LESSON 11: Reason and Impartiality as IMPARTIALITY IN MORALITY REQUIRES

Minimum Requirements for Morality THAT WE GIVE EQUAL AND/OR

ADEQUATE CONSIDERATION TO THE
Reason - the power of the mind to think, INTERESTS OF ALL CONCERNED PARTIES.
understand, and form judgments by a process THE PRINCIPLE OF IMPARTIALITY
of logic. ASSUMES THAT EVERY PERSON,
GENERALLY SPEAKING, IS EQUALLY
• Impartiality - a principle of justice holding IMPORTANT; THAT IS, NO ONE IS SEEN
that decisions should be based on objective INTRINSICALLY MORE SIGNIFICANT
criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, THAN ANYONE ELSE.
prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one
person over another for improper reasons 7-STEP MORAL REASONING MODEL by
Scott B. Rae, Ph.D.
Bias - prejudice in favor of or against one
thing, person, or group compared with > a model for making ethical decisions with the
another, usually in a way considered to be use of reason and impartiality on moral matters.
unfair. 1. Gather the Facts - determining what do you
already know or the facts at hand and what you
Prejudice - preconceived opinion that is not are going to do.
based on reason or actual experience
2. Determine the Ethical Issues - these are the
REASON is the basis or motive for an action, ethical or moral issues needed to be tackled or
decision, or conviction faced in a certain situation that may cause harm
to an individual.
> it refers to the capacity for logical, rational,
and analytic thought; for consciously making 3.Identify the Principles that have a Bearing on
sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, the Case - it could refer to Biblical Principles,
O applying common sense and logic, and Constitutional Principles, Personal Principles or
justifying, and if necessary, changing practices, principles drawn from natural law, which guides a
institutions, and beliefs based on existing or new person in making decisions. Usually, biblical
existing information. principles weighs more heavily than the others.

IMPARTIALITY involves the idea that each 4. List the Alternatives - coming up with various
individual's interests and point of view are alternative courses of action as part of creative
equally important. itis a principle of justice thinking included in resolving a moral dilemma
holding that decisions ought to be based on
objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, 5. Compare the Alternatives with the Principles -
prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person involves eliminating alternatives contradicting to
over another for improper reasons. the principles we believe in.
6. Weigh the Consequences - in case the principle 5. Which assumes that every person, generally
do not produce a clear decision, then consider speaking, is equally important; that is, no one is
possible consequences (positive & negative) in seen intrinsically more significant than anyone
your chosen alternatives. else?
a. Immorality
7. Make a Decision - the decision made is one b. Prejudice
that possesses the least number of negative C. Bias
consequence d. Impartiality

1. Which is not true? LESSON 12: Moral Courage

a. Moral judgments must be backed by good
reasons. Moral courage - A readiness to endure danger for
b. Morality requires the impartial consideration of the sake of principle
each individual's interests
C. We cannot rely on our feelings, no matter how The capacity to overcome the fear of shame and
powerful they might be humiliation in order to admit one's mistakes, to
d. Each individual's interests are not equally confess a wrong, to reject evil conformity, to
important, and some should get special treatment renounce injustice, and also to defy immoral or
imprudent orders.
2. Which is not included in the moral reasoning
model? Moral decision - a choice made based on a
a.Gather the Facts person's ethics, manners, character, and what they
b. Determine the Ethical Issues believe is proper behavior.
C. Make a Guess
d. Weigh the Consequences Conscience - an inner feeling or voice viewed as
acting as a guide to the rightness or wrongness of
3. Which refers to the capacity for logical, one's behavior.
rational, and analytic thought?
a. Partiality Key Concepts of Moral Courage
b. Impartiality The capacity to overcome the fear of shame and
C. Reason humiliation in order to admit one 's mistakes, to
d. Feeling confess a wrong, to reject evil conformity, to
renounce injustice, and also to defy immoral or
4. When a person forms an opinion without being imprudent orders.
aware of relevant facts, he is guilty of
a. Impartiality A willful, intentional act, executed after mindful
b. Prejudice deliberation, involving objective substantial risk
C. Reasoning to the bearer, and primarily motivated to bring
d. Morality about a noble good or worthy end despite,
perhaps, the presence of the emotion of fear
 who we reveal ourselves to be through our words
Six types of Courage and actions.

Physical Courage Define: Moral Courage

This is the courage most people think of first:
bravery at the risk of bodily harm or death. It Springing from ethics-notably integrity,
involves developing physical strength, resiliency responsibility, compassion, and forgiveness-moral
and strength. courage is the quality of mind or spirit that
enables a person to withstand danger, difficulty,
Social Courage or fear; persevere; and venture. Comprehensively,
This type of courage is also very familiar to most it is a willful, intentional act, executed after
of us as it involves the risk of social mindful deliberation, involving objective
embarrassment or exclusion, unpopularity or substantial risk to the bearer and primarily
rejection. It also involves leadership. motivated to bring about a noble good or worthy
end despite, perhaps, the presence of the emotion
Intellectual Courage. of fear
This speaks to our willingness to engage with
challenging ideas, to question our thinking, and to Operationally, moral courage entails: (i)
the risk of making mistakes. It means telling and discerning what is right or wrong; (ii) acting on
knowing the truth. what one has discerned, even at a personal cost;
and (iii) saying openly that one is acting on one's
Emotional Courage understanding of right and wrong.
This type of courage opens us to feeling the full
spectrum of positive emotions, at the risk of Critical Checkpoints in using Moral for
encountering the negative ones. It is strongly Ethical Decision Making
correlated with happiness.
Step
Spiritual Courage.
This fortifies us when we grapple with questions 1 - Evaluate the circumstances to establish
about faith, purpose, and meaning, either in a whether moral courage is needed in the situation
religious or nonreligious framework
2 - Determine what moral values and ethical
Moral Courage. principles are at risk or in question of being
This involves doing the right thing, particularly compromised
when risks involve shame, opposition, or the
disapproval of others. Here we enter into ethics 3 - Ascertain what principles need to be
and integrity, the resolution to match word and expressed and defended in the situation - focus on
action with values and ideals. It is not about who one or two of the more critical values
we claim to be to our children and to others, but
4 - Consider the possible adverse > a company whistle blower risking job loss,
consequences/risks associated with taking action financial cost, and or legal repercussion reporting
a crime
5 - Assess whether or not the adversity can be
endured - determine what support/resources are > participating in a peaceful protest
available
Lack of moral courage looks like:
6 - Avoid stumbling blocks that might restrain > walking away from someone in need
moral courage, such as apprehension or over
reflection leading to reasoning oneself out of > taking more than your fair share
being morally courageous in the situation
> laughing at someone's misfortune or accident
7 - Continue to develop moral courage through
education, training, and practice > grabbing the spotlight from someone who has
earned it
Moral courage looks like:
> helping someone push a car out of a snowbank, > placing too much reliance on the letter rather
even if it means being late standing up to a bully than the spirit of the
on the playground
law
> picking up litter
> remaining silent in the face of wrong-doing or
> doing homework or chores without being injustice
reminded
> being inconsistent or capricious with rules and
> refusing to listen to or repeat gossip standards for our children

> practicing what you preach, even when no-one > choosing sides after seeing which way the wind
is looking or knows is blowing

> turning in a toy or a wallet to the Lost and > breaking a promise
Found
> lying or cheating
> a teen who calls home for a ride from a party
where alcohol is being served LESSON 13: Virtue of Ethics

> a teacher who gives all students an equal voice Virtue - behavior showing high moral standards
regardless of race, socioeconomic status, religion,
gender or sexual orientation Virtuous-conforming to moral and ethical
principles; morally excellent; upright
Virtue ethics - a broad term for theories that What is Virtue Ethics?
emphasize the role of character and virtue in • Virtue is from the Greek word "arete" means
moral philosophy rather than either doing one's "excellence"
duty or acting in order to bring about good •It emphasizes on the role of one's character
consequences. •And the virtues that one's character embodies
for determining ethical behaviour.
What is the : “good” life? (Aristotle’s Answer)
The Nature of Ethics according to Aristotle
Goods - Instrumental Instric both - Ethics refers primarily to character
- Emphasis is on character and human
“Telos”- end, goal, purpose excellence, the virtues
- The criterion for moral rightness is good
Happiness - (“Eudaimonia”) character
-
Intellectual ←— Virtue (“Arete”) –—> Moral Virtue ethics
Virtue ethics is person rather than action based. It
We grow into the good life looks at the moral character of the person
"The soul must first be conditioned by good carrying out an action.
habits, as land must be cultivated by good seed".
- Nicomachean Ethics This character-based approach to morality
assumes that we acquire virtue through practice.
Aristotle - Virtue of Ethics = "The nature of a By practicing being honest, brave, just, generous,
human being is not what he is born as, but what and so on, a person develops an honorable and
he is born for." moral character. According to Aristotle, by
honing virtuous habits, people will likely make
Virtue the right choice when faced with ethical
- A State Of Character Or Habit challenges.
- The Result Of Dispositions And
Deliberations Character-based ethics
- Prompting Us To Actions A right act is the action a virtuous person would
- Within The Context Of The Human do in the same circumstances.
Goods Which We Pursue In Our Lives
- Habitual Actions Based on Values Virtue ethics is person rather than action based: it
looks at the virtue or moral character of the
person carrying out an action, rather than at
ethical duties and rules, or the consequences of
particular actions.

Virtue ethics not only deals with the rightness or

wrongness of individual actions, it provides
guidance as to the sort of characteristics and have been disciplined to respond to the truly
behaviors a good person will seek to achieve. good.

In that way, virtue ethics is concerned with the 3. Fortitude -is the courage needed to overcome
whole of a person's life, rather than particular obstacles when one grows.
episodes or actions.
4. Justice -is the fairness and equality in dealing
> A good person is someone who lives virtuously with others.
who possesses and lives the virtues.
Happiness (eudaimonia)
> This suggests that the way to build a good > It is not merely a subjective state of pleasure or
society is to help its members to be good people, contentment but the kind of life we would all
rather than to use laws and punishments to want to live if we understood our essential nature.
prevent or deter bad actions.
> Our function (essence) is to live according to
There are two categories of virtue: reason and thereby become a certain sort of
highly rational being.
Intellectual Virtues
- Intellectual virtues are virtues of the mind. > When we fulfill the ideal of living the virtuous
Such as the ability to understand, reason and life, we are truly happy.
make sound judgement Intellectual virtues may
be taught, like logic and mathematics by teachers. > Happy life is directed toward worthwhile goals.

Moral Virtues > Happiness is the final purpose, the end goal, the
- Not innate, rather they are acquired chief good. Everything we do, we do for the sake
through repetition and practice, like of being happy.
learning a music instrument.
It is through the practice and the doing that one > Happiness is an activity, not a state or feeling.
becomes a type of person. Over a period of time
virtues become second nature. > “He is happy who is active in accordance with
complete virtue, and is sufficiently equipped with
The four major moral values: external goods, not for some chance period but
1. Prudence-is the practical wisdom in living throughout a complete life” .
life, where it can be acquired through experience
and reflection. LESSON 14: Kants and Rights

2. Temperance -is the appropriateness in the use Deontology - the normative ethical position that
of passions or desires. It is the quality of judges the morality of an action based on rules.
character that is dependable because one's desires
 Duty - All persons must act not only in Basic Kantian themes
accordance with, but for the sake of, obligation
1. Personal autonomy: The moral person is a
Law - Refers to the rules of conduct that rational rational self-legislator.
beings lay down for themselves in the light of
reason 2. Respect: Persons should always be treated as
an end, not a means - 'No persons should be used.
Personal autonomy - The moral person is a
rational self-legislator 3. Duty: The moral action is one that we must do
in accordance with a certain principle, not
Respect - Persons should always be treated as an because of its good consequence.
end, not a means
Deontologists
Kantian Moral Theory An act is right if, and only if, it conforms to the
By : Immanuel Kant (German Philosopher: 1724 relevant moral obligation; and it is wrong if, and
- 1804) only if, it violates the relevant moral obligation

What is Deontology? They argue that the consequences are irrelevant to

⚫ Deontological ethics or deontology refers to

moral evaluation of an action

"obligation, duty") which is the normative ethical They emphasize that the value of an action lies in
position that judges the morality of an action motive, especially motives of obligation
based on rules.

⚫ It is sometimes described as "duty-" or

Good Will
An action has moral worth only when performed
"obligation-" or "rule-" based ethics, because by an agent who possesses a good will (good
rules "bind you to your duty". intention).

Deontology - the end does not justify the means An agent has a good will only if moral obligation
Utilitiarianism - The end justifies the means. based on a universally valid norm is the action's
sole motive.
Kantian Ethics
All good moral acts must be grounded in good
Deontological Theory: Any action to have any will.
moral worth we can only look at the motives or
intentions behind the act. Good will indicates that the act was carried out
with the best of intentions.
Deontological theories: Do not list consequences
as being important in assessing morality unlike
utilitarian/ teleological theories.
Good will indicates a good action not because 5. Women Rights
ultimately the consequences are good but because 6. Animal Rights
the intention is good in itself.
Question 1
Duty
One should not build his house in a place which he
All persons must act not only in accordance with,
but for the sake of, obligation does not own. Such is respecting _______ rights of
others.
A person's motive for acting must rest in a
Response: property
recognition that what he or she intends is
demanded by an obligation Correct answer: property

A moral person is one who acts from a sense of Score: 1 out of 1

duty and not from what we personally would like Yes
to do.
Question 2
Acting morally amounts to doing our duty
No person should be used. This adheres to the
regardless of what consequences may follow,
even for ourselves. concept of ______.

Response: respect
Rights Theory
Correct answer: respect
Rights
Score: 1 out of 1
- Natural Law
- Natural Rights Yes
- Human Rights
Question 3
Human rights belong to all human beings by The following are characteristics of rights except
virtue of them being human.
_________.

Human Rights Response: alienable

- Universal
- Inalienable Correct answer: alienable
- Indivisible and Interdependent Score: 1 out of 1

Types of Human Rights: Yes

1. Absolute Rights
2. Limited Rights Question 4
3. Qualified Rights Deontological ethics or deontology refers to
4. Property Rights __________.
Response: obligation or duty Utilitarianism says that the Result or the
Consequence of an Act is the real measure of
Correct answer: obligation or duty
whether it is good or bad.
Score: 1 out of 1
■This theory emphasizes Ends over Means.
Yes
■ Theories, like this one, that emphasize the
Question 5
results or consequences are called teleological or
Who among the following is the proponent of Kant consequentialist.
Theory?
JEREMY BENTHAM
Response: Immanuel Kant Bentham's Formulation of Utilitarianism
Correct answer: Immanuel Kant
■ Man is under two great masters, pain and
Score: 1 out of 1 pleasure.

■ The great good that we should seek is

happiness. (a hedonistic perspective)
LESSON 15: UTILITARIANISM
■Those actions whose results increase happiness
Utilitarianism - the result or the consequence or diminish pain are good. They have "utility."
of an act is the real measure of whether it is good
or bad Two Formulations of Utilitarian Theory

Consequentialism - the rightness of actions is Principle of Utility: The best

determined solely by their consequences. action is that which produces the greatest
happiness and/or reduces pain.
Hedonism - the thesis that pleasure or happiness
is the good that we seek and that we should seek. Greatest Happiness: We ought to do that which
produces the greatest happiness and least pain for
Maximalism - right action produces the greatest the greatest number of people.
good consequences and the least bad.
Application of Utilitarian Theory
Universalism - the consequences to be
considered are those of everyone affected, and A) You attempt to help an elderly man across the
everyone equally. street. He gets across safely.

Making Ethical Judgments in Utilitarianism ■ Conclusion: the Act was a good act.
B) You attempt to help an elderly man across the Question 1
street. You stumble as you go, he is knocked into
Which believes that pleasure or happiness is the good
the path of a car, and is hurt.
that we seek and that we should seek?
■ Conclusion: The Act was a bad act. Response: Hedonism

If you can use eighty soldiers as a decoy in war, Correct answer: Hedonism
and thereby attack an enemy force and kill
Score: 1 out of 1
several hundred enemy soldiers, that is a morally
good choice even though the eighty might be lost. Yes

If lying or stealing will actually bring about more Question 2

happiness and/or reduce pain, Act Utilitarianism
In determining the quantity of happiness that might
says we should lie and steal in those cases.
be produced by an action, we evaluate the possible
consequences by applying the following values except
_______.
Two Types of Utilitarianism
Correct answer: Process

- Act: An Action is right if and only if it Question 3

produces the greatest balance of pleasure
over pain for the greatest number.(Jeremy According to utilitarian ethics, which has utility?
Bentham) Response: action whose results increase happiness or
diminish pain
- Rule: An action is right if and only if it
conforms to a set of rules the general Correct answer: action whose results increase
acceptance of which would produce the happiness or diminish pain
greatest balance of pleasure over pain for
the greatest number. (John Stuart Mill) Score: 1 out of 1
-
Yes
John Stuart Mill's Adjustments to Utilitarianism
Question 4
Mill argues that we must consider the quality of
In utilitarianism, the measure of the act as to whether
the happiness, not merely the quantity.
it is good or bad depends on the ______
For example, some might find happiness with a Response: Result/consequence
pitcher of beer and a pizza. Others may find
happiness watching a fine Shakespearean play. Correct answer: Result/consequence
The quality of happiness is greater with the latter.
Score: 1 out of 1
Yes been changing from time to time, depending upon the
conditions and circumstances prevailing in each age.
Question 5
It has to coordinate and draw a harmonious balance
Whose belief is this argument: An action is right if
between rights and duties of the people living in the
and only if it conforms to a set of rules the general society.
acceptance of which would produce the greatest
balance of pleasure over pain for the greatest number. It is connected with the moral, social, economic,
political, and legal relations of an individual with
Response: John Stuart Mill others.

Correct answer: John Stuart Mill Justice is a concept of moral rightness based on ethics,
rationality, law, religion, equity and fairness.
Score: 1 out of 1

John Rawls claims that " Justice is the first virtue of

LESSON 16: JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS social institutions as truth is of systems of thought".

Justice - peace, and genuine respect for people, A man living in society is attached to another man in
fairness, justness, fair play, fair-mindedness, equity, one way or the other. This relationship has few rights
equitableness, impartiality, lack of bias, objectivity, and duties attached to it. When a man while enjoying
neutrality, lack of prejudice, open-mindedness, his rights also fulfils his duties and behaves in
partisanship non- appropriate manner with others, then he is said to be
doing justice.
Fairness - impartial and just treatment or behavior
without favoritism or discrimination Justice peace, and genuine is justness, respect for
people, fairness, fairplay, fair-mindedness, equity,
Society - the aggregate of people living together in a equitableness,
more or less ordered community
impartiality, lack of bias, objectivity, neutrality, lack
Liberty state of being free within society from of prejudice, open-mindedness, non-partisanship.
oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's
way of life, behavior, or political views Justice is the legal or philosophical theory by which
fairness is administered. The concept of justice differs
Equality state of being equal, especially in status, in every culture.
rights, and opportunities.
orality Characteristics of Justice
- Human welfare
The term ' justice' is derived from the Latin word " - Ethical concept
justicia" which means joining or fitting, or of bound - Changeability
or tie. - Fulfillment of reasonable interest
- Performance of duties
The concept of justice has been analyzed and defined - To provide everybody his reasonable share
differently by philosophers, political thinkers, - Justice is related to values prevailing in
economists, sociologists and religious leaders. It has society
Basic postulates of Justice Following conditions are necessary to ensure legal
- Uniform values. justice:-
- Equality before law.
- Liberty. • Just laws
- Impartiality. • Equality before law
- Respect of individual's ability and capability. •Uniform legal system
- Provision of rights. •Impartial and independent judiciary
- Fulfillment of basic needs. •Inexpensive and efficient justice
•Democratic organization of legislative bodies
Kinds of Justice or Dimensions of Justice
Political dimensions of justice
- Legal dimension of justice :-: This is the
narrow concept of justice and is associated Nobody should be denied of political rights and to
with the legal system and the legal procedure provide equal political rights is political justice.
existing in the society.
Following conditions are necessary to ensure
The court of law interpret the law and apply the law political justice:-
after hearing the parties involved in a dispute. Here,
justice is what is administrated by the court of law and •Universal adult franchise.
the interpretation of the Judge is considered as an •Right to contest elections.
embodiment of justice. •Right to criticize the government.
•Right to form political parties.
- Justice in the legal sense requires the •Right to protest.
following conditions:- •Right to petition.
•Respect of human right.
A. Just and reasonable non- discriminatory laws. •Protection of the interests of minorities.
•Political authority should be based on the consent of
B. The administration of justice by free and the people.
independent courts. •Democratic system.

C. Inexpensive judicial process. - Political Justice stands for a free and fair
participation of people in the political sphere.
D. Court procedure should be simplified and avoid
delay in justice. - Universal adult franchise is the expression of
Political Justice.
E. There should be a Rule of Law in the country.
- All liberal democratic countries are based the
Justice and laws have close affinity with each other. principle of "one man one vote, one value" is
State makes laws and implements them in order to faithfully adopted. Political institutions should
establish justice in the society. be representative in character.

- Equality of opportunity in getting elected and

in holding public offices, freedom of
expression and association and rights to seek
 redressal of public grievances are the
important pillars of political justice. - The basic needs of every body such as food,
cloth and shelter, should be fulfilled and the
Social Dimensions of Justice unequal distribution of wealth needed to be
- Social justice means to give proper stopped.
opportunities to every citizens, in every
sphere of life, to develop his personality and - Economic justice implies non-discrimination
to end all types of social inequalities. between man and man on the basis of
economic viability.
Following conditions are necessary to ensure Social
justice:- - It stands for by assuring adequate means of
livelihood to all, by making provisions for
•Equality before law. adequate working conditions, for equal pay
•Absence of special rights. for equal work, fair distribution of resources,
•Prohibitions of discrimination. equal economic opportunities to all people
•To end caste system. etc.
•Just distribution of wealth.
•Democratic government. - The concept of economic justice was
•Just balance between freedom and social control. emphasized by the socialistic thinkers.
•Social security.
• Provision equal political rights. Following conditions are necessary to ensure
•Protection of interest of minorities. economic justice
•Abolition of social values.
•Right to work for everybody.
The concept of Social Justice is based on the belief •Fulfillment of basic needs.
that all human being are equal and that discrimination •To reduce wide economic disparities.
should be made on the ground of race, religion, caste, •Protection of the interest of workers
sex, or place of birth. no • From each according to his ability and to each
according to his needs
It has three implications.: •Just distribution of wealth
•End of economic exploitation
(a) Equal social opportunities. •Special protection of the interest of weaker section.
•Limited right to property
(b)Special attention to weaker sections. •Question of state interference in economic needs
• Fixed economy is better
(c) Removal of social evils • Equal wages for same job

Economic Dimensions of Justice Conclusion

We can conclude that justice is concerned with human
- Economic justice mean to provide equal welfare and the protection of reasonable interests. It
opportunities to everybody to earn his can be experienced only when each citizen will
livelihood. It also mean to help such people perform his duties in right perspective.
who are not able to work and earn their
livelihood.
A just society is that society where every individual 5. Which statement is not true?
gets legal, political, social, economic justice. For a. Justice is concerned with one's welfare and the
every just society there should be a proper protection of unreasonable interests
combination among equality liberty and justice. there b. A just society is that society where every individual
is a close mutual relationship among them. gets legal, political, social, economic justice
c. For every just society there should be a proper
Individual is the subject matter of these concepts. combination among equality liberty and justice
d. There is a close relationship between justice and
1. Which is not a characteristic of justice? fairness.
a. Human welfare
b. Changeability
c. Partiality
d. Fulfillment of reasonable interest

2. Justice in the legal sense requires the following

conditions except
a. Just and reasonable non-discriminatory laws.
b. Administration of justice by free and independent
courts.
c. Expensive judicial process.
d. Court procedure should be simplified and avoid
delay in justice

3. Which type of justice is based on the belief that all

human being are equal and that no discrimination
should be made on the ground of race, religion, caste,
sex, or place of birth?
a. Legal
b. Social
c. Political
d. Economic

4. Assuring adequate means of livelihood to all, by

making provisions for adequate working conditions,
for equal pay for equal work, fair distribution of
resources, equal economic opportunities to all people
are all practices showing which type of justice?
a. Legal
b. Social
c. Political
d. Economic