liquids and High density Low density

suspended solids
High compressive Low compressive

Erosion and abrasion of surfaces High tensile Low tensile

Vehicle wheels (\\d.OO.(_ \\,.) r;JV 0 ,/ Abrasion High clensiry, high Low density, low
v~Yl~ 0CtXa<A compressive compressive strength
\l~Vo vffi<Jo damage to
surface
strength

Edge High compressive, Low compressive,

spalling tensile and boncl rensile and bond
at joints strength, tensile strength
anchorage imo
substrate

Impact Spalling High tensile Low tensile strength

strength, internal
tensile
reinforcemenc

High compressive Low compressive

strength strength

Low modulus of High modulus of

elasticity elasticity

Loss of High bone! strength, Low bond strength

bond tensile anchorage
into substrate

l\:Ct'.r M. EmmonN'Cor'M.:n·le l<ep:dr ~ind M:lintcn~nt·e

124 Ci R. S_ .Mc:ut.' Co01p;1ny. Kings1on . Mt\
Constructibility & Appearance Properties
Goal Look for these Avoid these!
(performance requirements) pm per ties

Constructibility Turn- Ra pid strength gain Slow strength gai.n

around
time

Flowability High slump Low slump

Small aggregate, Large aggregate,

fl nes, round shape angular shape, lack
of fines

Non sag .· . . High internal Low internal cohesion,

cohesion, high low adhesive grip
adhesive grip

Focgiving Simple formulation, Complex formulation,

redundant dependent reactions
"Murphy's Law"

Goal Results if the wrong material is selected Look for these Avoid these!
(performance (undesirable response) properties
requirements)

Appearance Cracking of surface Low drying High drying

from drying shrinkage,'~
flexible shrinkage*
shrinkage* surface membrane

CRACKS Cracking of surface Low exotherm High exotherm

in plastic stage

Low surface water High surface water

loss during loss during placement
placement

*Refer to volume change affects included at the encl of this section.

Peter 1-l. l!mmons Ct 11Kfclc Rcp :iir ~ui tl M:ii11t1..•n;,nc.:t

~-, R. S. Mc:~•ns Cnm1x111y. Kl n8Slon, i\i J\ 125
Pei rt Three: Surface Repnir Section 2: Material Requirements

Volume Change Effects

Introduction
One of the greatest challenges in rh e Selecting repair materials with minimal
selection of repair materials is main- drying shrinkage requires an under-
taining their relative dimensional standing of rhe drying shrink::ige pro-
compatibiliry wirh rhe subsrrare. cess. Most repair materials chat are
Moisture-related volume changes in mL'<ecl and placed have an excessive
repair materials (drying shrinkage) <11nount of water above that which is
cause many repair failures: shrinkage required for hydration. As the repair is
cracking, delaminacion, loss of loacl allowed to clry our and assume the
carrying capacity, corrosion of imbecl- humidity of the surrounding environ-
cled reinforcing steel, and poor appear- ment, the material shrinks in volume
ance. Selection of repair materials with and tensile stress begins to accumulate
minimal drying shrinkage is critical for in the repair material. Wet curing of
durable repairs. cementitious materials will postpone
the start of the drying process, and
may cause slight expansion. The repair
material resists crack ing until the stress
exceeds its tensile capacity (refer to
accompanying illustration of the drying
shrinkage process).

Surface Repair
Drying shrinkage
Material
of repair materials
Needs affects dimensional
stability.

Bond With Dimensional

Substrate Stability

-·-...
- ···············.. -············· ·············
·······
·····....
Possible results if excessive
Load Carrying Durability To shrinkage stress occurs:
Capability Service Conditions Special

• Cracking, Spalling
• Delamination
['·····.•..
Constructibility ······-....
• Corrosion of lmbedded Reinforcing Steel

• Loss of Load Carrying Capacity

"·. ··············
............................... ············· • Poor Appearance

i'c ter H . J!mmorl..;;Conr.rclc Rcp:1ir :mcl Maimc oance

126 0 R. S Mi:nn:- Compan~·, l\Jng)ton. MA
Summary of Volume Change Mechanisms

· New(ri) . Thermal
Coefficient an =a a No stress occurs.
Old(o) Of Expansion (a)

: . ·. ·
Given a temperature change evenly distributed L..:.._ .
L._,"
If a n >a a ·-,
through the materials, the following stresses will
occur according to the relationship of the or a n <a a
Thermal Coefficients of the new and old
Shear bond is stressed.
materials.

Modulus Of If En = E0 No stress occurs.

Elasticity (E)

Given an evenly distributed load, the following

stresses will occur according to the relationship
of the Modulus of Elasticity of the new and old
materials. Shear bond is stressed.
Brittle material may become overstressed.

Drying No stress occurs.

Shrinkage (S 0 )

Assuming lhe old material has already developed

a stable drying shrinkage volume, the
[. ~ J
following stresses will occur according to the Shear bond is stressed. Loads
amount of drying shrinkage of the new material. carried by repair are reduced;
lension in repair material.

No stress occurs.

Assuming the old material has already developed

a stable creep volume, then the following
stresses will occur according lo the amount ol Shear bond is stressed;
creep occurring in lhe new material. loads carried by repair are reduced.

PcLC.T 1-1. Emmon:o;/Conct·ccc Rcp;:ll r :md i\faimen~lrn ·e-

© I{. S. :'-·krtn:. Comp:m~'. King!>lOO, MA 127
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 2: Material Requirements

Volume Cl1a11ge Effects

'Creep helps relieve stress in repair material

5
6 *Creep &
Dry Shrinkage Process
Tensile Elastic Stress
capacity restraint 1. Repair materials with dr ying shrink-
from Drying
of repair Shrinkage
factors age will contract in volume if un re-
material. strained.
2. Drying shrinkage takes rime. Most

Tensile
Stress
i 6 Crack Forms
7 3.
of the shrinkage will take place in
the first 30 days.
Repair materials are noc free to
shrink because they are bonded to
an existing substr;He.
Net Tensile when net
Stress tensile stress 4. Since the shrinkage (strain) is re-
tensile strained from occuring by the
capacity
of repair
substrate, the repair material will
material. accumulate internal tensile stress.
Time 4 5. TI1e repair material has no tensile
Strain of Repair strength when first placed, but
material begins to increase tensile strength
produces an as the material matures.
elastic stress
when restrained. 6. As the repair material is stretched
(tensile stress) it also relaxes from
Ultimate tensile creep factors reducing the
tensile stress to a net tensile stress.
7. The process is a "horse race"
between the tensile capacity of the
Drying
Shrinkage
r------. repair material and the net tensile
stress in the repair material. If the
Strain net tensile stress exceeds the tensile
capacity, the repair material wiU lose
the race and crack.

30 Days Time

Typical Unrestrained Drying Shrinkage of Repair Materials

.·
.:·. ·-_ '. ·, : l~n-g tti 'o(F.iep~ir Materiai As ·,cirgin·a11y Pl;:iced · •. ·.. ::. ·. • "

. : . . '. . . . . . - . . . . . . . .
, • : .

. .· ·· . .... . ·.. ··..· . ..

. . . ·1... u~·r~st;~ine~-:Le~·gtti ~,· R~~~it Matr Aiter. Drv1.~g.Sh;inl<~·ge :_.....·. ·. : . ~

l't:: tt:r 1-t.. !;:mrr'11)n s/Cooc.rclC Rcp:iil" :ind Maimcnnm.:c-

128 0 R. S. Mc~rn ~ Comp:iny, Kingswn, MA
 Selecting Low Shrinkage Materials
Drying shrinkage is a critical factor in (integral with substrate) condition. lt is
selecting repair materials for any necessary to select materials with low
application which requires a bonded to zero drying shrinkage.

What is low shrinkage?

How do you find repair materials with low shrinkage?
These are difficult questions to answer. strate. Most repair materials have a
First, let's look at denning shrinkage tensile capacity of 200-1000 psi
for repair materials. 1 In 1987, Alberta (1.4-6.9 MPa) , depending upon age
Tl"ansportation and Utilities conducted and design. Shrinkage of 0.025% trans-
an evaluation program for concrete !ates into 1,000 psi (6.9 MPa) tensile
surface repair materials. In this study stress ~assuming an Elastic Modulus of
46 different repair materials were 4 x 10 psi (28 x 103 MPa).
evaluated for various properties. One For discussion purposes the author
of the properties investigated was has taken the liberty of classifying
drying shrinkage. The ASTM C 157 shrinkage of materials in three basic
shrinkage test was performed by one categories: low, moderate and high.
independent testing laboratory The Any material with shrinkage of less
following chart presents test results than normal weight concrete (0.05%)
sorted from rhe lowest shrinkage on is called low shrinkage. Materials with
the left to the higl1est shrinkage on shrinkage between 0.05% and 0.10%
the right. Swprising Results.1 By sorting are called moderate shrinkage. Materi-
the test results from low to high als with shrinkage greater than 0.10%
shrinkage, a cross section of the indus- are called bigh shrinkage. At the
try's repair materials was available for present time, the industry cannot
comparison. The shrinkage properties require the manufacturers of repair
of the majority of repair materials far materials to meet a certain maximum
exceed the shrinkage value of normal shrinkage value because the basis for
2
weight concrete (0.05% @ 30 days ). acceptable shrinkage value has not
These percentages of shrinkage do not been established.
sound large, but their effeCLs are
However, it is obvious that the goal for
dramatic. Resrrainecl shrinkage induces
designing a surface repair material's
tensile stresses in the repair material
drying shrinkage properties should be
and compressive stresses in the sub-
0.00%.3

1Carter, P. Gurjar, S., Alberta Concrete Patch

Evaluation Program, Alberra Transportation

and Utilities, Edmonton, Canada, 1987.
3E!nmons, P.H., McDonald, J.E., v.iysburcl, A.M.,
2Volume Changes Q( Concrete, Concrete Some Compatibility Problems in Repair of Con-
Information, Portland Cement Association, crete Scructures-A Fresh Look, Proceedings, 3rd
Revised Chapter 12, Design and Control of Imernational Colloquium on Macerial Science and
Concrete Mixtures, p. 2. Restoration, Germany, 1992.

l'cl t:r H.. Emmon~/Cvncret1.-: Rep<i Ir ~mcl Ma~mcn·.inrc.:

\'· R S. M('~'o..., Coinp~ny, King.s1nn. J\L\ 129
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 2: Material Requirements

Volume Cl1a11ge Effects

0.35%~-----------
Selecting Low Shrinkage
0.30%-t-- - - - - - - -- - - - - + - - - - - - - -- - -- Materials
Process for Scteening Repair Materials
% 0.25%-t-- - - - - - - -- - - -- + - - - - - - - - - for Low Drying Shrinkage:
s -Select materials which demonstrate
h 0.20% ~---------------+---------, - - - - - - - - - - ".
dr)'ing shrinkage close to 0.00%. Mate-
0.15% -+------- ----------..--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - rials in the low category, 0 to 0.05%,
a
g Concrete·
have less risk of cracking than materi-
e 0.10% als in the moderate category, 0.05% co
0.10%. Avoid materials above 0.10%,
unless special conditions exist.
Recommendations for Reducing Drying
Repair Material Shrinkage Test Results· Shrin kage of Surface Repair Materials:
'
1
' Low I I ' • Use mixes wirh maximum aggregate
:<
Shrinkage '
>foi:
Moderate Shrinkage '
)llC:
High Shrinkage
>! content.
0.00% 0.05% 0.10%
Increased Tendency to Crack n • Use clean, sound aggregates.
• Use aggregate size as large as practical.
• Avoicl conditions that increase water
I II IDDDD\J\31JIJuDt> demand, such as high temperature
mixes.
• Use minimum required cement con-
Shrinkage test results, Alberta Concrete Patch Evaluation Program, tenrs to meer strength requirements.
Report No. ABTR/RD/RR-87/05
• Use pmper wet curing techniques that
provide reduced early shrinkage.
• Use placemem techniques rhat allow
Water/Cement Ratio for optimum aggregate loadings (size
and amount).
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 The table at left shows the effects of
various water/cement/aggregate ratios
on shrinkage .
3 .08 .1 2

Aggregate/
o~
4 .105 High Shrinkage
Cement -;;
- - -
Ratio 5 ~
.04 .075 .085
Moderate Shrinkage
6 .03 .04 .055 .065

7 .02 .03 .04 .05 Low Shrinkage

Shrinkage after 180 days in Rt-150%, 21°C, 5" square cross-section.

Source: Lea, P.M., The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, third edition,
Edward Arnold (publishers) Ltd., 1970)

l\:rer 1-f. Emmuos.,Com..·rc1C" Rep air :10d Mailuen:ll\n:

130 ~ H. S. Me:-.n:'> Crnnp;m~', Kingston, MA
Additional Sources of Information

ACI 209R-82, Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete

Structures.
Warner, j., Selecri ng Repair Materials, Concrete Construction, Vol. 29, No. 10, Ocr.
1984, pp. 865-871.
Plum, D.R., The Behavior of Polymer Materials in Concrete Repair, and Factors
InAuencing Selection, The Structural Engineer, England, Sept. 1990, pp. 337-345
Mays, G. and Wilkenson, W., Polymer Repairs to Concrete: Their Influence on
Structural Performance, Katheri ne and Bryant Mather International Conference on
Concrete Durability, ACI SP-100, Vol. 1, 1987, pp. 351-376.

Pe in H. Emmrn tS.·l:Cmt ~1~ Rep~ir :ind M:tinr~1rnncr

fl R S. MC:1ns Comr:rny, KinF,;c;.1on. M.t\ 131
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 3: Material Selection

Section 3:
Material Selection
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Introduction to Material Selection
Summary of Repair Materials
Repair Material lngreclients

l't ter H. Emmon:;-/ Con crc 1c Rcp:ii l' ancl M:.i1n rt'.11ant.t::
132 Ci l''t. S. Me utc: Cc1mpany. KingMou . M.'\
Introduction to Material Selection

Material Selection Selecting materials that meet all neces- reported materials creep properties
Process sary properties esrablished by condi- evaluated under 50% relative humidity
tions and requirements is difficult. and therefore appear acceptable.
What are the What will be the Some require load-carrying capability Avoid the use of materials that contain
user service and along with durability, and other situa- unknown ingredients or where new
performance exposure tions require only durability Most
requirements? ~I/ conditions?
materials used for deep repairs
unproven technology is being used,
except on experimental or pilot type
What will be the 11
(greater than 1.5 /38 mm) utilize porc-
What are the operating projects. Use of materials containing
conditions Jand cement binders and well propor-
load earring
requirements? ~ v duringf'acement
an cure?
tioned aggregates. Durability for these
materials can be added using special
gypsum results in uncontrolled expan-
sion and extremely low durability when
subject to moisture. Care should be
What is chosen pozzolans (microsilica), polymers exercised when using high exothermal
Has the original
cause of placement (latex), or admixtures that reduce materials such as magnesium
technique? permeability. Most of the latex-
deterioration
addressed? ~
been
v
.,
What
characteristics
are required
modified, low w/c, and microsillca-
modified concretes and mortars can be
phosphate-based materials. The high
hear of hydration can cause thermal
cooling stresses.
What properties are for placement? easily used once one has experience in
Other stare of che an materials have
re~uired. to mee~ the how these materials behave during
ond.1t1ons an been found to contain high amounts of
requirements. placement and cure. The use of port-
alkali material which may result in
lancl cement-based repair materials
eady deterioration cause.cl by alkali/
(site-batched, ready mix or bagged)
siUca reactions. Some materials are
What materi~s or requires special attention to shrinkage
systems w1 I sensitive to the method of application.
provide the re9uired and curing. All materials should have
properties. Latex modifiers have proven excep-
reliable shrinkage test data to screen
tional in ovedayrnents, but, when used
and select for low shrinkage materials.
in some applications involving clry mix
(See "Material Requirements" section .)
shotcrete, have resulted in interbond
Choose material I Curing of portland cement-based
s~stem with failure. Failure was caused by latex
optimum materials is critical in reducing early films forming on unfinished surfaces.
lcost shrin kage and for future long-term
pe or~ance The shotcrete process uses high veloc-
ns performance. In structurnl applications, ity air which accelerates the formation
it is important to understand the of bond-inhibiting latex fi lm.
repair material's response ro loads.
Polymer concretes and mortars are the
Two important properties for load-
other major class of macerials used to
sharing applications are elastic modu-
repair concrete surfaces. Epoxies and
lus and compressive creep. Elastic
acrylics blended with graded aggre-
modulus property can be easily ob-
gates produce strong and chemically
tained. However, compressive creep
resistant materials. They can be used
values are much more difficult to obtain.
for thin application or thick applica-
Ir is important to understand the expo- tions where the service/exposure
sure and service conditions co which the conditions do not cause dimensional
selected materials will be subjected. It incompatibility problems. Polymer mate-
has been demonstrated that the addition rials have high the1rnal coefficients as
of latex (SBR) to modify cement-based compared to concrete. Except for thin
repair materials causes the flexural surface coating systems, they should not
creep value to soar under high humid- be used in solar exposure situations.
ity (90%) conditions.1 Most of the
The following pages oucline che most
1Plum, D.R. , Materials- \'t/hy They Fail, Con-
common repair materials, along with
their properties and limitations.
struction Maintenance & Repair, Sept.·Oct.
1991 , England, pp. 3-6.

1~1 t:r H Emmons{'.rm1. rl;'.tc.• lkpa lr and M~int~n.1nce

~ R. S. Ml.:':ms Cnrnpanv, King.stem. Jo.-lA 133
Pan Three: Surface Repair Section 3: Material Selection

Summary of Repair and Overlay Materials

Ingredients Application Requirements

Thickness Installation
Limitation Temperature
Materials Binder Additive Admixture in/cm °FfC Curing

Water
Ponlancl Cemenr Portland
reducer.
1.5-4
--
40-90 Wet
Mortar cement 3.8-10 5-32 7 clays
Air-ernr.

Water
Portland Cernenr Pon land
reducer. > 1.75 40-90 Wet
Concrete cemenr 4.4 5-32 7 clays
Air-entr.

Microsilica
Porrlancl HRWR > 1.25 40-90 Wet
Modified Portland Micro- silica
Cement Concrete
cement Air-en tr. 3.0 5-32 7 days

Latex Moclifiecl
Portland Latex 1.25 45-95 Wet
Portland Cement
cement SBR >- 3 clays
Concrete 3.0 7-35

Polymer Modified
Pon land Non-sag 0.25-1.5
PorLiand Cement Mortar Acrylic latex
cement fillers 0.6-3.8
with Non-sag riller

Magnesium Magnesium Sheet

phosphate > 0.75 50- 100
Phosphate Cement 45 min.-
Concrete cement 1.9 10- 40 2 clays

Preplaced-Aggregate Portland
Pozzolans Fluidifier > 3.0 40-90 Wet
Concrete cement 7.6 5-32 7 clays

Epoxy Mortar Epoxy resin

0.13-0.38 50-90 4 hrs.-
0.4-1.2 10-32 2 clays

Methylrnethacrylate 0.25-0.50 20-120 1 hr.-

Acrylic resin
(MMA) Concrete 0.6-1.3 - 6-50 6 hr.

Water
Shorcrete
Portland reducer. > 0.5 40-90 Wet
Pozzolans
cement acceler. 1.3 5-32 7 clays
latex

PC'1cr H . Em mooSJCon crc1e Rq Y.1ir and Mainreo;inr:e

134 C') H .5. Me:in.., C(unp:my, King.s tun. MA
 Material Pl'Operties

Coeff. of Perme-
* Ther- Compressive Strength ability Freeze-
Drying mal Elastic (Con- Thaw
Shrink- Expan- Modulus crete = Resis- Non-Sag Exo-
age sion 1 Hr. 1 Day 3 Days 28 Days psi/MPa 10) tance Quality therm Comments

Equal co
650 2500 5000 3.4x 106
Moderate sub- 0 9 Good Moderate Low
strate 4.5 17.2 34.5 2.3 x10~

Equal to
650 2500 5000 3.8x106
Low sub- 0 9 Good NIA Low
st rate 4.5 17.2 34.5 2.6x10 4

Equal to
3000 4000 7500 4x 106
Low sub- 0 6 Good Good Low
strate 20.7 27.6 51.7 2.8X 101

Compat.
6000 25x106
Low wlsub- 5 Excellent NIA Low
st rare 41.4 1.7xl0 4

Corn pat.
1500 5000 2.5 x 106
Moderate wlsub- 5 Excellent Excellent Moderate
10.3 34.5 1.7x10~
strate

Equal ro
2000 6400 7000 8400 3.2X10 6
Moderate sub- 9 Excellent Low High AC! 304R-23
st rate 13.8 44.1 48.3 57.9 2.2x10 4

Equal to
Very low 500 2250 4500 3.8 X 106
sub- 0 10 Good NIA Low Act 503.4
st rate 3.4 15.5 31 2.6 x104

Vapor may cause

(1.5- 5) 12000 2.2 x 10 6
Low
x caner. - - 1 Excellent Moderate High prnblems in
82.7 1.5x10 4 confined areas

(1.5-5) 4000 -
12000
- 12000 3 x 106
Moderate 1 Excellent NIA High
x concr. 27.6 82.7 82.7 2x 104

Equal to
800 3500 5000 3.8 x106
Moderate sub- 0 6 Good NIA Low AC! 506R- 90
strate 5.5 24.1 34.5 2.6 x 10 4

*Drying shrinkage: Low < 0.05% Note: The material properties shown in this
Moderate 0.05%-0.10% table vary from manufacturer co manufacturer
High >0. 10% and are shown for comparison purposes only.

P\:1C"1' 11. f:mn1on:i-JCnnn ctt' Rep:iir :ind M<Jim~n:mc.:1:

f;1 H. S M1;":1n.... C:.rnnp:any, King., 1on, i\.1:\ 135
Part Three: Surface R~ pni r Section 3: Material Selection

Repair Material Ingredients

Ingredient Description Benefit

Binder The binder is glue that binds all Portland cements are used for most
fillers and aggregates together to general repair work. Polyiner materials
form a composite material. Binder such as epOX)' and acrylics are used for
materials include: Portland cemenc, special applications requiring chemical
other hydraulic cements, epoxy, resistance, or very thin applica tions.
acrylics.

Fine Aggregate Aggregates are used to reduce binder Fine aggregates properly graded reduce
volume and enhance mechanical binder content and shrinkage. Special
propenies. Fine aggregates mai' be aggregates can be used to improve
used without the acldirion of large abrasion resisrnnce. The shape of
·. aggregates affects how well che material
aggregates.
can be compacted and finished when
used with trowels.

Coarse Aggregate Coarse aggregates more efficienrly Coarse aggregates reduce drying
reduce overall binder volume than shrinkage. Special aggregates are usecl
~0 0 oo ODo~ 0
fine aggregates and enhance general to enhance abrasion resistance.
oo c:::> 0 o~ mechanical prnperties.

Special Fillers Special fillers fill in spaces left by the Microsi!ica increases the strength and
. :~ :. fine and coarse aggregates. Some reduces permeability.
fillers (flyash, microsilica) replace
... .-•. · ... "! .. :
some of the cement required. Fillers
·.:-: are also used to improve internal
cohesion.

Polyme1· Modifiers Polymer modifiers are used to Some poli1mers enhance the properties
enhance properties of the repair of the repair material. Latex is used to
material. Latex (SBR) is the most reduce permeability and increase bond
common. Other modifiers include strength with the substrate, and reduce
acrylic, PVA and epoxy emulsions. modulus of elasricity.

Fiber Reinforcement Plastic or steel fiber reinforcement is Fiber reinforcement provides control of
usecl to acid tensile strength and shrinkage cracking. Steel, and in some
toughness to the repair maretial. cases plastic fiber, enhance toughness to
impact and abrasion.

Misc. Chemical Modifiers MisceUaneous modifiers are used to Use of modifiers allows control of some
enhance and modify behavior of the properties of the uncured and cured
repair material. They include: accel- matetials.
erators, retarders, shrinkage-com-
pensating additives, water reducers,
flowability agents, expanding agents,
and air-entraining admixn.ires.

The repair material is a blend of M:aterial design should be kept simple.

binders, aggregates, fiUers, and Do nm use more ingrediencs than
enhancers optimizing effectiveness, necessary. More complex materials
constrnctibility, durability, ancl generally cause more problem~.
predictabtliry

1\-'Ler 11. l; m1l)Cl1h /C:oncrctc Ikp;ur ;ln<l M:ti1ll~11:111i.:c

136 Cl K. ~. Mean.. t:ompan~·. Ki 11g.'i:l01\, .MA
Section 4:
Surface Preparation
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Introduction to Surface Preparation
General Surface Preparation
Procedures
Surface Preparation: When Oxidized
Reinforcement Is Encountered
Recommended Layout of Surface
Repairs
Recommended Removal Geometry
Removal Methods: Partial Depth
Removal Methods: Full Depth

Pch.:f I I , Emmon:-./CQm·r..:u: lkpa lr ;md M;11ntcn:mce

© lt $ Me:.m~ Cf 1m1);.i,ny. King~wn . MA 137
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 4: Surface Pregaration

Introduction to
Surface Preparation

Surface repair involves the process of The quality of surface preparation may
conditioning the existing concrete to be besr addressed in conjunction with
receive repair materials. Conditioning the in-place repair material. Eva luation
is required to remove deteriorated, of the complete system (substrate/
contaminated, or damaged concrete to interface/repair material) can be ac-
provide surfaces that will promote complished by direct tension (uniaxiaJ)
bonding of the repair materials. The pull-off testing. Performance can be
surface preparation process is one of ev<lluated qualitatively based on the
the most critical phases of site work. location of the breaking surface and
Without proper understanding and quanritatively by measuring the tension
care, the necessary requiremems will stress at failure. This procedure is
mosr likely not be met. discussed in the Section, " Bonding
Many techniques are available to per- Repair Materials to Existing Concrete."
form various aspects of concrete re- The Section, "Surface Preparation,"
moval and cleaning. Each method has addresses such topics as general re-
specific advantages and limitations. movals, eclge conditioning, undercut-
Much of the removal work is still clone ting of bars, and surface conditioning.
by small hand-held chipping hammers Emphasis is placed on surfaces involv-
(15# class) because of their mobility ing corroded reinforcement.
and versatility. New technology is,
however, cominuously being devel-
oped. Hydroclemolition and hydromill-
ing are two of the latest methods.

P<::it:r 1-1 . r.:in mon.:i/Cono,,TCIC?' RC'pair mcl M:tintC'nanl'l:-

138 Ci R. S. Mc·n1h C:nmpa ny, King~rvn. MA
General Surface Preparation Procedure

o·
/

"
0 (JO. . Step 1
Step 1
.o· .
. .• p 0
..
Locate area to be repaired (see " Con-
crete Evaluacion"). Hammer sounding
or chain drag are used when locating
- .-~
delamination. Design and install tem-
porary support system prior to any
I, concrete removals.

'
·o ..: . ~. .
... .
"'\:) ~

Step 2 Step 2
Remove deteriorated concrete using
acceptable methods. When embedded
steel is encountered, foUow recom-
mendations on following pages. Under-
cutting of exposed bars is critical to
Jong term success of surface repairs.
Bars which are damaged by the re-
moval operation or have a significan t
section Joss may require repair.

Step 3 Step 3
Prepare surface repair boundaries to
prevent feather edged conditions.
Geometry of boundaries should mini-
mize edge length. Shotcrete may
require some modifications to squared
edges. (ACI 506R-90.)
~·;;;;;;::;;;;;;;::;;~i:;;;;;;.::;,;;;;::,j_ I 0

. 00 . "'\:) .

Step 4
S~4 Clean the surface of the exposed
\ \
~
.\ ~
reinforcing steel and concrete. Surface
'' .. \ ...- cleaning is critical to achieve an ade-
\
quate bond between the repair and the
existing concrete. (See " Bonding
Repair Materials ro Existing Concrete.")

rt't<.'r H. F.m 111(11\.,1Ct1fl4..f'CH:· lkp:lif and M:iin1'-"11:1m.c-

~ It S. ~lc:ln~ Cc..)tHf}:rny. Kl ng..,ton. :\.IA 139
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 4: Material Requiremenrs

Surface Preparation

When Corroded Reinforcement Is Encountered

Surface after
loose concrete is
rem oved.

Top bar is
heavily
corroded.

0
Perimeter of repair area is cut by saw
or other methods approximately
90° angle to surface, less than 1/2' deep.

Concrete is removed
to expose bar. _ _ _ __ _ __ ____.

Concrete is
removed a minimum of
3/4" under
corroded bar.

Steel and
concrete
surfaces are
cleaned.

Adapted from IACRS- Swface Preparation Guideline 03730, 31, 32, 34 dated 10/15/89.

l'etc:r M. f.:,mmon:;X:on<:reLe flep:1ir" :ind M:1inct:nam.c

140 Cl R. S. M~an ~ Company, Kingston, MA
When Corroded Reinforcement Is Encountered
Heavily Corroded Reinforcement

If uncorroded bars are exposed

and dislurbed by the removal
process (bond of bar to concrete
is weakened) .....

Bond Weakened
.... then the bar shall be fully
with Existing
exposed as if it were found to be
Substrate
heavily corroded.

Cut approximately 90° to

top suriace; avoid
feather edges.

3/4" minimum clearance under bar

Adapted from !ACRS-Surface Preparation Guideline 03730, 31, 32, 34 dated 10/15/89.

l'<:cc::r H . Einmo1'l~o11trc1c Rep;1ir :.md M<tifl1c:11:mct'

~ R. S. Mt':ll\,\ Crnn1>any. Kins..;.1 un. i\-U\ 141
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 4: Surface Preparation

Surface Preparation

When Corroded Reinforcement Is Encountered

Any heavily corroded reinforcement that is
encountered shall be fully exposed by
undercutting to sound concrete beneath
affected bars.

Heavily Corroded Reinforcement

Minimum 3/4'
Clearance Under Bar

All exposed steel and concrete surfaces cleaned

to remove corrosion and other bond-inhibiting
materials.

Adapted from lACRS-Surface Preparation Guideline 03730, 31, 32, 34 dared 10/15/89.

Peter H. Emmo11s/<:n11o"Ctc R~p•.11r and 1\if:iln1c-n:m~·c

142 e ft S. ?.-ti:::ms Cornp;u w, King.-.toti, M:\
Recon1mended Layout of Surface Repairs

Deterioration of concrete surfaces

generally is not uniform. Areas requir·
Layouts should be made as simple as possible. ing repair should be modified to
provide for simple layouts. The layouts
should be designed to reduce bound-
Boundary of Loose Recommended ary edge length. Excessive or complex
and Delaminated Layout edge conditions result in shrinkage
Concrete stress concentrations and cracking. lf
using sawcutting as a method for edge
conditioning, keep in mind that saws
cut straight and that, at turns, the saw
. ,•. . .· . may be required to overcut .
. ·. · . ..
..
· .... ·.
. ·. . ·
,' : .

Recommended
Layout

........

Plan View of Balcony

Slab -
~

--:-:-1 r:-1 r:-1 . . ... Q • t \) .

Adapted from IACRS- Surface Prepararion Guideline 03730, 31, 32, 34 elated 10/15/89.

t-:.01rn<.>n-N'Conc,:rt"l t: l{~p:iir :Jl1'1

Pet er l-1. Maiut~l\;U\Ct:'
\': U S. Mean.;; c:,..,mp::m~'· Krngston. M..\ 143
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 4: Surface Preparation

Recommended Removal Geometry

Section Elevation

Beam or
Rib

~--- J--- -~-

1 ··· - ••
... .........................
• -

Elevation Section
•,

C) 0 0

:
Column
.. Corner
0

Ci .. O'.

.) l.

. .: ·· .. Slab or Wall
. -:· -: · .· .. ·.· Partial Depth

0 0 0 0 0
, • Slab or Wall
·. . · .
Full Depth

Adapted from IACRS-Surface Preparation Guideline 03730, 31, 32, 34 cl~uecl 10/15/89.

P~t~r H. E111i·11rn1:'t/(t~1irrc: tt! l<~p;Jir :mcl M:1i11li:n.mlt:

144 © :R. s.
M<;:m:-. Cornp~lll)', Ki r)g_">IOr\ , j\'[A
Concrete Removal Methods: Partial Depth

..
C)
o 6(). o· .
.0 . .. .D
Pneumatic Chipping Hammer
The 15# to 30# class chipping ham·
.. mers are the most common removal
tools for surface repair. The 15#
hammer is light enough for use on
vertical and overhead surfaces. Chip-
ping points are used for general re-
movals. Hammers larger than 30# can
damage encoun tered reinforcing steel
and should be avoided for partial
depth removals. Electric and h)1clraulic
chippers are also available.

Hydro Removal
D High pressure water (20,000 to 40,000 psi
(138 to 276 MPa)) projected on affected
D concrete surfaces effectively removes
concrete. Equipment is remotely controlled
and mounted on a movable vehicle. Some
robotic equipment can remove concrete
not only on horizontal surfaces, but also
on vertical and overhead surfaces. Water
removals clo not damage reinforcing steel.
Undercutting of reinforcement can also be
accomplished using this method. Cleanup
of slurry and water requires extra effort.

Pneumatic Scabbier
Pneumatic scabblers utilize reciprocat-
ing bushing tools hitting the concrete
surface. After each hit, small amounts
of concrete are removed. Pneumatic
scabblers are effective tools for remov-
ing up to 1/4 " (6.4mm) of surfaces for
preparation of overlayments. When
using pneumatic scabblers, caution
should be exercised to avoid bruising
of the concrete surface.

Rotary Milling Machine

Milling machines are available in all sizes
for varying field situations. Most utilize
carbide-mounted tips on a rotary drum.
The drum rotates, causing the carbide to
chip away at the concrete surface. Milling
.... is generally used for removing concrete
.. surfaces in preparation for an overlay-
ment. Milling can only be used for re-
moval of concrete down to the top
surface of reinforcing steel.
Peu:r H . Emmu n.;JCrn h.:ri:1~ Kcp;11r :md ~bm ll.!n:mc.(
'f, H S. Mc.:t11s Crnnp:rny. K1og~ml\, MA 145
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 4: Surface Preparation

Concrete Removal Methods: Full Depth

Hand Held Pneumatic

Breakers
Hanel held breakers 30# to 90# class
are effective tools for concrete re-
moval. Care must be taken not to
damage reinforcing steel that may be
encoun terecl.

Pneumatic/Hydraulic
Mounted Breakers
Mounted breakers are effective high-
volume removal tools. They are gener-
ally found on backhoes, skid steer
loaders, and remote-controlled robots.
When using hreakers, caution should
be exercised to avoid bruising of the
concrete surface.

Splitters
Splitters are tools used to fracture
concrete into easily removable debris.
Splitters are available in three types:
hydraulic wedges, f!.uid pressure,
expansive cements. The most common
are hydraulic wedges and expansive
cements. Holes are drilled for all types.
Hydraulic wedges utilize steel wedges
inserted into the drill hole spread via a
hydraulic ram. Expansive cement is
mixed with water and poured or
tamped into the drilled hole. Within 24
hours, the cement expands, exerting
forces great enough to fracrnre the
concrete.

Hydro Demolition
Hydro demolirion equipment utilizes
high pressure water (20,000 to 40,000
psi(138 to 276 MPa)) projected on to
the concrete surfaces. Full depth
removals with this equipment can be
effective on thin slabs.

P<:H..:r 1-1, Em11H) n:- •c. :cJnt:Tcte R1::p ~ lir an d M71lnn.;n;1 11cc
146 ·,_'; R 5. /\-lt!.<m."- Com p ~ 11)', l{ing.o;:1nn. /I.ii\
Section 5:
Reinforcing Steel Cleaning,
Repair & Protection The following topics are covered in
this section:
Introduction to Reinforcing Steel
Cleaning, Repai r & Protection
General Procedure
Reinforcing Steel Repair
Reinforcing Steel Cleaning
Reinforcing Steel Protection

rcu.·r Ii. r:mm<1n:<'/CoflLrclt' lkp:1ir ;ind M:iinl t'n :inn!

If• It S Mc:tn:\ Cn1n1>:l1lr, King."ton. i\L\ 147
Part Three: Surface Repair ection 5: Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection

Introduction to Reinforcing Steel

Cleaning, Repair & Protection
Corroded or othe1wise damaged rein-
forcing steel is usually found in con-
junction with concrete deterioration.
Heavy rust layers that build up on
reinforcing steel during the corrosion
process are the cause of concrete
delamination and spalling. Removal of
Placemen/ oxide build-up is critical to the long
Method
term success of surface repairs. Many
repairs have failed within a few years
of completion because of insufficienr
cleaning. Proper cleaning of corroded
bars requires removal of concrete
around the full circumference of the
bar, although in the past, practice
required removal around the full
circumference only when corrosion
exceeded more than 50% of the cir-
cumference. B} removing the full
1

circumference, the contaminated

concrete can be rernoved. Chlorides
and carbonated concrete may be
present around the rebar, even though
corrosion is not present. Two other
reasons for removing the concrete
amund the bar are (1) to allow the
repair material to encapsulate the bar,
providing a relatively uniform electro-
chemical environment, and (2) to
anchor the repair to the substrate.
Whenever bars corrode, they also lose
valuable section, thereby reducing the
ultimate load carrying capacity. In some
instances, bars lose all section through
the corrosion process. Structural evalua-
tion is required to understand the
effects of section loss and whether
repairs are required to restore it.
Common sense would seem to recom-
mend placing protective coatings or
using other means to prevenr the
recurrence of corrosion. However,
quality concrete is generally all thac is
necessary to protect embedded rein-
forcing steel. While the current prac-
tice of protecting exposed bars is
controversial, many systems are avail-
able. Several protective systems are
discussed in this section.

J1cwr f-1 1 :1nn1n 11~;C( Hi ..:rt:lc: l~ i::p:1tr :in d .~fa int t:n~mt.:t'
148 C R S. i\·lea1l> Cump:1nv, Kitl~:"mll1 . MA
General Procedure

Step 2.1
Exposed corroded reinforcing steel
encountered in the repair process
requires concrete ro be removed
0 0 around the full circumference of the
bar. This allows the reinforcing bar to
Step 2.1 be cleaned ancl allows a uniform mate-
rial to be placed around it.

-o · p
Step 4.1
Heavy oxides or other bond-inhibiting
materials must be removed by any
acceptable cleaning method. (See
" Reinforcing Steel Cleaning. ")

Step 4.1 Step 4.5

Bars damaged during removal opern-
tions or with critical section loss may

. . 0 6 o· . require repair or replacement. (See

" Reinforcing Steel Repair. ")
_C) p .0 .

Step 5.1
In certain situations, special coatings
may be applied to add additional
protection to the reinforcing bars. (See
Step 4.5 " Reinforcing Sreel Protection.")

. 0 p. .

? .
Step 5.1

F\:h::r H. l'i1111n111t~1 Cona1.:tc: R~pair am.I :i.faimc11:lnt:i:

( 1 It S. "''IC'~n:; Compam·, 1\ingsh'tll, !i.{A 149
PareThree: Surface Repair Section 5: Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection

Reinforcing Steel Repair

(from Section Loss)
Affected Length
Loss of Section

If the reinforcing steel has lost more than 25% of its

cross section (or 20% if two or more adjacent bars are
affected), then reinforcing steel repair is
generally required.

Note: When damage to reinforcing steel is uncovered, it is good practice to perform a structural review of situation.

If repairs are required for the reinforcing steel, one of the following
methods should be used:
1. Supplemental bar over affected length. New bar may be mechanically spliced to affected bar
or placed parallel to existing bar.
2. Complete bar replacement.

Required Lap •
r Supplemental Ba•
Required Lap

n ...... I

Affected Length

Typical Splice Methods

Stick Weld

Threaded coupling

•Lap length shall be determined in accordance with ACI 31 8; also refer to AASHTO and CRSI Manuals.

Adapted rrom IACRS- Swfa.ce Preparation Guideline 3730, 31, 32, 34 dated 10/15/89.
l\:ter H. Emmon."f{:ontTeh:
.. H~p:iir :m,I M:d 1ui:::n:ul(c.:
150 C> R. S M<:,Ul S Comp::my. King.~mn, MA
Reinforcing Steel Cleaning

r=? )j d :a •4 General Procedure

All heavy rust and scale should be re-
moved from the rebar to promote maxi-
mum bond with repair materials A
tightly bonded light oxide build-up may
develop after cleaning. This is usually not
detrimental to bond. If a protective
coating is being applied to rhe rebar, the
manufacturer's recommendations for
surface preparation should be followed.

Needle Scalers
Needle scalers are pneumatic tools utiliz-
ing a group of small diameter steel rods
powered by an internal piston. The steel
rods hit the intended surface, causing
removal of surface materials. Needle
scalers are effective tools for removal of
heavy oxide layers, as well as for surface
cleaning of small areas of concrete .

. 0 \J High Pressure Water Cleaning

.G o High pressure water (3,000 [O 10,000
psi(20.7 to 69 MPa)) cleans concrete and
0 steel surfaces, removing unsound materi-
als. Water mixed with sand cleans faster
'
I and results in a roughened surface which
I
will promote a better bond with coatings
I or with repair materials.
/
:
Abrasive Blast Cleaning

._ ._ _·:_
· · Coiic~eie· .. . · •·.
Substrate . ·
Reinforcing
Abrasive Blast Cleaning Abrasives mixed with pressurized air and
projected through a nozzle are che best
method of providing steel or concrete

~'03'.~)';.__"""1..•-- --~-N-oz_.z_le-
• · • : - -...- ~: o - _ _ SteeI Abrasive surfaces with a clean profiled surface.
Airborne debris (dust) is an envi.ronmen-
> ..-... tal concern when using this method.
. . -.· '- -.-:.- ___-- Abrasive Water can be injected at the nozzle to
· - Paths reduce dust in this process.

Power Wire Brushing

A power wire brush is an effective tool
for removing unwanted oxide from steel
surfaces. Wire brushing is a very slow
Adapted from IACRS - Surface Preparation Guideline 3731, October 15, 1989. and ineffective operation when rebar has
to be cleaned on the back side.

J\::h.::r l-1. Cinmon...,<:oni:rcr~ Rt:p:1ir :met Maime11:1nc:C"

© R. S. MC':\r\S <.:ornp;my, K!ngi;mn, ~ti\ 151
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 5: Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection

Reinforcing Steel Protection

Reinforcing S[eel is naturally prmected life is dependent upon che degree

from corrosion when surrounded by of exposure to a corrosive environ-
an alkaline environment of newly cast, rnem and anode activity. This
good quality concrete. In certain repair method of protection is used only
situations, additional prmection For the on an experimental b<.1sis.
encased reinforcement is prudent. 3. Cathodic Protection/Impressecl
Protection systems fall into four (4) Current: Protecting bars from corro-
categories: sion can be accornplishecl by revers-
1. Encapsulation: Insulating the bar ing the elecrrical current flow which
from electrical currents in the causes the corrosion process. An-
surrounding concrete can be ac- odes are installed on or near the
complished by encapsulating the concrete surface and are electrically
bar with epm,)1. \'(then new bars are connected to the reinforcing bars.
used, fusion-bonded epoxy provides Electrical current is pumped into
the best protection. Bars <.1re shot- the circuit, protecting the bars.
blasted and heated, and powdered Impressed current must be bal-
epoxy is sprayed onto them under a anced wirh rhc environment on a
controlled environment. In field continual basis in order to provide
applications where encapsulation of protection. Constant monitoring
existing bars is necessary, epoxy and necessary adjustments are
resin is sprayed or, more commonly, required.
brushed onto the bars. Wi th field 4. Alkaline Slurry Coating: Like uncar-
application of epm.')' it is very dif- bonated concrete, alkaline slurry
ficult to achieve 100% coverage of coating protects the reinforcing
the exposed bars. In[ersections and steel from corrosion. Some systems
back sides of bars create almost utilize non-passivaring epoxies as a
impossible access. Encapsulation binder for the passivating (alkaline)
works well when all bars in the fillers. Some questions exist con-
affected member are prorected; cerning wherher the epoxy insula[eS
however, when bars are partially the alkaline fil lers from direct con-
coated, eirher within the repair tact with the rebars and whecher rhe
zone or adjacent to the repair, epoxy provides any benefos other
electrical currencs can become chan electrically insulating the bar.
concentrated in the unprote([ed
There are many unanswered questions
bars, and accelerated corrosion may
regarding reinforcement protective
be a problem.
systems and their effect on surround-
Z. Cathodic Protection/Sacrificial An- ing reinforcement. By proteccing rein-
ode: Protecting bars from corrosion forcing steel in a repaired area we
can be accornplishecl by coating have created an island of new material.
them wirh a sacrificial metal. Zinc is Tn doing so, potentially more corrosion
the metal commonly used for this could occur than would have originally.
purpose. Zinc is applied to the bar Only independenr research, resting
with a brush. Recently, molten zinc and rnoniwring wiU answer these
has been used (California DOT) as a questions.
sacrificial surface-applied coating.
This method is used after all sur-
faces are repaired. The surface-
applied zinc is electrically connected
to the reinforcing steel cage. Since
this method is sacrificial, the service

Pt:l.:f 11. C nl1Ho11..:/Co1ll."Ct'lc Rcp:iif ;t11cl /\tiinlt:'rl;Uk..e

152 «:> H. $. M(:;i,ni:; Com0:1ny. J<in,g;:,tun. MA
 Reinforcing Steel Protection

·.: ·- · : ~· .' . ·f Natural Protection

by Alkaline
0.
Environment Created
·.· (/ ·.. by Cement Matrix
.. ·. ··
···\/.· .··.
Alkaline Protection
.f . : : ·: L:i·
· .:··
::··..·.~· ..·.. . \7 Alkaline slurry
.. 1·. coating enhances the
... ·-a ., ::·.· .
. ·.<f
alkaline environment
. (\. .
. ·>.V .. around the bar.
·cy. . ..
. :. '

Zinc applied to
bar surface sacrifices itself
to protect the steel.

·:· .
Zinc applied to
......V' . concrete surface sacrifices Cathodic
:- . <> .· itself to protect the steel. Protection
: :. <:!:
.(/ ·
_·_: _·:··· ·_·. a ··:· _P'· : ':- rl· Surface
installed
0 anode
connected to
... . : ..... (/' .. bar with
impressed
. C:r" .. current changes
-: ( ·. -. ..· <3 . the flow of
. "
electrical current
. . "<{J: . : :
to protect the
... . . !)t(l~l..b.a.~:. .. . ......... ....... . .

Epoxy
·o
: (> .
encapsulation
electrically
insulates
? •
Electrical Insulation

,,;nf~cmg.ba•·· · · · · · · · ......... l... . . .

Pc1er 11. l!mnmn:-:Conl..'rcit: R~p:i1r :Jncl M:lln tenn11cc
£> H. S. M~:m.~ C.nmp:Hw. Kin~.·ann . MA 153
Parr Three: Surface Repair Section 6: Boncling Repair Materials w Existing Concrete

Section 6:
Bonding Repair Materials
to Existing Concrete The following topics are covered in
this section:
Introduction to Bonding Repair
Macerials to Existing Concrete
Measuring Bond Strength
Evaluating Bond Strength
General Procedures
Bonding Agents
Additional Sources of Information

Peter H. Emnx111$.K:01K f t.'W n~p:tir :md ~fainlC1l:llH:C

154 © R S. Mc.m.c:o Q)mp;uw. I<ingston. MA
Introduction to Bonding
Repair Materials to Existing Concrete
Keys to developing bond Achieving an adequate bond between
1. Clean, sound substrate. repair materials ancl existing concrete
is a critical requirement for durable
2. Roughened profile of substrate for
surface repairs. Various techniques are
mechanical interlock.
available co achieve the required bond.
3. Open pore structure in substrace. This section presents a brief review of
4. Repair marerial/boncling agent with some of the rest methods for deter-
sufficient paste for absorption inco mining the bond of repair or overlay
substrate pores. materials to existing concrece, and a
5. Repair material is applied with descriprion of the step by step process
sufficient pressure rn faci.litate of achieving an adequate bond.
contact between the repair material The bond at the interface becween the
and the substrate at the bond line. repair material and concrete substrate
is likely to be subject to considerable
stress from volume changes, freeze-
thaw, force of gravity, and sometimes,
impact and vibra tion. The stress states
that develop at the bond lines will vary
considerably, depending on the t11pe
and use of the structure. For example,
the bond on the bridge deck overlay
may be subject to shear stress in
conjunction with tensile or compres-
sive stress induced by shrinkage or
thermal effects, and ro compression
and shear from service loads. 1
It is essenrial char the repair material
Surface achieve a strong bond to the subsrrace
Repair and that subsequent stresses are not
Material sufficiently great as ro cause cleboncl-
Bond line --.-.1.~-_."_i.-,.,._-..-<1~~ - - - ing. Repairs which have bond lines in
direct tension have the greatest depen-
dency on bonding.
Repairs that are subject to shear
stresses at the bond line are capable of
stress resistance not only by bonding
mechanisms, but also by aggregate
interlock mechanism, which add
greatly to shear bond capacity.
It should be remembered that high
Shear Bond Mechanisms initial bond strength is generaUy not as
important as bond durability.

Forces are Transmitted via

_,,,----- Mechanical Interlocking &
va der Waals Forces
(Electrical attraction)
1Wall,].S., ancl Shrive, N.G., Factors Affecting
Tensile Forces Boncl Between New ancl Olcl Concrete, AC!
Tensile Bond Mechanisms Materials Journal, Mar.-Apr. 1988, pp. 117-125.

Pc:ter H . Emmon.s/C1mnc1t: l{ep:in· :•nd ~fail)l cll:mcc

(J It S. Mc.ti\~ Company. Ki nj!!)ton, i\-!A 155
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 6: Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete

Measuring Bond Strength

Reference Test Comments: Evaluation of the bone! between the

Methods • Laboratory test only. repair material and substrate is impor-
. . ASTM C 881, 882, 883, • Measures materials only.
Re~air Material 884 epoxy bonding • Value affected by compressive tant in assessing the quality of the
agents strength of materials*. repair. In recent years, various test
ASTM C1042, 1059 • Value affected by degree of methods have been developed and are
latex bonding agents sandblasting'. available at this time. Some of these
'Not controlled by test method. methods are used extensively, while
others have had little use in the field.
Understanding the limitations in the
reliability or applicability of each test
1 Standard substrat Sandblasted method is critically important in
Minimum fc = 4,5 Opsi Surface achieving rhe performance goals.
t tttt A brief review of some of the test merh-
ocls currently in use is presented below.
Slant shear test is used by mosr
Direct Shear manufacturers of repair materials to
(Guillotine) evaluate product performance. The
. ·. ·- test is economical and is easily repro-
Reference Comments:
Test • Can measure both laboratory duced. Bond values are determined by
Methods and field specimens. taking the load at failure divided by
BNL direct • Value affected by compressive the elliptical bond area. The results are
...•' • I

shear strength of materials. highly variable depending upon the

(Brook- • Value affected by degree and compressive strength and degree of
haven method of surface prep. sandblasting used. Slam shear bond
Nat'I Lab) • Measures shear bond.
t IOWAdirect
shear
values are difficult to correlate with
field performance.
The method used for assessing repair
materials, the slant shear test, is far
from being representative of the actual
Uniaxial in situ conditions. When the results of
Tension other test methods are compared with
those obtained from the slant shear
Reference test Methods test, it is evident that the latter can
ACI 503R uniaxial direct tension give rise to inaccurate conclusions.
NIST study NISTIR 4648 Uniaxial tensile tests
to measure the bond of in situ concrete overlays. Boncl strength values are generally
higher when evalumed by the slant
Comments: shear method or by the direct shear
• Measure field specimens in-situ or removed. method, as compared ro the direct
• Measures direct tensile strength of bond. tension method.1
• Measures actual field conditions; suliace prep,
curing, mat'I.
• Apparatus must be attached concentrically with core.

1Knab, L.l., Sprinkel, M.M., and Lane, O.J.,

Preliminary Performance Criteria for the Bond
of Portland Cement and J..atex Modified Con-
crete Overlays, NISTlR 89-4156, National
Institute of Standards and Technology, 1989.

Peccr Ii . Emmo11s/Co1M:rece. Rep,,if :lnd M:tin1c-n:tnce

156 (I ItS. Meam Comp:iny, Ktng.<ton, ~It\
 Direct shear method measures shear substrate. While the core remains
bond between the repair material and connected to the substrate, a tension-
the substrate. Field and laborarory core ing device is connected to the core
specimens are tested in a special and loaded until failure occurs. Tensile
guillotine apparatus. Shear bond values values are determined by taking the
are determined by taking the load at load at failure divided b11 the cross
failure divided by the bond area. Cor- sectional area of the core. The advan-
relations can be developed between tage of in situ testing is the benefit of
laboratory and field tests. evaluating actual repairs, provid ing
Uniaxial tensile test measures the feedback directly to the parties in-
tensile bond or tensile strength of volved, establishing acceptance or
surface repairs and overlays. Direct necessary adjustments to the repair
tension bond testing establishes the procedures.
location of the weakest link of the
composite. Uniaxial testing can be
performed in situ or in a laboratory. In
situ testing is performed by coring
through the repair material into the

l'!!ter H , Eminon~/Concrete Rcp:-,ir ~nd Mrcinte"n:m\.t:

'D It S. Mt'~ms Comp:my, King:oiton , 1\.lA 157
,Parr Three: Surface Repair Section 6: Bonding Repair Marerials to E."<isting Concrete

Evaluating Bond Strength

Table 1. Preliminary Performance Criteria for Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) and Latex Modified Concrete (LMC)
Overlay Materials Based on the BNL (Brookhaven National Laboratory) Direct Shear Bond Test Methocl 1 *

Class Overlay Minimum Bond Average Bond Minitnum Compressive

Material Strength Strength Compressive Strength of
(psi/MPa)* (psi/MPa) * Strength of Overlay Base Concrete
psi/(MPa)* psi/(MPa)*

1 LMC/PCC 200/1.4 325/2.2 3000 3000-3500

20.7 20.7-24.1
2 LMC/PCC 230/1.6 375/2.6 3750/4000 >3000
25.9/27.6 >20.7
3 LMC/PCC 260/1.8 425/2.9 4250/5000 >4000
29.3/34.5 >27.6
*The metric conversion is produced by the author.

Table 2. Relarionshir Between Bond Test Methods* (Adapted from Table 81 1)

Conditions Bond Test Method Bond Sti·ength Relationship Between

(psi/MPa)** Test Methods
Avg. of 7 -10 Tests

Sandblasted, 2 clay PCC Slant shear 1190/8.2 360%

overlay on 50 day old PCC
Direct shear BNL 330/2 .3 100%

Uniaxial tension 189/1.3 57%

*The relationship berween test methods is not well defined except in general. The purpose of utilizing the test data gathered in the NIST study to
compare test methods is that the data represents a unique stud)' which has compared test methods under controlled and relatively consistent
conditions.
**The metric conversion is produced by the author.

1Knab, L.l., Sprinkel, M.M., and Lane, 0.)., Preliminary Performance Criteria for the Bond of Portland Cement and latex Modified Concrete Over-
lays, NIST!R 89-4156, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1989. (Order #PB90-204520 NIST).

Pett:r 1-:t t:: mn1on!t/Cun<:rcre R.t!p :1~r ~ind Mairuen:mce

158 4:i R. S. M r :i1i:t Coinp nny. J(jng;i;1nn. MA
 Acceptable bond values for materials When bond strength values evaluated
and in situ repairs are not established. by this method are inadequate, adjust-
Table 1 presents the range of accept- ments to surface preparation methods
able bond properties. It is strongly and placement techniques can be
recommended that the entire refer- made, and adequate bond achieved. By
enced report be read when using the evaluating the location of the break in
preliminary performance criteria table. composite structures, the decision can
The values are derived from direct be made as to whether changes in
shear rests and are not comparable to procedures or materials are necessary
uniaxial tensile bond test results that The following examples demonstrate
are generally lower as demonstrated in how in situ testing is used:
Table 2. • Hyclrodemolition techniques are used
to remove concrete from a parking or
bridge deck. Cleaning the slurry is
time consuming and a tedious opera-
tion . By in situ tension testing, the
degree of cleaning can be optimized.
• Removal of concrete by some tech-
niques may cause damage to underly-
ing concrete surface. By using in situ
tension testing, the acceptable tech-
niques can be selected.
Acceptable bond values, when using • Final surface cleaning techniques may
the uniaxial in situ test method, are provide different degrees of bruising,
not established. The uniaxial in situ profile, and pore cleaning. By in situ
test can be used to establish general tension testing, vaiious cleaning tech-
acceptance criteria for surface repair. niques can be optimized, i.e., milling
Quantitative test results are highly without abrasive blasting vs. milling
dependent upon: with abrasive blasting; abrasive blasting
1. Compressive and tensile strength of vs. high pressure water blasting.
substrate concrete • The effectiveness of different bonding
agents can also be evaluated by
2. Surface preparation
these tests.
3. Placement techniques
4. Re pair material

Pctc:I' H. Cmmon."IConcrct,· Repair :md i\fa.trHemincc

ft:J R S. ~lean., Comp:m ~: K.ingsmn., l\llA 159
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 6: Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete

General Procedures

Step 2 General Step 2.0

Step 2.0 Existing concrete surfaces need to be Surfaces of existing concrete expected
roughened to a profi le necessary m to receive the repair material must be
achieve mechanical interlock. The sound, clean, and free of bond inhibit-
necessary profi le (distance between ing materials (oil , facs, hardened epoxy,
high points and low points over a etc.) . An ideal sound surface is one of
0 specified distance between the points) adequate compressive scrength, free of
is a function of the magnitude of shear any defects, with aggregate bonded to
forces that will be acting, the repair the cement macrix.
materi al properties, the existing con-
crete properties, the placement tech-
nique or any combination of these.
Field testing is required to establish Step 2.01
the optimum profile. After inicial removals, surfaces should
Typical Tools Used for be sounded for clelaminarions and
Development of Profile voicls.
Tool Profile
1/2 (13mrn) +
11
Hanel chipper
1/2 (13mm) +
11
Hydro milling
Rotary milling
11
1/8 -1/4" (3- 6mm) Step 2.02
Scabhlers
11
1/8 (3 mm) - Any concrete areas found to be un-
Shotblasters 11
1/8 (3 mm) - sound should be re-chipped .
Abrasive blasting 1/811 (3mm)
A standard practice of preparing exist-
ing concrete bridge decks for overlays
Step 2.02 is rotary milling followed by abrasive
blast cleaning. Excellenc results are
achieved with profiles less than 1/4".

Condition after
Step 2 Complete

Pt·1c1" H. Emnio r \SiC1l 1 w.:ri:t~ lkp.ur ~od M:tlmc-o~rncc

160 Ci H. S. M('~fl~ Company. King.-;m n. MA
 Condition Step 4 General
before Step 4. The surfaces of existing concrete must pore structure is clogged with dust,
have an open pore structure. The slmry or water, the absorption process
absorption of the repair material into will be hindered, and bond strengths
the substrate's pore sU"LJCture is a reduced.
critical bonding mechanism. If the

.. ·
-._:,_._. ·.-:o··-
.
·.·.·.. ·, -···.· - Step 4
. :. .
Desirable results in opening the pore The open pore structure will provide
structure can be achieved using one of capillary suction of the repair material,
the following methods: or bonding agents, into the substrate
• Shotblasting (horizontal surfaces) concrete. Before application of the
• Abrasive blasting repair materials, surfaces should be
• Hydroblasting inspected for any foreign materials
• Combinations of abrasives ancl water which might inhibit the bone!.
Step 4. • Vacuum
... ' '
o:· ..
\
~,,

. .' . :'\::S .
.... a..o. ._('..; ·.
-~··
Step 5
The moisture level of the substrate
may be critical to achieving bond. An
rial. In situ tension testing to evaluate
the optimum moisture condition for a
excessively dry substrate may absorb particular substrate and repair material
Condition after too much water from the repair mate- may be appropriate. Saturated, surface
Step 4 Complete rial. This will result in excessive shrink- dry condition can be considered to be
age. Excessive moisture in the sub- the best solution, unless othe1wise
strate may clog the pores ancl prevent determined.
absorption of the repair mate-

Step 5
'
I
, '

L
>~~·.'
(~7:~i~
?
. ' it:

Pc1cr H. EmmonSIC:oocrctc R~pa1 r :met M:iimen;iocc

{) R. 5 . Me.ins Company. King,)ton. MA 161
Parr Three: Surface Repair SeCEion 6: Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete

General Procedures

Step 5.2 Step 5.2

The repair material must contain a bonding agent must be easily absorbed
sufficient amounc of fluid paste for into the pore structure and must be
absorption into the open pore struc- compatible with the repair material
ture of the substrate. In some cases, a and substrate.
separnre bonding agent is used. The

Step 6
The surface repair material should be • Internal hydraulic pressu re (created by
installed in a manner which produces pump pressure in confined spaces,
intimate contact between the new and utilizing form and pump or grouted
the old at the boncl line. Intimate preplaced aggregate repair techniques).
con tact is produced by a number of • High velociry impact (created by the
m.echanisms, including: thrusting of repair material on the
• Internal vibration (produces fluid prepared surface, utilizing pneumati-
flow, hydraulic pressure and dissipates cally placed monar).
air pockets) . • Low velocity impact (created by rhe
compaction of repair material by
.· _. .o. . . · ... a rodding and tamping, utilizing hand

.-o.·.·D·o·
.. ... [J·:.(\)o
·· . :o·_.
...·Q. applied or dry pack technique) .

: ··· o····.·_·.~~·-_·o·
.. . . . . ·-_ . : .
··-o
. .
·· a::
·.
.

Step 7
Condition after Steps Making sure rhar all necessary steps for rial and into the substrate. The
5.2 and 6 are complete achieving adequate bonding are taken, method is more qualitative than quan-
a pull-off test can be performed to titative. Ideally, the bond strength
monitor the tensile bond strength should be such that the composite
between repair and substrate. This in structure should behave monolithically
situ test involves the use of partial under load; the failure should occur in
coring down through the repair mate- original concrete substrate.

o.

l'<.' lc..'I' 1-t. Emn1~~n ~1(;umn:tc: Rep3ir and i\faiut~narn.:t:"

162 0 R. S. M1::~ins Cn mpany, K.Jng.->ton, MA
Bonding Agents

Adequate bonding can be achieved by Latex bonding agents are also used in
placing repair material directly against the industry. The material must meet
properly prepared substrate. There are the requirements of ASTM C 1059.
special conditions when bonding Manufacturers' instructions should be
agents are used. Three main types of strictly followed when using latex
bonding agents are frequenrly used: products because not all are compati-
cement-based slurries, epoxies, and ble with concrete. The following latex
latex emulsions. products are used as bonding agents:
f<or Portland cement based repairs and • Styrene Butadiene (SBR)
overlays, cemenr or sand-cemem slurry • Acrylic
is used. After the substrate has been • Polyvinylacetate (PVA)
prepared, and immediately before Re-ernulsifiable Polyvinylacetate (PVA)
placing the repair material , a thin bonding agents should not be used in
coating of "creamy" grout must be srructural applications. This agent can
vigorously and thoroughly broomed or re-emulsify after being subject to
brushed into the prepared surface. wet-dry cycles, resulting in eventual
In the case of latex-modified or loss of bond.
microsilica-modified repair materials or A variety of epoxy products are avail-
overlays, the bonding grout can be able for use as bonding compounds.
broomed in from the mL'< itself. For The material must meet the require-
latex-modified material, it can also be ments of ASTM C 881-"Epoxy-Resin
mixed separately. There are, now avail- Based Bonding Systems for Concrete,"
able, factory blended latex-modified related to physical properties such as
cement slurry bonding agenrs which are bond strength, viscosity, thermal com-
mixed with water on site and applied w paLibiliLy, and shrinkage. Use of an
the prepared concrete surface. epoxy bonding agent may produce a
vapor barrier, resulting in the failure of
the bond. Epoxies have poor creep
Surface Repair properties and should be avoided when
Material
the repair is subject to constant loading.
Bonding Agent
The additional step in the repair pro-
cess, application of a bonding agent,
may create an additional quality assur-
ance problem. Bonding agents are not
Exis1ing Substrate designed to compensate for poor sur-
face preparation. Successf11I use of
bonding agents must include the seven-
step bonding process outlined above.

No Bonding Agent

Pc1cr H. Emmon'S/Com·rclt: Rt:p:lir ;md M:.iintt:rnmcc

© H ~. M<::1ns C(1 n,p:1ny, KJng~t on. i\-lJ\ 163
Part Three : Surface Repair Section 6: Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete

Additio11al Sources of Information

ACI 503R-89, Use of Epm.)' Compounds with Concrete, ACI Manual of Concrete
Practice.
Guide Specifications for Concrete Overlays for Pavements and Bridge Decks,
AASHTO-AGC-ARTBA, Task Force 30 Reporc.

l\'1(·f H _ Eminlm~/Curx:n:lt Rcp:Ji r ~1n ct Mai1ucnancc

164 liJ R. S. Mean.s Coinp~1 11y, Ki1).g,qc,1i. MA
Section 7:
Placement Methods
The following topics a1·e covered in
this section:
Inrmduction to Placement Methods
Summary of Methods
Dry Packing
Form ancl Cast in Place
Form ancl Pump
Grouted Preplaced Aggregate
Full Depth Repair
Dry Mix Shotcrete
Wet Mix Shotcrete
Full Depth Repair
Overlays
Hanel-Applied
Summary of Overlay Materials

Peter H . Emmnns,'Coot",.-et~ lk p:1i1· :JJU! M:111'1t.·n :1 f1Ct-

~ It. S Mc-;ms C.•wnp;iny, K..in~"ton. MA 165
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 7: Placement Methods

Introduction to Placement Methods

Selection of a surface repair placement Important Considerations

merhod includes the following impor-
The placemenr technique must deliver
rant steps:
the selected repair material to the
1. Selection of a repair material that prepared substrate with specified
best reconstitutes the strength, results. The repair material must
integrity and performance required achieve satisfactory bond to the exist-
Pllrr:smenr by the structure's original design ing substrate, must fill the prepared
Melhod and current situation. cavity without segregation, and ful.ly
2. Selection of a method of placement encapsulate exposed reinforcing steel.
that will successfully deliver the Without achieving the above require-
repair material onto rhe prepared ments, the surface repair may nor
concrete substrate. perform its intended structural, protec-
3. Checking the constructibility of the tive, and aesthetic duties.
Edge selected repair material and installa- Bond of the repair to the substrate
Conditioning
tion method. clepencls to a large degree on mechani-
4. Adjusting the material and insralla- cal interlocking with the prepared
tion methods to provide a con- concrete surface. For this to occur, an
structible repair. adequate force should be applied to
the repair matetial to bring it into
intimate contact with the prepared
surface. The repair material must also
have an adequate amount of binder to
internee with the prepared surface. The
way in which force is applied to the
repair material to achieve bond de-
pends on the application technique. In
trowel-applied systems, the repair
material is forced into the prepared
surface by the trowel pressure applied
by the finishe1Jcement mason.

11<.::1!!"r J-1 . f.mmons,iCunn·c1c Hepnir :u!ll l\tiim f11an(t'

166 © R. S. Means C.omp~in)'. l(ingsm11, Mt\
 Dry pack techniques use pressure Constructibility
created when the rodding tools pound
the dry pack material against the Constructibility is defined by these
substrate. When using cast-in-place questions: Can che repair be built
methods, the pressure is applied by within the constrainrs specified by the
internal vibration or hydraulic pressure engineer and the owner? Will the
induced by the concrete/grout pump. necessary equipment be accessible to
0 0 the repair area? Will the specified

0 0o (_) ~o\7
Pneumatically placed repair materials
1> Q /I are propelled against the prepared installation technique allow the re-
<0 ooo surfaces, resulting in the necessary paired structure to be placed in service
wichin che time specified? Is the work-
intimate contact.
ing environment conducive to a partic-
The placement method must consolidate The requiremem for the repair mate- ular instal lation technique7 Are there
the repair material and create intimate rial to remain uniform during place- experienced comractors available for
contact between the repair material and ment is very important. Any segrega-
the substrate. the project?
tion of repair material components will
alter the repair material's physical If the answers to these questions are
" maybe " or no, tI1en tI1e repair
H 11
properties. Segregation can occur
during mixing when adequate time is material and installation method need
not allowed to disperse all compo- to be reassessed.
nents. The result is high filler and low
binder or high binder and low filler
content. Segregation can also occur
when pneumatically placed dry mix Quality Assurance and
repair material is used. Air turbulence Control
around large or clustered reinforcing The combination of working condi-
steel can cause segregation, sand tions, existing concrete, structural
pockets and voids. design, and repair material is unique
Complete filling of the surface cavity is to every job. Many problems can arise
The placement method must also fully also an important step. With certain unless proper quality assurance and
encapsulate any exposed reinforcing routine quality control are exercised.
steel and produce a uniform cross
placement techniques, complete filling
section without segregation, cold may not occur. The form and pump or Start by selecting a qualified contractor
joints, or voids. preplaced aggregate methods are who has co demonstrate long-term,
susceptible to incomplete filling. Both successful repair jobs performed with
methods use formwork which hides the intended installation method. If
the filling process. To ensure proper any questions exist regarding the
installation, qualification of techniques contractor's qualifications, the repair
and materials is recommended for material, or the installation technique,
most applications. consider a pilot project. During the
Engineering and durability aspects are repair project, develop routine feed-
the most impmtant considerations back as to the engineering require-
when selecting the repair material and ments. Physical properties can be
verified by sampling and testing. Bond
. ~- . \)
.. application method. The ultimate long-
term properties of the repair material strengths can be verified by coring
through the repair and into the sub-
are far more important than the ease
of application. Before finalizi.ng the strate, followed by applying a tensile
1. Drill core through repair into substrate. force to the core.
2. Attach uni-axial tension testing device repair material and insrallacion proce-
to the core. dure, check the constructibility.
3. Observe location of break, measure
tensile strength of composite.

Pc1er l-L Enunn1\SX:Ol1l·ret(: R~p:1ir :ind M:lintt:n:mce

f'• R. S. Mc:tns Comp:my. KJnA-"lOll. MA 167
P(ln Th ree: Surface Rerair Section 7: Placement Method:>

Summary of Methods

Summary

F°'m aod Pump J

Dry Pack

Shotcrete
(Dry)
Form and
Cast-in-Place

Shotcrete (Wet)

.. , ..

Grouted Preplaced Aggregate

Hand-Applied

Full Depth Repair Overlays & Horizontal Techniques

l'\:::1cr H. l!m1nono;;K:unn1..:1<..: RL'p:1ir :llld i\·l:1irn en.<1. ncc

168 0 R. ~ Me~m~ Cl.1m1xmy, Kir\>-:~lon. MA
 Overhead surfaces Surfaces incorporating closely spaced
bars (> #6). are best repaired by the

~= ------""-'~
Lffeiaaj form-and-pump technique. Use of
other methods may result in poor
consolidation around the reinforcing
steel. On vertical surfaces, any of the
formed methods can be used.
Small, deep repairs are best accom-
plished with dry packing techniques.
Thin surface repairs, which do not
incorporate reinforcement, are best

,.:• .. -- accomplished with hand-placed mortar

v For vertical surfaces involving small
or dry or wet mix shotcrete. For verv
bars, form-and-pump, form and cast-in-
e place, grouted preplaced aggregate, or
11
thin (less than 1/4 (6.Smm)) or very'
I
r shotcrete methods are the best
small areas, hand placemenc works
t well. For large areas, shotcrete is the
choices. Formed methods may provide
best choice. A combina tion of wet mix
I for more uniform surface appearance.
low pressure shotcrete and hand
I

:. c troweling are ideal techniques for

a resurfacing exposed aggregate or bug
I hole surfaces.
s
u
r
~
f
a
c
e
I. •'
~
· - - - - -t.

Surfaces incorporating small diameter

s bars ( #6 and less) and not congested
reinforcing, can be repaired with either
t·· the form-and-pump or shorcrete tech-
: niques. When using shotcrete, care
must be exercised not to form sand
pockets or voids on the backside of
the reinforcem ent.

r. :

l)t"lt:r 1-L F.rnnum.1; Corn·l','h.' ltrt['t 1ir etml M:1U\h:"n:mc I.:'

1{1 R. S. Mca.n.' Company. l\ing"m n. MA 169
Pan Three: Su rface Repair Section 7: Placement Methods

Dry Packing

: .: Dry packing is a method of placing

...
. .. • . . , • zero-slump, or near zero-slum p, mortar
· · :· . ..· .
or concrete, by ramming, into surface
·'. ·.. . ·.:·.-: .. cavities. The consistency of dry pack
mortar must be such that it can be
Drypack Material Placed in Layers molded into a ball without excessive
bleeding. Compaction densifies the
Hammer used to
mortar and provides the necessary
Compact Drypack incimate contact with the existing
Material concrete for achieving bone!. Dry
packing techniques can be used in all
locations: overhead, vertical and flat.
Best applications are generally small
cavities such as tie holes, small areas of
surface honeycomb, or rib bottoms
(shown in illustration) .
Each dry pack mortar repair is placed
in layers. Compaction is achieved with
Restraining Formwork a hardwood stick to prevent polishing
of the surface. Curing is accomplished
with a continuous 7-day moist cure.

Drypack material
should be dry but
cohesive enough
to be formed into a ball.

Ptl<: I' M. Ctnrnn n:.:,K:om r~I C nt::p;m ;md i\faimcn;um.:.'

170 if) It S. f\·lt:;l n~ Comp anr. l<ing<1on. M.A
Form and Cast-in-Place

One of the most common methods of internal vibration is necessary to re-

surface repair of vertical ancl, in some move air and provide intimate contact
cases, overhead locations is the place- with the existing concrete substrace.
ment of fo rmwork and casting of Formed surfaces make the placement
repair material into the prepared of bonding agents difficult and, in
cavity. Fonnwork facilitates the use of most applications, unnecessary. Forms
many different repair materials, se- are made with necessary shoots to
lected on the basis of in-place perfor- provide access of the repair material
mance vs. constructibility. The repair into the formed cavity. In some appli-
rnaterial must be of low shrinkage and cations, complete filling of the cavity
provide the necessary flowability. may be difficult. In those cases, a final
Placement of repair materials follows step of dry packing the remaining
normal placement practice. Rodding or cavity works well.

Consolidation of the repair

material is accomplished with
Placement of --+-~ one of the following
Repair Material techniques:

1. The repair material is

formulated to be extremely
flowable and self-
consolidating, or...
2. the repair material is
placed into top of form and
free falls into the prepared
cavity where conventional
internal vibrators are used, or...
3. rodding of the repair
material from an access point
in the formwork, or...
4. external vibration of
formwork.

~1 c;:r H F.m rnon.'VCom.:n!l t: lk'p;u r ;md M;1 in1~n:inc.. c

(!'a R. $. Mt.·.111!-o Comp~mr. K.inJ..:,SlOO, MA 171
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 7: Placement Methods

Form and Pump

Repair
Formwork material There are many techniques available ro years, coinciding with the development
confines is pumped restore damaged or deteriorated con- of variable output concrete and morcar
repair cavity. into cavity.
..-~~~~~~~---, crete surfaces. Each surface repai r pumps. Form and pump technique is
technique offers advantages and limita- used for vertical and overhead applica-
tions, depending upon the specific tions. Form and pump technique is an
conditions of the repair project. Form akernative to shotcrete (gunite), hand
and pump technique is a relatively new placement, and grouted preplaced
method developed over the pasr 20 aggregate techniques.

Mixed repair
What Is the Form and Pump Technique?
material is The form and pump repair method is • The use of almost any repair mate-
placed into a two-step process of constructing rial - from fine grninecl mortars to
pump. formwork and pumping repair material coarse aggregate concrete, including
into the cavity confined by formwork polymers and hydraulic cement
and existing concrete. The form and materials.
pump technique allows rhe use of • Placement is nor limited by depth of
many different repair materials. The repair or by size or densit)' of ex-
necessary requirement for material posed reinforcement.
selection is pumpabiliry. Various pumps • Repair materials are premixed and
are used, clepeocling upon rhe mix placed to provide a uniform cross
design (particularly the aggregate size). section without segregation or inter-
Prior to consLruction of formwork, any mediate bond lines.
surfaces rhar may cause air to become • The process does not depend on
trapped during the pumping process fighting the forces of gravity; all rnare-
must be trimmed, or vent rubes in- rials are supported by formwork
stalled. Repair materials are mixecl and during the placement and curing
pumped into the confined cavity. The process.
sequence of pumping is from low • The pressurization process consoli-
points to high points and when per- dates the repair material, providing
formed overhead, from one extremi ty for full encapsulation of exposed
to the other. Large areas may require reirlforcing steel.
bulkheading to separate placements • The formwork protects the repair
into manageable areas. When the material during the curing process.
cavity is fuU, pump pressure is exerted • The process is less subject co inclivid-
on tbe form , causing the repair mate- ual operator error.
rial to consolidate and make intimate • Quality assurance of the in-place
contact, and effect bonding wi th exist- repair is easier to provide.
ing concrete surfaces. Form and pump
technique offers many advantages to
alternative techniques, such as shot-
crete, hand-placement, and preplacecl
aggregate. Advantages include:

I\:ccr H f:,r nmo ns...C.onc,<::h.: Hl:1>:11r :int\ M:11ntc:n:11x:c:

172 i"J R. S. 1'-k~tns Comp:my. l\i11~$t011. ~ii\
 Surface Preparation With form and pump techniques, it is
Regardless of the repair method, important to understand how the
surface preparation is essentially the existing surfaces will permit the repair
same. Concrete is removed until sound material to penetrate and flow. Sur-
concrete is located. Exposed bars are faces that might trap air need to be
undercut, and surfaces are cleaned trimmed, or vent pipes may be pro-
with high pressure water or are abra- vided in the formwork. Profile rough-
sively blasted. ness from hand chipping or hyd roclem-
olition is not generally a problem for
entrapping air. Flow of the repair
material (while flowing within the
formed cavity) will most likely remove
air from the pronle.

• Formwork
Formwork must accommodate the
weight ancl pressure of the repair
material. Design of the forms should
follow standard practice for cast-in-
place concrete construction except for
the calculation of form pressure. Form
Surface preparalion requires removal of pressure should be designed for a
loose and deteriorated concrete, and also minimum of 14 psi (96.5 kPa). Maxi-
includes concrete removal behind exposed mum pressure exerted on formwork
bars. occurs after the formwork cavity is full
and pressurized. Formwork is best
attached directly to tl1e concrete sur-
face with expansion anchors or stan-
dard form ties. All anchors should be
preloaded to prevent slippage during
placement. fn some applications shor-
ing or scaffolding can be usecl to
support the formwork. Forms should
be constructed to fit rightly against
existing concrete surfaces. Preformed
foam gaskets or cast-in-place foam
After complelion of removals and
works well to address difficult-to-match
cleaning, formwork is erected to surfaces. Attachment of pump hose to
enclose cavily. form work is achieved with various
techniques including plumbing fittings
with Aanges and ball valves or with the
use of pump line attachment with
hand-held friuion flt insertion followed
by wooden plugs.

l-\::1er 1-l. Emm(~cv.. 1G:imTCll" Repair :md :Vl:1in1c- n:m1...·t."

© H S i\·k;m.-. Crnnp:tn}', l<mg.•aon, i\·!A 173
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 7: Placement Methods

Form and Pump, continued

Pumping Equipment
Pumping equipment is generally aggregate can be rumped with mono-
matched to the type of repair materi;il type pumps or piston/ball valve pumps.
and the size of the repair project. The Repair materials with large aggregates
specified repair material requires (larger than 3/8"(9.Smm)) are best
Pressure Gauge pumping through a pump line to the pumped with hydraulic/swing valve
formed cavity. Cementitious repair pumps. AJJ pumping equipment must
Repair materials have various aggregate con- have adequate controls to regulate
Material tents and aggregate sizes. Fine-grained flow rates.
from Pump repair mixes with little or no coarse

.. \.'i 0 .
.D·
CJ .. h Materials
Constructibility requirements for mate- ability and flowability can be brought
rials used with form and pump tech- to the material with aggregate shape
nique are limited only by their ability and chemical admixtures which pre-
to be pumped and their flow charac- serve low water-cement ratio, yet
Repair material, while teristics. More important than con- provide high slump. Prepackaged
flowing within the formed structibility are the materials' in-place repair materials, which are designed
cavity, will remove air from properries, such as low drying shrink- for pumping and incorporate shrink-
the profile. age, compatible strength, thermal and age compensating additives, are appro-
elastic properties, and any durability priate for many applications. Materials
requirements. While constructibility of should be screened for drying shrink-
rhe repair materials requires good age to find those with low shrinkage.
pumpability and flowability, these Shrinkage testing in accordance with
required characteristics should not ASTM C 157 (modified in accordance
sacrifice the requirement of low drying with ASTM C 928 and measured over a
shrinkage. Drying shrinkage can cause 120 clay period) will provide meaning-
cracking, delamination, inability to ful shrinkage properties.
carry loads and low durability. Pump-

Placement
The sequence of material placement the port closed off, and the pump line
into the formed cavity depends upon connected to the adjacent pon which
the geometrics involved. Vertical sur- has seen flow. The sequence is contin-
faces start at the lowest poim, filling in ued until the cavity is filled. In some
a manner that prevents air entrap- conditions, the cavity can he pumped
ment. Arrangement of ports for pump from one port. In this situation, each
line attachments is usually horizontal adjacent port is capped off as flow
with spacing of 3 to 4 feet (90 to 120 occurs. It is necessary to monitor
cm) in grid form. Pumping continues pump line pressure to prevent exces-
even after material flow occurs from sive backpressure when pumping Jong
adjacent ports in order to expel air. distances. Once the cavity is filled, the
When the flow is without intrusion of full line pressure is available to pres-
air, the pump is temporarily shut off, surize the formed cavity.

P1.:::le1· 1-L Emnl(Jn~Concn:::te lkp <lir ,Lnd M;1ir.te11:mctt

174 © n.. S. Mcnns ComlJa.ny, Kingsmn, :-.111
 Care must be exercised in the final
pressurization, since the excessive
pump line pressure (hydraulic pumps
can exert in excess of 800 psi(5.5
MPa)) may cause the form to fail. ln
most applications pressure guages
should be artachecl to the pump line
near the exit port to monitor cavity
pressure, which should not exceed the
formwork clesign pressure. (f the
formwork fails clue to over-
pressurizacion, the failure will generally
occur as a slight movement in a panel
seam or perimeter seal. The failure is
not explosive since there is no stored
energy. Overhead placements are
When form is fully pressurized and filled, all valves are closed. accomplished by starting at an extrem-
ity of the surface and proceeding in a
fashion similar to vertical placements.
Material will flow radially from the
injection port to adjacent ports. Re-
j)airs involving soffit and venical faces
of members can be combined into one
placement. In this case, placement
begins at the lowest elevation and
follows the procedure detailed above
for each orientation. Large areas of
repair should be sectionalized utilizing
bulkheads. Bulkheads can be con-
structed of repair material and left in
place. Utilizing bulkheads and manage-
able placement volumes limits the risk
of problems associated with large
placements and allows pressurization
to occur within shorter durations of
material mixing.

rctc r H . .Emrnon.JCom.:rc1e Repair :tnd ~bintt"11:u1ct'

() R. S. Me:1M Comp~my, l\ lngstun. MA 175
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 7: Placement Methods

Form and Pump, continued

Bonding of the New Repair Material to Existing Concrete

.. . · Achieving an adequate bond between will be hindered. The surface repair
repair material and existing concrete is material must have a sufficient amount
a critical requirement for surface of Auid pasre for absorption into the
repairs. To receive the repair material, open pore structure of the substrate.
surfaces of existing concrete must be The surface repair material must be

) t r-r tt sound, clean and free of bond-

inhibiting materials (oil, fats, hardened
epoxy, etc.). The surfaces of existing
installed in a manner which produces
intimate contact between the new and
existing materials at the bond line.
concrete must have an open pore Jnternal hydraulic pressure created by

c pump pressure in con fined spaces

structure.
An important bonding mechanism is provides additional driving force co
Hydra,lk "'"'""from P"mp "''" the absorption of the repair material knit the new and existing materials
repair material into pore structure inco the surface pme structure. lf the together. With most pumpable repair
of substrate. pore structure is clogged with dust, materials, separate bonding agents are
slurry, or water, the absorprion process nor required.

. (\ . ·~ .
O• >.: Quality Assurance
Any surface repair technique is subject the in-place core quantitatively mea-
to less than expected results. Care and sures tensile stress capability of the
understanding must be exercised to composite material. Generally, the
perform the various steps involved. tension device is loaded to failure.
With all techniques, each step is critical Upon failure of the core specimen
to the success of the completed repair. from the member, a visual examination
A perfect repair material will not of the failu re plane location reveals
compensate for imperfect surface whether the failure occurred at the
preparation. The beginning of any boncl line, within the substrate, or
Direct Uniaxial Tension Device repair project should include a mock- within the repair material. The most
up or pilot project which tests the desirable location of the failure plane
proposed procedure and repair mate- is within the substrate. Failures at the
rial against required objectives of the bond line at unacceptably low tension
project. Once the procedure and stress levels generally point to prob-
materials are deemed satisfactory, the lems with surface preparation proce-
repair project will require ongoing dmes or improper form pressurizacion.
quality control and assurance. The most common problem associated
Measuring uniformity, density, bond, with form and pump repairs is lack of
ancl strength are the most common pressurization of the formed cavicy,
quality control procedures. Measuring which may result in areas without
in situ uniformity, density, ancl bond is repair material or poor bond. Upon
best performed by extracting core completion of the surface repair (after
samples which pass through the new formwork has been removed) surfaces
ancl existing materials. Visual examina- should be sounded wi th a hammer ro
tion of the cores reveals uniformity locate any areas that might be un-
ancl density defects. Attachment of a bonclecl or con tain voids.
direct unlaxial tension pull device to

P\!1c:r H. Em1non.s1Con<:rt·1c- R<.:pa1r ancl Mainle1~:rnt.'t'

176 -Q R S Mt>t.lll) Comp<lfl)', Kmg~ton. ,.,i.A
Grouted Preplaced Aggregate

Grouted preplaced aggregate is a to the port showing new flow. The

two-step process. The first step in- process continues until the cavi ty is
volves aggregate placement into the full and pressurized. The groll( flow
cavity during the erection of formwork. makes contact with the prepared
The aggregate is gap-graded and submate as the cavity is filled, pmvid-
washed of all fines. The void ratio of ing intimate contact and bonding. A
the cavity, after the aggregate is unique advantage of this method is the
placed, ranges from 40% co 50%. The low drying shrinkage of the repair
second step involves pumping a highly material due to the point-to-point
flowable grout through the formwork contact between the coarse aggregates.
and into the preplacecl aggregate. The aggregate contact restricts the
Grout flow fills the lower voids and volume change of the cement grout as
progressively fills the cavity, eventually drying shrinkage occurs. Various grouts
flowing to higher elevation ports. After can be used for the grouting process.
grout flows from adjacenc ports, the Most popular are Portland cement-
grout hose is disconnected from the based grouts and, for special applica-
port being pumped, and reconnected tions, epo>-1' resins.

2. Washed
aggregates are 3. Forms are fitted
placed into formed with pipe nipples and
cavity. valves for placement
of grout.
.--- - --,

1. Gap-graded aggregate must

be washed, free of fines and
bond-inhibiting materials. Flowable grout is mixed and placed
into pump.
.....· . ..
4. Flowable grout
is mixed and
pumped into
formed cavity,
filling space
between
aggregate.

Pec~r n. E 1nnu·11l'\/CO\l4..' i'CIC: Rcp;1ir ~llld ~binl('1l:In1..'C

lCi R. S. Mc:tn~ Company. King!)ICJn. MA 177
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 7: Placement Methods

Dry Mix Shotcrete

Enlarged View of Sandpock

Formed Behind Reinforcing Steel Dry mix shotcrete is a method that incliviclual layers may result in slough-
involves rhe premixing of binder and ing off. The use of special admixtures
aggregates, which are then feel into a has helped improve the workability
Substrate
special mechanical feeder metering the and performance of shotcrete. Silica
Sandpocket premixed materials into a hose. The fume is a good properly enhancer. It
(caused by material is conveyed through the hose improves the concrete's adhesive and
entrapping
rebound)
with compressed air Lo a nozzle which cohesive properties, along with its
is outfitted wi th a water ring where ability to provide for larger placement
Reinforcing additional water is mixed with the thicknesses. The res ulting hardened
Steel binder and aggregates. The mix is properties include increased flexural
New jetted from the nozzle ar high velocity ;ind compressive strengths and in-
Shotcrete onto the prepared concrete surfaces. creased durability to freeze-thaw and
Material The process varies, depending upon chemical attack. The use of chemical
Shrinkage the necessary thickness and oriema- accelerators should be avoided where
Crack tion. Where the repair is thick, the not absolutely necessary. Accelerators
Visible process may involve the placement of have been found to cause increased
Surface multiple layers. Excessive thickness of drying shrinkage 1.
of Repair

Typical Problems
Associated with
Shotcrete Repairs
Blended dry (or damp)
• Presence of voids due to encapsulated
repair material is rebound; common when multiple
deposited into Water is layers are used or when heavy rein-
shotcrete added at forcing is encountered.
machine. the • Shrinkage cracking caused by high
nozzle. cement content, improper curing, or
excessive water content.

See enlarge
view it
improper
Compressed air is used placement
to convey repair techniques
material through hose. are used.

Shotcrete Machine
1Morgan, D.R., Developmencs in Shotcrere for
Repairs and Rehabilitation, Concrete Construc-
tion, No. 9, September 1991.

Pc 1e r H . Emmuns/Concrcic Repair and J\fahuennn1,.·c

178 e R. S. Mt·nns: Con1p:my, Ktng,=..mn, /\V,
Additives for Dry Mix Shotcrete
Additives Benefit Comments

Silica Fume • Increased th ickness

• Increased clensitv
• Increased freeze:thaw resistance
• Increased chemical resistance
• Reduced rebound
• Increased adhesion
• Increased flexural and compressive
strength

Accelerators • Increase/buildup of layers • Increased drying shrinkage

• Reduced initial set time • Reduced shotcrete srrength with age
• Increase early strength gain • Not necessary if silica fume is used

Steel Fiber • Elimination of shadows and voids which

are created with conventional
reinforcement
• Improved impact resistance.

Polypropylene Fibers • Reduced plastic shrinkage cracking

Latex • Improved flexural.tensile bond srrengths • Latex harclenecl fi lm may occur between
• Increased reisisrance to freeze-thaw and layers, causing delamination.
chemical accack.

Pt>tc:r H, F.n'lni1111.;'Cona t:lt.' lkp:·tir :u1tl M:un1cri:Hl(1,.•

(ti ft s. i\'k.'1\ll~ CPmp:mr. Kill~-~l1..ln , MA 179
Parr Three: Sllrface Repair Section 7: Placemern Methods

Wet Mix Shotcrete

Wet mix shotcrete is a method that air is introduced. The repair material is
involves premixing of all ingredients propelled onco the substrate with
(except accelerators) including binder, compressed air. Admixtures can be
aggregares, admixtures, and mixing used w enhance the shotcrete mate-
water. The premixed repair materials rial. Silica fume and fibers are com-
are deposited into a pump or pressure monly used to enhance durability. Ai r
vessel which transports the materials entrainment is required for freeze-thaw
to an exit nozzle, where compressed resistance.

Potential Problem if Improperly Placed

Substrate .·,·· . . : ··
.:: .... . :\

Void Behind Bar

Reinforcing Steel Compressed air

is added to
propell the
material out of
Wet Mix Shotcrete the nozzle.

Pt:-u:r H. l~trn1111n3.1'Conc1~1C' Rq l:111" anti li·t:\imco:u"M.:l:

180 Cl H .S. MC":ms C111np:111)'. Ktng...wn. 1\L\
Full Depth Repair

In cenain situations, surface repair age. After placement of the new con-
may be better served by full depth crete, dryi ng shrinkage results, causing
repair. For example, when concrete tension within the newly reconstructed
surfaces have extensive surface dam- member and at the bond between new
age, it may be more economical and and old. In most cases, if tension
provide for longer lasting repai rs if the stresses are nor addressed, unplanned
affected pan of the member is re- cracking may result. Low shrinkage
moved and reconstructed. Consider- concrete mixes should be used co
ation should be given to minimizing reduce shrinkage stresses.
the rescrained perimeter drying shrink-

Extensive deterioration may

require complete section
replacement.

r 1.::1cr M . 1:mmun-;;:(11nt.:1c,;h: 11.~p:1ir :rnd M :lilllt'.ll:lll\t:

i ) R S. Mt·:m:o Company. l(ill~~!(>O , MA 181
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 7: Placement Methods

Overlays

Overlays are used to repair concrete Bridge and parking decks, as well as
structures as a rem ed\' for a varict\' of concrete pavements, are common
concrete problems. They may be used locations for the use of bonded over-
w improve drainage, rideability, or lays for resroring existing worn and
load carrying capacil\'; ro increase skid decerioratecl concrete. Surface prepara-
resistance; or to protect underlying tion of existing decks utilizes milling,
concrete from aggressive environ- hyclromilling, ancl hand chipping
ments. Many overlays also address techniques. Common materials used in
underlying surface deterioration prob- the overlays are low wate1/cernent ratio
lems. Overlays can be constructed of Portland cement concrete, latex-
different mmeriab from very thin (1/8" moclifiecl Portland cement concrete,
(3mm)) 10 very thick. and rnicrosilica-modified Portland
cement conCt"etc. Most bonded over-
lays used in parking and bridge decks
and pavement repairs involve thickness
ranges of 1.5" to 3" (38mm to 76mm).
Many applications clo not require
additional reinforcement. Overlays
require special attention co placement
techniques to prevent various prob-
lems such as plastic shrinkage crack-
ing, lack of consoliclarion, segregation,
or poor bonding.
Other types of overlays involve the use
of polymer and polymer-modified
mortars for thin applications (less than
Overlays for bridges and parking struc- 1/8" (3mm)). The most common poly-
tures generally include surface repairs mer is epoxy, which is combined with
to deteriorated areas of the deck. graded sane! to form a mortar. Poly-
Hand or power screeds are used to Thick unbonded overlay, these require mers also offer additional protection
level and consolidate the overlay mate- internal reinforcement.
rials. Normal Portland cement, latex from aggressive environmems.
modified or microsilica modified con-
crete are used for overlay systems. Thin hand or power troweled
polymer overlay.

. .·

·. ..· .: · . ; ...
. .. . .
_

1-'l:t<r H. Emm<1n..,;/Ct}11t.:rc 1c.: Hep:1ir :uttl M:1intt:nancc.·

182 Cl R. S. Mc:1n.~ Crnnp,t11y, l'\i11gs10.1, MA
Summary of Overlay Materials

Low Water- Portland

Low Slump Cement Latex Microsilica Cement Polymer
Dense Ratio Modified Modified Concrete Concrete
Concrete Concrete Concrete Concrete Over Deck (Epoxy,
(LSDC) (LW/C) (LMC) (SFC) Membrane MNA, PC) Comments
Thickness:
0.125"-0.75"
v v
. -
0.75"-2" v v
2"-3" v v v v
>3" v v v v v
Performance:
-reestablishes new v ,,.., v v ,,.., v Improves drainage
grade
- Wearing surface ,,.., v v v v v
-Concrete and Minimizes peneu arion
reinforcement V' ,,.., v v ,,.., ,,.., and diffusion of
protection aggressive agents.
- Waterproofing 1he Including cracks and
deck
v construction joints
- Placed with surface
v ,,.., v v
re pair
Strengthening of
- Dead load on
Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate High Low superstructure may be
srructure
necessary.
Surface of existing deck
- Monolithic with should be properly
slab
v V' v v v prepared for "clequare
bond.
Overlay
Reinforcement: ,,.., v v v II"'
-W.WF.
- Rebar mat v
- Steel fiber ,,.., v v v For high impact
conditions
Controls plasric
-Plastic fibe r v II"' II"' II"' v shrinkage
- None v II"' v v v
Compatibility:
- With elasLic v v v v
membrane
- Penetrating sealer v v v v

Pc1('r l-J. Emninn,.<:r1ntn·u.: Rc.-palr ~ncl ~l;iintt:"nance

V R S. ~ka!J' Comp:.111y. Kjr,gstOJl, M,.\ 183
Part Three: Surface Repair Section 7: Placement Methods

Hand-Applied

Hanel-applied techniques are used to in p.lace until subsequent layers are

place non-sag repair materials on aclcled. Each layer is roughened to
venical ancl overhead locations. Most promote bond with the next layer. The
hand-applied materials are special best use of this technique is for topical
blencls of cement, finely graded aggre- cosmetic repairs not involving reinforc-
gates, non-sag fillers, shrinkage com- ing steel. When reinforcing steel is
pensating systems, and water. The encountered, it is very difficult to
mixed material is applied to the pre- consolidate and provide for complete
pared surface with either a lrowel or encapsulation of the reinforcing steel.
by hand. The applied pressure drives Problems associated with this tech-
the repair material into the pore nique involve poor bond between
structure of the exposed concrete. The layers and voids around embedded
repair material is designed to " hang" reinforcing steel.

Avoid use when reinforcing steel

is encountered. See enlarged
view for potential problems. Joint Between Layers

. . . ' '

. .: . : ·· '. : . . .
·.. ·.· :
·o .·
-...........

"' Specially formulated ,

~
"non-sag "repair material
is pressed into the
substrate with the use of a
trowel or similar tool.
\
t
I

,
Caution: use only dimensionally
stable materials. Materials with
./ high shrinkage may crack and
debond. Refer lo section on
_,....,,-- Material Requirements.
-~-----7
Close-up View of Void Formed Behind Reinforcing Steel
Substrate
Void

Reinforcing Steel

L'C•IC:I' H l·: mmon:v'Concn:'te 'kp:iil' :-ind ;\t.Ji1ucn:'lm.. r.:·

184 © R. S. M t"'311s Cnmp:rny. Kingsco11. MA
Additional Sources of Information

ACI 304R-39, Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting and Placing Concrete.
ACI 304.2R-71 (Revised 1982), Placir\g Concrete by Pumping Methods.
ACI 506R-90, Guide to Shotcrete.
Guide Specifications for Concrete Overlays for Pavements and Bridge Decks, Task
Force 30 Report, MSHTO-AGC-ARTBA.
Evaluation and Repair of Concrete Structures, Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-2002,
U.S. Arm y Corps of Engineers, 1986.
American Concrete Paving Association Technical Bulletin TB-007.0-C, Guidelines
For Bonded Concrete Overlay

l\."(.t:r 1-1. Emrnof1:-.1'(,l)n c.'rt: tc.:' Rt:p:iir :inc.I M:tin1cnane<:

<C' R. S. Ml..":\0-" C.:unipa11r. King•1a01t. ?i.iA 185
Part Four
Strengthening
and Stabilization

Part Four
Sections
Introduction to Part Four 191
Section 1: Techniques/Design Considerations 193
Introduction to Techniques/Design Considerations 194
Summary of Techniques 195
Passive and Active Design 197
Material Behavior 198
Attachment of Steel to Concrete 199
Section 2: Beam Shear Capacity Strengthening 200
Incroduction to Beam Shear Strengthening 201
Internally Placed Passive Shear Strengthening 202
Beam Shear Capacity Strengthening at Moving Hinge 203
External Post-Tensioned Straps 204
Section 3: Shear Transfer Strengthening Between Members 205
Inrroduction to Shear Transfer Strengthening Between Members 206
Dowel Shear Device 207
Drilled Hole Shear Transfer Device 208
Grouted Subgrade 209
Cantilevered Shear Arm 210
Section 4: Stt·ess Reduction Techniques 211
Installing New Expansion Joim in Continuous Concrete Frame 212
Lateral Ground Movement Isolation (Seismic Isolation) 213
Section 5: Column Strengthening 214
Column Compressive Strengthening by Section Enlargement 215
Shear Capacity Strengthening Using Shear Collars 216
Beam-Column Moment Capacity Strengthening 217
Confinement Strengthening 218

t'-1:.'lc.-:r 1-t. C:11unc111SJCoocrcH: Rr.::pair ancl M:untcn;1nc.:c

C9 R. S. Mt.";in, Crnn1xmy. King..,um. MA 189
 Section 6: Flexural Strengthening 219
Summary of Methods 220
External Post-Tensioned Reinforcement 221
Span Shortening Techniques 222
Bonded Steel Plate Reinforcement 223
Correction of Deflected Member wi th Bonded Steel Plate 224
Concrete Overlay and Section Enlargement 225
Wall Strengthening 226
Section 7: Connection Stabilization and Strengthening 227
Reconstruction of Corbel Bearing 228
Externally Mounted Compression Struts 229
Externally Mounted Bearing Assembly 230
Section 8: Crack Stabilization 231
Performance Requirements for Crack Repairs 232
Understanding Crack Movements 233
Cause/Effect Design Errors 235
Quality Control 236
Techniques for Placing Adhesives i.nto Fractured Concrete 237
Additional Sources of Information 238

Pclc:r Ji. fan1\1onN"C:oiKrc:1~ Rep~1ir :ind Mai11tc,:n:11M..~

190 © K S Ml!:.111.s Cump:uw. K.ing:-11111. MA
Introduction to Part Four

Evaluate
When a concrete structure or member
exhibits inadequate strength, behavior,
or srability, it may be feas ible to mod ify
the structure using various stabilization
Repair Analysis
and strengthening techniques. The
scope of chis book provides conceptual
discussion intended to foster the
cleve.lopment of ideas for possible
solutions. The differences between
"stabilization" and "strengtheni ng" are
Tensile Shear Compressive Member somewhat clouded and, in some cases,
Capacity Capacity Capacity Stability are used synonymously.
Stabilization is the process of halting a
particular unwanted situation from
progressing. Settlement of a structure
can be stabilized by grouting to halt
further movement.
Stabilize Strengthening is the process of adding
Strengthen
capacity to a member or structure.
Concrete jacketing of an existing
column will add compressive loacl-
Repair Strategy carr ying capacity. In some cases, the
process involves a combination of
halting an unwanted situation an.d, at
the same time, adding capacity. Re-
placement of a frozen beari ng with a
new slide bearing assembly will halt
the progress of distress and acid new
Passive Active freedom of movement.
Load Carrying Load Carrying

Enlargement & Composite

Overlays Construction

PClL"f l I. Emmon." 1'Concl'~l t: nc:pair ;ind M~1 lntcn:incc

© It S M1;: :111:-; C1.lmpa n)'. KmB~ton, MA 191
Section 1:
Techniques/Desig11 Considerations
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Introduction to Techniques/Design
Considerations
Passive and Active Design
Material Behavior
Attachment of Steel to Concrete

Pc it.•r H . Enunon~/Conacic Jk p:i.if ;md M~1io1c-n 11nc.:t:

Cl R. S. .t-.-H:-;m.-; Compitny, King:;tno, MA 193
Part Four: Strengthening ancl Stabilization

Introduction to Techniques/
Design Considerations
. ·.· Methods for stabil ization and strength-
·: . . .. . · ·. ening of concrete structures and mem-
bers can be categorized by the repair
techniques employed.

Existing Column - - -.....__ .. . ::·":. _:::-.: :.: . Enlargement

. .... Enlargement is the placemenr of add i-
':··: .·;· ..- ·._ .. .
,,. . .. . tional concrete and reinforcing steel on
an existing structural member. Beams,
.. slabs, columns, and walls, if necessary,
Concrete Enlargement - --......._ ·. . can be enlarged to aclcl stiffness or
load- carrying capacity. In most cases,
"•'··:.
: ..... the enlargement is bonded to the
. .. .
..·: () _
. ...... . .. o... :;. . existing concrete to creare a mono-
'

lith ic member.
·:. ' .

Composite Construction
Composite construction is a method
wherein materials other than concrete
are placed in concert with an existing
concrete member to add stiffness or
load carrying capacity. Steel is the most
common material used in this tech-
nique. Steel plates and structural
shapes can be fabricated to meet
almost any configuration requirement.
Load cransfer in the composite mem-
ber is accomplished by the use of
ad hesives, grouts, and mechanical
anchorage systems.
Steel Structural Shapes Fastened to Existing Concrete

ftc::l ('r 1-1 . r:111nx111s;Cpf\c.:r<.·1e Rqx1 h" .11ld MJl11 1c·o~1r\ 1~C'
194 Ci R. ii. M i..•:11 \~ C:o mp:tn)'. Ki11g... 1;.11i. MA
Summary of Techniques

Post·Tensioning
Post-tensioning is a technique used to
prestress reinforced concrete. The
tensioning provides the member with
Hole drilled an immediare and active load-carrying
through
capabili ty.
member
Placement of the tension components
can be achieved ei ther internally within
the member o r extern ally to the mem-
bel'. Tension components are generally
steel plates, rods, tendons or strands.
Tensi on is imparted co the compo-
Internally Placed Post Tensioning Externally Placed Post-tensioning nen ts by jacking or, Jess commonly, by
preheating. Post-tensioni ng enhances a
r Hanger
member's ability to relieve overstressed
conditions in tension, shear, bending,
and torsion. The pos t-tensioning tech-
nique can al so be used to eliminate
unwanted displacements in members
and to turn discontinuous members
Continuous concrete frame
into continuous members.

Stress Reduction
Stress reduction is a technique th at
New Relief Joint
Cut in Girder Column reduces .st ress in a member or struc-
ture. Some of the more common
methods of stress reduction include
cutting new expansion joinrs, jacking
displaced strucrures, and install ing
iso lation beari ngii. Other more radical
techniques involve the removal of
portions of structures.

rc:t cr 11 Emm on ' Com·rch: Rcp:iir and M:tirHL·n:1nc1.:

~ R. ~- M c::m ., Cut11p:1n ~·, l< illli( '=IUll, MA 195
Part Fou r· Srrengrhening and Stabilization

Internal Grouting
Internal grouting is the placement of a
flowable material into an unwanted
discontinuity, such as a crack within
the concrete member. The flowable
material, upon reaching the discomi-
nuity, will solidify and assume neces-
sary strucrural properties. Internal
grouting is used to repair fractured,
honeycombed, or voided concrete
placements. The most common materi-
als used for internal grouting are
polymers and hydraulic cement-based
materials.

External Grouting
External grouting is the placement of a
'· .· pumpable material outside the struc-
\Jr . . · ...
ture, generally within the surrounding
foundation soils m at the interface

*~·. · .
between the structure and the soil.
The grouting materials can be used
either to provide necessary load trans-
fer between the structure and soil, or
Epoxy Injection Internal Grouting of Crack to displace unwanted settlement. Most
materials used for external grouting
include cement-based mixwres. Pave-
ment subsealing (slab stabilization) is a
specialized external grouting technique
used to fill small voids beneath the
slab and/or stabilized base that have
been caused by pumping action.

External Grouting of Concrete Foundation

r1<..:1(·r H. Emrnon:-./CoJ)l.:fClC .Rcp:~i.- ;rncl /\·l:lnll t.:irn LKc

196 if) R S- i\·le<Hl' Comp;1ny. King:>Wn, MA
Passive and Active Design

Streflgthening and stabilization tech- Active systems require either prestress-

niques are generally considered to be ing the repaired elements or tempo-
either passive or active, depending on rnrily removing the loads (both live
how loads act on the additional com- and dead) from the existing elements,
ponenrs used to strengthen or stabilize or a combination of the two. Active
the structure. Techniques in which systems can be compared to elastic
repairs do not participate in stress suspenders used to hold up pants. If
sharing until additional loads (live or the suspenders are placed in tension
dead) are applied and/or until addi- immediately (active), the pants will stay
tional deformation occurs are caJJed in their vertical position. On the other
passive. There are many situations in hand (passive), if the suspenders are
which additional deformation is not placed loose or without tension, the
acceptable: the repairs must immedi- pants will fall vertically until sufficient
ately participate in stress sharing. tension occurs in the suspenders to
These repairs are called active. resist rhe weight of the pants.
Passive systems work well when live
load changes are anticipated. For
example, upgrading a bridge to sustain
heavier loads may require only a pas-
sive system. However, if a member is
overstressed , the only choice may be
to use an active repair technique that
will immediately reduce the stress by
sharing the loads, thus, eliminating the
overstressed condition.

Passive
Strengthening
Concrete Beam Strengthened with Bonded Steel Plate

\ _ _ No stress exists in steel plate until live loads are

introduced. As beam deflects, the steel plate will begin to
Active share the tension loads.

Strengthening
Concrete Beam Strengthened with Pre-Tensioned Steel Rod ~
~---------~ I

0 0
Stressed tendon immediate!v allows the beam to carry loads llive and dead).

Pcn:·r H.. Emmon:;:: Crmcn.:Le Hcpair :mcl /\bin1~1wnu:~

f ) n 5 M1.;~l11~ Com p;111r. King.~aon, MA 197
Part Four: Strengthening and Stabilization

Material Behavior

It is important to understand material

behavior when considering repairs

((
Concrete involving stabilization and strengthen-
Jacket to Increase ing. One must consider material behav-
Beam ior, not only in its cured state, but also
Moment Capacity
during the placement and curing
processes.
Cracks develop Many stabilization and strengthening
when early age techniques involve the use of poli1-
concrete is rners, cemenc-based mortars, and
subjected lo concretes. These materials are weak
during the curing process. If they are
movement.
inrerferecl with during this period, the
Column result may be a less-than-anricipatecl
performance. For example, when
strengthening beam-column connec-
tions to increase moment capaciry,
some of the connections may be
subject to continuous movement
(rotation) from diurnal solar heating
(Pan One- Section Four, "Uneven
Thermal Loads"). If the repair includes
the construction of a concrete collar,
fracruring of the concrete will occur in
the first 24 hours, rendering the repair
questionable. A better solution, in this
situation, would be to use steel plates
in combination with embedded anchors
and rapid-setting bonding adhesives.
When considering strengthening and
Crack Moves due to Thermal Changes stabilizarion techniques, it is also

~==f
important to consider both the staric

Epoxy Gluing of Crack

Ir· and the dynamic behavior of the
structure or members involved. A
cracked beam may seem static, but in
many cases, the crack moves slightly
f' due to changing live loads or
thermally-induced strain. These move-
ments may not be noticeable to the
naked eye, but when the crack move-
ment is measured with instruments,
the crack may exhibit regular and
significant movement. Many repairs fail
when epoxy is injected into moving
cracks. Once epO>..'Y is placed and
cured, and the crack moves, tensile
Epoxy injection may not be successful if excessive movement occurs.
stress develops. If the tensile stress
exceeds the tensile capacity of the
member, a new crack will often develop
adjacent to the existing repairecl crack.

l\·l t'f H. CmnH.in.,.J(:onc.:reh: lk·pall' Jncl M ninic 1l :11lt"C"

198 fl'.'' R. 'S. 1\rk ;rn:;: Company. Kin~~IOll, Ml\
Attachment of Steel to Concrete

Epoxy Adhesive Repair techniques often require an

attachment of steel ro concrete. Many
strengthening and stabilization tech-
niques urilize steel to strengthen
connections or provide additional
tensi le capaci t)'· Attachment methods
uti lize mechanical connections and/or
adhesives, permitting load transfer
(shear, tension, or compression) be-
Resin Bonded Anchor tween the steel and concrete. Use of
Epoxy Adhesive adhesives as a connecting mechanism
provides for uniform load transfer and
corrosion protection at the concrete-
steel interface. For maximum bond ,
the steel requires a high level of abra-
sive cleaning (white metal, near white,
commercial). The concrete surface
requires roughening by mechanical or
abrasive/liquid blast methods and
Expansion Anchor removal of surface laitenance. Mechani-
cal anchorage methods utilize different
types of anchor devices. Where vibra-
tion exiscs in the connection, resin
and1ors or through-bolting should be
utilized. In critical applications, a
combination of adhesives and mechan-
ical systems should be considered.

.------ Resin Bonded Anchor

Thru-Bolting

Peter l-1. EmmonN'Corn.·1·11,:, u.• Rcp:lir antl Mai111cn :mt·~

0 R. S. Mc.in' <..:cmlp:ul}'. K11 1g.;1on. MJ\ 199
Pan Four: Strengthening and Stabilization Section 2: Beam Shear Stren9thening

Section 2:
Beam Shear Strengthening
The following topics are covered in
this section:
lntrocluction m Beam Shear
Strengthening
Internally Placed Passive Shear
Strengthening
Beam Shear Capacity Strengthening at
Moving Hinge
External Post-Tensioned Straps

l~lt~:r t-1. f.im no11.:v'(".rnt<, ft.•lt: Hq mir :md M:1in1cn :11)("1,._·

200 © R S. Mean~ Co1np.m~~ Kini:,~100. ,..1'\
Introduction to
Beam Sl1ear Strengthening
Externally placed requires load balancing on each side of member.
Beam shear capacity can be increased
by using various strengthening tech-
niques, including:
• external post-tensioning
• internal post-tensioning
F=:::::=i,--;k---,--------,----.~,-E====1 • internal mild steel rein-
forcement
• bonded steel members
\:...--~-- • enlarging member's
cross-section
Drilled hole
thru member.

. . :·

Internal Post-Tensioning External Post-Tensioning

·.. :

Elevation View of Beam and Slab

Shear Crack

~---+---- Shear Crack Epoxy Grouted Prior to Post-

Tensioning of Rods

~~--_____:::"_~ Post-tensioned Rods Each Side of Beam

Pctctr H. Emrmm:-.1Com:n.:n: Rep~ti r .urc l M ..tlntcmincc

1D It S. Mi...:ans Cc1m1i;rn~. King~wn. ;\lJ\ 201
PHn Four: Strengthening and Stabilization Section 2: Beam Shear Strengthening

Internally Placed Passive

Shear Strengthening
Strengthenjng of existing members to
increase their shear capacit)' can be
per formed by adding shear reinforce-
ment. For example, the Kansas Deparr-
menr of Transportation has used mild
reinforcemenr dowels inserted perpen-
dicular to the direction of shear crack-
ing, into clrillecl holes. The dowels are
then grouted into place with epoxy. 1

gr-----
· - - - - Girder~

Existing
Stirrups

Diagonally
Drilled Shear cracking
Holes

Existing Stirrups

New Mild
Reinforcement
Placed in Drilled
Holes and
Grouted ----~

1
Srratton, F.W, Alexander, RB. and Nolting,
W.R., Development and Implementation of
Concrece Girder Repair by Posr-Reinforcemenr,
Kansas Depanment of Transponation, 1982,
31pp.

f\:·tcf 11. ~mmon.Si'Con<:r~li: RL"pair .1nd M:1intt:n :1rn.. .;

202 ~ I< !". ~k:ut~ (c 1mp;lll)', KingMrn1. M1\
Beam Shear Capacity
Strengthening at Moving Hinge
Diurnal solar heating causes camber in member.
If a significam thermal gradient exists,
in cocnbination with insufficient tensile
Surtace is capacicy in the bottom of the member,
heated by sun. a hinge may form. Hinges may occur
randomly in newly formed cracks, or
may fmm in construction joints near
the columns. Hinges open and close
with daily temperature changes.
t:;,+ •o' Cool Cracks can be a cause for structural
··... 6 + ...··· Underside concern, since they sometimes identify
··...._
insufficient shear e<1pacity. When
strengthening the member by repairing
cracks, consideration must be given co
the need for providing movement of
Continuous Concrete Frame the hinge. Generally, any repair of a
moving crack by bonding it with epoxy
will fa il. As an example of an effective
method, the installation demonstrates
how w strengthen a cracked beam
with a post-tensioned shear clamp and
a teflon slide bearing allowing for
hinge movement.

Post tensioned rods

hold cantilevered shear
bracket.

.. . . ... ; .
. .. ·
.... : .

. :· ·.

~Moving Crack Caused

by Daily Thermal

'
Changes .: . "
' .. ·.. ·.
L___ __----·-1

Teflon Slide Bearing

Teflon slide bearing
allows crack movement Stiffeners for Cantilever Portion
and supports bottom of
beam.

l\!t t:r H . Emnmn~<.nth.n::: h.: l<c:p:1 ir :1 tlll M.11m~m.1m ~

~ R. s. f\h:.1ns C<1mp~111y, Ki1lj:?S1•10. MA 203
Parr Four: Strengthening Rnd Stabilization Section 2; Ream Shertr Strengthening

External Post-Tensioned Straps

Tensioned Banding Strap

·.· . Concrete Beam Section View

2" wide strap can carry approximately
10,000 pound force (44,480 N).

. ... : .·:- . :·

Corner Load Transfer Assembly

· , ..

". . . . . \.7'---. Half Round Bar Stock

·········· \__ Lubricant between Half-Round

and Strap

Shear Cracking

Beam

~ see
section
External Post-Tensioned - - - above
Strap Shear Strengthening

Cracks Pressure Grouted -

with Epoxy Prior to
Stressing of Straps

lbe1 Ji. [ 111moi1~:Conl.TC1 c Rcpafr and M:umemulf...1.'

204 ~, H S 1\\~:m.-. Cu m1);1ny. Ki11 gs1on. MA
Section 3:
Shear Transfer Strengthening
Between Members Th e following topics are covered in
this section:
Introduction to Shear Transfer
Strengthening Between Members
Dowel Shear Device
Drilled Hole Shear Transfer Device
Grouted Subgracle
Cantilevered Shear Arm

l\·u:r I I . £mmnn...JC0t1crc h: Hcpair :1nd M:-tinl~n:mcc

'IJ H ~. :\i~.1ns Cc.1mp;10y, Kin1:,1u n . MA 205
Part Four: Strengthening and Stabilization Section 3: Shear Transfer St[engthening Between Members

Introduction to Shear Transfer

Strengthening Between Members
Types of junctions between members Proper shear transfer between slabs

:>. <..:>>
..·."Jf-' ·-. -.<·
'.
and between other structural metTibers
is important when wheel loacls cross
the joim. The ability of a joint to
.(~

t
· . Construction Joint
"_i transfer loacl (shear) from one side to
another is very important to slab
> .. ·.·.•.··.• .,,hSh'""'' performance. Poor load transfer results
~·-·-~~·:_"_·_.·:~··_,._·_··~·-·_:___·._.:_~-· ~.~·_.-_._··---~-·---·~· in the following:
• High deAections causing increased
pum ping and subsequently faulting.
• Loss of support beneath the slab
resulting in slab breakup.
Such problems most commonly occur
in slab-on-grade and precast elevated
floor systems. Techniques available for
strengthening and stabilizing to achieve
proper shear transfer include:
' ... · JI~.-. . ~. ~-.--.:-.-.---:~
~

~~.-~. ~~~s~~rction Joint • dowel shear device

J.1-1 »
. ·. :: .
~ . • 1µ~:#~ ~tL~ ~:~;l ~·
~
: =~Reinforcement
:.
• drilled hole shear transfer device
• sawed slot dowel transfer device
• alternating cantilever
• hinge plate
• slab subsealing/slab jacking

t= f .-.·.....~
>:=\.·. ]~ .~. ·•:•.}E'pa"'''"J''"'
··
· ..
=·

~~·· - -=- :-.-:_• •~·-,_I---'-'·~·"_·.:..-_.·_..:. .;. il•.~--.•.-•.-.-.-..--..:-·.-...-.-.:-::~+~:r:~; J,,,,

{....

. ·-·
.·· . ·
- ·: :.
i

{ .•• .•• . ; . .. •· .•. • 4~.__~·"·-~·" ~·-·~"_•-..~.:•_;-._••-.·_-•._.-••""""::--·'~·~:-=_:-._.:~j. . J• ~~~:~~~ :~~,;ighl

..

PcLcr 1-1. Emn~oncrcu:• Rcp;tir :md M.1i1ucn:mce

206 0 K. S. Mc:;tns Comp;rn~·. Kin~con. MA
Dowel Shear Device

Rolling live Load

(
\

Inadequate shear
transfer causes
excessive deflection.

Joint

Location of - - - - -
Dowel Shear Plan View of Slab
Transfer Device

J
Concrete Slot Created with Saw
1 .... Square Dowel Bar set
in Square Tube with
Grease
... _ .

. ' . · ·. ·.· . . . '

Existing Concrete

Joint Elevation View of Slab al Joint

Caution: Misaligned dowels may cause stress buildup and cracking.

lttt!f" H. ~mmOlt~Krcc:c Repair ;m<l Maimen::mcc

"' R. s. Mc:;1f')Jo. C0tll1"'10~·. King ..ton, MA 207
Pan Four: Screngthening and Scabilizarion Section 3: Shear Transfer Strengthening Between Members

Drilled Hole Shear Transfer Device

... -- .....
/ Rolling Live Load

Inadequate shear
transfer causes
excessive deflection.

Joint

Location of Drilled
Hole Shear Transfer Plan View of Slab
Device

~--- Shear transfer device

construcled of sheet metal.
.; . ·.

- - - Compressible material allows device

.' ....
lo deform with joint movement.

__1......-- -- Grout fill bonds device to

. ·.·. concrete .

.· . . . .__tq3~p~j_:~_c.:~..:..::_~~~(__ ___ Foam-filled void allows movement

of joint.
~---- Core-drilled hole bisecting joint.

.. ..

. :- ·. .. . . . ~ Existing Join!

. .·
.· . .
,...-'---~-+----- Slab in Plan View
..·

l~tt:':f M. 1:mmon.-.1ConcfclC' ltepair ;11l(.I M;1 it t1t:11~Ul(:C'

208 V R. S. i\IL-:10 ..: c,unpany. Kings(o n. M.'\
Gro11ted Subgrade

r Rolling Live Load

(

.:· .. ·· .. · . ·. ·._·

Inadequate shear
transfer causes
excessive deflection.

Joint

0 - - - - -- Hole Localions
0 !or Grouting of
Subgrade

Plan View of Slab

Pressure Grouling of
Subgrade

Drilled Hole
through Slab
Joint
•
.·· · . .'
,• : .. . · '":
:". : -- .. ." : ·· . .
. ..
.. ._. :_·.. s__ lab.··· " :.. ·. · :. ..· · : . .. • ' : . ', ' . .~ . .; . .... .

Grout stiffens subgrade to

resist deflection.

l't=1er H. Emmons!C1mcrcrt.• r<c:pair ;ul<I t\.1ai111C.:-Ll3f'M..'C

ti R. S. MtJn.o; C<.1mp;1ny. l\.ing."'ltJn, MA 209
Part Four: Strengthening and Stabilization Section 3: Shear Transfer Strengthening Between Members

Cantilevered Shear Arm

/ . /~Li'° Load

~1~: ·:.~-~-~··--=·J1 1'-<b'----'-~U~··

·.E1e.vai~·ecis1~b.,_~I
Inadequate shear
transfer causes
excessive deflection.
Joint

Reflected Ceiling Plan

Alternating Cantilevered Shear

Transfer Arm

I Joint

. .... . -

Cantilevered Elevation View

Shear Transfer
Arm

Slide Bearing
Alternate
Fixed End
between Sides
of Joint

Pt:ll.:'t 1-1. Einn1011;;/Com felt' t~t:·palr :111d Mailllcnafl(('

210 (J re S. /\·lern.s C.. ~mpany'. KingMn11. MA
Section 4:
Stress Reduction Techniques
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Installing New Expansion Joint in
Continuous Concrece Frame
Lateral Ground Movemem Isolation

Pt:lcr M. E111mo 11N'Co o rrctc: Rep:1ir and M:1lni~n:mn:

·:0 R. $. Mi.:-:in._ Company, King~rt in , ~L.\ 211
Part Four: Strengthening and Stabilization Secrlon 4: Stress Reduction Techniques

Installing New Expansion Joint

in Conti11uous Concrete Frame

l_ I Overstressing in members and struc-

tures can be repaired utilizing stress
Continuous reduction techniques. Stress can be
Concrete reduced by either reducing the load
Frame applied to the structure, or by modify-
ing the behavior of the structure. The
example on this page demonstrates a
- - ~ '··. - - cominuous concrete frame in which
stress is relieved by installing a new
expansion joinr.

/··....
New
Expansion
Joint Cut to
Relieve Stress

Shear hinge assembly

allows for joint movement
... · ·······-... / and provides for shear
...··" ··...._ support of member.
-.

Beam

.··· Plate deflects as

·...
...... expansion and
contraction occur at
New joint cut at point of ---~ ~
I
the new joint.
theoretical zero moment. i

Column

Pl'ICf H . Emtrnms/Cnnl.·rcrc: lh:'f>air :md Mai nt c:::r1:ml"t'

212 0 R. S. M'"-·~u1s Comp;111~r. Ki11p;.mn . .M1\
Lateral Ground Movement Isolation
(Seismic Isolation)
Concrete Column

~ Steel Collar &

~ Bearing Plate

Flat Jack for Prestressing

of Elastomeric Bearing

- - Elastomeric
Bearing Laminated
with Steel Plates
(seismic isolator)

Steel Collar &

Bearing Plate
Lateral ground movement is
quieted within the building
Existing Column Building Loads by the isolation bearing.

Deformation
of isolation
bearing
during lateral
ground
movement.
Installation of New
Isolation Bearing

-- -- -- ----- --- ------------i ·--------------·--···_,

Shore and
remove
section of
column .
................ ..
/
.............. ................. ..................................................

1\-'lc:r H. Em mnn-. c;on1n:cc Kqmir .md M:iintl'ttmn;

t..' It S. t\lcn11~ Cump:i1l)". Kin)tst1111, "'11.1\ 213
Part Four: Strengthening and Stabilization Section 5: Column Strengthening

Section 5:
Column Strengthening
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Compressive Strengthening by
Enlargement
Shear Capacity Strengthening Using
Shear Collars
Beam-column Moment Capacity
Strengthening
Confinement strengthening

Pt."ter 1-f. En1monsiCor11.:ri.=te Rep111r ;1nJ /\·l:1i11tc11ance

214 0 I~. S Mc::in... Cnmp:my, King~wn, MA
Column Compressive Strengthening
by Section E11largement
Enlarging the cross section of an
.. I) . . ... · .. c existing column will strengthen the
Existing : : -: · :. .. Nev( ·.. ·., ... column by increasing its loacl carrying
capacity. A column can be enlarged in
various configurations. However, the
drying shrinkage effects in the con-
•'
.
: '
' ,·
crete used to enlarge the column must
be considered. Drying shrinkage, if
restrained, will induce tensile stresses
in the new portion of the column.
Method A In the illustration, Method A will ac-
complish efficient load transfer if the
new portion is cast with a bond
breaker between the new and olcl
·.. · concrete. After most of the drying
"'© ... . . . €5 .. shrinkage has occurred, the ties that
link the old and new concrete can be
·. Ne\i,i · .: ·. installed. The gap between the new
.. ·. portion of the column and the existing
member (to be partially supported by
Existing
this column) can be filled with clry-
packing material. This will allow the
new material co share its portion of
1---c-_.,__ _ _- . - J.. • . .
the load. When Methods B and C are
S'J.. . . C.. used, extreme care should he exer-
ci:>ed to select concrete mix designs
with very low shrinkage rates. Pre-
Method B placecl aggregate concrete generally
offers the lowest drying shrinkage; it
is, therefore, an excellent material for
column enlargements.

.· · -: .New · · :.·. ·. . ·Member· · ·

. (). - .;

' Drypack Space between Column

and Member after Adaquate
Drying Shrinkage Has Occured
.· .
Existing

Existing Column
Column Enlargement

Method C Elevation view of Method A

J\:1cr I I. Ernnl0fls/Concrc1c Rcp:-1if ;inct M:iilllt"n:.inl~

Cl R. $. i\'h.::u1s Crnnp:m r. King:;lon.. MA 215
Pan Four: Srrengthening and Stabilization Section 5: Column Strengthening

Shear Capacity Strengthe11i11g

Using Shear Collars

Shear stress occurs at the connection resist punching shear, the following
of floor systems and columns. When techniques are often used:
additional shear capacity is required to • column section enlargement
• composite bonded steel shear collars

....................... ........ ~ Inadequate Shear Capacity At Column Slab Connection

....
·····...
Slab
.. · .
·.:. ..

Erection of
Friction Fit
Shear Collar
Note: A similar shear collar
can be constructed using
cast-in-place concrete.

Column

....·.. · •' ' .: . -:· • . ._

.
. -_ .-·-: .
. ··· '

After erection of friction fit collar,

place non shrink grout to provide
for uniform load transfer.

Punching shear stresses are reduced by

increasing the effective area of the shear
transfer interfaces.

Ptt~r 1-f. Em1no1lslCrnH.:r~tc lk p;1ir nnd M~in1C'1l:\1Kt.'.'

216 (\!) R S. Means Comp:1ny. King.•a ou. MA
Beam-Column Moment
Capacity Strengthening

Beam-column connections can be • bonclecl steel members

strengthened using various techniques • concrete overlay
including: • continuous external column
confinement
• shear wall construction

Column

Beam/Slab

Steel Plate
.. . . ..
·. . . .
. ..
. . ..
, .. • · . · ·.· . Assembly
Compositely
Fastened
L u to Existing
r
0 0 Concrete
0 0 Members
• u
0 0 -Btt-===~~to=>

Elevation View

Beam

Concrete Shear Walls Added to

Existing Columns and Beams

t't:tt:r H. Emmon°', Cnnrrcrc R~p:uf :mU M:,1.10H:n:-1 ncc

~ R. S. ~h.:;m ... C.:omp~my. IGogs1on. 1\.l.~ 217
Part Four: .Strengthening and Stabilization Section 5: Column Strengthening

Confinement Stre11gthening

Lateral Motion Caused by

Earth Movement
(earthquake) Method A
(Passive)
. ' ..
. • '
Cross Steel Jacket
Bent
. . :· ·.

. " Cement

..
- .~
·.. ·· '
Grout
·. ". .
. !=xlsting Reihl.· · . ·
New External ·.. • . . ' . .. .· ..
.. · · ·. "'' ..·concrete
. . . column·." :
- -. - . . . .
Jacket ----~
~
.•
.~ . . .. · ·:-. '· ·
~
.
.
.; ..
. .

. ..
.. .
, • ....

..
Method B
(Active)

.. ... ·.
·.·
: "· . : :. .:
.·. · ...
Field-Wrapped
Fiberglass
·. · Jacket

..... ...
.

:·'. '.
Bridge Column - -
' . . . '.
CemenVresin
grout pressurized
annular space to
prestress fiberglass.
.·. ·_· .·_.·:. . .
.. . .. ·. . . •'

.. . .. . ..
. . .

Pt-1er J-1. C!mm(ill.'\/Ct)1k:rc1<:> Rt'p:iir nnd M:1i1uc·11=-1u..c

218 ~ u S. Mt:;11i:c Cump:mr. Kii1gshln, .MA
Section 6:
Flexural Strengthening
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Summary of Methods
External Post-Tensioned Reinforcement
Span Shortening Techniques
Bonded Steel Plate Reinforcement
Correction of Deflected Member with
Bonded Steel Plate
Concrete Overlay and Section
Enlargement
Wall Strengthening

.,ewr 1-1. Emmun::vt.:oncre1e llcp<tif :md Jtifaimt:.n:mLe

IC rt S. Mi=:1n~ Crnnp~rnv. KlnK:-ton, J\M 219
Part Four: Strengthening and StabilizaLion Secrion 6; Flexural Strengthening

Summary of Methods

Beam and Slab Flexural Strengthening

The flexu ral capacity of concrete mem- • concrete encasement
bers requires an increase when either • exterrn1I post-tensioning
a design deficiency is uncovered, • externally bonded reinforcement
excessive deflection occurs, or acldi- • concrete overlays
tional loads are anticipated. Various • span lengrh shortening
techniques used to increase flexural • supplemental support
capacity include:

Concrete Overlay

..
;:..

:·

Flexural Member
•
•• • • • ____.....r
• • •
External
Bonded
Reinforcement

(beam) • • •

• • • •
•• ••• • • •

Span Shortening
External Post-Tensioning

Supplementary
Support

P..:-1~r M. J-:.numms/ConcrC'..·1c R~p:1ir :md M;tlmcn~uKe

220 (} R. S. Mc:111:-t Comp:.uw. Kin~~to11, MA
External Post-Tensio11ed
Reinforcement
The use of external post-tensioned
reinforcemem is an excellent method
of increasing flexural capacity or re-
placing damaged prestrcsscd strands.
Different types of hardware are avail-
able, providing various load configura-
tions and corrosion protection. High-
strength thread bar is commonly used
for straight lengths, and strand is
generally used where drape is re-
quired. External post-tensioning pro-
vides for immediate and active partici-
pation in both dead and live load
distribution. Prior to the prestressing,
any flexural cracks should be pressure-
Post-Tensioned grouted with e poxy for uniform com-
- End Bearing Threaded Bar pression distribution.
Assembly Attachment of external post-tensioning
hardware to the existing structme
Flexural cracks are requires either a shear transfer mecha-
pressure epoxy grouted
nism or an end bearing assembly. The
shear transfer mechanism is usually
prior to stressing.
side-mounted or soffit-mounted to the
Bridge Pier Bent flexural member, and bolted through
to provide sufficient shear transfer. In
some applications, the strand or bar is
deflected at midspan using a saddle
clamp.
Protection of externally mounted
strands and bars against fire and ag-
gressive agents is provided by either
precast concrete or shotcrete encase-
ment, or by large grouted strand ducts.

. ... ~

End Anchorage

Beam

Reaction Frame
Externally mounted
post-tensioned strand
each side of beam.
Column

Prtt'r H. J-:mmo n ,t.u1K..Tt.:tc. K\.'.p•tif :inti Maim~nan('e

0 R. S. Mean~ <:ompJny. Kin,W>ton. MA 221
Part Four: Strengthening and Stabili71lli011 Section 6: Flexural Strengthening

Span Shortening Techniques

Span length shortening, adding addi- by various merhocls, including enlarg-

tional flexurnl capacity or stiffness, can ing the column capitals, adding steel or
be very cost effective. Span shortening concrete diagonal braces, or placing
for slabs ancl beams is accomplished subframing within the span.

1~
Original Span Length

-'
.. . · : ·- ·. : ~ :.' .
• ' : .
New Span Length

Column
~ New Knee s,aces

Original Span Length

.. . -
.....
'
. .- . ,•·
-: .·. ·-.
. .....
: :- . :

New Steel Framing

j
.
: .1
New Span Length
•
J

.,
.1
I

;
·i
I ·~

;
_,

Pt.1ct H. f:in mrn1,:Coix:rt"I~ Rqx-ir ;mcl t.,.bifllt::O:Jnc.:~

222 'ti R S. M~;in_, Comp•my, King:~rou, M,\
Bonded Steel Plate Reinforcement

Externally bonded reinforcement is an any bond-inhibiting materials is re-

effective method of increasing live load quired. Shot blasting or heavy abrasive
capaciry or removing unwanted deflec- blasting produces a rough surface on
tion. In most cases, steel plates are the steel, which improves the adhesive
bonded, using epoxy, to the soffit or bond ancl shear transfer. Mating con-
sides of flexural members. An advan- crete surfaces, heavy abrasive blasting
tage of this technique is that repair is required. Effective bonding has been
results in only a small increase in achieved using either pressure-injected
dimensions, which may be important flowable epoxy resin or epoxy gel
for vertical traffic clearance or aesthetics. applied to the maring surfaces prior to
The reinforcement can only be final erection of the steel plates. In
stressed by the application of live some applications, expansion anchors
loads, or if the flexural member is are used in combination with the
jacked, prior to installation of the epoxy adhesive to develop adequate
bonded reinforcement. When using shear transfer between the concrete
steel plates, removal of mifl scale and and steel.

· . .. · : ..... .... . ·.

. . ··
.···· ..... ~· ..
·.· ···.•..

Bridge live load capacity

increase with bonded
steel plates. ·················~
...··
: //~
\·····...•..... .......
New Composite Member

Threaded Rod Provides .·. ·.

Additional Shear Concrete Flexural

Capacity and Member

Erection Support

Steel Plate

Pc1c:r H. Emol()fl~/t:on<:rt"t~ Rep:)il' ~nd MaimeiuJ)('e

© R S. i\1~411:; Comp:m~'· J<Jngslon, MA 223
Part Four: Strengrhening and Srabilizarion Section 6: Flexural Strengthening

Correction of Deflected Member

with Bonded Steel Plate
Deflected Slab

......·.. ;_ ...... ··-····-·:·--····:··

·············-··--·--···········-··· -··-....t ...... . ..... ····· ... .. ········--···· . --··. ······

~ .. -.......-..~

2. Install
bonded steel
1. Lift
plate
reinforcement.

Column

Procedure for Correcting

Deflected Slab
1. Lift slab to design position, or slightly above.
2. Install new bonded reinforcement to slab soffit.
3. Release temporary shoring.
4. Loads are transferred to new bonded
reinforcement, and deflection is controlled.

Bonded Steel Plate Reinforcement

Anchor Used for Erection of Plate and Additional Shear Capacity

Peter 1-t. Emmon~Conct-etc R<!p::iir :incl i\fa intcn:1. m::c

224 © ft S. Me ~ ns Comp.my, KLllgMc m, MA
Concrete Overlay and
Section Enlargement

Concrete overlaying techniques have careful analysis of its effects on the

been effective when used to increase supporting structural components.
barb flexural capaciry and the stiffness Slabs can be overlayecl from the top
of concrete floor slabs ancl beams. This side or soffit. When soffit overlays are
technique involves the aclclition of constructed, shotcrete or form and
considerable dead load, thus requiring pump techniques must be used.

Beam Overlay Overlay on Top of Slab

.I 1·
I ·I
. I I
.1 r .
'. I ·1
( ·1 .
.-f . I
·1 I
I .1 ·
·( .. . . . I

12·~ _o~ ·.: 2~--0 ·

Beam Overlay

.1·
. I
I
I· ,.
•·o:: o· o
6
1

~-::-,-_-:,.-::..---:..-::..~·

Combination Slab and Beam Overlay Sottit Slab Overlay

-J c • I • * ..
.I• ., ·
·I · I
I · 1.
.-1' I
1· I
I .I ·
.f I
1· :J 0 C I
1 ~ .• .
·I . I
(9~·-q_-~ 2~~0 .

Pc1cr M. Emmoo::i/Con<. n:h;.• Rep;1ir anti M;1 in1cm1nn:

Ci R S. Mc:u's C.omp:in~. Kiogsmn. MA 225
Part Four: Strengthening and Stabilization Section 6: Flexural Strengrhening

Wall Strengthening

Existing Masonry
Retaining Wall
on Concrete

New ------+--

Concrete
Retaining
Wall Cast
Next to Underdesigned
Existing Retaining Wall

Steel WF Frame

Steel Wedges
and
Dry packing Wall Buckled
Used to from Excessive
Transfer Loads Soil Pressure
to New Steel
Frame

.• , · .

l\...--t.1:1· H_ E01mons./Coni.:rcte R<:~>•tir a11tl i\.l:u 1u ~n:1nc.:

226 ID R. S. Mc:m:;: Comp:my, King:.w n, MA
Section 7:
Connection Stabilization
and Strengtl1ening The following topics are covered in
this section:
Reconstruction of Corbel Bearing
Externally Mounted Compression Scruts
Externally Mounted Bearing Assembly

f\;'1c:r H Emmo111,lf:ont·rc te ltcp~11f anti Mauucn:rnc:c

Cl R. S. Mc<tns Com r><tn)'. K.lnas100, MA 227
Part Four: Strengthening and Stabilization Section 7: Connection Stabilization and Strengthening

Reco11struction of Underdesigned
or Nonfunctioning Corbel
Several joints exist within structures,
including those at beam-column con-
. ... . . .. .. . ~ . .. .
· nections. These connections must be
. _·· . . ·. .. free to rotate, expand, and contract. If
.... the connection fails co allow for these
.... movements, or the structural support

B . ~ elements become overstressed, recon-

Frozen earing ,
·'
.· .. - struction becomes necessary. Various
or
I
, .· . . ··
techniques are available for this recon-
I struction, including:
Inadequate Reinforcement ~ '. -
• corbel reconstruction
. ·. • shore compression column (pedestal)
• tension strut hanger
·. ·. .. ' • shear shelf
' . .-
''
'' .. . ·
Existing Corbel '

•.. ·

.· . . .. .
....
· . .·.·.· ·.· ...
. .. ·.. ·
.• , ' . ·. ·.·:.
, •'.

New slide bearing

t
Jack Member
and Shore
. ...
..

..
.. ·

.' . .
.

.
Additional steel reinforcement
Doweled into existing concrete

·.. ·.·.. ·

\ .. ·
· ·.
I
I
... ·...

. ...

~1~r H . Eol1)'K>1lsi'Ct i1M.:rc 1c: Rcp::tif ~•nd M:1imeo:111t:~·

228 CJ R S. Mt:;ins C.:ompan~'. KJ08".;1tm. ~L\
Externally Mounted Compression Struts

·:.'

Precast T Beam

Non Performing Corbel

Concrete
Member

Strengthened Corbel 0 0
Welded
Loads removed from Connection
existing corbel and
0 0
transferred to new assembly Steel Jacket -->- 0 0
via jacking.

Short column - - - -- - - + -

deforms with movement of

T Beam.

Adjustable Nut
0
0
Reaction Jacket
0

F\tter H. Emm0t1:vCo ncrl'tc Rep;ilr ;md /\tiirn...-n;im:<::

© ll S M <.::tUlS Comp ~rny, King.sum, /\·t...\ 229
Part Four: Strengthening and Stabilization Section 7: Connection Stabilization and Strengthening

Exter11ally Mounted Bearing Assen1bly

Condition
A. Frozen Bearing
B. Fracturing ot Corner Joint

Joint

.·. ...
, ..
Slab .. ·..
•

..··. ·. . .' · . •'

.. • ·. .
. ·. ·

·.

Beam
New bearing assembly
externally fastened to .. ·.. · ' ,·

supporting member. ,···· .

. ,·
. ·. . -
.···.. :

. .. . .
·-·· ·, .·

Adhesive for fastening to

soffit of concrete
member.

Bearing assembly may be one of following:

type i elastomeric
type 2 slide bearing
type 3 combination of 1&2

Resin set or expansion anchor

for erection and shear transfer.

Steel Shape
Optional epoxy adhesive for shear transfer and
corrosion protection.

Pcrt'r H. Emmo11.s/Con(n.:-1e Repnif :rnd M:i.imen:..n.(C"

230 iO R. S. M t::111.-: Crnnp:111y, l<~ng!lton . l\·l A
Section 8:
Crack Stabilizatio11
The following topics at'e covered in
thls section:
Performance Requirements for
Crack Repairs
Understanding Crack Movements
Cause/Effect Design Errors
Quali tyControl
Techniques for Placing Adhesives into
Fractured Concrete

l\..'tef 1-1. Emmon:-wConc.:n.·1t.· Rc1>;11r :111<,I M:till(C:11:.J.n(.·t.:

(;) R- S- Mi::ms Coinp:.in~'. Kinp:ston, ~1.A 231
Part Four: Strengthening and Stabilization Section 8: Crack Stabilization

Performance Requirements
for Crack Repairs
There are a variecy of crack repair
techniques presently available. To
properly design a parcicular repair,
performance requirements should be
clearly understood.

Repai r
Repair
Analysis Strategy

Crack Repair

Appearance Waterproofing I Load Carrying

(Cosmetic) Protection (Structural)

Aesthetic Barrier to Live Impact Dead

Environmental Loads Loads Loads
Conditions

Undesirable Ettects if Repair does not Perform Properly

Leakage Cracking Cracking of Over Stressing

into I through of Repair Substrate in Substrate
Repair/Substrate Material Material Material

Pc:•c.:r H. EinmonN'Cont:r,·1~ lk p:11r :ind M.1in1<:·11.ult't~

232 ttl R. S. Mc~ul\ 0 1m1Jan~·. King... tf'ltl , MA
Understanding Crack Movements

~
. :·.
.. :- ·.
There are a variety of techniques
available to solve problems caused by
.. . .. .·.· -·=. ·· ·

I
.... : . . "
concrete cracks. Cracking may cause
loss of structural load transfer, provide
a conduit for aggressive liquids and
gases into and through the member,
andibr create an aesthetic problem.
The following discussion addresses
structural crack repair when crack
movement is a factor. A common

:.·
method of repairing cracks to restore
structural loacl transfer and provide
.·...· .• waterproofing is the placement of
polymer materials into the fractu re
I plane. The repair may, or may not, be
successful, depending on many factors.
Liquid adhesives such as epoxy, polyes-
ter, acrylic are most commonly used
for restoring load transfer. These
1 .6- adhesives become solid, and their
placement in the fracture plane may
alter the structure's behavior. Crack
formation may have many causes (Parr
One, "Concrete Behavior"), but after
the crack forms, its behavior may not
be related to the original cause of
the crack.
It adhesive is placed into
crack when the crack is
small then...
..
. .. ·. . .

Al The glued member may not resist the stress

(/
a
developed when the member contracts, thereby
causing tensile failure
. . _· ~ : . : .. . . .:
\ ~ ..
.. I
.
~
·c
6. _

. . . ·.~ · "~~· ..... :.: . : ·. . . " . .: .

I--"-'---'--~~~~~-'- ........'--'-'

rct er J·J. f:rnmon:../Corn.. r~tt' rtc::p:or ;.md M:·rin1 ~n :int·t:

it> tl $. Mean:-; Comp:rny, Klu~~ton, lwL\ 233
Parr Four: Screngthening and St<ibilization Section 8: Crack Srnbilization

6 -- Closed position The sequence on the left derails the

t::,.+ formation of a crack. Crack behavior

l
II oc (movement) may be affected by tem-
I
. ) . · ...
.· .:· . . .. perature, loads, moiswre and other
faccors. Most cracks move! Ir is impor-
.·.. ·.). . tanc to understanding crack movement
prior to designing crack repairs. If
polymer adhesive is used, it will at-
tempt to glue the fracture and prevent
~+ any movement within the fracture
plane. The cause, amount, and timing
,__~~~l ~I~~~~ of movement will dictate whethe r the
repair will perform as inrenclecl. A
... . . . successful repair will result in· move-
ment being either absorbed as internal
stress or moved co anocher,controlted
location. The repair may fail as a result
of fau lty evaluation, design, material
Adhesive is placed in selection, methods, or workmanship.
crack when crack is open.
Note: Liquid adhesives which become
solids behave similarly inside cracks,
..·· . ··. ·. . regardless of their elongation capabili-
ties outside of the crack. Their behav-
ior is one of a rigid material not allow-
ing any elastic stretch. Materials can
only stretch or elongate when allowed
Adhesive is placed into to deform. In a small sample, a mate-
compression when member rial with good eJongacion is free to
expands.
"neck down" under tension or "bunch
up" when compressed. In a fracture
· · · . ~··
plane, the material has no place to
. . . . -~--~· "neck clown" or "bunch up." Only
materials with a cellular structure (with
gas pockets) are allowed to deform
within a fracture plane.
Compression forces are
transmitted to restraints.

P1.:1~r H , E1nmo n:,/Co111.·l'ctc..' l<ep;1·1 r .md M:tint~n.t1)fC'

234 .' (i H S. Ml!:l11~ Co m p:tl'l}'. .Klns,s100, ~1A
Cause/Effect Design Errors

Epoxy Injection of
Corrosion Induced Cracks
A common mistake made in the repair
of cracks caused by rebar corrosion is
rhe use of epoxy pressure injection. A
Cracking number of repair jobs, where epoxy
Caused By resin is pressure-injected into these
Reinforcing cracks to reglue the pieces, have been
Steel attempted in the past. Very few of
these repair jobs proved to solve the
problem, because the corrosion pro-
cess continues, causing additional
growth of corrosion products and
formation of new cracks. The most
appropriate repair solution for
corrosion-induced cracking is the
removal of concrete over and around
Injecting corroded bars and treatment by one of
epoxy Into the surface repair and protection
delaminations methods.
will not
eliminate
the cause of
cracking.

Cause
Slrucl\Kal Needs

Scope
Corrosion ~ Reinforcing E11ect oJRepair
Steel on S1ruclure
continues, Effec1
Corrosion
causes
Scope
recracking
and Envi<onrnenl
delamination. ~ Cracking
Aeslheli<:s Sa fely

P~tt.::r H r;:1 rnrnm.'i.K:unnct(:; l{t:p:tir aud M:1 iru~n~m..:c

~ R S. (l.·kan:-. Company. Kingsto1,, MA 235
Part Four: Strengthening and Stabilization Section 8: Crack Stabilization

Quality Control

Injection
Ports Rebonding of Fractured
Concrete Using Adhesive
Pulse velocity measurements provide a
quick and effective quality assurance
method for determining penetration of
the adhesive into the fracture. The
Penetration from velocity meter is calibrated on a non-
Port 1 fractured section of concrete. The
Location Surface
Seal rransrnitter and receiver are fixed at a
constanr clistance aparr. Properly
injected fractures and nonfracturecl
concrete have similar transit times.
Locations along the fracture, where the
Surface mounted port injection typical flow paths of injected adhesive. epo>..'Y has not penetrated, exhibit
Injection begins at location 1. Injection continues until adhesive flows from location longer transir times.
2. After air and debris is free from the flow at location 2, location 1 injection is
discontinued and injection is restarted at location 2. The process is con1inued until
the fracture is filled. (Port to Port me1hod)

(t2:2 41)
3
0 CO

R
.13 .. ... ..
~<E-'.· ·~' ..~ · ~-p · .~:-~:
~: ·.·· .. ,~ ·. · ·· .... :_ .... ·.··_. . :.. · ·;
_o~
I
. . .- ~..
T

Calibrate velocity in unfractured concrete.

Full Penetration

Core specimen of injected

fracture. Visual inspection
provides a review of penetration
success. Partial Penetration

~ : ~·~· .
'-:-:--7 . ,........,.,. .

Poor Penetration --.........

.-\o---"--~~~~~~~_,.1-='-~ \
. ..
· .· . ·. · · ·.·~ :~.- ~
.. . . ':---? . -:----"'." ~

r\"1er H. C!rl rn1nns/Connt"ll! Rcp:ur :.nd M..ii11 11;.•11:1nn..'

236 () It S. Mc:m~ Co niporny. Kin~:,1un. MA
Techniques for Placing Adhesives
into Fractured Concrete

Injection grouting of fractured concrete The best method of determining

to restore the incenclecl monolithic whether one system works better
action is a well-developed repair tech- than another is to measure the in-
nique. The most common adhesives place penetration and bond of the
for this type of repair are epoxy and adhesive. Core testing and the use of
methacrylate resins. pulse velocity measurements (see Part
Various systems are used to introduce Two: Concrete Evaluation) are useful
the adhesives into the fractured sur- tools when monitoring performance
face. Cracks 0.002 in . (0.05mm) wide, objectives.
half che thickness of a human hair,
have been successfully injected.

Low Pressure Adhesive~ Drilled Hole

Syringe Packer
Injection

·.· . ·. · .
. :· ·•
. .. : . .• ..
. . .·
. . ..
. .. . ·.· .

Vacuum Injection
Surface- Adhesive Vacuum
Mounted
Port
~~ -->
Injection

. . .·
. ·.· .
... .
.. .·

Surface Seal to Contain Adhesive - - - --

1\:,cr J-1. Emmon:.tConcrc·•c.· kcpaif ti.n<I M:1in1c:n.rn\.'c

{} R S. M~:tn" Comp:tny. Ki11g.,.111n , M.'\ 237
Part Four: Strengthening and Stahilizalion Se\tion 8: Crack Swbili7.ation

Additional Sources of Information

Johnson, S.M., Deterioration, Maintenance, and Repair of Structures, McGraw-Hill

Book Co., New York, 1965.
Klaiber, F.W, et al, Methods of Strengthening Existing Highway Bridges, NCHRP
Report 293, 1987, Washington, D.C.

PeLei' H. En'lml.H1.:-./Cunt:rt"le Re-p:.tr and J\'fr.irucn:uKe

238 •"J R. S. Means Comp:iny, l{i11g,.;w11, ~1t\
Part Five
Protection

Part Five
Sections
Introduction to Part Five 242
Section 1: Strategies 243
Introduction to Strategies 245
Controlling Chloride-Induced Corrosion- New Concrete 246
Controlling Chloride-Induced Corrosion - faisting Concrete 248
Controlling Chloride-Induced Corrosion in Cracks and Construction Joints 250
Controlling Carbonation-Induced Corrosion 251
Controlling Carbonation 252
Controlling Aggressive Chemical Surface Damage 254
Controlling Freeze-Thaw Damage 256
Controlling Freeze-Thaw Damage Behind Surface Repairs 257
Controlling Water Flow Through Structures 258
Controlling Water Leakage Through Plaza Deck Systems 260
Section 2: Methods 263
Introduction to Methods 264
Surface Applied Protection: Impregnation 266
Surface Applied Protection: Coatings 267
Surface Applied Protection: Surfacing (Plastering, Rendering, Overlayment) 268
Surface Applied Protection: Elasmmeric Membranes (Liquid ancl Sheet Applied) 269
Surface Applied Protection: Problems/Concerns 270
Surface Appliecl Protection: Pile Jacketjng 271
Surface Applied Protection: Water Control Grouting (Intercept Penetration) 272
Surface Applied Protection: Water Control Grouting (Material Performance) 273
Surface Applied Protection: Water Control Grouting (Positive Side Penetration)274
Surface Applied Protecrion: Water Control Grouting (Pipe Joints) 275
Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals (Pressure-Rated Waterstop Joints) 276
Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals (Water Control Rout & Seal) 277
Surface Applied Pmtection: Joint Seals (Load Supporting/Rout & Seal) 278
Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals (Traffic Bearing Expansion Joints) 279
Altering Electro-Chemical Behavior: Impressed Current Cathodic Protection 280
Additional Sources of Information 281

ltrer M. . En11nt•H."liCOnnc1c Repair and M:lintt 11:u1cc

1? R_ S. Mean' Com1r.my. King:-;.1on. MA 241
Part Five: Protection

Introductio11
to Part Five
Concrete stnictures are subject ro to correct conditions that are adversely
many conditions that may adversely affecting the use of the structure.
affect their expected performance. Leakage of ground water through a
Unclersrancling the relationship be- crack inco occupied space is an exam-
tween, premature or unexpecred ple of user dysfunction. Protection of
deterioration or user dysfuncrion, and the occupied space from the unwanted
the causes of these performance water is accomplished with various
issues,provides a basis for selecting protection methods such as grouting,
methods of protection. Protection is a diversion, membrane waterproofing, or
method of conrrolling the cause of rout and seal.
deterioration or user dysfunction by: Protection technology is rapidly ex-
1. altering the service or exposure panding, providing not only new
conditions, insights into causes and effects, bu1
2. enhancing the physical properties also new strategies and materials. The
of the concrete to better resist the technology is, however, not without
exposure or service conditions, risk, due to the lack of long term
performance histories: therefore,
3. installing a barrier between the
results may be disappointing. Where
service/exposure condition and the
no long tem1 history of use is available,
susceptible concrete, or
a pilot project may be appropriate.
4. altering the electro-chemical behav-
TI1is section begins with a summary of
ior when corrosion of embedded
common deterioration and user dys-
metal is a factor .
function effects, with various protec-
Protection methods that address dete- tion strategies that may be employed.
rioration issues are generally intended Section 2 describes specific protection
to extend duration between mainte- techniques such as coatings, grouting,
nance cycles. For example, concrete and joint seals.
spalling is a form of deterioration that
may be caused by an exposure/service
condition which promotes reinforcing
steel corrosion. Protection of the
concrete from the exposure/service
condition may be accomplished by
utilizing sealers, membranes, coatings,
or surfacing. Protection methods that
address user dysfunction are intended

Pe-t("r 1-1. Em1no1l~.01wn.:1e ~~p;1i1- and t-.t1inten.m\.''c

242 (
1
K. S. Mc:-:1ns <.:omp;m)'. Kin~:->IOn. i\-lA
Section 1:
Strategies
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Introduction to Strategies
Controlling Chloride-Induced
Corrosion-New Concrete
Controlling Chloricle-Inducecl
Corrosion-Existing Concrete
Controlling Chloride-Induced
Corrosion in Cracks and
Construction Joints
Controlling Carbonation-Induced
Corrosion
Controlling Aggressive Chemical
Surface Damage
Controlling Freeze-Thaw Damage
Controlling Freeze-Thaw Damage
Behind Surface Repairs
Comrolling Water Flow Through
Structures
Controlling Water Leakage Through
Plaza Deck Systems

Pl"lt"r H . E1111no11,, .( , >1lCTCIC Rcp:1ir :md Mainlr:n:m~~

(J R S. Mc:m~ Comp;.m y, King.-.1011, MJ\ 243
Part Five: Protection Section 1: Strategie$

~----•~~~~R_e_pa_ir~A~n-ay_l_sis~~_:-----~.._ ___, Protection

Strategies

User
Needs

Methods of Methods of Insuring

---------. Achieving User Methods of Insuring
Cause the Long Term
I the Long Term Life of
Performance Performance of
I
I Requirements Repairs
the Original Structure

I
I

Effect I'
I
I

I'
I'
l Controlling the
Cause of
L____ ____________
I

Wear Deterioration &

User
Dysfunction
Embedded Metal
Corrosion Spalling

Disintegration

Leakage

Methods of
Protection

Altering Altering the

Enhancing the
Service and Surface-Applied Electro-
Physical Properties
Exposure Barriers: Chemical
of Repair Materials
Conditions Behavior

Pt.~1c...:r H. Er\mlonS/Concrc:1\:.'. l{~p~11r :.ind Maimcn:mn::

244 0 H S. Mc·;:ui.-. Crnnp;my, Kin~:-:1on, Jd.A
Introduction to Strategies

There are numerous methods and that anticipates the possibility of water
techniques available to protect con- leakage through cracks or high perme-
crete. Choosing the appropriate tech- ability concrete within the wall. Many
nique for a given condi tion requires an conditions that affect deterioration or
evaluation of the various strategies. user dysfunction and are not addressed
Such items as useful life, cost effective- at the time of construction will require
ness, redundancy, constructibility, repair ancl/or protection during the life
environment and aesthetics must be of the structure. Protection of existing
considered. structures is generally more difficult
Protection systems can be installed at and allows fewer options than protec-
the time of construction or at any rime tion of new strunures.
during the life of the structure. Good Cost effective protection methods to
design practice for new construction minimize premature deterioration are
provides for anticipated prorectfon designed to offer a favorable cost-
neecls. For example, installing a mem- benefit to the owner, as compared to
brane waterproofing system on the no protection at all. Present value
below-grade portion of a concrete analysis is used to determine the cost
foundation wall is a protection strategy effectiveness of various strategies.

Repair deterioration + protection to

Performance eliminate future causes of new
of Concrete Structure deteriorate deterioration.
Structure s.

i
·· ...··..

"
Structure is built. Structure
is repaired. \ Deterioration if no protection
·-.,\ ( strategies are employeed.

--- ------ ------ --- --- --- ------ ----+--- --- --_ 9\___ _ --------- --- --
··., 'f Critical limit*
~.......' - Reactive evaluation is
conducted.

*Below this line the structure's performance is unacceptable. Service Life (time)

rl~l~r H . En lllll)ll...,CntllTC'l(' Rep.11r and l\l:1inlt;l1:111CC

~ l< S. Mc:in._-. <;onip:my. Kin!-:'{1111, Mt\ 245
Part Five· Protection Section 1· Srraregies

Strategies for Controlli11g Cl1loride-Induced

Corrosion-New Concrete

Condition - New Concrete

m The objective of protective strategies is
{ti
.·...·
c1- to prevent reinforcing steel corrosion
'• and resulting cracking, clelarnination
Condition* and spalling of concreLc.

New Concrete

Strategy
ProteCling the reinforcing steel from
corrosion is a clirect way of addressing
the corrosive effects of chlorides.
Fusion-bonded epoxy coatings (Fig. E)
The objective of the protective are the most common coating system.
strategies is to prevent reinforcing There is a controversy associated with
steel corrosion and resulting this strategy involving the amount of
delamination and sparring. tolerable coating defects and how
aggressive a chloride environmenc can
be vs. how many years the protection
wilJ last. Another approach to direct
comrol of chloride induced corrosion
is clemonstraced in Fig. F. Admixtures
are available which figh t off damaging
chlorides. Calcium nitri te is the most
common corrosion inhibiting admixture.
New concrete structures can be pro-
tected from the effects of chlorides by
a number of proven strategies. Fig. A
presents the use of low permeability
concrete which can be obtained by
using low water-cement ratios and
figure e- fusion-bonded special additives, such as micro-silica.
epoxy bar coating Increasing good quality concrete cover
also delays chloride-induced corrosion.
Fig. B presents an approach used on
many bridge decks. The strategy in-
volves the placing of a low permeabil-
ity overlay. Materials used for such
overlays include micro-silica modified
concrete, low water-cemem ratio
concrete, and latex-modified concrete.

figure f- corrosion inhibitor

admixture

' Refer to section on Concrete

Behavior-Embedded metal chloride
penetration corrosion

l'ct<:'r t-1. Emmon:s/Coiui·crc· RC!Jl>lir :ind ~tli11tt:n;l11t:.:

246 't'I R S Mc:ms Cninp:my, f\ fng:-.mn, l~"
 Strategy, continued
Surface applied penetrating sealers and
coatings/membranes (Figs. J & K) are
proven methods of minimizing the
. .. _· intrusion of chlorides in concrete .
Sealers (impregnates) that screen
chlorides include:
• silane based
• siloxane based
figure a Coatings and membranes that screen
Low permeability chlorides include:
concrete
• epoxies
• urethanes
• chlorinated rnbber
• methacrylates

figure b
Low permeability
overlay

figure j- suriace-applied
film building coating I
membrane

figure k- suriace-applied
penetrating sealer

Pcl tr H F.mnHJn~/Co1Kre1c Rep:iir :md J\·lain1e;.· m111c(·

~ H S. Mean' Comr:i.ny. l<ing~ton, MA 247
Part Five: Protection Section 1: Strategies

Strategies for Co11trolling

Chloride-Induced Corrosion-
Existing Concrete
Strategy
A direct approach is the removal of
chloride-contaminated concrete, fol -
Condition* lowed by replacement with low perme-
ability concrete (Fig. I) .
Chloride- Coatings, membranes, sealers and
Contaminaled
.. , ' ·. reinforcing steel protection methods
Concrete
can be used in conjuncrion with the
concrete replacement for additional
protection (Figs. M, N, 0).

figure I- surface removal of

contaminated concrete
followed by replacement of
tow permeability concrete

figure m- reinforcing steel protection

with removal/replacement of
contaminated concrete

figure n- surface sealer, bar

protection, removal/replacement of
contaminated concrete

figure o- surface sealer and

removal/replacement of
contaminated concrete
·.. ··.

Peter Ii . Emn"lrn1s/Cnm.:rc:::(~ Rcp:iir :Jl1l1 M..<1i11t~11:t01.:('

248 Cl H. S. Me:in.s Co m pan y, l<ing~1on , MA
 Strategy, continued
Surface applied penecrating sealers
(Fig. C) have become a common
w aret,'Y usecl to minimize chloride
penetration into existing concrete.
Sealers allow free flow of moisture
figure c vapor in and out of the affected con-
surface-applied sealer crete. The concrete's internal moisture
level equalizes with the surrounding
environment. I n some cases, rhe mois-
ture level will be higher because of the
effects chlorides have on absorbing
moisrure.
Surface applied film-building coatings
and membranes (Fig. D) are more
positive barrier systems than sealers to
the ingress of chlorides and moisture
figured absorption. Coatings and membranes
surface-applied have very low vapor transmission
coating/membrane capabilities and, therefore, limit the
concrete's ability to breathe. Caution
should be exercised when completely
encapsulating a concrete structure or
its elements.
Cathodic protection systems utilizing
impressed currents and surface-
figure g- impressed currenl mounted anodes (Figs. G & H) provide
cathodic protection, top a positive methocl of controlling the
side corrosion process. The systems require
continual monitoring and adjustment.
An alternative to impressed current
cathodic protection is the method of
surface-applied sacrificial anode (Fig.
I). The anode is spray-applied molten
zinc which is electrically connected to
figure h· impressed current the reinforcing steel. As the zinc fights
cathodic protection. bottom off corrosion, it "sacrifices" itself,
side
eventually disappearing.

figure i· sacrilical anode

cathodic protection

Pelt:r 1-1 . r:rnmon~Of'll'rt'll: l<t:.p:1ir :md i\.lauucn:tl'K:C

© R 5. Me:.m.\ Cnmpa1w, King....lon, M.t"\ 249
Part Five:.Prnrecrion .Secrion 1: .Srrategies

Strategies for Controlling Rebar

Corrosion in Cracks and
Construction Joints
Conditions* Strategies
Contmlling corrosion of embedded
. .. reinforcing steel ar cra ck!> and con-
• '' strnction joints requires the cue-off of
. :· ·. ··.
chlorides to the reinforcement. There
are three strategies ill ustrated here
which accomplish the cut-off of chlo-
rides.
Fig. A utilizes a surface-applied coating
or membrane. The physical properties
of the coating/membrane system are
dependent upon the amounr of crack/
joint movement and the service condi-
figure a- surface-applied coatings/membrane tions. Traffic bearing elastomeric sys-
·. , '
tems are commonly used in parking
structures.
A simple and effective method of
.: : : minimizing chloride penetration
(through cracks) to the reinforcement

6 @
6 6 .,:.,.
','
is the use of an elastomeric joint
sealant placed in a cut recess (Fig. 8).
The method is known as rout and
"'· seal. Rout and seal is often used in
conj unction with a membrane or
coating system.
Another method used to protect em-
bedded reinforcement is injection
figure b- rout and seal
grouting (Fig. C). Injection grouting
fills the crack with a sealant (epoxy,
polyester, methacrylate, urethane). The
success of a grouting method depends
: : ;.
largely on how well the sealant bonds
•' ··: to the crack surface and how much
-: ·-
movement the crack/joint can accom-
modate wi thout causing failure in the
sealant or adjacent concrete. See the
section on crack stabilization for more
cletailecl discussion.

figure c- injection grouting

*Refer to Section on Concrete Behavior-

Embeclcled Metal Corrosion-Carbona1ion

Pei ~r ti. [m monsJ("...om:rt:tt' lk p=i ir :md M:ii11tc11:tOt.'t.'

250 Q R. S M~;ms O:imp:tny, Kjng~1<>n. MA
Strategies for Controlling
Carbonatio11-Induced Corrosion
Conditions* Strategies

New
concrete

Surface-Applied Protection

co 2
' · · ..
- Carbonation
front
moves
toward
reinforcing
steel.

r::J. ~ ~ ~ i Carbonation Surface repair

Corrosion

Carbonation
front
follows Crack sealant
crack deep only protects
. •. into crack; if surface
concrete. is not protected,
- Crack sealant carbonation will
continue.

figure j

*Refer to Section on Concrete Behavior- Embedded Metal Corrosion-Carbonation.

Pt1<:r 1-l. Emmo11s/Concfelc R:<:p:tir 31'K1 M:lintcn:rnct"

© R. S. Me.in~ Company, K.ing!'IOO, MA 251
Part Five: Prni:ection Section 1; Strategies

Strategies for
Controlling Carbonation

Carbonation is a condition within Cracks in concrete (Figs. I, ] , K) may

concrete that allows corrosion of allow carbonation to penetrate rela-
embedclecl reinforcing steel co occur tively quickly to the areas around
when moisture and oxygen are reinforcing S[eel. Elastomeric mem-
present. The reaction of carbonation branes (crack bridging) or crack seal-
occurs through exposure of the con- ams (rout and seal) are strategies that
crete to acidic gases (Fig. C). l ow will arrest the carbonation process.
permeability concrete (Fig. A) is all Recent developments in electrochemi-
that is generally required to resist cal technology provide for techniques
carbonation. Extra protection can be of transporting alkalies into carbonated
obtained by installing a high density, concrete (Figs. L, M, N). Alkaline paste
low vapor transmission coating, mem- is placed on the concrete surface,
brane, or impregnating material. Exist- which contains an electrified grid. (The
ing concrete, with significan t depths of grid is connected to the reinforcing
carbonation (front of carbonation is steel electrically.) A DC current is
close to reinforcing steel), can be pumped into the circuit, driving the
protected by installing surface barriers alkaline paste from the surface imo the
(Figs. D, G, J,). Surface applied barriers concrete. Ir may take a number of clays
which have low vapor transmission or weeks co complete the process of
allow the uncarbonated concrete to re-alkalization. 1
re-alkalize (increase pH) the carbon-
ated concrete, pushing the carbonation
front back toward the surface. 1

1Bijen, J.M.,Maintenance and Repair of Con-

crere Strnctures, Insriruut TNO voor Bouwmate·
rialen en 13ouwconstructies Delft (Netherlands).

l'<:ter 1-1. f.inmun::>l'Con<:t"t'I C' lh:pair ;md M:1inacn:1nt:l'

252 if.' R. S M~:tn~ Con1pany, Kmg.-.1ot'l. MA
 Surface-Applied Protection Systems-Options

Impregnating Surface Coatings Mortar Surfacing

• Sodium Silicate ·Acrylate • Shotcrete
• Styrene Acrylate • Hand-Applied
Polymer
Modified
Mortar

Optional surface
protection
is applied to resist
!urlher carbonation
Alkaline paste is damage.
forced into
Electrically concrete, raising
.... . the pH. Upon
. ·.. ·. connected anode
mesh with alkaline completion, the
paste is attached to mesh is
the surface. removed.

Forced Re-alkalization

Pt:le!r H En'\mot1.'l-'C•\f1t.:re1c Repair :int.I Malrll<.:J1~1n..:~

~ K S. Mean.:: Cump:•O}'. Kingswo. MA 253
Part Five: Protection Section l : Strategies

Strategies for Controlling

Aggressive Chen1ical Surface Dan1age
Conditions* Strategies
Aggressive chemical attack (liquid or
gas) on concrete surfaces can be
New Concrete controlled by using chemically resistam
materials in the concrete mix, or using
surface-applied barrier coatings, mem-
branes or surfacing systems. Typical
protection sysrems are listed in the
accompanying table:
Surface-Applied
Barrier

Deteriorated Concrete

Surface·
Applied Barrier
2 over Conventional
. :•: - .: ·: ··
Concrete Repair
·:o_·_q .·. ·a·_=.;!.·.:<;_ Material

Surface Repair
Material Resistant
to Chemical
Environment

*Refer to Section on Concrete Behavior-Disintegration Mechanisms-Exposure to

Aggressive Chemicals.

PctCI' M. EnunonVCun1..n."te Re·p:lir a11ct M:,in1c:"n:1nce

254 it> R. $ . Mt"an:i. Company, Kings1on . MJ\
 Maximum Acids
Service
Type of Tem1>era· Alkalies Organic Solvents
Surface ture
Protection °FfC Strong Weak Inorganic Weak Moderate Strong Organic Inorganic Bleach

Epoxies 150/66 v v v v (1) (1) V'

Epoxy-Novolac 180/80 v V' v //(2) //(2)

Fu rans 360/180 v v V' v v v v v

Methacrylates (MMA) v v //(2) //(2)

Polyesters 230/107 v v v V'

Pmassium Silicates 2000/1093 //(3) v v V' (1) (1)

Sulfur Cement 190/88 //(4) v v

Urethanes ~o
2
v v //(4) v V' v
Vinyl Esters ~o7 v v v v v v
PVC v v v v v v
Acid Brick High //(3) v v v
Carbon Brick v V' v v v v

(1) Resistant only to some solvents

(2) Moderate resistance to solvents
Note: This table should be used as a guide
only. Actual performance may differ depending
(3) Not resistant to Hydrofluoric Acid (HF)
(4) Moderate re~istance co acids on forml\lation.

Peter H. f.mmom/Com.:r«!tc Rep;.iir and M;noten:tntc

CJ R. S Me'1n:i; Comp~•n)'. ){jnJt.~ loo, MA 255
Part Five: Protechon Section l ; Strategies

Strategies for Controlling

Freeze-Thaw Damage
Conditions* Stategies
Surface-
New Concrete Surface- Applied
Constructed of Low Applied Coating,
Freeze-Thaw Durability Sealer Membrane

Water flow on surface with

freeze-thaw cycles. Surface
deterioration in early stages of
disint gration\J;

Sealers & coalings

0
applied over deteriorated
surfaces will probably
2 serve little value:
may even cause
accelerated deterioration.

Surface repairs utilize

~ g
0
durable material,
Surface Deterioration
i66 JV\!\., =_:·: -· ·.:·:;_._.":-. ;_ ..~-- :--:
,. . . . . ·- :. .- ····
including low W/C ratio
air entrained concrete,
Surface-applied
3

. \Jv..CY
...
barriers can also be
used in conjunction
with durable repair
material.

*Refer to Section on Concrete Behavior- Disintegration Mechanisms-Freeze-111aw Disintegration

1\tcc:r H. Emmom;.K:oncreu! lt<:p:tlr :1n<.I M.'linH:nancc

256 (1 R. S. Me:ms Comp,ny. Klns:,<1"11. Mil
Strategies for Controlling Freeze-Thaw
Damage Behi11d Surface Repairs
Strategy
! Freeze Depth
~---+---T-<
1-. ...
Condition
of surface
if no
repairs are
~ · · performed.
Source of ·.
New surface repair
constructed with durable
~ ·· ·
repair material resistant to
freeze-thaw damage. I

Moisture is
Freeze-thaw trapped under
damage on low permeable
surface repair material.
caused by Freeze-thaw
saturation of No protection damage will continue
moisture provided, repair beneath surface of
within frost ,__....,....___._,~....._.. · _ fails prematurely the repair.
zone.

Moisture is Strategy 1 The source of moisture is

re-routed from behind repair,
routed
providing necessary
away from
repair. protection of the surface
Drain repair.

Strategy 2 Moisture is
prevented from entering
concrete by installing a
barrier coating,
membrane or grout
Barrier to curtain.
Moisture

Strategy 3 Surface repair is constructed

below the frost line, which
eliminates a cause of
Repair is deterioration (freezing water
deeper in pore structure).
than frost
line.

Pc:u:r H . 1-:mm01h/Cnn~r1:tc Repair ancl Maintcn:..1ncc

~ R. S. ~k:111s Compally. KinJ.t,'> ton, MA 257
Part Five: Protection Section 1: Strategies

Strategies for Controlling Water

Flow Through Structures

Evaluate
Waterproofing
Leakage Repair Anaylsis
Strategies
~-----

User
Needs
,--------- -- - - - - - - - -

Passage thru Quantity ot

Source of Fluid Pressure Head Effect
Structure via: Flow

Damage to
Service Size of
Flow Pattern Environment
Conditions Passage

Damage to
Type of Automobiles
Member

Damage to
Method of Structure
Construction

Public Safety
Hazard
Exposure
Conditions
Aesthetic
Problem
Movement
Cycles of
Damage to
Passage
Variables Foundation

Loss ot
Process Flu ids

Gain ot
Process Fluids

Damage to
Building
, Finishes
L' ______________________________________________________ __ _ ____ _______ ___;'

P~u~r H . Emmon~Con...;re tc Rep :i.lr :md M=i imcnance

258 © R. S. Mt_·rn~ Comp::iny. Kings1011, M A
 Waterproofing
Techniques

Grouting Joint Seals Coatings Membranes Re-route Flow

.. . )

Wall

· .-.~ · -a·· · .
..··...·a··o·
' .· .
~·~ ......
...:o·
. . '.

The leakage of water (liquids) through important variables. Those variables, to

concrete is one of the most troubling a large degree, govern the selection of
user dysfunctions and causes of deteri- a repair method. When developing
oration. There are numerous variables waterproofing strategies, all methods
associated with water flow that should and techniques should be consiclerecl,
be considered when designing a pro- and two or more should be evaluated
tection (waterproofing) strategy. The based on cost, service life, aesthetics,
flow chart demonstrates many of the side effects, and constructibility.

P~te,. H En11no11NCoe1t.recc::: Kt:p:nr :md M:iim ~n:mtc

€J R, 5. ~tcans COtn1>a11y, K.l nA,.;mn . MA 259
Part Five: Protection Section 1: Stracegies

Strategies for Controlli11g Water Leakage

Through Plaza Deck Systems

Construction Methods
Many plaza deck systems (referring to the deck system as a result of deteriora-
all systems with buried waterproofing) tion or defects in design and detailing,
are troubled with leakage to locations installation workmanship, or materials
beneath the deck system. These sys- associatecl with the waterproofing system.
tems are constructed with multiple Some of the effective waterproofing
layers of materials, each of which strategies are presented on the follow-
serves a specific function. The 'Water- ing page. Unfortunately, most effective
proofing system is commonly located strategies involve the removal of all
directly on the surface of the structural surface layers clown to the structural
concrete. Leakage may occur beneath slab. This results in substantial cost
and interruption of use.

Architectual Finish
Concrete Slab
Insulation Board
Drainage Layer
Protection Board
Elastomeric Membrane (Buried Waterproofing)

Leakage Path to Space Below

Plaza Deck System

~1cr H. En1 mon~;Concreu: Rcr>.:lir :111<.1 M:11n1t::n:1m:e

260 e R. S. M(·an.... Company, Kin~mn. ;vlA
 rJ01nt
Building Architectual Finishes Curbs Traffic Surface Leakage Paths
Issues and strategies to consider when
Mortar Joint 'Sand Layer' Construction Joint
addressing plaza deck system (buried
' Protection Board Plane
waterproofing) leakage:
Crack in pavement ' protection board plane 1. leakage connected with the drain-
age layer or the protection course
C.l.-~----.-~ Architectual Finish will most likely L"edistribute water to
· Drainage Layer -
Protection Board a very large area via the open plane
- Plane at the drainage level.
"\)
Membrane 2. Leakage through the structural slab
o_ Structural Section may originate from a water source
·o
· ~==:='.::~==~~::S::~:='.:~ l=:::i:::::~~
·. ·. · a·'b Slab thru far from the point of leakage.
System Plaza
' "O.
(~~~--,: <l;:.o:: (_'}~) Deck
System
3. Controlling water flow at the archi-
tectural finish level may, at best,
only slow down the leakage. Sealing
\ ... \lectrical Conduits
and coating architectural finishes
may encapsulate materials in a
saturated or high moisture condi-
Protection Board Plane -+ Failed Membrane 'Cracks
tion, which may lead to failure of
Building - Deck Joint -+Failed Joint the finishes.
Building - Deck Joint -+ Failed Flashing 4. Controlling water flow through the
Protection Board Plane' Failed Membrane Flashing 'Joint
structural slab system is most di-
rectly addressed at the original
membrane level. This requires
removal of the architectural finishes,
drainage layer, protection board,
and possibly the membrane.
5. Water that reaches the membrane
level should be drained away and
not allowed to accumulate.
6. Caution should be exercised when
using chemical grouting to stop
water leakage. Grouting can affect
the function of the drainage system.

Peter H. Emmnn:'ilCOflf fi.:"{e Rep<lLf <ttlcl M.::lin.tc-11:in..._-c

r:f:> H.. S M e1m., Cump:1n~; Km~~1011. /'.Lr\ 261
Section 2:
Methods
The following topics are covered in
this section:
Introduction to Methods
Surface Applied Protection:
Impregnation
Surface Applied Protection: Coarings
Surface Applied Protection: Surfacing
(Plastering, Rencleii ng, Overlayment)
Surface Applied Protection: Elastomeric
Membranes (Liquid and Sheet Applied)
Surface Applied Protection: Problems/
Concerns
Surface Applied Protection: Pile
jacketing
Surface Applied Protection:
Water Control Grouting (Intercept
Penetration)
Surface Applied Protection:
Water Control Grouting (Material
Performance)
Smface Applied Protection:
Water Control Grouting (Positive Side
Penetration)
Surface Applied Protection: Water
Control Grouting (Pi pe Join ts)
Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals
(Pressure-Rated Waterstop Joints)
Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals
(Water Control Rout & Seal)
Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals
(Load Supporting/Rout & Seal)
Surface Applied Protection: Joim Seals
(Traffic Bearing Expansion Joints)
Altering Electro-Chemical Behavior:
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection

P~:t~r H . Em111nrl.,,...ConcrcLc Hcp:.ih" :lnd M·111ncn.:i1H..'(:

(r;, R S. Mc.1n!) <.:omp.iny, I<.ing~ton ..Ml\ 263
Part Five: Protection Senion 2: Methods

Introduction to Methods

Impregnation To select a protection method, analyze Surfacing: the process of placing mate-
the strategies discussed in the last rial on a concrete surface to form a
section. Many of the protection meth- uniform, thick layer on that surface.
ods in use utilii.e an applied barrier Surfacing is also known as: overlayment,
which isolates or modifies the aggres- rendering, plastering, or jacketing.
sive service condition. Isolation and Surfacing materials are generally applied
modification of rhe ser vice condition by trowel or pneumatically. Surfacing
allows the protected concrete to last si1stems are designed to alter moisture
Coating longer and/or perform better for the vapor cransmission, liquid absorption,
user. Applied barriers is a broad cate- deteriorating effects of chemicals, flow
goq1 of coatings, sealers, membranes, of surface runoff, energy absorp tion,
joint sealers and injected grout tech- and surface texture. Typical applica tions
niques. A summary of each is listed include: bridge deck overl ays, chemical-
below with a brief description and resistant floors, and carbonation barri-
typical uses: ers. The effects of reflection of substrate
Surfacin Impregnation: treatment of a con- cracking should be consiclerecl.
. 0 .. b. : 0 ". : o: 6 · crete surface with a material which Application of Elastomeric Mem-
. · ·o.... . . ., .,. subsequently penetrates into the pore branes: the process of placing material
0<5~ structure. There are three basic types:
(1) hydrophobic, (2) partial filling, and
on a concrete surface to form an elasto-
meric film. Elastomeric membranes are
C?o::.::Q:o"...:·q·O.·:. .:.Q: (3) filling. Each type of impregnate
changes the surface behavior including
either thermosetting liquids, polymer-
curecl liquids, or preformed materials.
moisture vapor transmission and liquid The primary function of elasromeric
absorption. Typical uses of this membranes is co minimize liquid ab-
Membrane method include chloi·icle and carbon sorption by concrete. Elastoineric mem-
dioxide screens and protection against branes differ from coatings because of
freeze- thaw damage. the membrane's ability to move and flex
Coating: the process of applying a without rupw re. Typical applica tions
film-producing material to a concrete include: traffic decks, plaza decks, and
surface. Many organic and inorganic below grade waterproofing.
coatings are available. Coatings are Joint Sealing: the process of placing
designed to control water absorption, materials into or over an opening within
Joint Sealing
vapor transmission, and diffusion of a structure or member to form a barrier
aggressive liquids and gasses through to liquid and/or vapor, and/or to absorb/
the concrete surface. Typical uses transmit energy and loads. Jn most
include chloride and carbon dioxide cases, joint seals must be able to absorb
barriers, freeze-thaw protection, movement. Typical uses of joint seals
chemical-resistant barr iers and include waterproofing of cracks, trnffic
aesthetics. joints in bridges and parking decks,
warehouse floor joincs, and waterstops
in tanks.
Grouting: the process of injecting
materials (grouts) into, behind, or
around a structure or member to form a
barrier against liquids and/or vapor . Most
grout materials solidify to some exten t
when cured. Grouting barriers are
clesignecl to close off passageways within
a member or structure. Typical uses
i.oclucle crack ancl joint waterproofing.

Pe1c r J-1. Emmon~f:oncrct c Nep:.1 ir :md M:lin1cn:1nn:.'

264 e H S Mt:';in:i; C()f\1p:111~·. King.,,.10 0 . MA
 r
Methods of
Protection

u ~ , ~, u
Altering Enhancing the Altering the
Service and Physical Properties Surface- Electro-
Exposure of Repair Materials Applied Chemical
Conditions or Original Concrete Barriers: Behavior

Service Conditions

----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -·-··-·-·- -· - - - - - -- -

Protection systems must hold up ~

[JJ~fil]
to exposure conditions.

Temperature Ultraviolet Light Structure Movement Mechanical Wear

Elastomeric
Impregnation Coating Surfacing Joint Seals Grouting
Membrane

l'elr.:'f J-1. Ernmr,11s . l :n1ic..l·ecc H.:. q ):Jlf :111li J\tunt(..'n:~m·c

llJ R. S. Mean~ C11mp<my, Ki ng:;1011. M,\ 265
Part Five: Protection Section 2: Methods

Surface Applied Protection:

Impregnation

Protecrion of concrete surfaces can be Another method of impregnating the

accomplished by surface-applied rreat- concrete surface involves compounds
rnents. Impregnation of concrete which are absorbed into the pore
surfaces is a common teclrniql1e which stnJCture and fill, or partly fill, the
Preparation of
is generally used ro control the flow of passageways in the concrete (Figs. D &
figure a Concrete Surfaces moisture and moisture vapor into and E). There are two types of materials
r------~~--1
out of concrete. Impregnation tech- used: first, those which react with the
DO O -CJ~ niques require a clean surface capable constituents of the cement matrix
of absorbing the solutions. Ahsorption (such as sodium silicate), and second,
requires open pores and capillaries, those which react and cure on their
which can be achieved with abrasive own (such as low viscosity epO>,)',
blasting, hydroblasting, or shotblasting methacrylate, and polyester).
of the concrete surface (Fig. A). The benefits offered by sealers are:
Water repellency of concrete surfaces • increased freeze-thaw resistance.
figure b can be accomplished by lining the • reduced infiltration of water and
pore surfaces with a hydrophobic aggressive chemicals, such as
compound (Fig. C). Silanes and silox- chlorides.
-·a· '.
- :. O
·a0. -.
· . ·O·" · .·Q ~- .: .d
..
1-_-_·,,,a--.,..·-.,~.-:..:~---"".""'"~.-_-_---~----.~-.l.
o· .0 o_..
anes are the rnosr common. These
compounds are absorbed into the pore
structure by suction forces. When
There are a number of caveats that
should be attached to the use of
· - - · - · · silanes or siloxanes are applied to the concrete sealers: 1
concrete, a chemical reaction between • Not all sealers are equal. A sealer
the sealers and the silicate structure in must be chosen carefully on the basis
concrete occurs. They produce an of performance data and applied in
effective barrier against water and accordance with the manufacturer's
aggressive agents infiltration, while instructions.
allowing water vapor to pass. • Verification of the laboratory perfor-
mance under field conditions is gen-
erally lacking.
• Requirements for concrete quality and
\mpregnate- cover should not be relaxed.
•. '
• I -
~ I Hydrophobe
: ()~

Impregnate-
Partly Filling

Impregnate-
Sealing

·-figure e-.

1
Manning, D.G., Durability of Prestressed
Concrete Highwa)' St111crures, NCHRP Report
140, 1988, Washington, DC.

P1:1cr H. Ernmon:-;/Concfc[c R{"p:1tr ~nd M <ti.n.tcn;;mct'.

266 @ ll $_ Me11n5 Company: KmgMon. M1\
Surface Applied Protection: Coatings

Concrete prmective coatings include a

wide variety of chemicals. Formulations
are available to meet various exposu re
and service conditions. To develop a
method and material specification, the
following steps should be followed:
1. Determine protection objectives.
2. Determine service and exposure
conditions.
3. Determine installation environ-
ment.
4. Select materials/system which best
meets the service, exposure, and
installation conditions.
... ·.·. 5. Determine required concrete
figure b surface preparation to receive
selected repair materials.
6. Determine the range of conditions
required by the selected materials.
7. Determine (based on anticipated
surface conditions) number of
coats or rate of application re-
quired to meet required level of
· ligu[e.c .: ··. continuity. Pinhole-free coatings
may require multiple coats.
figured 8. Determine (based on required
Coating visible exposed surface textures)
any pretreatment required. A
.:···············..·:. leveling course (Fig. D) may be
necessary to provicle a rough
surface with a smooth seamless
look after a coating is installed.
9. Determine any crack treatment
required.
10. Determine quality assurance meth-
ods for surface preparation, bond,
Tensile Reinforcement thickness, ancl material quality.

Tensile reinforced coating

.·" . . . designed to resist reflective
cracking

Pt.:tt r M. 13mmtm.:,/COntretc f<~pai r :mtl M11 int1::n·.1 m..:e

© r< S. Mt::"l nS C:omp:rny. Ku1g<iw11, ~to\ 267
Part Five: Protection Sect ion 2: Methods

Surface Applied Protection: Surfacing

(Plastering, Re11dering, Overlayment)
Surfacing of concrete is a process of
placing a relatively thick layer of maLe-
rial to provide protection to the con-
crete . Various materials and methods
of application are used to accomplish
different objectives. Common applica-
tions and materials include:
1. Resurfacing industrial floors.
- epoxy resin/silica sand
- methacrylate/silica sand
- steel fiber reinforced portland
cement concrete
figure a - latex-modified portlancl cement
concrete
2. Resurfacing ven ical surfaces as a
pretreatm ent to chemical resistant
refer to figure 9................. ............... coatings.
-epoxy resin/silica sand
- latex-modified portland cement
mortar
3. Placing overlays to protect concrete
parking and bridge decks from
chloride intrusion.
- latex-modified porcland cement
concrete
- latex-modified porcland cement
mortar
-layered epoxy resin;b roadcast
figure b
sand
- microsilica modified portland
cement concrete
-low water/cement (dense) port-
land cement concrete
4. Redirecting runoff to prevent sur-
face ponding.
-low wateritement ratio portland
Crack in Substrate cemenr concrete
-latex-moclifiecl portlancl cemenr
rnorta1Jconcrete
- milling, sawing, and grinding
....
- Critical considerarions for successful
installation include:
figure c • compatibility of materials
• bond between the new materials and
the existing substrate
• effects of reflective cracking caused by
infini te strain (Fig. C)

l \:lt:"f H _ F.mrnon~oocrclt.· tt.1:11:.iir :ind M :tinlC'11:1m:e

268 0 R. S. Me:m!'I Con1µ;my. t\ inp 1on, MA
St1rface Applied Protection:
Elastomeric Membranes
(Liquid ai1d Sl1eet Applied)
figure a
Elastorneric membranes are designed
Bonded joint in to protect concrete from the intrusion
Performed of liquids into or through concrete,
Membrane cracks and, in some cases, joints.
Prerformed sheet Typical systems used include pre-

--'._.'o·~.'.. 0 - -.
0. -- . ·(""""\ ", o· --
" - ... ' , . ~-~ - ' '
.
formed sheet materials and liquid
applied materials.

:G·o ::{?·o ·9·o ;.: .o

Preformed sheets include: rubberized
asphalt bonded to polyethylene (Fig.
A), pvc, neoprene, hypalon, and butyl.
Liquid applied membranes involve in
situ placement of materials that are
either thermoset, moisture-cured, or
figure b two-component chemical-cured. Upon
cure, these materials remain elasto-
refer to figure c meric and form a seamless surface.
Liquid-Applied
Specific systems include: hot applied
asphalt, neoprene, and polyurethane.
Q ·:~·:-···:·---··:·· ····~-; ~ . o.---... -o.· :· .o .
".0-.· . 0 ,:a· '. ·...0.· a- '\:f
A critical function of elastorneric mate-
rials is to blidge moving cracks and/or
-_ ..
0 . .
.·o. .. . . . .. . ·-. . _ ~o·_.
joints (Flgs. C, D) .
The ability of a particular material or
- • I - - • '- I ., ' system to elongate under the antici-
pated service and exposure conditions
refer to figured is a function of:
1. elongation capability
2. thickness of membrane or,
3. unboncled length of membrane over
opening (pretreatment activity).
"
Some elastomeric membranes are
•·fig~re c. · designed to accept pedestrian and
vehicular traffic. Many of these systems
Reflec1ive Crack include a traffic coating which is
placed on top of the elastorneric
Membrane Stretch membrane (Fig. E).

~:E~~;=:~~!i~=~~~~:aii~!t----_-Traffic Coating
j; Elastomeric \ Ugure d
Membrane

Crack
• :e

figure- e ·

l'CIL,. J-1. EminrnlS1Concn..:lC llt,;paif :111tl

k) R S- /\·k-.1n() Ci nnp~1ny. Kingo:;mn, i\-'u\
Mai11lt"n;1rn,-t'
00 269
Part Five; Procecrion Section 2: Methods

Surface Applied Protection:

Problems/Concerns

Pinholes (Fig. A)- Pinholes are Debonding (Fig. D)-The durability

caused by movement of gas or mois- of surface-applied protection is depen-
ture vapor through an uncured mate- dent on the bond with the existing
rial. The same factors that cause pin- concrete. If surface conditions do not
holes may also create blisters. Blisters allow for adequate bond, delamination
occur when the gas collects under a 111ay occur. Typical causes of debond-
parrially cured coating, causing the ing are poor surface cleaning, water on
coating to lift off of the subsrrate in surface at time of installation, lack of
the vicinity of the gas pocket. Control- proper priming, and excessive shrink-
Ling pinholes and blisters requires an age of coating material.
understanding of the factors that cause Interlayer debonding (Fig. E)-In
movement of gas. A temperature multi-layer systems, one layer can
increase during placement may cause clebond from another. Typical causes
gases and moisture within the concrete are improper time interval between
to expand . the installation of layers, contamination
Reflective cracking (Fig. B)-Crack- of a layer, and improper surface prepa-
ing may occu r in a surface-applied ration of a layer.
material if the material spans a crack Debonding by moisture trapping
or opening which subsequently moves. (Fig. F)- If moistu re conditions within
'.•. ·.iigu.r.e c·. The movement stresses the spanning the concrete allow moisture to build
surface material. If the surface material up beneath rhe surface protection,
is stressed beyond its tensile ca pacity, pressure sufficienc to debond the
rupturing (reflective cracking) will protection may occur. Moisture build-
occur. Even materials with large elon- up can be caused by hydrostaric pres-
gation capability may rupture! sure heads transmitted through the
Loss of surface protection (Fig. concrete, vapor pressure caused by
C)- Surface-appliecl penetrating seal- temperature change, ice crystal growth,
ers with large percentages of volatile or salt crystal formation.
figured ca rrier may not properly penetrate the
surface if wind and temperature condi-
tions cause rapid evaporation during
placement.

·· · i.igl!~ee .

figwe t .

rerer H. Emmon~./C:onc.-c1c Rcp:1ir a11t..I M:1ln1oi:11u:c

270 ~ R S. A'k;in!<I Company, Kl nRSlOn. MA
Surface Applied Protection:
Pile Jacketing

ligurea Pile
figure b A severe exposure condition for con-
crete is the tidal or splash zone of
fresh, or sea water (Fig. A). In this

Pile t
s
zone, abrasion, wetting and drying,
possible freeze-thaw cycles, and/or
aggressive chemicals may result in
Delerioraled ~ .I surface deterioration (Fig. B).
a
Condition s Different surface protection techniques
: Water Line
h / ·~ '.(.· have been developed and many are
z effective in prolonging the life of

~
0 .. \· repairs and new piles. Fig. C presents
n
e a common technique utilizing a porous
fabric bag fitted with a zipper. TI1e

t Loss ot
Pile
Section
fabric bag (with the zipper open) is
placed around the pile. The zipper is
closed and the bottom is drawn tight
against the pile surface. Sand-cement
grout is pumped into the bag. The
porous nature of the fabric allows
excess water in the grout to escape
while retaining the fines. jacket instal-
ligured
lations create an enlarged pile cross-
Grout Fill
section and extra cover. The extra
New cover provides a protection system
Rein orcement that will not wear away for many years.
The ocher most common method
utilizes a fiberglass jacket as a form for
Gro !Fill
sand-cement grout. Fiberglass remains
in place as a protection barrier against
the environment. Fiberglass forms
come in two types. One type is a
one-piece jacket which has a longirudi-
nal seam that allows spreading of the
jacket for erection purposes. The ocher
type is a two-piece jacket comprised of
two half-round pieces which are
Length erectecl and fastened together with an
of Jacket interlocking joint. In some instances,
Varies the fiberglass is constructed with a
small gap between the concrete and
Fabric Zipper Bag, Grout Filled Fiberglass Jacket, Grout Filled the fiberglass. In these installations,
Alignment of bags around pile may be difticult to maintain in certain situations. epoxy grout is used in lieu of sand-
cemenc grout.

Pc1~r H. Emmoris1'Cof\\:rc1e Ri:pair :lnd "·t:iml1tn:mcc

~ R. S 111.::ans Companr. Kin~:ilun, MA 271
Part Five: Protection Section 2: Methods

Surface-Applied Protection:
Water Control Grouting
(Intercept Penetration)
Water leakage entering or exiting a Condition Variables
structure may be a significant problem • type of fluid
requiring repair. An effective method • flow pattern
of reducing, controlling, or eliminating • pressure head
leakage is pressure injecting a material • temperature
into the passageway between the • rype of member
source of fluid ancl the leakage point. • type of passage
Materials come in many different forms • size of passage
(see below), and many techniques are • quantity of flow
available for placement. Successful • condition of passage surfaces
long-term water control requires an • type of damage/dysfunction occurring
understanding of the variables affecting
Technique Variables
the installation and operating condi-
tions. Operator skill and experience is • grout material
critical for overall success. • sec time for material
• connection method
• connection spacing
• pressure of material placement
• injection time per connection
• injected volume per connection
• sequence of placement

Grout Materials to
Choose From
Urethane: hydrophobic, foam or gel
Injection Packer resin structure, water reacting, expand-
ing, moderate tensile capacity, moder-
Leaking Crack ate viscosity
Urethane: hydrophilic, gel or foam
resin structure, water reacting, expand-
ing-low tensile capacity, moderate
viscosity
Acrylate: hydrophilic, gel or foam
resin strncture, very low tensile capac-
ity, very low viscosity
Epoxy: water toleranr, hard plastic,
very hjgh tensile capaciry, moderate to
high viscosity
Microfine cement: hydrophilic, hard
cement mortar, moderate tensile
capacity, high viscosity

Grout materials to choose from

(Refer to figures
c,d,e,f,g & h)
88
Pct~r H f.mmon.'\;Conl r(•le R-l!p:tir and Main1 en~ux·e­
272 e R. S. Me:1n~ Co111p!11ly, Krng,1nn, MA
Surface Applied Protection:
Water Control Grouting
(Material Performance)
. . · · .. .····. . oo ooO .·.·.·.:_. Hydrophobic ure1hane Negative factors affecting the long-
foam grout expands
oOoQ . .. when placed by the term water control success
O 0 oO :· ._.
. o 0 ogo .. : formation of • movement within the passageway
0 oO ·: gas bubbles. • number of movement cycles
o ocP o . .
°
00 0 0 .
ooa°°~
...
.·: .:_.
• poor penetration of gmut into passage
• freezing of grout material (water-
.. Gas Pockets based grnut)
. •, o 0 ov;o · : .'. · ... · • drying out of grout material (water-
0 0 . . ..
oooOJ «· : ·. · ..._. basecl grout)
: ligure c'_ " . · oO Oij.3 ,.·: .'- .: • number of wet/dry cycles
~-~-~-/..,.. \. • Passageway changes width. • increase in external fl uid pressure
• initial shrinkage of grout material
I ~
~---~~· ~---~
· . · .. . . 0
0
o ".·. · . . · Grout deformation can ~-------------------~
.. .. : . ·.. 0 00
. .. . ·. - occur because the Water Control Success% vs Negative Factors
0 00
.. . . o 0 a . ._. gas bubbles are free ............................... ~.o..l_~ a.~a.Q~.................................
. . ·. · . · ·. · O
.. . . 0 0 ... .
o g8o .' _:_ . . to change volume.
1003
---==
:- .' ·. . . . ". 0 O~oO " . " ..-.«
Poor bond of the
.. .. ·. o0 0 0 ....
. .. . o ooo grout to the passage
0 0
· · ... -_· ..... . surfaces may result
o goo:>o
0 oO ., -, .. in a loss of bond
·:figure~.. .... 000 ~ . ·· when the grout is
'--'-"---'---- " _. -'. oO 0 O ,,.___,__ __,, placed in tension.
before grouting
0
.· .. · Number of Negative Factors ___....
. ··.: . . .. a-- +'"":'-::.......:---:-;-.'i
.. - - Water-Based Gel
'
- ··' Grout .. . Water-based
\'
..
.. ,•
···.
·.. ·.·
grout drys out
· .· . and material
. .· · ··· ·: .
.· , . .
.· .. .. ' . ·. ·... shrinks away
·.. · ·. . . .
.~ '. . .:.:.... _: . ·. from passage
_...·. ,',.
I '

surfaces.
. .· '
.
.
. ··· . ..
' ....·. ':··. '. . Reconstitution of
the gel may not
flgu(e
'
e·.. .. .....
... :. . \ ..
. ...... ·. ···.
occur properly
........ · when wetted,
;,.. Passageway changes width. _iigllre g . ·." . . thereby resulting
~---~! in leakage.
·.. . ... ~ . ..•
.· .. · .··· ' . . · . .
Poor tensile Rigid resin
capacity of
.. . .. . . ..
(epoxy) or
-.·.· · ... the gel results . .·.··. cementitious grouts
in the grout usually fracture at
. ,.· ·. ..· ·. ·.· . . . ·.'- .·.··.·
fracturing:
. .. . . ..
.. . ·.
the bond line when
.. ·.. ··: .
: •. "··· ·.. leakage .. · . . .. subjected to high
.··· · . .· .
.. .
.
through the •' '.: . .. tensile stress.
'A , ··: , ' , ,•' ·.: . . . .
. . ,•
passage may Leakage will
" . .. occur. probably occur in
:i;gtire(. this situation.

l 'c1er l·l. Emn1on:ovC<i1-cn,;1t: Rc1l."lif :md !\-faint4:1-:~m.:c

e R. s. MC~IJ\S C:Oll11J:lOy. Kings1vn. MA 273
Part Five: Protection Section 2: Methods

Surface Applied Protection:

Water Control Grouting
(Positive Side Penetration)
~------------- Grout Materials to Choose from

Urethane Gel
Successful grouting
Urethane Foam
will stop water flow Acrylate
on negative side. Type 1 Portland Cement
Cement and Silicate
Negative Micro Fine Cement
figure b Side Bentonite
- ("""'\ · ~ . Bentonite Cement
I . .. ' "'J I'
Other Polymers
-o· ..... _o.·
. - . . Two Stage Grouting with Positive and Intercept

. ·o· ·
-
.
•
.
I -
Techniques Used

0 0
(/
0 C) 0
.. .
·..
I _.. I

'._. ("""'\
' "'J'

O QO. figure c

Grout flow penetrates the surrounding media

(soil), chocking off flow of fluid into passage.
The amount of success depends upon the soil
conditions. Results maybe uncontrollable.

1'-:'.lt:!r H . EmmonsK:(M11..r..:1e ~kp:~i r :i nd Mn1n1en:lnn.~

274 ~ It S. Mc:.111..;. Cu01p:u1}: Kings1n11, ~V\
St1rface Applied Protection:
Water Control Grouting (Pipe Joints)
Pipes are used tO transport liquids.
Leakage into, or our of, pipes can
cause a number of undesirable condi·
tions including: additional liquid in the
pipe line, loss of fluid resulting in
environmental problems and loss of
supporting soil. Pipes can be catego-
rized as either small diameter (workers
cannot access) or large diameter
(workers can access). Small diameter
pipes are repaired using remote con-
figure a
trolled equipment (Figs. A, B). Infiltra-
tion leaks can be identified using small
. ~ " ,.,
television cameras pulled through the
pipe. Locations are documented, and
Grouting of Pipe Joint by Re,mote Control packers placed at the leaking joint.
,, Chemical grouts are commonly usecl to
stop these kinds of leaks. Alternate
methods of pipe repair include the use
of an inverted resin felt tube, which is
invened under water pressure and
allowed to cure in place, utilizing hot
Grout Packer water. The cured-in-place liner acts as
AS$embly a continuous lining, resisting in61tra-
Air Inflated tion or exfiltration leakage.
Large diameter pipes can be repaired
utilizing conventional groutin.g, Fig. C
outlines the repair of a leaking pipe
joint and restoration of the lost soil
support in the area of the leakage.
Cement-based grout is used to fill large
cracks in soil and at the soil-pipe
interface. Chemical grout is used to
seal the leaking pipe joint.

figure b

Two-Stage Grputi.Qg of
Cement-Based Grom Leaking Pipe Joint ·
,, Pla,c~d in Soil-Pipe
, lnt~rface Prior to
, Placement of Grout fn Joint

figure c

Pt:H:r H. f mmons/Cc.mcr..:-u: Rcpilir :md M:1ifHCmtnce

"J R. S. Me:m~ C":nmp:..ny, l{intt-,ion, 1\lA 275
Part Five: Protection Section 2: Methods

Surface-Applied Protection:
Joint Seals (Pressure-Rated
Waterstop Joints)
Leakage Paths through Waterstops
The repair of leaking waterstop joints
is a complex process. The original
figure a construction of expansion and con-
Honeycomb struction joints utilizes buried water-
Concrete Tears in stop seals, inaccessible for inspection
Around Waterstop and repair. Identifying the source of
Waterstop leakage is very difficult. Various tech-
. •. niques are available including pressure
..
grouting, bonded rubber sheets, com-
.. . : .. ·. plete reconstruction, or a combination
. ..
of the above.
111e design factors to be considered are:
• pressure head
• direction of pressure/change in
direction
• single direction
• double direction
• movement at joint
' ·.. .. . • cominuity of joint with strncture
:. . . . •. . "
..
.' . "• , '
• type of existing waterstop
·. : ·· · · .' ·... • type of suspected defect in existing
joint
• width of joint
• longevity of repair required
I
i 0 0
I
• access to positive side
Wall
• access to negative side
Fig. B shows a combination of systems
0 0
(proprietary), which includes a high
pressure rubber diaphragm sand-
wiched between fiberglass angles and
Corrosion- the concrete surface. A closed cell
0 () Resistant foam is pressure-injected beneath the
Fiberglass Angle diaphragm to protect it and prevent
Closed Cell tracking of water. The surface is pro-
Foam tected with a prefabricated foam seal.
Injected Components are anchored to the
Beneath High concrete with adhesives and mechani-
Diaphragm Pressure cal anchors. The system can handle
Diaphragm pressure heads in either direction.
Floor
·. , . ., ...··. :·
: ._

.. • ·.
..·

.
... .. ..
..· · .

· .· ·.o~ (;o >

.·
. • ..
. .·o··--·.· :. ··a··".·
:". · .. .. . ·. :." ·-.us ~a1en1 .479.3J·~ ·

Leaking Waterstop
figure b
Elevation View of Wall Floor Joint

l)crer H , EmmonS/f.o~n!te Rcp:.tir :md Maimcn:1nt:~

276 © R. S. ~~ins <.:u mp.'.11l)'. KingMon. MA
Surface Applied Protection:
Joint Seals (Water Control
Rout & Seal)
Repairing cracks to control access of
Chlorides C02 Chemicals
aggressive fluids and gases is com-
MVT
monly accomplished by the rout and
seal method. This method is effective
when the source of flow into the crack
is from the side that can be routed
-- O. - · ·o · O
. --. ·. 0 - ·-· and sealed (exposed side). Most cracks

· . ·~-:a·· ~
. ·-:·0. ··.~ ·.·o . ·. ~ .ff~~re~
,o ·· · · ··..·a··..0. · ·-.~ ~ ·o
- _. ··· move with varying loads, tem peracure,
and moisture conditions. Meeting the
requirement to make cracks watertight
is difficult to achieve with most coating
. ·· · systems, which must cover the cracks.
Movement of the crack creates an
infinite strain within the coating, and
Cutting of JoinUCrack fracturing occurs. The rorn and seal
0 ·-··< '\ technique is useful in conjunction with
··-- ---===-~- - - --- .. ~ ....... ...
\ \ ii other protection techniques.
·- ' I
- -------.·~:~ >\\ Various tools are used to configure the
crack co accept a flush, cured-in-place
. ~ ··
. "-...__) . 0 ... ·.
seal. Grinders, saws, routers, and

·a.·-· O · .·o· ·.....

.
a.
0
0 · ...· ·0
.:·o
' . . .~·

".b '.
figureb'
reciprocating chippers are used to cur
the recess (Fig. B). The opening can
be cut to different widths and depths,
depending upon the performance
requirements.
Rout and seal joints ca'n be designed
Joint Width _ __ ......._ for two-sided or three-sided bond.
Narrow cracks with minimal movement
may be successfully repaired with
three-sides bonded seal (Fig. D) . The
amount of tensile strain is small com-
pared to the joint width. Usually, crack
routing is 3/8" to 1/2" (9mm- 13mm)
wide. ·
Materials to choose from:
• Silicone
• Urethane elastomers
• Low modulus epoxy
• Polysulfide elastomers
Joint seal has Joint seal has Note: If coatings are to be applied over
three sides two sides the joint sealant, poor bond may occur
bonded if crack bonded if crack between the coating and the elasro-
width is very • .Sm.a:ll· . ·· · : · . '. · ·large: meric sealant, resulting in noticeable
small compared ~·~ C_ra_ck~··--~-~~ ~-·~Ci_ra~c-~:~-~-~ exposure of the sealanL
to joint width. Bond Breaker

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Pan Five: Protection Section 2: Methods

Surface Applied Protection:

Joint Seals (Load Supporting/
Rout & Seal)
~
Unsupported joint and crack edges fail
Preparation of Joint from high levels of stress induced by
Opening heavy wheel loads and impact (Figs. A,

LG'J~~
B). Joints in industrial floors are a
common location for this type of
problem.
figurea
Load transfer devices and load carrying
sealants in joints protect the free edge
from spalling by transmitting ancl
distribu ting the load stress to the slab
Edge spalling of free edge if no figure b areas neighboring the joint. After the
protecUoo ;s pro,de<l. ~ load transfer is restored, the joint must
be sealed. A typical procedure for
installing a load-supporting sealant

. ·o ·...··o.
-.~
·
·· 0· .. ·a. .
-- ..
·o.... ._-·. ·
··~·o ·
~~
involves preparation of the free edge
by grinding or sawing.

·0·:O>·:a·
Following preparation, a flexible epoxy

Qo 0 o resin is placed into the opening, flush

with the floor surface. Grinding may
be necessary to provide smooth wheel
passage over the joint.
Once the opening is protected with a
figurec load carrying sealant, the stresses
induced by moving wheel loads (Fig.
C) will be distributed by load transfer
devices and absorbed by the sealant
material (Fig. D), thereby reducing the

..
-...
·.· -·. ~ - ,. o· -· .
·a·-~.-~·
. ·. ·"o
. .-..· O··,. I •
-~ .~
• I
stress level in the concrete below
failure levels.

; .·
. .. . -~ .. .· ', .

.':._.
.: .. - . '-; .. ·. ..

........... . ·.
. ...

·.·.
. ..
" .·.·. ·

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Surface Applied Protection:
Joint Seals (Traffic Bearing
Expansion Joints)
Expansion joints in traffic-bearing

r1o
Chlorides
conditions require the following design
considerations:
Failed joint
1. Movement at joint
figure a (note: calculate based on field
• - 0 . I I • ' • • measurements or cheoretical ther-
1 .

."

. . 0.
1 •
mal coefficient of expansion -

-O o-0: o
approxirnately 7/8" (22mm) per 100
feet (30.Sm) per l OOOF (38°C)).
2. Type of traffic duty: pedestrians,
cars, trucks, buses.
3. Construction details ac joint.
4. Requirement for watertightness.
5. Exposure to snow plows.
(refer to figure c) !............ ......................······· 6. Connection requirements of ocher
joint systems.
figure b
7. Geometric configuration of the joint
system.
8. Condition of existing concrete.
9. Aesthetic requirements.
Fig. B and Fig. C outline a typical
retrofit joint system. A typical retrofit
involves the following steps:
Polymer nosing is used to absorb impact. 1. Removal of existing joint materials.
Stress and anchor joint seal to 2. Reconfiguring joint opening to new
concrete system requirements.
3. Repair of cleterioratecl concrete.
4. Installation of new joint seal.
.· .. . .·. . . The system shown in Fig. C involves a
compression seal designed as a water-

..
. , ·.· ..: . . .. ~ . . . stop. The seal has a wing on each side
f.igi.ire-'t: · ·.. · . anchored to the concrete with an
elastomeric nosing material. The wings
Joint system moves with help absorb tensile stresses and pre·
~ changes in joint o ening. vent the flow of water around the
.. ., _,- conventional compression seal .
Extreme care needs to be exercised
. .. . . . . .. . .
when designing connections and
. ·.· . . · · .. •. . ·. . ·.. . .. .. splices. Mose systems fail in poorly
· .. . detailed or constructed connections.
·. . ' _iigl.ifo d. ". : .
..

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pr.:Lrt Five: Protection Section 2: Methods

Altering Electro-Chemical
Behavior: Impressed Current
Cathodic Protection
Impressed current cathodic protection
Top-Side CP System (CP)is an electrical process of control-
ling the corrosion of embedded rein-
forcing steel. The process involves
pumping an electrical currenc to the
reinforcing steel, thus, preventing the
bar from corroding (Fig. C). An electri-
cal direct currenc (DC) volt power
source is connected between the
Protective
Overlay reinforcing steel requiring protection
and an installed anode system. Electri-
cal power is pumped into the anode
Anode Mesh system, which distributes the electrical
current to the surrounding concrete.
Reinforcing Steel The electrical current moves toward
Requiring Protection the electrically connected reinforcing
steel. The concrete between the anode
figure a
and the reinforcing steel acts as an
electrolyte (material capable of trans-
mitting elcct1ical current). In order for
DC Rectifier the concrete to carry electrical current,
adequate moisture levels are required.
With top side systems involving protec-
tive overlays (Fig. f0, it is important
that the materials used provide for
electrical current flow. All impressed
currenc cathodic protection (CP) sys-
tems require constant monitoring and
adjustment.

Under-Deck CP System

figure b

Anode

DC Power
Source

·. . . · .. .Cattiode:
. l
T Electrical
Connection

Location of anode before the cathodic

protection system was installed figure c

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Additional Sources of Information

Babaei, K., Hawkins, N.M., Evaluation of Bridge Deck Protective Strategies, NCHRP
Report 297, 1987, Washington, D.C.
Carter, Paul D., Forbes, A.]., Comparative Evaluation of the Waterproofing and
Durability of Concrete Sealers, Alberta Transportation and Utilities, 1986.
Ca11er, Paul D., Preventive Maintenance of Concrete Bridge Decks, Concrete Inter-
national, No. 11, 1989, pp. 33-36.
ACI 515.lR-79 (Revised 1985), A Guide to the Use of Waterproofing, Dampproof-
ing, Protective, and Decorative Barrier Systems for Concrete.
Grouting Technology, Engineer Manual, EM-1110- 2-3506, U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers, 1984.
Grouting, Soil frnprovement and Geosynthetics, Proceedings of the ASCE Confer-
ence, New Orleans, 1992.
Darter, M.I., Baranberg, E.]., and Yrjanson, WA., Joint Repair Methods for Portland
Cement Concrete Pavements, NCHRP Report 281, 1985, Washington, D.C.
Ffeifer, D.W, Scali, M.]., Concrete Sealers for Protection of Bridge Structures,
NCHRP Report 244, 1981, Washington, D.C.

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GLOSSARY

Abrasion The wearing away of materials by friction. Particles become detached by a com-
bined cutting shearing and tearing action.
Abrasive Resistance The ability of a surface to resist wear due to rubbing and friction.
Absorption The process by which a liquid is drawn into and tends to fill permeable pores in a
porous solid body; also the increase in weight of a porous solid body resulting
from the penecration of a liquid into its permeable pores.
Accelerate To fasten or quicken the natural progress or process of a reaction or event.
Adhesion The state in which two surfaces are held together by interfacial forces.
Admixture A material other than water, aggregates, and cement used as a component of
concrete, or mortar, and added to the batch during its mixing.
Air-entraining The capability of a material or process to develop a system of minute bubbles or
air in cement paste, mortar, or concrete.
Air Void A space in cement paste, mortar, or concrete filled with air, characteristically lmm
or greater in size and irregular in shape.
Alk.ali-Aggregate Reaction A chemical reaction in mortar or concrete between alkalies (sodium and potas-
sium) from Portland cemenr or other sources and certain constituents of some
aggregates, under certain conditions. Deleterious expansion of the concrete or
mortar may result.
Alkalinity The condition of having or containing hydroxyl (OH-) ions; containing alkaline
substances.
Ambient Temperature The environmental temperature surrounding the object under construction.
Anode The positive electrode in a solution of electrolytes where electrons leave the
solution, and at which oxidation occurs.
Bleeding The release of water from the body of fresh concrete or mortar to its surface.
Bond The adhesion and grip of a material to other surfaces against which it is placed.
Bonding Agent A substance applied to a suitable substrate to create a bond between it and a
succeeding layer.
Bond Breaker Material used to facilitate independent movement between two units, which
would otheiwise behave monolithically.
Bond Strength Resistance to the separation of two materials which are in contact.
Bond Stress The force per unit area necessary to rupture a bond.
Bracket An overhanging member projecting from a wall or other bocly to support the
weight acting outside the wall.
Burlap A course fabric of jute, hemp, or flax, for use as a water-recaining cover when
curing cementitious materials.
Capillarity The action by which the surface of a liquid is elevated or depressed when it is in
contact with a solid.
Carbonation The conversion of calcium hydroxide in hardened cementitious material to cal-
cium carbonate by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Cathode Tbe electrode at which chemical reduction occurs.
Cavitation Pitting of concrete by implosion, i.e., the collapse of vapor bubbles in flowing
water which forms in areas of low pressure and collapse as they enter areas of
higher pressure.
Chloride Content The total amount of chloride ions present in concrete or mortar.

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Cover The least distance between rhe surface of the reinforcement and the outer surface
of the concrete.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Changes in linear dimension per unit length, or change in volume per unit vol-
ume per degree of temperature change.
Cohesion The molecular attraction which holds the body of the material.
Cold Joint A joim or discontinuity formed when a concrete surface hardens before the next
batch is placed against it.
Composite A product made up of different materials.
Compressive Strength The measured maximum resistance of a concrete or mortar specimen to axial
loading.
Consistency The relative mobility or ability of freshly mixed concrete or mortar to flow; the
usual measurements are slump for concrete, flow for mortar, or grout, and pene-
tration resistance for a neat cement paste.
Consolidation
-,,_
The process whereby the volume of freshly placed mortar or concrete is reduced
to the minimum practical space, usually by vibration, centrifugation, tamping, or
some combination of these; to mold it within the forms or molds and around
embedded parts and reinforcement ancl eliminate voids other than entrained air.
Corrosion Degradation of concrete or steel reinforcement by electrochemical or chemical
attack.
Corrosion Inhibitor A chemical compound which, when added in small concenrrations to concrete or
mortar, effectively checks, decreases, or prevents the reaction of embedded metal
with the environment.
Crack A complete or incomplete separation of concrete into two or more pans, pro-
duced by breaking or fracturing.
Creep The deformation of a body, with time, under constant load.
Curing The maintenance of humidity and temperature of freshly placed concrete during
some definite period following placing, casting, or finishing to assure satisfactory
hydration of the cementitious materials and proper hardening of the concrete.
Curling The distortion of a member that was originally, essentially linear, into a curved
shape due to differences in temperature or moisture content in the zones adja-
cent m its opposing faces.
Deflection A variation in position or shape of a structure or structural element.
Deformation A change in dimension or shape due to stress.
Delamination A separarion along a plane parallel to a surface, as in the separation of a coating
from a substrate or the layers of a coating from each other; or in the case of a
concrete slab, a horizontal splitting, cracking, or separation in a plane roughly
parallel to, and generally near, the upper surface.
Deterioration The disintegration or chemical decomposition of a material during test or service
exposure.
Disintegration Deterioration into small fragm ents or particles clue to any cause.
Di-ying Shrinkage Contraction c.Jue to moisture loss after cementitious material has been hardened.
Dry Pack Concrete, mortar, or grout mixtures of dry consistency, usually compacted by
ramming.
Durability The capability of a structure or its components to maintain serviceability over a
designed period of time in a specified environment.
Elasticity The ability of a material to return to its original shape after removal of a load.

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Electrolyte Any substance which, when dissolved in water or other suitable solvent , forms a
solution that conducts electricity, the conclucrivicy being clue to ionic dissociation
of the dissolved substance.
Entrained Air Microscopic air bubbles intentionally incorporated in mortar or concrete during
mixing, usually by rhe use of surface-active agent, typically between 10 and 1,000
mm in diameter, and spherical or nearly so.
Epoxy Resins A class of organic chemical bonding systems used in the preparnrion of special
coatings or adhesives for concrete, or as binders in epo>..)' mortars and concretes.
Erosion Progressive disinregration of a solid by the abrasive or caviration action of gases,
fluids, or solids in motion.
Exothermic Reaction A chemical reaction in which heat energy is liberated.
Fatigue The weakening of a material by repeated or alternating loads.
Feather Edge The edge of a concrete or mortar placement, such as patching or topping, which
is beveled at an acute angle.
Finishing Leveling, smooching, compacting, and otherwise rreating surfaces of fresh, or
recently placed, concrete or mortar co produce a desired appearance and service.
Flexural Strength A property of a solid which indicates its ability to withstand bending.
Gel A semi-solid, jelly-like condition of matter. A form of colloidal dispersion in which
the dispersed component and dispersing medium are associated to form a jelly-
like mass.
Grouting A process involving rhe pumping of a liquid of variable viscosity into the soil,
fractured rock, or concrete to reduce the permeability of these materials.
Hairline Cracking Small cracks of random pattern in an exposed concrete surface.
Hardener A substance that enters into a chemical combination with other substances to
form a new, more solid material.
Homogeneity Uniformity of composition throughout the material.
Hydrophobic Having no attraction for water.
Impact The single instantaneous stroke or contact of a moving body with another, either
moving or at rest.
Impregnation A process of filling the interstices of a porous body with polymer compound.
Infiltrntion The uncontrolled admittance of air or liquid through cracks and pores in concrete.
Interface The common boundary surface between two !:iubstances.
Jack A mechanical device used to apply force t0 prestressing tendons, to adjust the
elevation of form supports, and to raise objects.
Joint Sealant Compressible material used to exclude water and solid foreign materials from
joints.
Laitance A layer of weak and nondurable material containing cement and fines from aggre-
gates, brought to the top of over-wet concrete by bleeding water; the amount of
which is generally increased by ove1working or over-manipulating concrete at the
surface by improper finishing or by job traffic.
Latex An emulsion of a natural or synthetic rubber in a water phase.
Live Load Any load that is not permanenrly applied to che structure.
Matrix In the case of mortar, the cement paste in which the fine aggregate particles are
embedded; in the case of concrete, the mortar in which coarse aggregate parti-
cles are embedded.

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© R. S. Mc::: tn s Com p:m}'. Kin~..:ton. MA 285
Membrane A thin, waterproof barrier consisting of polymeric material which may be prefabri-
cated or applied as a liquid.
Mixture The assembled, blendecl, commingled ingredients of mortar, concrete or the like;
or the proportions for their assembly.
Modulus The ratio of stress to strain.
Modulus of Elasticity The ratio of notmal stress to corresponding strain for tensile or compressive
stresses below the proportional limit of the material; referred to as elastic modu-
lus or Young's modulus.
Monolithic Concrete Concrete cast with no joints other than construction joints.
Negative Moment A condition of flexure in which cop fibers of a horizontally placed member, or
external fibers of vertically placed member, are subjected to tensile stresses.
Oxidation The formation of an oxide; the act or process of oxidizing, combining or increas-
ing the proportion of oxygen.
pH (Hydrogen Ion Concentration) The negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion concemration of a
solution.
Plane of Weakness The plane along which a body under stress tenets to fracture.
Plastic Cracking Cracking that occurs in the surface of fresh concrete soon after it is placed. and
while it is still plastic.
Plastic Shrinkage Shrinkage that takes place before cement paste, mortar, grout, or concrete sets.
Polymer A compound formed by the reaction of simple molecules having functional
groups, which permit their combination to proceed to high molecular weights
under suitable conditions.
Polymer Concre te or Mortar Concrete or mortar in which a resin serves as a binder.
Porosity The ratio, usually expressed as a percentage of the volume of voids in a materials,
to the total volume of a material, including the voids.
Pop-out A shallow, corical depression on the surface of concrete.
Pot Life Storage time interval after mixing, during which a liquid materiaJ can be used
without difficulry.
Pumped Concrete Concrete which is transported through hose or pipe hy means of a pump.
Quality Assurance A system of proceeding thar ensures rhar the intended levels of qualiry on a
project are obtained.
Rebound Aggregate and cement or wee shotcrete that bounces away from a surface against
which it is being projected.
Reflection Cracking The occurrence of cracks in overlays and toppings that coincide with the locarion
of cracks in the base slab.
Relative Humidity The rario of the quantity of water vapor actuall\' present co the amount present in
a saturated atmosphere at a given temperature, expressed as a percentage.
Restraint Restriction of free movement of fresh or hardened concrete, mortar, or grout;
restraint can be internal and external and nrny act in one or more directions.
Retardation A reduction on the rate of hardening or setting, i.e., an increase in rhe time
required to reach initial and final set, or to develop early strength of fresh con-
crete, mortar, or grout.
Rodding The compaction of a cemenritious material by means of a ramping rod.
Saud Pocket A 7..one in concrete or mortar containing sand without cement.

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Sawcutting Cutting of hardened concrete by means of special equipment, utilizing cliamoncl
or silicon-carbide blades or discs.
Scaling Local cracking or peeling away of the surface concrete or mortar.
Settlement The downward movement of a structure, pare of a structure, or underpinning;
sinking of solid particles in fresh mortar or concrete after placement and before
initial setting.
Shear An internal force tangential to the plane on which it acts.
Shrinkage A volume decrease caused by drying ancl chemical changes.
Silane A ~olution of a low molecular weight composition of silicon and hydrogen used as
penetrating sealer for concrete surfaces.
Siloxane A silicon and oxygen-based compound, also containing carbon and hydrogen,
used as penetrating sealer for concrete surfaces.
Silica Fume (Microsilica) Highly reactive pozzolana, a by-product of ferrosilicon production.
Slump A measure of consistency of freshly mLxed concrete equal to the subsidence of the
molded, truncated cone immediately after removal of the slump cone.
Soffit The underside of a member of a building.
Strain Defonnation per unit length.
Stress Intensity of force per unit area.
Superplasticiser An admixture that does not alter the surface tension of water; it can be used in
low dosages to produce water reduction in concrete or mortar.
Temperature Cracking Cracking clue to tensile failure, caused by a temperature drop in members subject
to external restraints; or temperature differential in members subject to internal
restraints.
Tendon A steel element such as wire, cable, bar, rod, or strand used tO impart prestress
to concrete where the element is tensioned.
Vibration The energetic agitation of freshly mixed concrete during placing by mechanically
oscillating devices at moderately high frequency to assist in its consolidation.
Viscosity The internal friction resistance of an adhesive to flow when that resistance is
directly proportional to the applied force.
Volume Change An increase or decrease in volume.
Waterstop A thin sheet of meral, rubber, plastic, or other material inserted in a construction
joint to abstract the seeping of water through the joint.
Workability A property of freshly mixed mortar or concrete which describes its homogeneity
and the ease with which it can be mixed, placed, compacted, and finished.

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References:

ACI 116R-90, Cement and Concrete Terminology

Johnson, B.M., and Wilson, A.H., Terminology of the Building Conservation Indus-
try, Division of Building Research, NRC Canada, 1982.

Peter H f:n11m.>ns/Co 11cl'<:te Rcp·..til' and Mc1illl~ll:incc

288 0 R. S. Mc:11\"t Cnmp:1nr. Kings1un, >ii.A
INDEX

A bonding agents, 163

abrasion, 26 borescope, 87
acidic gases, 15, 84 bridge decks, 81
acids, 22 bridge pier bent, 221
acoustical emissions, 81 buckling, 40
adhesive, 236-237
drilled hole packer injection, 237 c
injected, 236 calcium compouncls, 22
low pressure syringe, 237 cantilever, 206
surface-mounted port injection, 237 cantilevered slabs, 62
vacuum injection, 237 cantilevered shear arm device, 209- 210
adhesives, 233-234, 237 cantilevered members, 51
placing inco fractu red concrete, 237 capacity strengthening
aggregate, 136, 177 beam-column moment, 217
grouted preplaced, 177 carbonation, 15, 84, 252
alkali-aggregate reactions, 24 depth of, 84
alkaline solutions, 22 strategies for controlling, 252
aluminum, 17 carbonation-induced corrosion, 251
in concact with fresh concrete, 17 strategies for controlling, 251
ambient temperature, 41 cast-in-place
applied load, 52-53 concrete, 54
ASTM designations, 77 structures, 52
cavitation, 26
B cement, 41
balcony slab, 106 chemical modifiers, 136
balcony, 143 chemical runoff, 25
bar placement, 64 chemical surface damage, 254
improper, 64 strategies for controUing, 254
beam, 48, 194, 225 chemicals, aggressive, 22
beam-column connections, strengthen- chloride
ing, 217 content, 83
beam-column moment -induced corrosion, 246
capacity strengthening, 217 penetration, 12
beam shear capacity chlorides, 13-14
strengthening at moving hinge, 203 cast-in, 14
beam shear strengthening, 200- 204 exposure conditions, 13
bearing assembly coatings, 247, 264, 267
elastomeric, 230 cold joints, 66
externally mounted, 230 collar, friction, 216
binder, 136 column, 53, 62, 67, 103, 105, 107, 109,
bond 144, 194, 195, 213,
keys to developing, 155 215, 216, 217, 218
bond strength, evaluating, 158-163 compressive strengthening, 215
bond strength, measuring, 156-157 connections to slab, 50
direct shear method, 157 form placement, 65
slam shear test, 156 repair, 108
uniaxial tensile test, 157 section enlargement, 215- 216
bond strength of overlays and coatings, 90 strengthening, 214- 218
bonding repair materials to existing composite construction, 194
concrete, 155, 160 compression struts
general procedures, 160 externally mounted, 229

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iVt R. $. Mc::1n-: C:umpnn\', King.,1on, MA 289
Index

compressive strength, 53, 91 quality control, 236

concrete, 246 cracking and spalling, 10
behavior, 7 corrosion-induced, 10
concrete placement, 69 cracking, 7, 65, 68, 126
construction, 61 early thermal, 41
cover requirements, 62 of freshly placed concrete, 41
factors, 7 plastic settlement, 68
new, 246 plastic shrinkage, 68
removal methods, 145, 146 subsidence, 68
full depth, 146 cracks, 13, 85-87, 198, 201, 203-204,
partial depth, 145 221
confinement strengthening, 218 exposure conditions, 13
connections, 58 flexural, 221
double T, 58 structural concern, 203
example, 58 creep, 89, 127-128
connection stabilization and curing, 33, 41
strengthening, 227-230 cylindrical structures, 56-57
consolidation, 69 example, 57
constructibility & appearance
properties, 125 D
to avoid, 125 dehonding, 270
ro look for, 125 defleC[ed slab, 224
construction joim, 13 procedure for correcting, 224
construction tolerances, 67 deAection, 7, 52, 206-207
contact loading, 58 example, 52
continuous concrete, understanding the cause, 7
beam, 49 deicing salts, 12-13
frame, 212 clelaminaced concrete, locating, 81
continuous spans, 39 delamination, 15-16, 126
continuous structures, 52 design, passive and active, 197
controlling deterioration, 242 design error, 110
corbel, 228- 229 cause/effect, 110
reconstruction of, 228 dial gauges, 89
core sampling, 84 disintegration, 7
corroded reinforcement, 140- 141 disintegration mechanisms, 20-21
corrosion, 12, 15, 16, 18, 62, 82, 148 introduction to, 21
activity measuremenrs, 82 dissimilar metal corrosion, 17
galvanic, 17 diurnal solar heating, 38-39
post-tension strand, 18 Double T, 64
structural member, 16 dowel shear device, 206- 207
corrosive chemicals, 13 drilled hole shear transfer device, 206,
covermeters, 88 208
crack, 63 drying shrinkage, 30, 53, 126- 127
gauges, 89 excessive, 126
movements, 233-234 faccors affecting, 30
techniques to solve, 233 dry shrinkage
understanding, 233 process, 128
repairs, 232 restrained, 42
performance requirements, 232 strain, 128
stabilization, 231-238, 235, 236 drypack space, 215
design errors, 235 drypacking, 226

Pcccr 1-L Cm01ons!Concrete lkp:lir and M:tin1t:1~:rn1.:e

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 E freeze-thaw damage, 256-257
early temperature rise, 41 strategies for controlling, 256- 257
factors affecting, 41 freeze-thaw disintegration, 23, 111
earthquake, 213, 218 fresh concrete, properries, 69
elastic shortening, 54 full depth repair, 181
elastic stress, 128
elaswmeric bearing, 213 G
elastomeric membranes, 264, 269 glossary, 283
liquid-applied, 269 grout, 208
embedded metal corrosion, 8-9 fill, 207
inhibitors, 9 materials, 272
process, 9 acrylate, 272
promoters, 9 epoxy, 272
enlargement, 194, 225 rnicrofine cement, 272
epoxy, 199, 201, 204, 223, 230, 233 urethane, 272
gluing, 198 grouted subgrade, 209
injection, 235 grouting, 196, 264, 272
erosion, 26 water control, 272
evaluating concrete, 76 gypsum and ettringite, 25
testing methods for, 76
evaluation, 78 H
review of engineering data, 78 hammer-sounding, 81
survey procedure, 78 hinge plate, 206
survey report, 78 hinges, 39
expansion, 127 honeycomb, 69, 85- 87
anchor, 199, 230 primary causes of, 69
joints, 42, 206, 212 hydrarion, 41
installing new, 212 hydro removal, 145
exposure conditions, 79 hydro demolition, 146
extensomerers, 89
external loads/properties, 124 I
to avoid, 124 impact loads, 104
to look for, 124 impact-echo mer hod, 85
impregnation, 264, 266
F investigation, 80
faulty workmanship, 60-61 visual review, 80
fiber optics, 87 isolation bearing, 213
fiber reinforcemenr, 136
fillers, 136 J
fire damage, 44 jacket, 218, 229
flat jack, 213 fiberglass, 218
flexural crack, 48- 49 reaction, 229
flexural strengthening, 219-226 steel, 218, 229
beam and slab, 220 jacking force, 16
methods, 220 joint sealing, 264
footing, 218
forces acting on repair, 104 L
checklist, 104 lateral ground movement isolation,
forms, 65, 69 213
premature removal of, 65 ledger beam, 64
forrnwork, 41 leveling course, 267

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It) It. 291
Index

live load, 207 0

rolling, 207 optical compari tors, 89
live load capacity, 223 overlay, 103, 182, 220, 225
load effects, 46-47 overlay materials, 184
load-carrying properties, 122 overlayment, 268
co avoid, 122
to look for, 122 p
loads, 56, 103, 106, 108 pachometers, 88
compressive, 108 parking structure con figuration, 64
internal, 103 rypical precast, 64
live, 103, 106 passiviry, 82
moving, 103 pedestal, 228
overburden, 56 performance requirements, 105- 106
placing into repairs, 108 examples, lOS- 106
thermal, 103 petrographic analysis, 84
longitudinal cracking, 18 petrographic examination, 24
low shrinkage · phenophtalein, 84
definition of, 129 pinholes, 270
materials, 129 pipe, S6
LVDT's (electrical transducers), 89 buried, 56
joints, 275
M placement ancl curing, 120
maintenance, preventive, 112 placement methods, 166-174, 183
material, constructibility, 167
appearance, 118 clry packing, 170
use, 118 form and casr-in-place, 171
properties, 121 form ancl pump, 172
requirements, 116, 118- 120 hand-applied, 183
checklist, placement conditions, important considerations, 166
120 introduction to, 166
checklist, user needs, 118 overhead surfaces, 169
material selection, 133 quality control, 167
process, 117, 119 summary of merhocls, 168
flow chart, 117 vertical surfaces, 171
checklist, service/exposure condi- plastering, 268
tions, 117 plaza deck systems, 260
temperature, 41 controlling water leakage, 260
measuring bond strength, 156-1S7 pneumatic breakers, 146
membranes, 247 hand-held, 146
micro-cracking, 23 pneumatic chipping hammer, 145
modulus of elasticity, 127 pneumatic/hydraulic-mounted breakers,
moisture content, 32 146
volume change, 32 pneumatic scabbier, 145
moisrure effects, 28, 29 polymer modifiers, 136
moisture vapor transmission, 31 polymers, 198
movements, monitoring, 89 post-tension strand, 18
moving loads, 104 unboncled, 18
post-tension cable drape, improper, 63
N post-tension strand corrosion, 18
negative moment, 51 post-tensioned members, S4-S5
negative moment steel, 62 example, SS

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 post-tensioned reinforcement, 221 reinforcing steel protection, 152-153
external, 221 alkaline, 153
post-tensioned strand, 221 cathodic/impressed current, 152
post-tensioned straps, 204 cathodic/sacrificial anode, 152
external, 204 encapsulation, 152
post-tensioning, 195, 201, 220 epoxy, 153
precast structure, 38 section loss, 150
problem indicators, 80 splice methods, 150
corrosion, 80 surface installed anode, 153
cracking, 80 zinc, 153
miscellaneous, 80 reinforcing steel repair, 150
movements, 80 remote viewing, 87
surface distress, 80 removal geometry, 144
water leakage, 80 rendering, 268
protection, rnethocls of, 263-265 repair and overlay materials, 134
protection strategies, 244-245 repair, configuration, 120
flowchart, 244 repair material ingredients, 136
introduction to, 245 requirements, load carrying, 119
pull-off testing, 90 resin sec, 230
punching shear, 65 resin bonded anchor, 199
restraint to volume changes, 40
R working example, 40
radar, 88 rock pockets, 69
rebar corrosion in cracks, 250 rolling wheel load, 209
strategies for controlling, 250 rolling live load, 208, 210
rebonding, 236 rotary milling machine, 145
reflective cracking, 270 rotary-percussion hammer, 83
reinforced concrete, 48-49
basic engineering principles, 48 s
reinforcement, 82, 223-224, 228 salt solutions, 22
bonded steel plate, 223- 224 sampling, 83
corrosion, 82 sawed slot clowel transfer device, 206
externally bonded, 223 sealers, 247
steel, 228 segregation, 66
reinforcement, congested, 63 seismic isolation, 213
reinforcing bar, 10, 30, 48 service conditions, 79
reinforcing steel, 12-13, 62, 88, 147, service/exposure properties, 123
206 to avoid, 123
cleaning, 147 to look for, 123
locating embedded, 88 service/exposure conditions, 119, 121
protection, 147- 153 influence of, 121
repair, 147 settlement, 7, 89
reinforcing steel cleaning, 151 shear bond stress, 108
abrasive blast, 151 shear capacity, 223
general procedure, 151 shear capacity strengthening, 216
high pressure water, 151 shear cracking, 40, 49, 50, 55, 202,
needle scaler, 151 204
power wire brush, 151 collars, 216
reinforcing steel placement, 62 hinge assembly, 212
improper, 62 shelf, 228
proper location, 62 stress, 216

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Index

shear cracking, continued rechniques,tlesign considerations, 194

sLrengthening, 202 stress acting on repairs, 104
passive, 202 types of, 104
transfer, 58, 207, 230 stress, 47, 104, 109, 155
inadequate, 207 compressive, 47, 104
transfer strengthening, 205-210 distribution in fteJn.1ral members,
between members, 205- 210 109
shortening flexural, 104
creep, 53 reduction, 195, 211-213
elastic, 53 shear, 47, 104
shotcrete, 178-180 tensile, 47, 104
additives for, 179 stresses, 58
dry mix, 178 shear and tension, 58
improperly placed, 180 structural capacity, 11
repairs, typical problems, 178 reduction in, 11
wet mix, 180 structural member corrosion, 16
shrinkage, 30, 54 structural neecls, 103
creep and drying, 54 surface-applied protection, 266
drying, 30 joint seals, 277- 278
~ab,105, 144, 194, 207-208, 210, pile jacketing, 271
224- 225 problems with, 270
deflected, 224 surface deterioration, 102
jacking, 206 surface freeze-thaw deterioration, 110
on grade, 33 repair, 110
subsealing, 206 surface hardness, 91
surfaces, 67 surface preparn1ion, 138-140, 142
improper grades of, 67 inrroduction to, 138
slab/beam-co-column shear, 50 procedure, 138
solar heating, effects of, 203 surface repair, 97-98, 101, 103, 112
soluble sulfates, 25 design, 101
spalling, 7, 12, 105, 126 example problem, 112
span shortening, 222 flow chart, 98
splitters, 146 general procedures, 98
static loads, 104 introduction to, 97
steel, 199 performance requirements, 102
atmchmem of, to concrete, 199 surface repairs, 98, 113, 143
steel beams, 16 anatomy of, 99
steel corrosion, 10 five stracegies, 113
steel placement, improper, 63 layout, 143
steel reinforcement, 201 surface repair materials, 116
stirrups, 64, 202 criteria for, 116
location of, 64 smface-appliecl barriers, 265
strains, 89 surface-applied protection, 267,
strengthening 269-271 , 273-279
active, 197 joint seals, 276, 279
passive, 197 water conrrol grouting, 273-275
strengthening between members, 206 surfacing, 264, 268
types of junctions, 206
strengthening and stabilizarion, T
194-196, 198 T Stem, 64
material behavior, 196 tanks, 57

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294 !fl I< S. Mt:an~ Comp;111)~ Kin~ton, f\{A
 teflon slide, 203 chermography, 81
temperature, 104 th ru-bolting, 199
conu-action, 104 tolerances for formed surfaces, 67
expansion, 104
temperature gradients, 33, 38-.W u
working example, 39 ultrasonic pulse velocity methods, 86
rcmperacure rise, 41
example of, 41
tensile breaks, 90
v
video cameras, 87
types of, 90
voids, 85, 86, 87
censile reinforcement, 267
voltmeter, 82
tensile steel strands, 54
volume change, 47, 55
tensile stress, 108, 128, 215
effects, 126, 128, 130
tensile zone, 52
restrained, 55
tension, 49
volume change mechanisms, 127
tension cracks, 51
tension strut hanger, 228
test methods for evaluating concrete, w
77 wall, 144, 194, 226
testing, 83, 91 retaining, 226
chloride-ion content evaluation, 83 strengthening, 226
rebound and penen·acion, 91 water, 259
testing methods, 76 water control, 277-278
thermal volume change, 37 rout and seal method, 277- 278
changes, 198 water flow, 110-111 , 258
effects, 35-36 controlling, 258
gradient, 39 internal, 110
loading, 43 leakage, 259, 261
dynamic, 43 waterproofing, 259-260
loads, 38, 39, 43 waterstop joinL<;, 276
uneven , 38, 39, 43 leaking, 276
movemems, 42 Windsor Probe, 91
in existing cracks, 42
shock, 104 x
stresses, 42 x-ray, 88

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