The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.

The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

API RP 571

DAMAGE MECHANISMS AFFECTING FIXED EQUIPMENT IN THE

REFINING INDUSTRY

1 Scope

This recommended practice discusses damage mechanisms applicable to oil refineries; however, much of the
information herein can also be applied to petrochemical and other industrial applications, as the user deems
appropriate

The information for each damage mechanism is provided in a set format as shown below.

Name of the Mechanism - The term commonly used to describe or name the mechanism.
Description of Damage - A basic description of the damage mechanism.
Affected Materials - A list of the materials prone to the damage mechanism.
Critical Factors - A list of factors that affect the damage mechanism (i.e. rate of damage).
Affected Units or Equipment - A list of the affected equipment and/or units where the damage mechanism
commonly occurs. This information is also shown on generic process flow diagrams (PFDs) for typical process
units.
Appearance or Morphology of Damage - A description of the damage mechanism, with pictures in some cases,
to assist with recognition of the damage.
Prevention/Mitigation - Methods to prevent or mitigate the damage and in some cases to evaluate by
engineering analysis.
Inspection and Monitoring - Guidance for nondestructive examination (NDE) and other methods for detecting,
monitoring, characterizing, sizing, and determining the severity or extent of damage or deterioration.
Related Mechanisms - A list of related damage mechanisms
References - A list of references cited, relied upon, or that provide background and other pertinent information

2 Terms and Definitions

Try to review the entire but remember some of them:

Austenitic; Austenitic stainless steels; Carbon steel; Diethanol amine (DEA); Diglycolamine; Duplex stainless
steel; Ferritic; Ferritic stainless steels; Heat Affected Zone (HAZ); High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steel; Low
alloy steel; Martensitic; Martensitic stainless steel; Methyl diethanol amine (MDEA); Mono ethanol amine (MEA);
Nickel base; Stainless steel.

3 Damage Mechanisms

3.3 Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking

3.3.1 Description of Damage

a) Amine SCC (or amine cracking) is the cracking of steels under the combined action of tensile stress and
an aqueous alkanolamine solution used to remove (absorb) H2S and/or CO2 and their mixtures from various
gas and liquid hydrocarbon streams.
b) Amine cracking is a form of alkaline stress corrosion cracking (ASCC).
c) It is most often found at or adjacent to non-PWHT’d carbon steel welds or in highly cold worked parts.
d) Amine cracking should not be confused with several other types of SCC that can occur in amine
environments, which are further described in 3.66 and 3.12

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 1 of 14

 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

3.3.2 Affected Materials

Carbon steel and low alloy steels.

3.3.3 Critical Factors

a) The critical factors are the level of tensile stress, amine concentration and temperature.

3.3.4 Affected Units or Equipment

All non-PWHT carbon steel piping and equipment in lean amine service including contactors, absorbers,
strippers, regenerators and heat exchangers as well as any equipment subject to amine carryover.

3.3.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) Amine SCC cracks initiate on the (process side) surface of piping and equipment, primarily at welds. Cracks can
appear in the HAZ and/or the weld metal but are most often found in the high residual stress zone, which is
typically beyond the metallurgical HAZ, about a tenth of an inch or more (several millimeters) from the weld

3.3.6 Prevention / Mitigation

a) Carbon steel welds in piping and equipment should be stress relieved in accordance with API 945 and NACE
SP0472. The recommended minimum stress-relief temperature is 1175 ± 25 °F (635 ± 15 °C). The same
recommendation applies to repair welds and to internal and external attachment welds. For local PWHT,
recommended heat treatment band width is listed in NACE SP0472 with reference to WRC 452.
b) Consider using solid or clad stainless steel or other corrosion-resistant alloys in lieu of carbon steel.
c) Thoroughly water wash non-PWHT’d carbon steel piping and equipment prior to welding, heat treatment, or
steam out.

3.3.7 Inspection and Monitoring

a) Wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing (WFMT), alternating current field measurement (ACFM), and eddy
current testing (ECT) can be effective techniques to detect these surface-breaking cracks. Proper surface
preparation by grit blasting, high-pressure water blasting, flapper wheel abrasive grinding, or other method is
required to remove scale and contaminants
e) Acoustic emission testing (AET) can also be used for monitoring crack growth and locating growing cracks.

3.8 Atmospheric Corrosion

3.8.1 Description of Damage

Corrosion that occur from moisture associated with atmospheric conditions.

3.8.3 Critical Factors

a) The physical location of the plant (industrial, marine, urban, rural).

3.8.4 Affected Units or Equipment

a) Unpainted, uninsulated carbon steel and low-alloy steel piping and equipment operating below 250 °F
(120 °C) where moisture can contact the surface.

3.8.5 Appearance

a) The attack will be general or localized, depending upon the condition of the coating, if any, and whether or not
the moisture is trapped.
b) If there is no coating, corrosion or loss in thickness can be more general and widespread.

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 2 of 14

 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

c) Localized coating failures will promote localized corrosion.

d) Metal loss may not be visually evident, although normally a distinctive iron oxide (red rust) scale forms.

3.8.6 Prevention / Mitigation

Paints or coatings are normally applied to otherwise unprotected equipment to prevent atmospheric corrosion.
Surface preparation and proper coating application are critical for long-term protection in corrosive
environments.

3.8.7 Inspection and Monitoring

a) VT includes direct/line-of-sight and indirect methods using a camera, mirror, laser scanning, and/or structured
white light imaging with pit gages.
b) UT can include techniques like straight beam or angle beam (SWUT or PAUT) to directly measure remaining
wall thickness or screening techniques using EMAT or GWT.
c) RT may include traditional (film based), digital, or computed radiography media and may incorporate
techniques such as contact or profile RT as well as open system imaging.
d) ECT may include a screening technique such as pulsed eddy current (PEC).

3.11 Brittle Fracture

3.11.1 Description of Damage

Brittle fracture is the sudden rapid fracture under stress (residual or applied) where the material exhibits
little or no evidence of ductility or plastic deformation. Although rare in refining operations, in-service brittle fracture
of a pressure vessel or other pressurized equipment can have serious consequences.

3.11.2 Affected Materials

Carbon steels and low alloy steels are of prime concern, particularly older steels. 400 Series SS are also
susceptible even if not embrittled. In addition, materials susceptible to an embrittling mechanism such as sigma
phase embrittlement, 885 °F (475 °C) embrittlement, temper embrittlement, strain-aging embrittlement, or
titanium hydriding pose a risk for brittle fracture if they are sufficiently embrittled.

3.11.3 Critical Factors

a) Brittle fracture can occur in a potentially susceptible piece of equipment containing a flaw or other significant
stress concentrator. Three primary factors are:
1) the material’s fracture toughness (resistance to crack-like flaws) as indicated in a Charpy impact test or other
fracture mechanics test;
2) the size, shape, and stress concentration effect of the flaw; and
3) the amount of residual and applied stresses on the flaw.
f) In most cases, in materials that exhibit a ductile-to-brittle transition, brittle fracture occurs only at temperatures
below the Charpy impact transition temperature (also called the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature), the
temperature at and below which the toughness of the material drops off sharply.

3.11.4 Affected Units or Equipment

d) Brittle fracture can occur during ambient temperature hydrotesting due to high stresses and low toughness
at the testing temperature.

3.11.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) Cracks will typically be straight, non-branching, and largely devoid of any associated plastic deformation
(no shear lip or localized necking around the crack)

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 3 of 14

 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

3.11.6 Prevention / Mitigation

For existing equipment, the combination of stress, material toughness and existing or potential flaw size govern
the probability of a brittle fracture event.

3.11.7 Inspection and Monitoring

a) Routine Inspection is not normally used to detect or mitigate brittle fracture, but awareness of susceptible
equipment can help prevent future damage.
b) Susceptible vessels should be inspected for pre-existing crack-like fabrication flaws, as well as for cracking from
relevant in-service cracking mechanisms using magnetic particle testing (MT), PT, and/or UT, as applicable.

3.14 Caustic Corrosion

3.14.1 Description of Damage

Localized corrosion due to the concentration of caustic (alkaline) solutions such as NaOH and KOH, and/or
corrosive salts from those solutions, that usually occurs under evaporative or high heat transfer conditions
(commonly called caustic gouging). Also, corrosion resulting in general thinning can occur at elevated
temperatures, depending on alkali or caustic solution strength.

3.14.2 Affected Materials

Primarily carbon steel, low alloy steels and 400 Series SS. Carbon steel is the material most commonly used in
situations where caustic corrosion is a concern. 300 series SS is generally resistant to caustic corrosion until
passivity is damaged, which can occur in the approximate temperature range of 160 °F to 210 °F (70 °C to
100 °C), depending on the concentration. 300 series SS can also be susceptible to caustic SCC at these elevated
temperatures

3.14.3 Critical Factors

a) Caustic (NaOH or KOH) must be present. The following are sources of caustic.
1) Caustic is commonly added to treat BFW and may also enter inadvertently during regeneration of
demineralizers.
2) Caustic is sometimes added to process streams for acid neutralization or as a reactant to remove sulfur or
chlorides.
3) Alkaline solutions or salts may also enter process streams through leaks in condensers or other process
equipment.
4) Concentrated caustic is handled in the storage and feed equipment used for feeding caustic into BFW
or process streams.

3.14.4 Affected Units or Equipment

a) Localized caustic corrosion (caustic gouging) is most often associated with boilers and steam-generating
equipment including heat exchangers. This also applies to steam-generating equipment in H2 manufacturing
units and steam generators within other process units.

3.14.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) Caustic gouging is typically characterized by localized metal loss that may appear as grooves in a boiler tube
or locally thinned areas under insulating deposits.

3.14.6 Prevention / Mitigation

a) In steam generating equipment, caustic corrosion is best prevented through proper design.
Damage can be minimized by reducing the amount of free caustic, by ensuring adequate water flooding
and water flow, by ensuring proper burner management to minimize hot spots on heater tubes, and by
minimizing the ingress of alkaline producing salts into condensers.

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 4 of 14

 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

c) Carbon steel (and stainless steels) have serious corrosion problems in high-strength caustic solutions at
elevated temperatures. Alloy 400 and some other nickel-based alloys exhibit much lower corrosion rates.

3.14.7 Inspection and Monitoring

b) Localized Corrosion—Manual UT, including UT scanning, or AUT can be used. Angle beam (SWUT or
PAUT) or TOFD may be necessary to determine the extent of localized corrosion. RT has also been used
within the limits of the technique.
e) Caustic injection sites should be examined and monitored as discussed in API 570 and API 574

3.15 Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking

3.15.1 Description of Damage

Caustic SCC is characterized by surface-initiated cracks that occur in piping and equipment exposed to caustic
(alkaline hydroxide solutions) at elevated temperature, primarily adjacent to non-PWHT’d welds. It is a form of
ASCC. The temperature above which caustic SCC occurs depends on the concentration of the caustic solution.

3.15.3 Critical Factors

a) Susceptibility to caustic embrittlement in caustic soda (NaOH) and caustic potash (KOH) solutions is a
function of caustic strength, metal temperature and stress levels.
e) Thermal stress relief (PWHT) is effective in preventing caustic SCC
g) Special care must be taken with steam tracing or heat design as well as steam out of non-PWHT’d piping and
equipment.

3.15.4 Affected Units or Equipment

a) Caustic SCC can occur in non-stress-relieved piping and equipment that handles caustic, including H2S and
mercaptan removal units, as well as equipment that uses caustic for neutralization in sulfuric acid alkylation
units and HF alkylation units. Caustic is sometimes injected into the feed to the crude tower for chloride control.

3.15.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) Caustic SCC typically propagates parallel to the weld in adjacent base metal, i.e. in the zone of highest welding
residual stress, but can also occur in the weld deposit or HAZ and can be transverse to the weld.

3.15.6 Prevention / Mitigation

a) Cracking can be effectively prevented by means of a stress-relieving heat treatment (e.g. PWHT). A heat
treatment at 1150 °F (620 °C) minimum with a minimum holding time of 1 hr is considered an effective stress
relieving heat treatment for carbon steel. The same requirement applies to repair welds and to internal and
external attachment welds.

3.15.7 Inspection and Monitoring

a) WFMT, ACFM, and ECT can be effective techniques to detect these surface-breaking cracks. Proper surface
preparation is necessary to ensure cracking is not masked by blending or smearing metal into the cracks. The
method of surface preparation is dependent upon the specific technique.

3.17 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking

3.17.1 Description of Damage

Surface initiated cracking of 300 Series SS and some nickel based alloys under the combined action of tensile
stress, temperature and an aqueous chloride environment. It is also referred to as chloride cracking.

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 5 of 14

 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

3.17.3 Critical Factors

a) Chloride content, temperature, pH, tensile stress, presence of oxygen, and alloy composition are critical
factors.
c) Increasing levels of chloride increase the likelihood of cracking.
1) No practical lower limit for chlorides exists because of the potential for chlorides to concentrate. For
example, heat transfer conditions, as on the surface of exchanger tubes, significantly increase cracking
potential. Repetitive wetting and drying situations, including alternating steam and water, can also lead to
cracking.
2) Non-condensing systems will be a particular concern, because the chlorides cannot be removed with the
water phase.
d) Increasing temperatures increase the potential for cracking, as long as the other required elements (stress
and aqueous chloride solution) are present concurrently.
1) Although there are exceptions at lower temperatures and even ambient temperature, particularly with
highly cold worked or sensitized materials, cracking usually occurs at metal temperatures above about
140 °F (60 °C), and experience has shown this to be a useful temperature limit guideline for fixed
equipment in the refining industry.

3.17.4 Affected Units or Equipment

a) Most non-stress-relieved 300 series SS piping and equipment in any process unit are susceptible to Cl− SCC.
Even if the process side will not cause SCC, if the piping or equipment operates above 140 °F (60 °C), it is
likely exposed to alternating wet and dry conditions on the outside.

3.17.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) Surface breaking cracks can occur from the process side or externally under insulation
c) Characteristic stress corrosion cracks have many branches and may be visually detectable as spider web
or craze racking on the surface
d) Metallography of cracked samples typically shows branched, transgranular cracks

3.17.7 Inspection and Monitoring

c) ECT inspection methods can be used on condenser tubes as well as piping and pressure vessels.

3.20 Cooling Water Corrosion

3.20.1 Description of Damage

General or localized corrosion of carbon steels and other metals caused by dissolved salts, gases, organic
compounds or microbiological activity in cooling water systems.

3.20.2 Affected Materials

Carbon steel, all grades of stainless steel, copper and copper alloys, aluminum and alumunium alloys, titanium
and nickel alloys.

3.20.4 Affected Units or Equipment

Cooling water corrosion is a concern with cooling towers, piping, pumps, water-cooled heat exchangers, and any
other equipment associated with cooling water systems.

3.20.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) Cooling water corrosion can result in many different forms of damage including general corrosion, pitting
corrosion, MIC, SCC, and fouling.
b) General or uniform corrosion of carbon steel occurs when dissolved oxygen is present. Many oxidizing
biocides also increase this tendency.

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 6 of 14

 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

c) Localized corrosion may result from under-deposit corrosion, crevice corrosion, or MIC.
d) Wavy or smooth corrosion at nozzle inlets or outlets and exchanger tube inlets may be due to flow
accelerated corrosion, erosion, or abrasion.
e) Corrosion at ERW weld areas will appear as grooving along the weld fusion lines.

3.20.7 Inspection and Monitoring

a) Cooling water should be monitored for process conditions that affect corrosion and fouling, including but not
limited to: PH, oxygen content, cycles of concentration, biocide and other chemical residual, biological activity,
iron and manganese count, cooling water outlet temperatures, hydrocarbon contamination, and process leaks
b) Periodic calculation of overall heat exchanger performance (U-factors) will provide information on potential
scaling and fouling. These could be an indication that corrosion damage is occurring in the piping, exchanger
tubes, and/or other equipment in the system.
c) Strategically placing continuous corrosion monitoring devices on the system, such as corrosion coupons, ER
probes, or online monitoring sensors, can provide an early indication of increased corrosion rates that need
further evaluation.
d) Areas with sharp reduction or large increases in diameter should be considered for velocity survey locations as
velocities that are either too high or too low can dramatically affect the damage rate of the equipment. Several
types of flow meters are available that can be used to check the velocity of water in the cooling water system.
e) When water sides of exchangers are opened for inspection, checking the sacrificial anodes (when installed)
may indicate the relative corrosivity of the cooling water and if the sacrificial anode has been consumed and
needs replacement.
f) Exchanger tube inspection can be used to establish corrosion rates and predict tube life in order to plan for
tube or tube bundle repair/replacement. Some nondestructive methods to inspect tubes are as follows.
1) RFT is commonly used for inspection of ferrous (carbon steel) tubes. RFT has an equal sensitivity to IDand
OD indications and can detect and size corrosion and pitting as well as baffle cuts.
2) ECT is the preferred method for non-ferromagnetic materials as it has a higher probability of detecting all
types of damage than ultrasonic methods.
3) IRIS is used when a higher flaw detection and sizing capability is needed (compared to the other
methods), but it is slower, and thorough tube cleaning is required prior to inspection. IRIS can be used on
both ferrous and non-ferrous materials. IRIS is most commonly used on carbon steel tubes.
g) A destructive method for evaluation is extracting and splitting representative tubes to gain access to the internal
surfaces for direct examination. This method is most often used on failed tubes that require replacement and
is useful in determining the cause of the tube failure. It may also be used on tubes where significant damage
has been indicated and needs verification. The knowledge gained from this method may aid in tube material
selection and can help create mitigation plans to avoid future damage.

3.22 Corrosion Under Insulation

3.22.1 Description of Damage

Corrosion of piping, pressure vessels and structural components resulting from water trapped under insulation
or fireproofing.

3.22.3 Critical Factors

a) Temperature, duration of wetting, design of the insulation system, insulation type, and environment are critical
factors.
1) In most situations, and as a practical matter, refiners generally focus their CUI management efforts on
insulated carbon steel, low-alloy steel, and 400 series SS equipment operating between 10 °F (−12 °C)
and 350 °F (175 °C).
2) For 300 series SS, where Cl− SCC is the concern, refiners generally focus on the temperature range of
140 °F (60 °C) to 350 °F (175 °C).
3) For duplex stainless steel, where Cl− SCC is the concern, refiners generally focus on the temperature
range of 280 °F (140 °C) to 350 °F (175 °C)

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 7 of 14

 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

3.22.4 Affected Units or Equipment

a) Location Issues
Common areas of concern in process units are higher moisture areas such as those areas down- wind from
cooling towers, near steam vents, deluge systems, acid vapors, or near supplemental cooling with water
spray.
b) Examples of location where CUI can occur are:
1) CUI can be found on equipment with damaged insulation, insulation jacketing, vapor barriers, weather
proofing or mastic, or where caulking has hardened, separated, or is missing.
2) CUI can occur where water gains access at protrusions through the insulation or at insulation termination
points such as flanges.
3) Piping components and locations that are particularly susceptible include dead-legs (vents, drains, and other
similar items), pipe hangers and other supports, valves and fittings with irregular insulation surfaces, bolted-
on pipe shoes, steam tracing tube or heat tracing wire penetrations, at the terminations of insulation at
flanges or other piping components, at the termination of insulation in vertical pipe, and the first few feet of
a horizontal pipe run adjacent to the bottom of a vertical run.
4) Piping or equipment with damaged and leaking steam tracing is susceptible.
5) Vibrating piping systems have a tendency to inflict damage to insulation jacketing providing a path for
water ingress.
6) Insulation jacketing seams located on the top of horizontal piping or improperly lapped or sealed
insulation jacketing can lead to CUI.
7) Locations where moisture or trapped water will naturally collect due to gravity drainage before evaporating
such as low points in piping runs and insulation support rings on vertical columns, as well as improperly
terminated fireproofing.

3.22.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) Carbon steel and low-alloy steels are subject to corrosion having a rough, uneven, somewhat pitted
appearance, usually covered with a loose, flaky, non-protective scale attached. The corrosion will be localized to
wherever the metal has been kept wet by wet insulation. (Figure 3-22-1 to Figure 3-22-8)
b) In some cases, the corrosion can appear to be carbuncle-type pitting (usually found under failed coating).
c) 300 series SS are subject to SCC if chlorides are present. While the duplex stainless steels are less
susceptible, SCC failures have occurred in duplex stainless steel due to CUI.
d) 300 series SS and duplex stainless steel are subject to pitting and crevice corrosion.

3.22.6 Prevention / Mitigation

a) Since most construction materials used in refining are susceptible to CUI damage, mitigation is best achieved by
applying an appropriate coating to the equipment prior to insulating.
1) High-quality, immersion-resistant nonmetallic coatings, properly applied to the surfaces to be insulated,
can provide long-term protection.
2) Flame-sprayed aluminum coatings have been used on carbon steels. The coating corrodes preferentially by
galvanic action, thereby protecting the base metal.
d) Both water absorption properties and water retention characteristics are important and should be considered.
Some insulating materials absorb little water but still trap water against the pipe or equipment for an extended
time because water removal is slow. While closed-cell foam glass materials will hold less water and, therefore,
might be less prone to causing CUI, studies show that an open cell structure provides a path for water vapor
to escape faster, allowing the insulation to dry quicker. Faster drying time, corresponding to less metal wetting
time, should help mitigate CUI.

3.27 Erosion/Erosion – Corrosion

3.27.1 Description of Damage

a) This subject covers a wide range of situations of material loss, from flowing solid particles alone or in a liquid or
vapor stream physically abrading the material to material loss accelerated by the flow of corrosive liquid or
vapor possibly combined with the velocity-assisted removal of a protective film or scale.

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 8 of 14

 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

1) Erosion is the mechanical removal of surface material as the result of relative movement between, or impact
from, solids, liquids, vapor, or any combination thereof. It is typically found in services where solids are
entrained in liquid or vapor streams such as slurries and fluidized solids. In refining, with the exception of
water droplets in steam systems, it is unlikely that any flowing liquid or liquid impingement (without entrained
solids) would be able to erode typical materials of construction without there also being a corrosion component
present. The same can be said for gases, with the possible exception of steam cutting. However, see
Cavitation (3.16).
2) Erosion-corrosion is a description for the damage that occurs when particle erosion and/or high flow
velocity contributes to corrosion by removing protective films or scales or otherwise accelerating the
corrosion rate. This is also called velocity-assisted corrosion.

3.27.3 Critical Factors

e) In most cases, the more corrosive the environment is to a particular material, the greater will be the erosion-
corrosion effect, especially where the erosion effect damages the stability of a protective film, scale, or other
barrier upon which the metal depends for its corrosion resistance. Any factors that contribute to an increase in
corrosivity of the environment, such as temperature, pH, etc., can increase susceptibility to erosion- corrosion
metal loss.

3.27.4 Affected Units or Equipment

a) All types of equipment exposed to moving fluids and/or catalyst are subject to erosion and erosion-
corrosion. This includes piping systems, particularly the bends, elbows, tees and reducers; piping systems
downstream of letdown valves and block valves; pumps; blowers; propellers; impellers; agitators; agitated
vessels; heat exchanger tubing; measuring device orifices; turbine blades; nozzles; ducts and vapor lines;
scrapers; cutters; and wear plates.
b) Erosion can be caused by gas borne catalyst or coke particles or by particles carried by a liquid such as
slurry.

3.27.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) Erosion and erosion-corrosion are typically characterized by a localized loss in thickness in the form of
grooves, gullies, waves, rounded holes, valleys, or simply a greater amount of thinning in a localized area such
as the outer radius of a piping elbow. These losses often exhibit a directional pattern
1) There have been cases where the erosion or erosion-corrosion has occurred over a large enough surface
area to cause a rupture.
b) In liquid lines containing particulate, low velocities, i.e. < around 5 fps (1.5 m/s), can allow solids to tumble to the
bottom and cause erosion or erosion-corrosion in the 6 o’clock position.

3.27.6 Prevention / Mitigation

a) Changes in shape, geometry, and materials can help mitigate erosion and erosion-corrosion. Examples include
increasing the pipe diameter to reduce velocity, streamlining bends to reduce impingement, and using replaceable
impingement baffles.
c) Erosion-corrosion is best mitigated by using more corrosion-resistant alloys and/or altering the process
environment to reduce corrosivity, for e.g. by deaeration, condensate injection or the addition of inhibitors

3.27.7 Inspection and Monitoring

a) Manual UT grids or automated scans can be used to determine the extent of erosion at susceptible areas, such
as changes in direction, changes in diameter, or other turbulent areas. Randomly placed point UT readings
may not be effective if they are not placed at the locations of potential susceptibility.
b) Profile RT can be used to detect areas of erosion but may not be able to determine the actual remaining wall
thickness. UT thickness is normally used as a follow-up technique to quantify wall loss.

3.36 High-temperature Hydrogen Attack

3.36.1 Description of Damage

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 9 of 14

 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

a) High temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA) results from exposure to hydrogen gas at elevated temperatures
and pressures. Dissociated hydrogen atoms react with carbon and carbides in the steel to form CH4.
d) Failure can occur when the cracks reduce the load (pressure) carrying ability of the pressure containing
part.

3.36.3 Critical Factors

a) Resistance to HTHA increases with an increase in the alloy content, primarily the Cr and Mo content, of a steel.
For a specific material, HTHA is dependent on temperature, hydrogen partial pressure, time and stress level.

3.36.4 Affected Units

a) Hydro processing units, such as hydro treaters (desulfurizers) and hydrocrackers, catalytic reformers, some
ISOM units, hydrogen manufacturing units and hydrogen cleanup units such as pressure swing absorption
units all have equipment operating under conditions where HTHA can occur in a susceptible material.

3.36.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

b) HTHA can be confirmed through the use of specialized techniques including metallographic and SEM
analysis of damaged areas

3.36.6 Prevention/Mitigation

a) Using alloy steels with chromium and molybdenum will increase carbide stability, thereby minimizing CH4
formation and resistance to HTHA. Other carbide stabilizing elements include tungsten and vanadium.
b) Common design practice is to use a 25 °F to 50 °F (15 °C to 30 °C) and 25 psia to 50 psia (170 KPa to
345 KPa) hydrogen partial pressure safety factor approach when using the API RP 941 curves.

3.36.7 Inspection and Monitoring

e) The use of NDE methods to detect internal HTHA requires highly specialized training, skills, and experience. It
has had mixed results and is an area of ongoing development. As of this writing, the NDE table in API RP 941
is undergoing revision.
1) Automated ultrasonic backscatter testing (AUBT) and angle beam spectral analysis (ABSA) have had
some success finding fissuring, i.e. where microvoids and microfissures have grown to form significant
fissures in the base metal as well as in welds and HAZs, but it can also miss significant cracking and is not
considered reliable.
2) TOFD and PAUT have shown promise in finding surface-connected and internal damage.
3) Conventional NDE methods for crack detection, e.g. WFMT, PT, or MT, are generally not useful
forHTHA inspection except where gross cracking has occurred and reached the metal surface.
4) AET is not a proven method for the detection of damage.

3.37 Hydrochloric Acid Corrosion

3.37.1 Description of Damage

a) Hydrochloric acid (aqueous HCl) causes both general and localized corrosion and is very aggressive
to most common materials of construction across a wide range of concentrations.
b) Damage in refineries is most often associated with dew point corrosion in which vapors containing water
and hydrogen chloride condense from the overhead stream of a distillation, fractionation or stripping
tower. The first water droplets that condense can be highly acidic (low pH) and promote high corrosion
rates.

3.37.2 Affected Materials

All common materials of construction used in refineries.

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 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

3.37.3 Critical Factors

a) HCl acid concentration, temperature and alloy composition.

b) The severity of corrosion increases with increasing HCl concentration and increasing temperature.

3.37.4 Affected Units or Equipment

HCl corrosion is found in several units, especially crude and vacuum units, hydro processing units and catalytic
reformer units.

3.37.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) Carbon steel and low alloy steels suffer uniform thinning, localized corrosion or under deposit attack.

3.37.6 Prevention/Mitigation

a) Crude Units
1. Optimize the crude oil tank water separation and withdrawal and crude desalting operation will help reduce
chloride content in the feed to the crude tower.
b) Hydrodroprocessing
1. Carryover of water and chloride salts, including neutralizing amine hydrochloride salts, should be
minimized.
c) Catalytic Reforming
1. Special adsorbents in chloride beds and chloride treaters can be used to remove chlorides from
therecycle hydrogen streams and from liquid hydrocarbon streams.

3.37.7 Inspection and Monitoring

a) Hydrochloric acid causes both general and localized corrosion and is very aggressive to most common
materials of construction, especially carbon steel, across a wide range of concentrations.

3.43 Mechanical Fatigue (Including Vibration-induced Fatigue)

3.43.1 Description of Damage

a) Fatigue cracking is a mechanical form of degradation that occurs when a component is exposed to cyclical
stresses for an extended period, e.g. from dynamic loading due to vibration, water hammer, or unstable fluid
flow, often resulting in sudden, unexpected thru-wall cracking.

3.43.3 Critical Factors

a) Geometry, stress level, number of cycles, and material properties (strength, hardness, microstructure) are
predominant factors in determining the fatigue resistance of a component. The amplitude and frequency of
vibrations (related to stress level and number of cycles) in vibrating equipment such as piping are also critical
factors. There is a high likelihood of cracking when the input vibrational load is synchronous or nearly
synchronizes with the natural or harmonic frequency of the component.

3.43.4 Affected Units or Equipment

a) Socket welds and small-bore piping (e.g. bypass lines, minimum flow loops) associated with or near pumps,
compressors, or other rotating or reciprocating equipment that are not properly gusseted and supported.
b) Small branch connections with unsupported valves or controllers that may see vibration from adjacent
equipment and/or wind. For small components, resonance can also produce a cyclic load and should be taken
into consideration during design and reviewed for potential problems after installation.
c) Safety-relief valves that are subject to chatter, premature pop-off, fretting, and failure to operate properly.
d) High-pressure-drop control valves or steam-reducing stations that can cause serious vibration problems in

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 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

connected piping.
e) Rotating shafts on centrifugal pumps and compressors that have stress concentrations due to changes in radii
and keyways.

3.43.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

b) The signature mark of a fatigue failure is a “clam-shell”-type fingerprint that has concentric rings called “beach
marks” emanating from the crack initiation site

3.43.6 Prevention / Mitigation

a) Piping and other fixed equipment.

1. The best defense against fatigue cracking is good design that helps minimize stress concentration of
components that are in cyclic service.

3.43.7 Inspection and Monitoring

In high cycle fatigue, the time required for a crack to initiate or grow sufficiently to be identifiable by NDE
methods can be a majority of the fatigue life, making detection before cracking and failure difficult. For this reason,
it is normally impractical to rely on NDE methods for routine, global inspection of fixed equipment to avoid fatigue
cracking failures. Frequent NDE in a focused program aimed at a specific, known problem area can be used for
finding cracks before failure, but this is not normally considered an effective, long-term approach to managing
the problem.

e) Vibration monitoring of rotating equipment may provide online detection of conditions that can result in shaft
failures due to out of balance conditions.

3.58 Sour Water Corrosion (Acidic)

3.58.1 Description of Damage.

a) Corrosion of steel (primarily) due to acidic sour water (SW) containing H2S at a pH between 4.5 and 7.0.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) may also be present as well as other acidic species such as dissolved organic acids.
b) Sour waters containing significant amounts of ammonia, chlorides or cyanides may significantly affect PH,are
outside the scope of this section.

3.58.2 Affected Materials

a) Primarily affects carbon steel.

b) Stainless steels, copper alloys and nickel base alloys are usually resistant.

3.58.3 Critical Factors

a) H2S content, pH, temperature, velocity and oxygen concentration are all critical factors.
b) The H2S concentration in the sour water is dependent on the H2S partial pressure in the gas phase as
well as temperature and pH.

3.58.4 Affected Units or Equipment

Acid SW corrosion is a concern in overhead systems of FCC and cooker gas fractionation plants with high H2S
levels and low NH3 levels

3.58.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) Corrosion damage from acidic sour water is typically general thinning. However, localized under deposit
attack can occur, especially if oxygen is present
b) 300 Series SS are susceptible to pitting attack and may experience crevice corrosion and/or Cl-SCC

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 12 of 14

 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

3.58.6 Prevention / Mitigation

b) 300 Series SS can be used at temperatures below about 140˚F (60˚C) where CL-SCC is not likely.
c) Copper alloys and nickel alloys are generally not susceptible to acid sour water corrosion. However,
copper alloys are vulnerable to corrosion and some are susceptible to SCC in environments with ammonia.

3.58.7 Inspection and Monitoring

a) UT scanning and RT can identify locally thinned areas of equipment exposed to SW corrosion.

3.61 Sulfidation

3.61.1 Description of Damage

Corrosion of carbon steel and other alloys resulting from their reaction with sulfur compounds in high
temperature environments. Corrosion in the presence of hydrogen is discussed in 3.35, High-temperature H2/H2S
Corrosion

3.61.2 Affected Materials

a) All iron based materials including carbon steel and low alloy steels, 400 series SS, and 300 series SS, in
that order from most susceptible to less susceptible.

3.61.3 Critical Factors

a) Major factors affecting sulfidation are chemical composition off the metal, temperature and concentration of
corrosive sulfur compounds. Flow conditions can also affect the rate of damage.
b) The resistance of iron and nickel base alloys is determined by the chromium content of the material
h) Sulfidation is primarily caused by H2S and other reactive sulfur species formed by the thermal decomposition
of sulfur compounds at high temperatures. Some sulfur compounds react more readily to form H2S.
Therefore, it can be misleading to predict corrosion rates based on weight percent sulfur alone.

3.61.4 Affected Units or Equipment

a) Sulfidation occurs in piping and equipment in high temperature environments where sulfur- containing
liquid, vapor, or mixed streams are processed.

3.61.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) Depending on service conditions, corrosion is most often in the form of uniform thinning but can also occur
as localized corrosion or high velocity erosion-corrosion damage.

3.61.6 Prevention / Mitigation

a) Resistance to sulfidation is generally achieved by upgrading to a higher chromium steel such as 9Cr-1Mo.

3.61.7 Inspection and Monitoring

a) Thinning in piping, tubing, and other equipment can be detected and measured using UT thickness
measurement or RT. Thinning in pressure vessels and large-diameter piping where internal inspection is
possible can be detected by internal VT, typically followed up with UT.
d) Actual operating temperatures should be verified and compared against design. Temperatures and sulfur
levels should be monitored for increases above design.
e) Temperatures can be monitored using tube skin thermocouples and/or infrared thermography.

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 13 of 14

 The topics discussed herewith are summarized from API RP 571 – 2020, Third Edition.
The highlighted points are as per outline in the body of knowledge API-510 Pressure Vessel Inspector
Certification examination issued September 2022, January 2023, and May 2023 (Replaces May 2021)

3.67 Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)

3.67.1 Description of Damage

This section describes four types of damage that result in blistering and/or cracking of carbon steel. one of which
also affects low-alloy steels and some other high-strength or hardenable materials, in wet H2S environments
a) Hydrogen Blistering
Hydrogen blisters form bulges primarily on the ID surface of pressure vessels. Hydrogen blistering is rare in
seamless pipe but can occur in seam-welded pipe. Blisters are caused by the hydrogen atoms that form on the
surface of the steel as a result of corrosion reactions.
b) Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC)
HIC results from the same cause as blistering, i.e. from hydrogen atoms diffusing into the steel as a result of
corrosion. However, in this case, when the hydrogen atoms diffuse into the steel, rather than forming blisters,
internal separations parallel to the surface of the steel result. Again, it is the pressure buildup resulting from
hydrogen atoms combining to form H2 gas that cause the internal separations within the wall of the vessel.
Interconnecting cracks between HIC separations on different planes have a stair step appearance, and so HIC
is sometimes referred to as “stepwise cracking.”
c) Stress Oriented Hydrogen Induced Cracking (SOHIC)
SOHIC results from an array of HIC (separations or cracks) stacked on top of each other. When acted upon by
a high stress level (residual or applied), the stacked HIC will connect and create a thru-thickness crack that is
perpendicular to the surface. SOHIC most often occurs in the base metal adjacent to weld HAZs, the residual
stress from welding being the most common driver of SOHIC. SOHIC can initiate from the stacked HIC alone,
from sulfide stress cracks, or from other crack-like defects or stress concentrations. SOHIC is a potentially more
damaging form of cracking than HIC because of its relatively higher rate of developing a thru-wall crack.
d) Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC)
SSC is the cracking of a susceptible metal under the combined action of tensile stress and corrosion in the
presence of water and H2S. SSC is a form of HE cracking resulting from absorption of atomic hydrogen that is
produced on the metal surface by the corrosion process. In addition to carbon steel and low- alloy steels,
martensitic stainless steels such as Type 410 are also susceptible if hardness is not controlled to a low enough
level.
SSC occurs in high-strength (high-hardness) steels but can also initiate in highly localized zones of high
hardness in weld metal and HAZs.

Hard welds and hard spots within otherwise soft welds can arise with SAW when an active flux is used along with
high welding voltage. This high hardness can lead to SSC. (See Reference 9.)

The time to failure by SSC decreases as the steel strength, level of tensile stress, and hydrogen charging
potential of the environment increase.

3.67.2 Affected Materials

Carbon steel and in the case of SSC, low-alloy steels, and martensitic stainless steels.

3.67.4 Affected Units or Equipment

a) Blistering, HIC, SOHIC and SSC damage can occur throughout the refinery wherever there is a wet H2S
environment present.
b) In hydroprocessing units, typical locations include fractionator overhead drums, fractionation towers, absorber
and stripper towers, compressor interstage separators and knockout drums and various heat exchangers,
condensers, and coolers.

3.67.7 Inspection and Monitoring

a) Inspection for blistering is normally done by internal VT

b) Inspection for SOHIC typically focuses on weld seams and nozzles
c) Cracks from SOHIC or surface-breaking HIC may be seen visually
d) Grinding out the crack or removal by thermal arc gouging is a viable method of crack depth determination.

API RP 571 for API 510, ALW Page 14 of 14