INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

Module 2: FALLACIES

Definition:
Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments. It is considered to be an error in reasoning. When we
accept a position or persuade others to accept our claim based on a weak line of reasoning, a fallacy is
committed.
FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE - include all those arguments with premises and conclusions having
psychological or emotional relevance rather than logical relevance.
1. ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM (ARGUMENT AGAINST THE MAN)
⮚ Attacking the person making the argument instead of the argument itself.
o Example 1: Using someone's education level as a means to exploit and degrade the
opposing argument - You didn't even finish high school. How could you possibly
know about this?
o Example 2: Attacking an opponent's physical attractiveness rather than looking at the
faults in their politics - Just look at that face! How could anyone vote for that?
2. ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM (ARGUMENT TO THE PEOPLE)
⮚ The idea is presented as acceptable because a lot of people accept it.
o Example 1: Every boy your age already has a girlfriend, you should go and find one!
o Example 2: You should buy this phone because it’s the most popular one on the
market.
3. AD VERECUNDIAM (APPEAL TO FALSE AUTHORITY)
⮚ The opinion of someone famous or accomplished in another area of expertise is supposed
to guarantee the truth of a conclusion.
⮚ Citing a claim based on an unqualified authority.
o Example 1: Bruce Willis supports Save the Whales International, so it must be a
good cause.
o Example 2: My accountant says that within the next 90 days, the president of the
country will be impeached! So we should take this claim seriously!
4. ARGUMENTUM AD ANTIQUITATEM (APPEAL TO TRADITION)
⮚ The idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time
⮚ Its theme is more on “continue doing things as they have been always done in that way”
o Example 1: We believe that it is good for mothers, who have just given birth to a
child, not to take a bath for one month. We had this practice from our great
grandparents since time immemorial. And they have a long life expectancy of more
than 100 years.
o Example 2: Marriage has traditionally been between a man and a woman; therefore,
gay marriage should not be allowed.
5. ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM (APPEAL TO PITY)
⮚ The argument attempts to persuade by provoking irrelevant feelings of sympathy.
⮚ The fallacy is committed whenever the speaker poses a statement or argument and then
attempts to evoke pity from the listener for the sake of getting a conclusion accepted.
o Example 1: You need to pass me in this course since I'll lose my scholarship if you
don't.
o Example 2: I support this candidate who runs for president because he has recently
been diagnosed with cancer.
 6. ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM (ARGUMENT TO FEAR OR FORCE)
⮚ It used a threat or force or an undesirable event to advance an argument.
⮚ It is committed when reason is replaced with fear.
o Example 1: If you do not agree with my political opinions, you will receive a grade
of 75 for this course.
o Example 2: If you will continue to wear shorts in public, I will end this relationship
because you do not listen to me.
7. ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM (ARGUMENT TO IGNORANCE)
⮚ The assumption of a conclusion or fact is based primarily on a lack of evidence to the
contrary. Usually best described by, “absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.”
⮚ It insists that a claim is true because one’s opponent cannot prove it false, and vice-versa.
o Example 1: No one has proven that God wrote the Bible. Therefore, God is not the
author of the Bible.
o Example 2: No one has conclusively proven that there is no intelligent life on the
moons of Jupiter. Therefore, there is intelligent life on the moons of Jupiter.

FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION – include arguments with premises and conclusions having no

logical correlation. The truth of the premise is dubious since the relevant facts are not represented
correctly or appear as a matter of assumption.

1. CONVERSE ACCIDENT (HASTY GENERALIZATION)

⮚ Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on an inadequate
sample (usually because it is atypical or just too small).
⮚ The error is committed when the speaker fails to consider that the isolated facts in the
premise are unrepresentative or insufficient to be used as the basis for a general rule in the
conclusion.
o Example 1: Maria and Martha got pregnant before marriage and they are happily
married. Therefore, it’s good to be pregnant before marriage.
o Example 2: My schoolmate said that her philosophy class was hard and my classmate
said that she also finds the subject difficult. Therefore, all philosophy classes must be
hard.

2. FALSE DILEMMA
⮚ An argument that suggests only two possible alternatives, neither of which are typically
very appealing.
⮚ It is also known as the black or white fallacy, either-or fallacy. The error is committed
when we presume the two contraries are used as contradictories, wherein there are only
two alternatives available when other alternatives exist.
o Example 1: I thought you were a good person, but you weren’t at church today.
o Example 2: If you love me, then you’ll give me whatever I want.
3. BEGGING THE QUESTION
⮚ Assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true; also known as a circular argument.
⮚ It occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of
supporting it. In other words, you assume without proof the stand/position, or a
significant part of the stand, that is in question
o Example 1: I have a right to free speech, therefore, you cannot stop me from talking.
o Example 2: The student did take the final examination in Logic. Therefore, it would
be unfair for the teacher to fail him in the course.
 4. SLIPPERY SLOPE
⮚ A string of “if-then” statements that form what may seem like a valid argument, but
typically draw a conclusion that predicts unfounded dire consequences.
⮚ It involves advocated things, events, or actions followed by the consequent series of
things events, or actions arranged in a domino or stampede effect.
o Example 1: If we don’t stop tuition fee increase, then by the next semester the
school will be charging us 50, 000 pesos a semester---- then we’ll just stop our
studies--- then work as a janitor--- then end up doing nothing, build a family that
eats only once a day.
o Example 2:
o If you don’t do your homework, you’ll fail the class.
o If you fail this class, you won’t graduate from school.
o If you don’t graduate, you won’t get into college.
o If you don’t attend a good college, you won’t get a good job.
o If you don’t get a good job, you’ll be poor and homeless.
o You don’t want to be poor and homeless, do you?

5. STRAW MAN
⮚ It is distorting an opposing view so that it is easy to refute.
⮚ It is committed when the arguer clearly understands the position of the issue and presents
a counter position that is completely a distorted, exaggerated, or misrepresented version
of the original position.
o Example 1:
Teacher: You should have perfect attendance in my class.
Student: Isn’t it that nobody is perfect?
Conclusion: So, it is not right for the teacher to demand perfect attendance.
o Example 2:
Person A: I don’t think children should run into the busy streets
Person B: I think that it would be foolish to lock up children all day with no
fresh air.
FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY- includes the misuse of language. An ambiguous word, phrase, or
sentence is a language that has more than one meaning.
1. EQUIVOCATION
⮚ It is committed when a term is used in two or more different senses within a single
argument.
⮚ Known as “lexical ambiguity” which means an uncertainty in the part of speech or
category ambiguity.
o Example 1: Don’t fall in love because everything that falls breaks. (“Fall” is
equivocal; one is falling in love, while the other one is a literal falling of objects).
o Example 2:
Juan Ponce Enrile was a minister
Pope John Paul is a minister
Therefore, Pope John Paul II is Juan Ponce Enrile
(The word minister is equivocal – the first premise minister refers to a public
official serving the cabinet. The second premise refers to a servant of God.)
2. AMPHIBOLY
⮚ It is committed when there is a defect in the grammatical construction of the sentence.
⮚ The sentences have double interpretations due to structural defects, mistakes in grammar,
or the arrangement of words.
o Example 1: I read a book while riding on a bus yesterday. (It sounds like the book
is riding in a bus) Correct: Riding on a bus yesterday, I read a book.
o Example 2: John fires Mark then he died. (Pronoun – he- to whom does it refer?)
3. ACCENT
⮚ It can be committed when there is a faulty or undue emphasis (accent or tone) upon
certain words or statements.
o Example 1:
Slow men at work
Slow, men at work (Slow down)
Slow men, at work (Individual)
o Example 2:
Jorge turned in his assignment on time today.
Therefore, Jorge usually turns in his assignments late.

(Here the premise may be true if read without inflection, but if it is read
with heavy stress the last word seems to imply the truth of the
conclusion.)
4. COMPOSITION
⮚ It is committed when an attribute of a specific part is applied to the collective whole. It is
fallacious when it is argued that because the parts have a certain characteristic, it follows
that the whole has the characteristics too.
o Example 1:
Lorenzo is an intelligent boy.
Lorenzo studies in MSU-IIT
Therefore, all who study at MSU-IIT are intelligent.

5. DIVISION
⮚ It is committed when an attribute of a collective whole is applied to a specific part. It is
fallacious when it is argued that because the whole has a certain characteristic, it follows
that the part has that characteristic too.
o Example 1: You come from a family of doctors and intellectuals! Surely you can
do better in this course!
o Example 2:
Logic students are good debaters
Jerry is a logic student
Therefore, Jerry is a good debater.
References:

1. Abella, R.D. (2016). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. C & E Publishing, Inc.
2. Hinacay, M. & Hinacay M.B. (2007). Logic- A textbook- workbook for College Students. Vitasophia Book Center.
3. Kemerling, G. (2011). Fallacies of Ambiguity. Philosophy Pages. Retrieved from:
http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e06c.htm
4. Kemerling, G. (2011). Fallacies of Relevance. Philosophy Pages. Retrieved from:
http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e06c.htm
5. Montgomery College. (2022). RHETORIC – Fallacies. Retrieved from:
https://www.montgomerycollege.edu/_documents/academics/support/learning-centers/writing-reading-learning-ctr
-rockville/student-resources-tech/fallacies.pdf

Prepared by: Ms. Mayrian Rose Sencio

(Philosophy Teacher)