THE WORLD OF TRANSLATION

Susi Harliani
(Politeknik Elektronika Negeri Sirabaya/ [email protected])

Abstract
Basically, transferring message from the source to target language is not just
changing the language, as there is multidiscipline process in the translation. The
complexity performed since the language is multi-system and its variety in
communication is never apart from context. Therefore, the translation needs not
only linguistics theory but also some other theories like socio-linguistics,
psycholinguistics, pragmatics, contrastive analysis and cross culture
understanding.

Keywords:
Source language; target language; transferring message

DOI: 10.19105/ojbs.v13i1.2272
A. Introduction writing style and the ability to integrate
According to Catford, "Translation those various masteries are needed, so
is an operation performed on languages: that communicative translations can be
a process of substituting a text in one produced in accordance with the level of
1
language for another", while according readers understanding.3 It could happen
to Nida and Taber, translating is an that the better knowledge or mastery of
activity to reproduce messages in target linguistic structures and messages,
language (TL) closely and naturally, someone will be more aware of his
commensurate with the one in the limitations in translating a message from
source language (SL), concerning its one language into another.4
meaning and style.2 The two opinions Meanwhile, language is a
above state that translation operates communication tool in which a piece of
structure, meaning and style. In this linguistic structure can represent various
case, linguistics, semantics, stylistics meanings, depending on the context,
work together. situation, participation, purpose and
It is asserted by Wills that numerous cultural factors. Language
translating is not a simple task; in this cannot be separated from its contents
case the ability to master several and paralinguistic elements because it
languages including linguistic aspects,
3 Maurits Simatupang, Enam Makalah tentang
1 J. C. Catford, A Linguistik Theory of Translation Terjemahan (Jakarta: UKI Press, 1993), 77.
4 E. Sadtono, Pedoman Penerjemahan (Jakarta:
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 1.
2 A. Widyamartaya, Seni Menerjemahkan Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa,
(Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 1989), 11. 1985), 26.

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has multi-functional. Language is the not mean that she has translated the
main substance of symbolic activity text. Translating is not that simple.
carried out by humans and it is a According to Catford, translation is,
5
complex substance, and even a "... "The replacement of textual material in
interrelated system of systems.”6 Based one language (SL) by equivalent textual
on those, text analysis does not rely material in another language (TL).”8
solely on grammar, but it also needs to Qualifications of total translation are
involve various reviews such as defined as, "... replacement of SL
sociolinguistics, pragmatics and grammar and Lexis by equivalent TL
discourse analysis, psycholinguistics, Grammar and Lexical with consequential
contrastive analysis, and cross-cultural replacement of TL phonology/
understanding. graphology by (nonequivalent) TL
phonology/graphology.”9 It can be seen
B. The Translation Essence that, beside the structure, the process of
The most common definition of transferring messages also needs to be
translation, which is widely known, is the considered, as it is stated by Newmark,
process of translating or copying from "Translation is a craft that is used to
one language to another. In general, replace a written message and/ or
dictionaries have also stated that. This statement, in a same message and/ or
definition is obviously weak, because its statement in another language".10
substance only touches its surface Furthermore, translation needs to be
extent. If it is just the translation of words concerned with message qualifications;
per word, that definition may be the more important the message part in
acceptable. SL, the more attention should be given
Copying is not the same as to translating, and vice versa; there
translating. Copying means, "... menukar should be a fidelity to the message.
(exchanging), mengganti, (replacing) There are times when fidelity is
7
menurun (plagiarizing)". The sentence, leaning on the structure of SL. When this
"Ani menyalin buku itu ke dalam bahasa happens, the message delivery is not
Inggris " cannot be interpreted simply as, optimal because the translator is overly
"Ani translates the book". In this case attached to the form of word, phrase,
maybe Ani has already changed the and structure in the SL. As a result, the
language in the original text, which had translation is unattractive and less
not been English into English, but it does communicative because the translator
underestimates the TL text. Nida also
5 Mansoer Pateda, Sosiolinguistik (Bandung:
8
Angkasa, 1991), 20. Catford, A Linguistik Theory of Translation,
6 W. F. Mackey, Language Teaching Analysis 1974, 20.
9 Catford, 20.
(London: Longman, 1965), 78.
7 W. J. S Poerwadarminta, Kamus Umum Bahasa 10 Peter Newmark, Approaches to Translation

Indonesia (Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 1976), 856. (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981), 7.

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encourages translators to be true to their level of ability of the reader, an
faithfulness, but this does not mean that interpreter cannot ignore the stylistic
they must be loyal to the SL. In this case aspect. Nida's definition seems to be
what it meant by faithful is certainly more complete. It is stated as follows:14
faithful to the author’s message. Larson, “That is to say, the translator first
who described the translation process as analyzes the message of the source
language into its simplest and
follows, also emphasized the meaning of
structurally clearest form, transfers it
the message: at this level, and then restructures it
to the level in the receptor language
which is most appropriate for the
audience which he intends to reach”.
According to Nida, first of all a
translator must be able to analyze the
message written in SL as clearly as
possible, after that he must transfer it into
TL completely by maintaining its
Picture 1. Translation Process11 equivalence, then rearrange the message
Larson stated, "... translation in TL in such a way that it is well
consist of transferring the meaning of understood in the level of the reader
source language into the receptor understanding. Nida apparently not only
language. This is done from the form of emphasized that the translator must know
the first language to form of second the author's message, but also he
language by the way of semantic emphasized that the translator must know
12 how to convey the message in the
structure." Based on his statement, it
can be seen that the term of meaning or translation. Noticeably, fidelity to TL is
semantics organization is prioritized. So, also important. According to Hardjo
the essence of translation is transferring prawiro, however, translators must, "... be
the meaning. In relation with this, Bell more faithful to the target language.”15
stated, "Translation is an expression in A translator, who has been able to
another language (or target language) of understand well the message of the
what has been expressed in another, author, is not necessarily able to
source language, preserving semantic produce quality translations and is easy
13 to read. To produce quality translations,
and stylistic equivalences.” Obviously,
in order that communicative translations translators must master TL. Mistakes in
can be produced in accordance with the
14 Eugena A. Nida, Language Structure and
11 Mildred L. Larson, Meaning Based Translation Translation (Stanford: Stanford University Press,
(Maryland: University Press of America, 1984), 4. 1975), 79–80.
12 Larson, 3. 15 Kunardi Hardjoprawiro, Bahasa Indonesia

13 Roger T. Bell, Translation and Translating : Dalam Terjemahan (Surakarta: Universitas

Theory and Practice (London: Longman, 1997), 5. Sebelas Maret, 1998), 4.

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re-expressing the author's message for In carrying out the duties, it is not
the weak mastery of TL will waste all the enough for the translator to merely use
hard-earned in understanding the dictionary as there are various word
message that has been done before. meanings written in it and by all means
Then, to produce a readable translation, there is only one proper meaning to
the translator must know well the level of express the source language text
readers understanding. Ignoring this message. As a matter of fact, it is not
matter will produce the boring and enough for the translator to master
uninteresting translations. simply two languages involved.
Savory added that translations Translating is not merely dealing with
16
must be easy to read and enjoyable. words, phrases, sentences or forms of
This is related with Duff's opinion, which discourse, as Frawley affirms, “….
states that in any field if a text to be Translating is more than a triple
translated, the various levels of the matching of words, grammatical
reader's ability to understand the structures, and cultural contexts which in
translated text cannot be ignored. So, it itself would already be a formidably
is very necessary for a translator to pay complex process.”19
attention, "... for whom a translation is In his role as a messenger or
prepared and how readers’ special liaison between the writer and the
17
ability level is". reader, the translator plays a dual role:
In translation activities, what as the recipient and the message giver.
actually happens is communication As the recipient of message, he needs to
between the writer and the reader involve himself in SL natural
through the translator. The author acts communication; at the same time, he
as the sender of the message, it is also acts as the giver/ messenger of TL
captured first by the translator, after that and for undertaking that he is demanded
be transferred from source to target to act fairly. Excessive tendency to one
language, for later be sent back to the side - SLor TL-- will tend to
reader.18 What must be maintained is underestimates for the other side. This
how the message that goes through the matter will clearly distort the message to
communication chain reaches the reader be conveyed. So, the translator must be
completely. In this case the role of the able to undertake as "... objective
translator is very important. mediator" for both sides.20 Moreover,
basically a translator must also have a
16
Theodore Savory, The Art of Translation
(London: Jonathan Cape Thirty Bedford Square,
19
1969), 52. William Frawley, Translation, Literary,
17 Rudolf M. Nababan, Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Linguistic, and Philosophical Perspective
Inggris (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 1999), 20– (London: Associated University Press, 1984), 43.
20 Richard W. Brislin, Translation Application and
21.
18 H. W. Hollander, Penerjemahan Suatu Research (New York: Gardner Press Inc, 1976),
Pengantar (Jakarta: Erasmus Tallcentrum, 1995). 289.

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moral responsibility to convey the truth, various conditions that must be met to
as stated by Newmark, “Translation is realize the equivalence of messages
concerned with moral and with factual between the two languages.24 It is not
truth. This truth can be effectively rare for translators having difficulty in
rendered only if it is grasped by the seeking and finding a suitable
reader, and that is the purpose and the equivalent. For this reason, translation
21
end of translation.” theory can recommend a method to
choose from.
C. Various Disciplines Involved in The fact is that literal translation
Translation techniques which is applied to meet the
needs of translation works produce the
1. Translation Theory
no optimal translations for there are
Although people before have done
quite a lot of message elements in SL
translation, since the time of Hammurabi
that are not revealed in the TL
in Babylon,22 it does not mean that
Translation theory mastered by a
translation theory is not needed. The
translator will be able to minimize those
translation theory is available and
message elements in SL that are not
needed to guide the translator's steps to
revealed. The phrases like ‘si jago
do his work. With the translation theory,
merah sedang mengamuk’. ‘kabar angin
a translator will have basic knowledge
itu sempat meresahkan hatinya’, ‘ia
and knowledge of the translation
mengambil langkah seribu karena takut’
process, which allows him to work more
would be odd when ‘si jago merah
systematically, methodologically and
sedang mengamuk’, is translated as,
effectively.23 It is impossible for a
‘red rooster is being angry’, ‘kabar angin
translator to produce a good translation
itu sempat meresahkan hatinya’ is
if he for example, does not understand
translated as ’This news of the wind
the definition and essence of translation
troubles his heart’ and ‘Ia mengambil
as one of the concepts of translation
langkah seribu karena takut’. are
theory. With the theory of translation, a
translated as ‘He takes a thousand steps
translator will get a clear picture of
because he’s scare.’
translating, especially nowadays where
Those examples show that the
the theory of translation has begun to
translator simply adjusts ‘jago merah’
develop. The main task of translation
with red rooster’, ‘kabar angin’ with
theory is to discuss and analyze what is
‘news of the wind’ and ‘langkah seribu’
called, "... functional equivalents" and
with ‘a thousand steps’. In this case, the
21 Peter Newmark, About Translation (Clevedon: translator does not understand the
Multilingual Matters Ltd, 1991), 1. idiomatic processes that occur in the
22 Eugena A. Nida, Toward A Science of

Translating (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964), 11.

23 Bell, Translation and Translating : Theory and 24Maurits Simatupang, Enam Makalah Tentang
Practice, 22. Terjemahan (Jakarta: UKI Press, 1993), 26.

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construction. He did not realize that in retaining the source language
SL the formation of ‘jago merah’, ‘kabar expression, the translator can indicate to
angin’ and ‘langkah seribu’ are the reader where the ‘danger spot’ lie”.27
acceptable and have semantic In this case, high precision as meant by
background, while ‘red rooster’, ‘news of Duff is certainly needed because what
the wind’ and a thusand step’ in TL are the translator faces is a scientific and not
not acceptable. He failed in the phase, literary work. It is not impossible to occur
which Bell called a semantic when this matter escape from ordinary
representation phase.25 Perhaps he translator’s observations, who does not
does not understand that in translation understand the translation theory.
there is such a process. Catford In essence, theory is an
affirmed, “The central problem of explanation or series of explanations
translation practice is that the finding TL concerning a system, which can be
translation equivalents. A central task of realized into a particular model. By
translation theory is that of defining the mastering translation theory, a translator
nature and conditions of translation will understand well the meaning of
equivalence.”26 So, the main problem in translation, its type and function, how to
translation is how to find out equivalence translate, the difference between
in SL, and to resolve it, the theory is able translating scientific and literature work,
to play a role, maintain the naturalness the uniqueness of the language and the
and reasonableness the translation, so translation process. Without mastering
that the translation will appears and the translation theory, a translator will
sorely an original work. only comprehend that translating is
In translation theory, there are nothing more than transferring the
various approaches, depending on the language.
function and type of SL text, which is
faced by the translator. The approach 2. Linguistic Theory
applied to translate the literature works General linguistic theory, which is
(which tends to be expressive), for able to define language correctly,
example, it is certainly different from the contains a description of the language
one that is used to translate scientific nature, is important for the translation. A
work (which tends to be informative and translator who does not understand the
argumentative), as stated by Duff, “In nature of language, will certainly face
scientific and academic translation, many obstacles in the implementation of
extreme precision is often required. By his duties. By understanding the nature
of language, a translator will be more
carefully in doing his work. In the
25 Bell, Translation and Translating : Theory and
Practice, 21.
26 J. C. Catford, A Linguistik Theory of Translation 27 Allan Duff, The Third Language (Oxford:
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 21. Pergamon Press, 1981), 11.

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translation process, grammar plays very this case, the translator apparently is
important role in reconstructing and re- misled by the word ‘purposes’, so he
expressing SL into the BSa text. By considered it as a head phrase, and the
mastering the structure, the translator word ‘ialah’ appears. When the English
will be able to do a grammatical analysis sentence is observed, especially the
of SL texts. He will be able to distinguish group ‘The First Third Country words
words from phrases, phrases from Training purposes’, it can be recognized
clauses and clauses from sentences. that its head phrase is the word
"Nida and Taber show the importance of ‘Training’. Words group ‘The First Third
grammatical analysis, because grammar Country’ acts as a modifier. So, the
has meaning and determines meaning", translation, which is certainly more
28
stated Suryawinata and in relation to acceptable is: Pelatihan Pertama untuk
that Halliday asserts, “Language… gives Negara Dunia Ketiga bertujuan
structure to experience, and helps to memberikan bekal hidup kepada
determine our way of looking at things, peserta. If this translation is noted, it can
so that it requires some intellectual effort be seen that ‘foothold in life’ is translated
to see them in any other way than that as ‘bekal hidup’. This equivalence is
29
which our language suggest to us.” done on the basis of the idiomatic
The following translation can be stated meaning that arises. Furthermore, if the
as the examples: translation is observed it will also be
seen that there are differences in the
ENG: The First Third Country Training
purposes to give a foothold in life grammatical system between SL and
for the participant. ST. For example, the ‘Third Country’ has
IND: Tujuan Penataran Pertama untuk MD patterned is translated as ‘Negara
Negara Dunia Ketiga ialah Ketiga’ which has DM.
memberi kedudukan untuk
By mastering grammar, a
kehidupan peserta.
translator will also be able to overcome
The example above shows that the
the problem of ambiguity; for example, in
translator fails to translate English
an English sentence, "There will be a
sentences correctly because he fails to
match between you and me", it will not
identify the group of words The First
be translated as, ‘Akan ada
Third Country Training purposes. As a
pertandingan antara kau dan aku’, but,
result, he fails to explore and formulate
‘Akan ada keserasian antara kau dan
the grammatical meaning of SL's text. In
aku’. That happens because the word
‘match’ can mean ‘pertandingan’
28 Zuchridin Suryawinata, ‘Analisis dan Evaluasi
terhadap Terjemahan Novel Sastra the (competition), it can also be ‘kesesuain’
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn dari Bahasa means suitability/ harmony.30
Inggris Ke Bahasa Indonesia’ (Dissertation, FPS
IKIP Malang, 1982), 51.
29 Mona Baker, In Other Words, A Course Book

30
on Translation (London: Routledge, 1992), 82. Nababan, Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris, 67.

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 In translation, sometimes the translator so that the sentence is not
difficulties arise related to extracting this recognized anymore.32
grammatical meaning because of the According to Soemarno,
great difference between BSu's linguistic "Translation error on English noun
system and the BSa linguistic system. In phrase shows a high frequency
33
BSu text there are sometimes long or compared to others.” The lacks of
very long phrases, clauses or sentences, understanding of the structure of SL lead
the elements of which may be difficult to the translator to do word-for-word
identify. Given that meaning is an translation, which obviously make the
important aspect of translation, the translation unattractive. "If the structure
problem of intimacy needs serious analysis is carried out properly, the
attention. translator will know which parts should
The first thing to do if someone be translated first.”34
translates is to read the SL text. Here a In translating, it is common to find
challenge must be faced, specifically the SL texts with long sentences, in which
grammar of SL. The reliable tool here is when the translator is less critical, it will
mastery of SL grammar. Hollander be difficult to find the basic elements.
clearly states the following: "What is The number of auxiliary elements in the
important for the translator when reading form of additional information and
the text is knowing the purpose and description of the composition can be
function of the language used by the the cause of this, particularly when the
author. The translator will in principle Sl text itself does not use punctuation
prioritize translation in the same correctly and clearly (for example, no
language function as the original text. quotation marks to express direct
Only in this way can the translator be excerpts) so that the reader must strive
able to translate according to the to observe and determine what is read is
31
author's intentions.” direct or indirect sentence.35
The viewpoints above show how Furthermore, in the semantic field,
important the role of linguistic theory is the translator will deal with the problem
to support translation. A study result of idiomatic, sociocultural, implicit,
states that in translating from English
into Indonesian, translators can deal with
32 Thomas Soemarno, ‘Studi Tentang Kesalahan
serious problems in the form of long Terjemahan Bahasa Inggris ke Dalam Bahasa
noun phrases which function ate as Indonesia oleh Mahasiswa Yang Berbahasa Ibu
Bahasa Jawa’ (Magister Thesis, IKIP Malang,
subjects. Such phrases can be
1983), 71.
confusing and even misinterpreted by 33 Soemarno, 82.

34 Nababan, Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris,

27.
35 Kunardi Hardjoprawiro, Menerjemahkan Novel

(Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan

31 Hollander, Penerjemahan Suatu Pengantar, 27. Bahasa, 1978), 7–9.

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textual and the speaker meaning. If the writer is also a member of the language-
translator ignores all of those – as he user society, which cannot be separated
does not understand it - he certainly from all forms of subjectivity in
cannot produce a good translation. ‘ia intepreting anything. When a writer for
gugur sebagai bunga bangsa’; ‘ia instance, uses elements of dialect,
membanting tulang’, ‘memeras keringa’t; pidgin or creole in his writing, that is the
I’a tak mau menjadi katak dalam reality that should be handled
tempurung’; ‘di atas langit masih ada objectively. In such cases, inter alia,
langit’. To translate those sentences into translation requires a sociolinguistic
English, it may be necessary to analyze contribution.
semantic components, which are quite Different level of society leads to
complicated. Another example, the differences language use, so that a
words ‘house’ in English cannot simply variety of language use is created.
be translated as ‘omah’, ‘griya’, or Various kinds of language usage arise
‘dalem’ in Javanese, because the due to geographical background, the
Javanese language distinguish the level social status of the society, the subject
of speech. Linguistic difficulties will matter, the society profession, and
emerge as the first problem that must be nature of the situation. The scientific
faced by a translator, after those range is indeed different from the range
problems like “… lexis and language will of literatures, social diversities are
develop.”36 different from techniques varieties, the
variety of doctors is different from the
3. Sociolinguistics traders, and the official range differ from
As one of the culture elements, the casual one. In relation to multi-level
language blends with its users in society, language-use in societies, any different
and every member of the society that of sociocultural conditions and levels of
use such language will provide certain education, comprehension of contextual
associations to everything depending on meaning in language might also be
the circumstances or social cultural varied.
background of the concerned society. Hence, connotation meaning of a
This can be seen from how the society word or phrase can be different one
inteprets anything that available and society to another. To answer this, a
happens. Based on the above matter, sociolinguistic study is needed. The
what needs to be considered in expressions such as ‘dilemarieskan’,
translation is the fact that the SL text ‘anak bangsa’, ‘rakyat’, ‘jihat’,
‘membebek’, kambing hitam’, ‘dagang
sapi’, ‘gunung es’, ’kawah
36 Soemarno, ‘Studi Tentang Kesalahan
Terjemahan Bahasa Inggris ke Dalam Bahasa candradimuka’, obviously cannot be
Indonesia Oleh Mahasiswa Yang Berbahasa Ibu translated literally, and sociolinguistic
Bahasa Jawa’, 5.

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background must be considered. The 4. Psycholinguistics
meaning of ‘lemari es’, related to its In written translation,
context and can only be understood by Psycholinguistics seems to show its less
educated people. Less educated people contribution. However, in spoken
can be confused in understanding the translation, the role of Psycholinguistics
meaning of ‘dilemarieskan’ Likewise is really numerous. As it is discussed
‘anak bangsa’, ‘rakyat’ and others. earlier, an important process in
Someone who will translate those translation is reproducing messages. In
phrases into English, requires to explore this case the role of Psycholinguistics in
the emergence motivation of those term, translation seems to be clear. In the
which may have never been process of reproducing messages, there
acknowledged in English speaking are two dominant roles, namely mastery
country. By understanding this matter of TL and understanding of message
and considering the readers’ ability, recipient existence. These two things are
translator will respond to the emergence closely related. Even though the
of this problem wisely. The translator has good linguistic capabilities
sociolinguistic study will be able to in the TL, he still needs to have
prevent the translation of the SL text in communicative competence by
one range into the TL text in a different considering sociolinguistic factors that
one. cannot be ignored. This means that in
Another example, a Javanese the process of reproducing the message,
word ‘panjenengan’ cannot simply be he needs to pay attention to who the
translated with ‘anda’ in Indonesian, or message recipient is, where he is, when,
‘you’ in English. On the contrary, the in what situation, and so on. Therefore,
English word ‘yes’ is not necessarily knowing who the source and message
equivalent to being translated into ‘ya’ in recipient is, what nationality and the
Indonesian, or ‘inggih’ in the Javanese. cultural background he has, and what
What about the trend of certain language they want to get from those interaction,
to use more passive sentences? are very important.37
Indonesian with Sundanese dialect for According to Altman as cited by
example, can be an example here. In Thomas & Towell, a translator needs to
that dialect, the sentence, buku itu ada have four skills: (1) master the source
di mana?’ (‘Where is the book?’) Is more language (SL); (2) master the target
often said ‘Buku itu ditaruhnya di mana?’ language (TL); (3) sensitive toward the
(‘Where is the book put it?’) To answer content of speech; (4) competent in
the questions like this, the translation
requires sociolinguistic support.
37Noel Thomas and Richard Towell, Interpreting
as a Language Teaching Technique (United
Kingdom: University of Salford, 1985), 15.

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facing the public.38 When it is observed up, putting the fillers’, this is what Gerver
carefully, Altman's formula implies that concluded.39
there is a complex mentality process of a In describing the existence of this
translator when he reproduces a mentality process, Hromosovae reported
message. When he reproduces a an interaction between short-term
message, it is very likely that at the same memory and long-term memory which is
time, cognitive processes take place called the term three-track memory, in
within him as in simultaneous the form of the following situations:40 (1)
interpretation: when the source message once the conversation in the SL is
speaks, the translator is also speaking. started, the interpreter starts saving; (2)
That is the translators demand on one once the interpreter saves, he also
hand. On the other hand, then he also brings all his knowledge of vocabulary
needs to constantly keep the sentences and grammar of SL and TL into his
hold the pattern which is spoken by short-term memory; (3) as long as the
source message; long sentences need to results of the translation are spoken, the
be prevented as they are impossible; he above cycle continues / repeats.
can't perceive in advance; his translation It is noticeably how complicated
will tend to be a word for word, but by all the mentality process that occurs in the
mean everything he says should be translator himself when he translates
meaningful, and the word for word verbally. The flow of activity in the
translation is not possible to carry out. process is so dense that high
Once the source news starts concentration is always needed to carry
speaking, the translator must also be out this process. It is very important for
ready to start speaking; once the the translators to have high
translator starts the sentence, he is like concentration. The slightest interruption
jumping in the dark; the grammatical and disruption can damage the
form of the sentence cannot be concentration and eventually damage
immediately determined and ending the the process that has already taken
sentence is not as easy as starting it. In place, as it has ben demonstrated by
such circumstances, agility is needed to Kade and Cartillieri in his research.41
guide his mind to go through They got the data there; it shows that the
complicated syntactic system. ‘Listening disturbances in the process of speech
intently to translating half-unconsciously, perception would force the
consciously interviewing redness the interpreter/translator to repeat the
former and balanced of syntax, touching process from the beginning. With the

39 Brislin, Translation Application and Research,

168.
40 Brislin, 191.

38 41 Brislin, 194.
Thomas and Towell, 13–16.

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basis of the research results, they psycholinguistic studies.44 Therefore, if
formulated, “The interpreter as listener the translator/interpreter understands
makes probabilities inferences about the psycholinguistics, he will be able to
future development of a sentence on the respond to the reproductive process of
basic of what he has just heard; his own his speech wisely.
utterances are then based on these As it is well known,
predictions, becoming more determined Psycholinguistics considers language
as the source language sentence not just as a sign, but also as a
proceeds.”42 psychological phenomenon; and
In the psycholinguistic study it is psycholinguistics approaches language
proven that the element of ‘noise’, which with concrete appreciation in
can occur in sound substitution, can psychological systems, understands how
reduce or interfere speech to produce and understand the language
understanding. With the existence of signs up to the cognitive abstraction
'noise', in terms of linguistics, the systems, including memory of
phonemic characteristic that is able to construction and interpretation of
distinguish one speech element to messages.45 The assessment of
another disappeared. Finally, there is psychological processes about language
obscurity. A phoneme can then proficiency and its implementation is
exchange with other speech elements so called Psycholinguistics.46
that it is misunderstood. Speech The interesting psycholinguistic
elements, which should not available, findings to look at in relation with
could have appeared, and the result is mentality processes in oral translation
43
the failure of communication. are the existence of conclusions which
It can be seen from the formula states that in the process of
that in the mentality process the understanding speech, a person is
translator has assumption or involved with assumptions that are born
expectations that give him the from the existence of speculations in his
opportunity to make inference mind.47 Chernov reported that 75% of
possibilities about the sentence he later the research subjects responded to
imagines on the basis of what he hears.
Furthermore, the sentence he produces
44 Jean Aitchison, The Articulate Mammal: An
will be based on that prediction. This is Introduction to Psycholinguistics (London:
in accordance with the results of Routledge, 1993), 203–40.
45
Michael Garman, Psycholinguistics
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994),
xv.
46 Jean Caron, An Introduction to
Psycholinguistics (New York: Harvester
42
Brislin, 194. Weatsheat, 1992), 1.
43 47
Robert Lado, Language Teaching (New York: Aitchison, The Articulate Mammal: An
Mc. Grow Hill, 1964), 72. Introduction to Psycholinguistics, 204–15.

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inputs according to their expectations or communication meaning between his
assumptions, compared to relying solely two clients.
48
on what they heard. Because the translator works with
Furthermore, in producing high cognitive speed, it is not impossible
messages, translators need to look at for him to be unaware to make speech
the deep structure of SL utterances. production errors, such as the
Gerver stressed, “It is only a knowledge occurrence of word transpositions,
of deep structure that would enable an syllables or sounds, like wise undergo
interpreter to translate this sentence”.49 mispronunciation.52
Based on that concept, when the
translator faces a source of messages in 5. Pragmatic Discourse Analysis
long-windedly talk "... as it is often done The first step in translating is to
by Japanese,”50 the problem obviously analyze SL text. So, the role of
arises. In this case, the translator should discourse analysis pragmatic is
be very clever to capture deep structure important in supporting translation.
of long-winded sentence. Nida also Chomsky once stated that, "... there are
states that the translator first wants to linguistic rules in mind which are actually
'decode' the messages in SL into difficult to interpret.”53 Although language
abstract forms before restructuring them is a tool for communicating and
51
into TL. expressing ideas, heart's content and
It is not impossible that there will feelings, language is not something that
be a conflict between the translator and is mastered by mind.54 Thus, language
the recipient because what he gets is not cannot be treated at will; it has its own
in accordance with his expectations and rules. The mind of language user must
assumptions. According to Anderson, as adjust to these rules.
‘the man in the middle’, the translator In fact, a person does not merely
should have prepared for this situation, communicate with the linguistic structure
because he is the subject of the media. He also communicates with his
recipient's expectations. It is not even heart, thoughts and feelings, which are
excessive to say that the translator expressed by various attitudes,
actually has a role as a person who has expressions, movements, so that it is
power, because he monopolizes the driven by a presupposition and
implicature. Grice gives an example: A: I
am out of petrol; B: There is a garage
48 Brislin, Translation Application and Research,
52
195. Aitchison, The Articulate Mammal: An
49 Brislin, 197. Introduction to Psycholinguistics, 243–57.
50 Nababan, Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris, 53 Nababan, Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris,

118. 166.
51 Brislin, Translation Application and Research, 54 Hamid Hasan Lubis, Analisis Wacana
198. Pragmatik (Bandung: Angkasa, 1994).

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133
round the corner.55 In the dialogue, B process), is "... a language that is
gives such answer because he cannot carrying out a task.”56
grasp the implicature that A needed fuel
for his car. Because translation is 6. Contrastive Analysis
essentially a process of communication, Bell stated, “Translation is the
obviously the elements of replacement of a representation of a text
communication can make mistakes such in one language by a representation of

as misstatement or misunderstanding. an equivalent text in a second

57
As someone in a spoken language.” Based on that, translation
communication, who does not only use requires contrastive analysis, so that an

language but also movement, equivalent translation can be produced.

expression, attitude, tone, and pitch; in Although in the beginning this discipline
written communication it is expected that was born to overcome the problem of
the same thing can happen, in the form language teaching, its role in translation
of a psychological depiction. In this case was quite large because in the
the role of discourse analysis for translation there was a process of

translation has noticeable. comparing two texts, which not only

There are many nonlinguistic included the meaning of the message,
factors that play a role in forming a but also structure and even style. In the
discourse and a discourse analysis field of applied linguistics, contrastive
should consider them. Factors of analysis has been recognized as a
conditions, situations, talks, point of supporter of translation activities, as
views, topics of discussion, etc. need to Crystal stated, “The phrase contrastive
be analyzed first so that the conclusions analysis also identifies a general
that are drawn from the discussion are approach to the investigation of

not external conclusions, but inner ones. language, particularly as carried on in

In translation activities, what the certain areas of applied linguistics, such
translators face and will present is a as foreign language teaching and
58
discourse. So the discourse is actually translation.”
the 'workspace' of the translator. Like in Translation always involves two
a workspace, translators should be very languages, and each language has its

familiar with its characters, or even own structure, even its own
master its contents and details. Text, as
56
a genre realization (verbal social Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan, Bahasa, Konteks,
Dan Teks; Aspek-Aspek Bahasa Dalam
Pandangan Semiotik Sosial (Yogyakarta: Gadjah
Mada University Press, 1994), 13.
57 Bell, Translation and Translating : Theory and

Practice, 6.
55 H. Paul Grice, ‘Logic and Conversation’, in P. 58 David Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics and

Cole and J. Morgan, Syntax and Semantics, Vol. Phonetics (United Kingdom: Basil Blackwell Ltd,
3 (New York: Academic Press, 1975). 1985), 74.

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134
uniqueness.59 The system that applies, A translator will also face the
and all the sociocultural nuances that problem of comparing the structure.
occurs in language of A (SL) are not Although he will not do word-for-word
always the same or similar to those in translation, attention to the compatibility
language of B (TL); whereas the of the structure must be maintained.
language itself is a form of expression of Although comparing deep structures is
heart’s content which is difficult to quite difficult to do, comparing surface
measure, as explained by Twadell: structure of the two texts needs to be
“Some linguists say that languages done, as it is mentioned by Pietro,
differ unpredictably and without limit. “Contrasting such surface phenomenon
Other linguists say that all languages
as pronouns, gender systems and
are very much alike in their ‘deep
structure’ and differ only in their prepositional phrases is meaningless
‘surface structures’, so far as FL unless their relationship to underlying
learning is concerned, when deep
grammatical primes are mode explicit.”61
structure is so deep that all languages
are essentially alike, depth equals Therefore, it is actually not excessive if a
triviality, for practical pedagogical translator is required to master the
purposes.”60
linguistic knowledge of both languages
In his struggle with the two so that he can distinguish implicit and
languages involved, it is not impossible explicit grammatical relationships.
for the translator to meet parts of the Furthermore, in a bilingual or
source language text, which cannot be especially multilingual society,
translated. This is certainly a problem for interference is difficult to avoid. In
translators alone. The untranslatable translation, contrastive analysis can
linguistic and perhaps the untranslatable address the existence of interference in
culture will be difficult to avoid. To source language, because with
address this problem, translation will contrastive analysis, interference will
require the contribution of contrastive appear as the difference that can be
analysis. In an effort to find the identified by the translator. The
equivalent, which is suitable for a sentences, “Semprotan air itu membuat
construction in source language, the para pengunjuk rasa kocar-kacir”,
translator can certainly do an analysis of “Masuknya keluar mana?” “Itu hargae
the components of meaning so that the berapa?” When it is translated into
same elements and different ones English for example, the translator must
between the two constructions will be address the forms of interference in it.
seen. Another example: ‘Baju anak itu
kebesaran ketika dikenakannya’; ‘Baju
59Nida, Toward A Science of Translating, 3. kebesaran raja tersimpan di sana’ In
60Farid M. Baradja, ‘A Contrastive Analysis of
Selected Patterns of the Noun Phrases and Verb responding to the two sentences for
Phrases of English and Indonesian’ (Dissertation,
61
University of California, 1971), 11. Baradja, 11.

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135
example, the translator needs to “We may say that by cross cultural
understanding we mean
distinguish the first ‘kebesaran’ understanding the culture of the
(greatness), which contains an element target people so we can reconstruct
of interference, states the nature our attitudes and world view:
consequently, we become more
(adjective), with the second ‘kebesaran’ tolerable and more generous toward
which is free from interference, declares strange ways that may be shown by
information (adverbs). the target language people.”63

According to Mohanty, translation

7. The Cross Cultural Understanding
is not only a bilingual activity, but also
(CCU)
bicultural.64 That can be understood
If someone is faced with a culture
because there is a close relationship
that has never been known or
between language and culture.
recognized, he will tend to make an
Language is an element as well as a
assessment or address that culture with
media for revealing culture. According to
the basics or measures, which he has in
Sapir and Whorf, the language they use
his own culture.62 That can be
can influence the way a nation views
understood because in human's lives
their world. Meanwhile Newmark states,
there is a system of cultural values, in
“Generally, if there is a high degree of
the cultural value system there are
cultural equivalence, there is a case for
norms and those influence the mindset
a literal translation.”65
and this mindset underlies the pattern of
Shaw in Soemarno states that
action. How a person interprets a
language, using various symbols or
metaphorical expression, for example,
emblems is useful as a means of
will be greatly influenced by the values
expressing meaning derived from "... a
that have been imbued as part of his
culture that applies when someone
culture.
writes.”66 “Language is a guide to ‘social
In essence, translation is a cross-
reality’, ‘pattern behavior’”, said Sapir.67
cultural activity because it involves at
By realizing the close relationship
least two languages along with all
cultural values they contain. A good 63 Pauline Tomasouw, Buku Materi Pokok Cross-
translator is not only a bilingual, but Culture Understanding (Jakarta: Karunia, 1986),
should also be bicultural. With that 1.17.
64 Cay Dollerup, Teaching Translation and
consideration, the CCU is a discipline Interpreting 2, Insights, Aims, Vissions
that is also needed to support (Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing
Company, 1994), 25.
translation. Tomasouw explained the 65 Newmark, Approaches to Translation, 79.

meaning of CCU as follows: 66 Soemarno, ‘Studi tentang Kesalahan

Terjemahan Bahasa Inggris ke dalam
Bahasa Indonesia oleh Mahasiswa yang
Berbahasa Ibu Bahasa Jawa’, 30.
62 67 Tomasouw, Buku Materi Pokok Cross-Culture
Koentjaraningrat, Pokok-Pokok Antropologi
Budaya (Jakarta: Gramedia, 1984), 57. Understanding, 1.3.

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between language and culture, the CCU Hanunoo language there are only four
is really significant in translation, it can kinds of colors, mabiru (dark), malagti?
be ascertained that good translation (bright colors), marara? (red group) and
needs to be supported by the CCU. malatuy (green, yellow, brown group).68
Good translators need to be able to act Can mabiru be translated as black, blue
as part of the culture involved in or gray? There is even a language in
translation, which includes source Irian, which merely knows two colors,
language culture, target language the language of Team in Nigeria knows
culture, and may be other cultures. three colors, the Teeltal language in
If it is examined, the significance of Mexico knows five colors, six colors in
the CCU in translation is obvious in the Tamil, eleven-color English.69 For
translator's efforts to address at least example, the following translations might
two things: (1) manifest the equivalence be paid attention to.
of meaning and message content (2) the
Javanese: Iwak pitik olah-olahe bojone
emergence of various aspects of culture. isih panggah mbegegeg ana
By the CCU support, translators are not meja makan ing ngarepe.
too difficult to find the precise words, Pak lurah sangga uwang,
mripate tan kendhat nglangut
terms or phrases for the message they nyawangi Si Bagong,
want to transfer. For example, the word perkutute sing awit mau
'malu' (shame) in Indonesian sentences, manggung, kaya-kaya ora
gelem ngerteni judhege atine
“Pak Lurah malu mengatakannya Pak Lurah. Isih keprungu
kepada Pak Bupati” ("The Head of the cetho ana ing kupinge, Pak
Village is ashamed to say it to the Bupati esuk mau ngalem
kutut kuwi,”Wah, apik tenan
Regent"), not necessarily can be stated kututmu, Pak Lurah!”
as ‘isin’ in Javanese. It could be, the Indonesian: Lauk ayam hasil olahan
more appropriate phrase for that is isterinya masih tetap
‘sungkan’ (hesitate, respect) so that if it berada di atas meja makan
di depannya, tida
is translated into Javanese, the sentence disentuhnya. Pak Lurah
becomes, “Pak Lurah sungkan matur bertopang dagu, sambil
marang Pak Bupati”, instead of “Pak matanya menerawang,
terus memandangi burung
Lurah isin matur marang Pak Bupati”. In perkututnya yang sejak tadi
choosing one of the two terms, the berkicau, seolah tak
translator was guided by his merasakan kesedihannya.
Masih jelas terdengar
understanding of universal Indonesian ucapan Pak Bupati memuji
culture, and his understanding of typical burung itu, “Wah, bagus
Javanese culture with the nuances of benar perkututmu, Pak
Lurah!”
feudalistic lurah-Bupati relationship. How
to translate colors in Hanunoo language 68 Geoffrey Leech, Semantics (Middlesex:
in the Philippines into Indonesian? In the Penguin Book Ltd, 1976), 29.
69 Lubis, Analisis Wacana Pragmatik, 118.

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137
 The translation can be stated background as well, especially for the
unsuccessful because the translator translation of fictional works where the
does not use the cross-cultural events occur in the story he is
72
understanding, in this case he does not translated," explained Hardjoprawiro.
understand the sociocultural conditions In relation to cross-cultural
of the Javanese community. The reader understanding (CCU), literary theory
of this translation will certainly ask by also contributes to translation. In the
using his logic, why after Mr. Bupati field of literature, translators will face
complimented his turtledove, Mr. Lurah, many more complicated problems
head of the village was sad, until he had because they involve subjective
no appetite? Logic outside of Javanese aesthetic values. Can a translator free
culture will question that. Translators himself from TL beauty standard to enter
should realize that for the Javanese the SL beauty standard area, if he does
society, there is a 'magical' relationship not understand literary theory, which
between turtledove and the owner, and originates from both languages? For
in Javanese culture, it’s not possible to example, how does he re-express the
say no “… tidak dikenal kata tidak.”70 beauty of ‘serat Wedhatama’ by KGPAA
The Javanese recognize the phrase, Mangkuneggara IV in English? Or, how
“Sing sopo ngerti ing panuju, prasasat does he translate French poetry into
pagere wesi” (Whoever understands English? Isn't the connotation of a word
how to please someone's heart, he can individual?.73 Do not the words in French
be described as fenced or shielded by have more nuances of meaning and
71
iron; that is, his position will be strong). connotation than English?.74 Without the
So in the example above, Mr. support of literary theory, translation of
Bupat’si compliment is a sign that he literary works is impossible to carry out.
pleases with the turtledove and wants it.
Such a sign, in the context of the ‘Lurah- D. Conclusion
Bupati’ relationship is even translated as In applied linguistics, translation is
a command. That is what makes the a complex figure, not just a substitution
Lurah sad. An American translator, for of language in a text, but in the form of a
example, who is accustomed to being whole process of transferring messages
straightforward, can be confused reading from SL to TL, while maintaining style
this snippet, because a praise is a and taking into account the readability of
praise, a command is a command." the its results. The translation step
Therefore, it becomes the obligation of cannot be carried out optimally by
the translator to explore social
72 Hardjoprawiro, Bahasa Indonesia Dalam
70 Marbangun Hardjowirogo, Manusia Jawa Terjemahan, 5.
73 Hollander, Penerjemahan Suatu Pengantar, 43.
(Jakarta: Yayasan Sedayu, 1983), 12.
71 Hardjowirogo, 13. 74 Newmark, About Translation, 165.

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138
relying solely on linguistic theory. In Crystal, David. A Dictionary of Linguistics
addition to linguistic theory and the and Phonetics. United Kingdom:
Basil Blackwell Ltd, 1985.
theory of translation itself, there are
several disciplines that need to be Dollerup, Cay. Teaching Translation and
involved to support the steps of Interpreting 2, Insights, Aims,
Vissions. Amsterdam: John
translation, such as Sociolinguistics,
Benjamin Publishing Company,
Psycholinguistics, pragmatic discourse
1994.
analysis, contrastive analysis and cross-
cultural understanding. Duff, Allan. The Third Language. Oxford:
Pergamon Press, 1981.

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