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Fused deposition modeling: process, materials, parameters, properties, and

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Article  in  The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology · May 2022

DOI: 10.1007/s00170-022-08860-7

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-08860-7

CRITICAL REVIEW

Fused deposition modeling: process, materials, parameters,

properties, and applications
Kumaresan Rajan1 · Mahendran Samykano2,3 · Kumaran Kadirgama1,3 · Wan Sharuzi Wan Harun1 ·
Md. Mustafizur Rahman2

Received: 22 June 2021 / Accepted: 1 February 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
In recent years, 3D printing technology has played an essential role in fabricating customized products at a low cost and
faster in numerous industrial sectors. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is one of the most efficient and economical 3D
printing techniques. Various materials have been developed and studied, and their properties, such as mechanical, thermal,
and electrical, have been reported. Numerous attempts to improve FDM products’ properties for applications in various sec-
tors have also been reported. Still, their applications are limited due to the materials’ availability and properties compared
to traditional fabrication methods. In 3D printing, the process parameters are crucial factors for improving the product's
properties and reducing the machining time and cost. Researchers have recently investigated many approaches for expand-
ing the range of materials and optimizing the FDM process parameters to extend the FDM process’s possibility into various
industrial sectors. This paper reviews and explains various techniques used in 3D printing and the various polymers and
polymer composites used in the FDM process. The list of mechanical investigations carried out for different materials, pro-
cess parameters, properties, and the FDM process's potential application was discussed. This review is expected to indicate
the materials and their optimized parameters to achieve enhanced properties and applications. Also, the article is highly
anticipated to provide the research gaps to sustenance future research in the area of FDM technologies.

Keywords  Fused deposition modeling · 3D printing · Mechanical properties · Additive manufacturing · Fused filament
fabrication
Abbreviations
Highlights 3DP Three-dimensional printing
• Various methods of the additive manufacturing process were
discussed.
ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
• Fused deposition modeling materials (polymers and polymer AM Additive manufacturing
composites) were discussed in detail. ANOVA Analysis of variance
• Various parameters used and optimization of the fused ASTM American Society for Testing and Material
deposition modeling process were discussed.
• Properties of different polymers and polymer composites have
standards
been extracted from different kinds of experiments and studies. β-TCP Beta-tricalcium phosphate
• Applications in the various sectors using the fused deposition BJ Binder jetting
process were discussed. CAD Computer-aided design
* Mahendran Samykano
CAM Computer-aided manufacturing
[email protected] CF Carbon fiber
CFF Continuous flax fiber
1
Faculty of Mechanical & Automotive Engineering CFR Continuous fiber reinforcement
Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang,
CIJ Continuous inkjet
26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia
2
CNT Carbon nanotube
College of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang,
DCB Decellularized bone matrix
26300 Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia
3
DED Direct energy deposition
Centre for Research in Advanced Fluid and Processes,
DLF Direct light fabrication
Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26300 Gambang, Pahang,
Malaysia DLP Digital light processing
DMD Direct metal deposition

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Vol.:(0123456789)
 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

DMLS Direct metal laser sintering 1 Introduction

DOE Design of experiments
EBW Electron beam welding The need for greater versatility and the evolution of cus-
FDM Fused deposition modeling tomized products has directed the precipitous technologi-
FF Flax fiber cal advancement of additive manufacturing technology.
FFF Fused filament fabrication 3D printing is an additive manufacturing technology, also
G-Code Geometric code called rapid prototyping by the ASTM F42 technical com-
GF Glass fiber mittee, to differentiate between conventional production
HA Hydroxyapatite (subtracting manufacturing method) processes [1]. Origi-
HIPS High-impact polystyrene nally, AM methods were used only for concept visuali-
IP Inkjet printing zations and validation. However, the advancement of the
ISO International Standard Organization technique has led to the development of end-use compo-
LENS Laser-engineered net shaping nents and tools [2]. The component manufactured by the
LOM Laminated object manufacturing AM technique is shaped layer by layer using the digital
M-Code Machine code data designed using CAD and CAM [3]. In recent years,
ME Material extrusion the use of AM technology has snowballed due to its ability
MJ Material jetting to bring the product to market quicker than conventional
MWCNT Multi-walled carbon nanotubes methods [4]. As reported by Forbes in 2017, 57% of the
OMMT Organic montmorillonite global manufacturers have invested in 3D printing research
PA Nylon/polyamide and development, and 95% of manufacturing companies
PBF Powder bed fusion perceive 3D printing technology provides a significant
PBS Poly(butylene succinate) market advantage. Finding also reveals that 47% of 3D
PC Polycarbonate printing businesses have been more successful than in pre-
PCL Polycaprolactone vious years [5]. In the next 5 years, analysts predict that
PEEK Polyetheretherketone the 3D printing industry’s average growth will be 24% or
PEKK Polyetherketoneketone 35 billion dollars [6]. In 2020, the AM industry grew by
PHB Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) 7.5%, or nearly $ 12.8 billion. Figure 1 indicates the global
PLA Polylactic acid annual report of AM parts’ production from independent
PLGA Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) service providers (in millions of dollars) by Wohler.
PMMA Polymethyl methacrylate Fused deposition modeling is a popular AM technol-
PP Polypropylene ogy because of its fast production, cost-efficiency, ease of
PPSF Polyphenylsulphone access, broad material adaptation, and capability to pro-
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol duce complex components [8, 9]. In 1988, Crump-patented
PVDF Polyvinylidene fluoride fused deposition modeling (FDM) and formed Stratasys in
PS Polystyrene 1989. The initial system has essential fundamental aspects
RP Rapid prototyping of AM except for the possibility of generating complex
RSM Response surface methodology geometry [10]. Later, several optimized series were intro-
SBF Simulated body fluids duced, such as FDM Titan, FDM Dimension, FDM Van-
SCF Short carbon fiber tage, FDM Maxum, FDM 3000, and FDM Prodigy Plus
SL Sheet lamination [11, 12] that can produce complex geometry designs. The
SLA Stereolithography structure is created three-dimensionally over the build
SLS Selective laser sintering plate per CAD design using thermoplastic filament in the
STL Standard tessellation language FDM process. Once the initial layer is printed, the bed
TMP Thermomechanical pulp goes down, and the second layer is printed over the previ-
TPU Thermoplastic polyurethanes ous layer, and the process continues. Materials such as
UAM Ultrasound additive manufacturing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid
VP Vat photopolymerization (PLA) are the most widely used materials in the FDM
Symbols because their thermal and rheological properties make it
μm Micrometer easier to manufacture parts [13]. Other possible materi-
$ American dollars als for FDM are nylon, ULTEM, polyetheretherketone
MPa Megapascal (PEEK), polypropylene (PP), polyphenylsulphone (PPSF),
GPa Gigapascal thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU), polyvinyl alcohol

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

Fig. 1  Global annual report

of AM parts production from
independent service provid-
ers (in millions of dollars) by
Wohler [7]

(PVA), high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), and composite fil- components produced with this method are reported to have
aments [14]. These materials have developed components lower strength compared with the other conventional meth-
for various industries such as automotive, electronics, ods. Research in the field of additive manufacturing or 3DP
biomedical, construction, aerospace, and domestic appli- has been increasing every year. The number of publications
ance industries [15]. The processing parameters have been in this area from 2000 to 2020 is shown in Fig. 2. After
reported to be the crucial factor determining the output 2012, the rate of research contribution in this area has been
product's quality and behavior. The different processing augmented significantly. The present review paper summa-
parameters used in the FDM process are layer thickness, rizes the crucial advancements in the FDM process, mate-
infill pattern, infill density, raster angle, raster width, print- rial characterization, and process parameters to develop the
ing speed, build orientation, printing, and bed temperature. optimum print quality and enhance the FDM process's prod-
FDM manufactured parts are heavily affected by deprived uct quality. Also, the present paper attempts to present the
mechanical and anisotropic properties. Several researchers property matrix for all the materials investigated. Since most
have investigated the FDM process parameter's effect on researchers focus their review papers on particular areas,
mechanical behavior [16]. Lanzotti et al. [17] investigated the current work concentrates on the overall FDM review.
the effect of layer height, raster angle, and shells on the This current review paper includes the following sections:
tensile strength of a PLA. The author observed the tensile materials, properties, parameters, applications, technical
strength reduces with raster angle increment and increases challenges in the FDM process, and the conclusion.
with lower layer thickness. Ziemian et al. [18] analyzed
the anisotropic properties of the FDM printed ABS and
reported that the direction of the fracture depends on 2 3D printing technologies
the raster direction and strength of the individual layer.
Chacón et al. [19], in their work, reported that lower layer The International Standard Organization (ISO) and the
thickness specimen resulted in higher tensile strength American Society for Testing and Material standards
and ductility; these higher mechanical properties were (ASTM) have categorized the techniques of 3DP/AM [1].
achieved at flat edge orientation. The FDM technology They have classified AM technology into seven categories
has also been shown to form porous internal structures in and discussed them in the preceding sub-sections.
the manufactured component, which leads to inadequate
mechanical strength and the “stair-stepping” effect to other 2.1 AM categories
problems such as poor surface finish [20, 21].
Literature studies attest that FDM technology has been Sheet lamination, material extrusion, powder bed fusion,
used in various applications. This technology potential to direct energy deposition, binder jetting, material jetting,
produce functional products by using innumerable poly- and vat photopolymerization are the main categories of AM
mers and polymer composites. At present, most of the technology. Each technique has different abilities depending
reported works seem to focus on developing polymers and on its applications. The various processes and the methods
polymer composites to be used with the FDM process. The of AM are shown in Fig. 3.

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 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

Fig. 2  Number of journal pub-

lications on FDM for the period
of 2000–2020 ( source from
google scholars)

2.1.1 Sheet lamination cost and ease of handling material [23, 25]. Various mate-
rials such as polymer, ceramic, paper, and metals can be
In the sheet lamination process, the raw material is added used in this sheet lamination process. This process's main
together to form the final product in the form of sheets. advantages are integrating as a hybrid manufacturing sys-
The raw materials (worksheets) are cut by laser or cutter as tem, working with ceramic and composite fiber material,
per the geometry before the lamination process. The sheets and without the necessity for support structures. The limi-
are stacked layer by layer, and the stacked sheets were tation of this process is the availability of limited materials
bonded by diffusion instead of melting [22–24]. Laminated and removing the excess materials after the lamination.
object manufacturing (LOM) and ultrasonic additive man- Compared with other methods, the wastage is high in the
ufacturing (UAM) are the main techniques in this process. sheet lamination process. In addition, the strength of the
The processing speed is relatively high, with low operation bonding relies on the lamination technique, and in certain

Fig. 3  Techniques and process of AM

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

instances, adhesive bonds will not suffice the strength and such as a laser, electron beam, or plasma arc. A gantry sys-
integrity required for the long term. tem or robotic arm manipulates both the energy source and
the material feed nozzle. In here, a movable chamber is fixed
along with a laser. The metal powder is routed into the noz-
2.1.2 Material extrusion zle to the specific area simultaneously; the laser operates and
melts the powder and solidifies the layer. The movable cham-
In this material extrusion process, a continuous filament ber is not fixed at a particular axis, and it moves in various
of thermoplastic or composite material is used to construct directions. Depending on the material feedstock, the DED
3D parts. The polymer filament is forced over the nozzle process is classified into two types: (1)metal powder and (2)
and fed over the build plate or previously solidified sub- metal wire [24]. Comparative from PBF, different types of
stance, and the product is built layer by layer technique at substrates can be used in DED. This process produces high
a constant speed and pressure [22, 23, 26]. This process is accuracy products with the minimized void formation and
primarily used to build complex geometry that is impossible improved density [31, 32]. The primary techniques used in
to produce by the traditional manufacturing process. Also, this process are laser engineered net shaping (LENS), direct
multi-material can be used in this extrusion process [27, light fabrication (DLF), and direct metal deposition (DMD).
28]. Operation time and cost are minimal compared to other High build rate and faster build time, used for built larger
methods, and the main techniques in these processes are parts, fewer material wastages, multi-material range are the
fused deposition modeling (FDM) and fused filament fab- advantages of this method. The limitations of this method
rication (FFF) [23, 25]. Low initial and running cost, easily are low build resolution, high capital cost, and without sup-
understandable printing technique, small equipment size, port structures.
simple and easy changing of print material, and comparably
low-temperature process are the main pros of this process. 2.1.5 Binder jetting
The main cons of this process are visible layer thickness
and the support structure may be required. In addition, part In this process, the binder liquid bonds the powder and
strength in the Z-axis is lacking, the structure of the parts forms the final part. Initially, the powder is spread over
is delaminated due to warping and temperature fluctuation. the bed evenly, and the bonding agent is dropped over the
powder using the print head. Next, the electrical heater is
used to solidify, forming the desired shape. After the forma-
2.1.3 Powder bed fusion tion of the first layer, the powder bed moves down, and the
powder is spread over the previously printed layer, and the
In this powder bed fusion process, the raw materials are in method continues [24, 33, 34]. The energy utilized is low
powder form. Initially, the powders are fed over the base plate, compared to other AM processes, and the operation cost is
and the materials are sintered using heat, laser, or electron also relatively low [35]. Various parts can be made using
beam. Next, the Z-axis moves downwards to spread the pow- this process, and this process is faster than other processes.
der over the layer uniformly by a brush or wiper, and again the The double material approach gives several different varia-
process repeats [22, 24]. Selective laser melting (SLM), selec- tions and mechanical characteristics of binder powder. This
tive laser sintering (SLS), electron beam melting (EBM), and process's limitations are that it is not suitable for structural
direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) are the main techniques parts, post-processing is required, and high cost.
of this process. In this PBF process, the previous layers are
reheated to reduce anisotropy, and this process is used to fab- 2.1.6 Material jetting
ricate intricate structures without additional supports [29, 30].
The process advantages are as follows: (1) comparatively low In this MJ process, liquid polymers are used as the raw mate-
cost as it does not require any supporting structure, (2) a wide rial. Using the piezo print head, the droplets of polymer liq-
range of materials can be used, and (3) the remaining powders uids are deposited over the build plate, and the solidification
in the process can be recycled. However, the limitations of the is carried out using ultraviolet lamps [22, 36]. This process
process are relatively low speed, very long print time, post- is categorized into three types: (1) Polyjet technology, (2)
processing requirement, high power usages, weak structural nanoparticle jetting, and (3) drop-on demand. The process is
properties, and surface texture. capable of printing large components compared to VP [37].
The material jetting process is similar to ordinary inkjet
2.1.4 Direct energy deposition printers, where the droplets are controlled layer by layer to
produce a 3D object. After the layer finishes, it is cured in
This process creates three-dimensional objects by melting the photo-sensitive material with ultraviolet light or heat
material as it is deposited using concentrated thermal energy for metal and ceramic pieces. The advantage of this process

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 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

is that it can be used to develop complex geometry com- the laser is exposed over the resin; the photo-sensitive layer
ponents, high precision, and efficient techniques. The main undergoes polymerization, known as the first layer of the
techniques are inkjet printing (IP) and material jetting (MJ). prints. After the first layer print, the platform lowers at the
This process is capable of building high-accuracy parts at y-axis, and the resins are spread over the specific area. The
less than 14 μm. The injection molding process has a bet- process repeats until the whole component is printed. The
ter surface finish, print multi-material, and low wastage of excess material in the platforms is removed after each layer
materials due to high accuracy printing. The main limitation formation. This process prints the product layer by layer at
of this process is non-suitable for function prototypes. Com- the range of 50–200 µm [43]. This process is categorized into
pared with other AM techniques, the machine is expensive, two types based on the ultraviolet light used for curing: (1)
the parts are relatively brittle, and the high accuracy can be projection-based stereolithography and (2) scanning-based
achieved on limited materials such as polymers and waxes. stereolithography [44]. In PSL, the lamp is exposed over
the entire area in a single pass, but each layer is scanned
2.1.7 Vat photopolymerization individually in the SSL. This SLA technique is relatively
quick and has the highest resolution compared to other AM
In this VP process, the materials are mixed with the high techniques. This drawback of this SLA technique is the slow
reactivity acrylate resins. The mixed photopolymers are printing process and high cost.
placed in the platform, and the laser is used for sintering.
Here, the stereolithography (SLA) uses a laser, and direct 2.2.2 Selective laser sintering (SLS)
light printing (DLP) uses a projector for the sintering pro-
cess. The laser is exposed over the mixed metal resins, and Selective laser sintering (SLS) is one of the best powder-
it undergoes a chemical reaction to become a solid. It is a based AM techniques developed in 1987 by Carl Deckard
photochemical process where small monomers are linked [45]. In this technique, the powder particles are sintered
together like a chain to form a solid object [38, 39]. This using a laser source to produce the solid structure [46]. Two
process has high accuracy and surface quality. This process chambers are used in this SLS technique, the feed chamber
is also relatively quick and typically used to build large com- with a roller is to load the powder to the bed, and the build-
ponents at a size of 1000 × 800 × 500 mm and a maximum ing chamber is for printing. Initially, the feed chamber feeds
weight of 200 kg. The limitations of this process are that the the powder evenly to the built chamber base plate with the
machines are relatively expensive, post-processing time and help of a roller. Before the laser is exposed, the building
the removal of resins time takes a significant amount of time, chamber is heated (below melting temperature) then the C ­ o2
and the material selection is limited. laser is exposed over the powder to cure the material. The
building chamber then slightly moves down, and the feed
2.2 Major techniques of AM chamber applies the powder over the printed layers. The
excess powders in the building chamber act as a supporting
All the AM methods have various printing techniques with structure and are removed after completion, and the excess
unique characteristics. Some of the techniques are cost- material is reused. This is a cost-efficient and flexible pro-
effective, high accurate, user friendly, but few techniques cedure to make high-density prototype products [47, 48].
have low printing quality, are not an end-user product, and However, due to the high power of laser input, the operation
require post-processing. The most common methods used in cost is high and the product quality compared to the SLS
the various industrial sectors are as follows. process is low [49].

2.2.1 Stereolithography (SLA) 2.2.3 Inkjet printing (IP)

This stereolithography (SLA) technology is a polymerization- The modern inkjet printers were invented by Canon and
based process that was commercially introduced in 1986 Hewlett-Packard in 1987. The inkjet printers are mainly
[40]. Two techniques are used in this SLA process, one is classified into two types based on the operation: continu-
top–bottom, and another one is bottom-top. The top–bottom ous inkjet printer and drop-on-demand inkjet printer. In the
technique is the most popular than another one [41]. Pho- continuous inkjet printer, the ink droplet creation is constant.
topolymerizable monomers of epoxy or acrylates resins are Meanwhile, in the drop-on-demand inkjet printer, the ink is
used for laser irradiation. The resins cover the building plat- emitted when necessary. The resolution of continuous inkjet
form, and the laser head is computer-controlled. At first, the (CIJ) printing is lesser than the DOD printing [50–52]. This
boundary layer of the product and the supporting structures CIJ printing ink is extended through a small nozzle by a
are printed before the primary structures [42]. Then, a thin high-pressure pump controlled by a piezoelectric crystal.
amount of resins is placed over the building platform, and The charger electrodes selectively charge the inks from the

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

print head, and the droplets form the image on the matrix. before slicing the file, essential parameters for the process
The excess materials are deflected to the gutter and its reuse. are considered, like slicing parameters, building orienta-
In the DOD process, the ink droplets are generated by the tion, and temperature condition of the machine. These
piezoelectric actuation or pulses of the thermal resistor or are the vital parameters of the printing that will affect
thermal buckling. In the thermal process of DOD, the ink the final product’s mechanical properties [63, 64]. The
chamber is heated to a high temperature for vaporization, essential parameters of the process are shown in Fig. 5.
and the bubbles are formed on the heater surface, which Once this procedure is completed, the slicing is done
will create the pressure pulse, push the ink from the nozzle, using the software (e.g., idea maker, quick slice, etc.),
and form the objects. The advantage of this technology is and the tool path is labeled as G-code. The G-code is a
to minimize wastage, environmentally friendly, and post- computer numerical controller code to control the extru-
processing is minimized [53]. sion process. Figure 6 shows the step-by-step process of
the FDM process.
2.2.4 Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) After the pre-processing, the feedstock material con-
nected with the head is regulated by temperature and heated
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is a vastly handy to the semi-liquid stage. It forms the 2D layer over the build
technique to produce small to big-sized objects, and Feygin platform [65]. The layer forms one over another until the 3D
and Pak developed it at Helisys Corp in 1991 [54, 55]. Ini- objects are created [62, 66]. The filament is heated at a tem-
tially, the raw material is stored as a roller and supplied to perature between 150 and 300℃ and printed over the plate
the Platform, and the sheet material is cut by using a cutter at the dimensional accuracy of 100 µm [67]. The support
or laser. The same process endures on the second layer and base is initially printed before the required object is printed.
is placed over the first layer. Then, using a heated roller, The building platform moves downwards after every layer
pressure is applied over the two sheets containing adhesive is printed, then the extrusion process is sustained, and the
coating in-between the sheets. The laser is then used to object is printed.
remove the excess materials [56, 57]. Plastic, metals, fabrics, The post-processing technique is carried out for the final
paper, and synthetic materials are commonly used materi- product. Post-processing is a vital process in FDM since
als in this technique. This technique’s main advantage is the printed parts are not entirely ready for instant usage.
mainly used to produce high-strength objects compared to After the printing process, the product is taken out from
the conventional process, lower tooling cost, post-processing the bed platform, and the supporting structures are removed
not required, support structures not needed, and less time to and undergo post-processing. This process is mainly used
manufacture larger products [58, 59]. to improve the surface quality of the product [68, 69].
Kumbhar and Mulay [70] reported that the post-processing
2.2.5 Fused deposition modeling (FDM) techniques are usually used to improve the surface finish.
The post-processing process is categorized into two that
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is the most popular mate- are mechanical and chemical methods [71]. The chemical
rial extrusion-based additive manufacturing method invented method uses painting, coating, heating, and vapor deposi-
by Scott Crump, co-founder of Stratasys, in 1989 [60]. FDM tion process [72, 73]. In contrast, the mechanical method
is a material extrusion process using thermoplastic poly- includes machining, sanding, abrasive, vibratory, and barrel
mers. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polylactic acid finishing to improve the parts' surface quality and mechani-
(PLA), and polycarbonate (PC) are the base material of this cal properties [74, 75].
FDM process [61, 62]. The layout of the FDM is shown Daminabo et al. [27] and Bryll et al. [76] are reported
in Fig. 4. Here, the filaments are stored in the roller and the different mechanisms in FDM methods classified by the
directly connected to the extrusion head. This head moves heads and feed mechanism. Figure 7 shows the different
in X and Y directions, and the build platform moves in the types of FDM processes.
Z direction. An electric motor controls the movable head,
and the filament is directly connected to the extrusion head. • Single-head method
Generally, two types of material filaments are used for this • Dual-head method
process. One is built material, and another one is the sup- • In-nozzle impregnation method
porting material. The filament diameter is typically 1.75 to
3.0 mm. This FDM technique is consists of three stages for Only one filament is used for production in the single
the production: (1) pre-processing, (2) production, and (3) head FDM method, and it is a traditional method. Composite
post-processing. materials of polymers with fiber, wood, and metals are used
The product’s design is drawn using CAD software and in this method. The drawback of this process is, it is not
saved in STL format in the pre-processing stage. Then, possible to fabricate products with more than one material

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 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

Fig. 4  Basic layout of the FDM process [291]

type. In the dual-head method, two material filaments are merits and demerits, and the applications of these tech-
used for this process. This method feasible the development niques are shown in Table 1.
of components with two different materials. It is relatively
quick compared to the single head method. This method
is used to make skeletal structures like honeycomb and 3 Materials for the FDM process
square cells. Compared to the previous processes, this in-
nozzle impregnation method is unique. Here, the filaments The materials used for FDM are usually polymer-based,
are directly fed into the nozzle head. The polymer filament having different physical, mechanical, and thermal behav-
and the add-on materials (e.g., carbon fiber, glass fiber) are iors. The selection of the polymer materials depends on the
directly fed into the nozzle, and the filaments are mixed, and different applications and as per the requirements. How-
printing is performed. ever, at present, limited types of polymers are available and
The significant advantages of this FDM process are have restrained FDM technology. Also, high melting point
ease of access, less cost of the machine, and multicolor materials could not be used in this process since the com-
product printing; compared to other RP techniques, this mercially available FDM machines melting capability are
technique is cheaper and cost-effective. On the other around 300 ℃ [77]. Due to these constraints, thermoplastic
hand, the main limitations of this technique are poor sur- polymers and several low melting temperature materials
face quality and it needs support structures. The vari- are ideal for this process. Thus, various attempts have been
ous materials used, the product quality of the technique, made to improve the quality and properties of the polymers

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Fig. 5  Important process parameters of the FDM process

by adding fillers such as ceramics, nanoparticles, metals, is reduced with desirable mechanical properties. However,
and wood fiber. low melting strength and slow crystallization rate are the
main limitations of this PLA. Due to this drawback, the
3.1 Polymers application of PLA in different sectors is constrained [84].
ABS is the most used petroleum-based material having
In the 3D printing process, polymers are the most common high mechanical strength, easy processability, corrosion
materials used to form the prototype or products. The com- resistance, and high melt strength. In the FDM process,
mon materials are used in the FDM process are acrylonitrile the strength of printed ABS can achieve 80% of the raw
butadiene styrene (ABS), polylactic acid (PLA), polyethyl- material [85–87]. Compared to PLA, the ABS has better
ene (PE), polypropylene (PP), nylon/polyamide (PA), and mechanical strength. In addition, the ABS material can be
polycarbonates (PC) [25, 78, 79]. Pure polymers such as easily extruded because of less friction coefficient, and they
ABS, PLA, and PA are mainly used for prototypes as they are mainly used to print household products [88]. However,
have low physical properties. In contrast, polyethyleneimine ABS is not suitable for medical applications as they are not
(PEI), polyetherketoneketone (PEKK), polystyrene (PS), biofriendly, and the layers do not merge completely to create
and polyetheretherketone (PEEK) are used for components a watertight device [72].
that require improved properties. These materials have high Polyamide (PA)/nylon has been one of the most popular
mechanical, thermal properties and chemical resistance [77]. engineered thermoplastics with excellent mechanical and
Some special materials of ABS such as ABSi, ABS-M30, thermal properties [89]. PA/nylon has higher mechanical
ABS-M30i, ABS-ESD7, and ABS plus are also used as the properties compared to the PLA and ABS [90]. The most
printing material in the FDM process [80, 81]. promising biocompatible polymer with exceptional mechan-
PLA is a biodegradable, easily compostable, and non- ical qualities and outstanding processability is polyamide/
toxic material obtained from sugar beets and corns. PLA is nylon. However, this material exhibits the most challenging
the low-temperature thermoplastic, and it is the reinstate of material characteristics compared with some other polymers
petroleum-based thermoplastics. They are mainly used for [91]. Pure PA-based FDM products are seriously warped,
biomedical and tissue engineering and scaffolding [82, 83]. lack shape infirmity and are distorted. Due to these limita-
Due to their low operating temperature, the cost of operation tions, their applications are restricted [92].

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required mechanical and functional properties is a promising

way of solving this problem. The production of composite
materials compliant with current printers has also gained
significant interest in recent years. Many promising findings
were demonstrated in producing new printable composites
strengthened by ceramics, metals, fibers, and nanomaterials.
The composites are mainly classified into four types, and
that is shown in Fig. 8.
The polymers, ceramic, fiber, and nanomaterials were
added with the base polymers to create the composite fila-
ments. The materials used with the polymer materials are
mainly classified into two types: (1) biodegradable materials
and (2) non-biodegradable materials. Figure 9 indicates the
various types of materials used in the FDM process.

3.2.1 Biodegradable materials

The increasing drawback of fossil supplies in blend with a

society that needs environmentally friendly and ecological
procedures has led to forming a market for biobased plastics.
The biodegradable materials are non-toxic so that this type
of material is mainly used in medical applications and recy-
clable products. The development of the filament as a biode-
gradable material was primarily motivated by this demand.
Biodegradable materials are natural materials, and the prop-
erties of these materials are relatively low compared with
non-biodegradable materials. Here, the bio-based polymers
are added with other bio-based polymers, ceramics, natural
Fig. 6  Process flow of FDM fillers, and natural fibers. PLA and ABS are the standard
materials used as a base material in the composites because
of their low cost, ease of availability, and good mechanical
PEEK is a high-performance, non-toxic, semi-crystalline properties [98].
thermoplastic polymer with good mechanical strength, high-
temperature resistance, and excellent dimensional stability 3.2.1.1  Biodegradable polymer blends In recent years,
[93]. PEEK has a high melting point and mechanical strength a number of research on polymer blends have been con-
compared with PLA and ABS [94, 95]. PEEK is a biocom- ducted aiming for biomedical applications. Researchers
patible material used in biomedical applications and automo- mainly focus on PLA/PCL blends due to their compatibility
tive, aerospace, electronics, and medical industries [96]. It in biomedical. Haq et al. [99] investigated the mechanical
also has good chemical resistance and mechanical properties properties of PCL/PLA composite blended with PEG at dif-
up to 240 ℃ and is usually used as an alternative material for ferent molecular weights. In their investigation, the 5 phr
the metal in high-temperature applications [97]. of PEG containing the composite result showed the high-
est elastic modulus value (396.43 MPa). Meanwhile, the 15
3.2 Composites phr PEG containing composites showed the highest impact
strength of 0.14 J. Menčík et al. [100] analyzed the mechan-
Pure polymers were the primary filaments used in the FDM ical, thermal, and morphological properties of poly(3-
process because of the low melting point and low cost, hydroxybutyrate)/poly (lactic acid)/plasticizer biodegrad-
process flexibility, and availability. 3D-printed polymer able blends. Tributyl citrate C-4, acetyl tributyl citrate A-4,
products have a high degree of geometric sophistication, acetyl tributyl citrate A-6, n-butyryl tri-n-hexyl citrate B-6
and their wide application presents a significant challenge was used as a plasticizer. The PHB/ PLA/plasticizer ratio is
with the lack of mechanical strength and functionality. Pure 60/25/15 wt%, and the filament size is 1.75mm. The result
polymers as a filament have many obstacles to increasing shows that the elongation of acetyl tributyl citrate (A-4)
the product’s strength some other materials added with and tributyl citrate (C-4) improved by 308% and 155%,
the polymers. Combining different materials to obtain the respectively, compared to the PHB/PLA composite blends.

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Fig. 7  Single, multi, and in-nozzle impregnation FDM methods

Poly(butylene succinate) (PBS)/polylactide (PLA) polymer ites. Their analysis reported that the maximum tensile mod-
blend was analyzed by Ou-yang et al. [101]. The PBS-PLA ulus of PLA/ceramic was 1056.3 MPa, the tensile strength
with the composition of 20, 40, 60, and 80 wt% and fila- was 46.3 MPa at the angle of 45°/ − 45°. The tensile modu-
ment diameter of 1.75 mm were studied. The layer thick- lus of PLA/ceramic composites was found to be higher com-
ness used is 0.1mm, and the printing orientation angle of pared to all other composites. The composition of polyamide
the first and second layers is 45° and 135°, respectively. The 12 with 15 wt% zirconia and 15, 20, and 25 wt% of β-TCP
result shows that 40 wt% of PBS added into PLA showed was analyzed by Abdullah et al. [106]. Their analysis con-
a good tensile and low degree of crystallinity. Kim et  al. cludes that the specimen’s physical and mechanical proper-
[102] analyzed the PLGA/β-TCP/hydroxyapatite nanocom- ties were affected upon the addition of the fillers more than
posite scaffolds for a rabbit. The scaffold enrooted into the 30 wt%. Chen et  al. [107] investigated the microstructure,
femoral defect of the rabbit body and its osteoconductive thermal behavior, printability, and mechanical properties
and biodegraded in 12 weeks. Polycaprolactone(PCL)/tri- of poly(vinyl alcohol)/β-tricalcium phosphate. β-TCP was
calcium phosphate (TCP) composite scaffolds in vitro deg- mixed with the ratio of 5, 10, and 20 wt% respectively with
radation analyzed by Lei et  al. [103]. The scaffolds were PVA. The printing parameters of the specimen were infill
immersed in simulated body fluids (SBF) at 37 ℃, and the percentage of 40%, raster angle 90°-layer thickness 0.3 mm,
degradation behavior was monitored for a different period. and the printing and the bed temperatures at 175 ℃ and 25
The findings revealed very good degradation behavior. ℃, respectively. The experiment's outcome shows that the 20
wt% of β-TCP with PVA has the most optimum properties.
3.2.1.2  Polymer ceramic composites  Ceramic materials are The maximum stress improved from 8.3 to 10.7 kPa and was
naturally biodegradable and are mainly used as a human identified as a potential candidate for bone tissue engineer-
bone replacement. Ceramics are favorable biomaterials ing. Poly (e-caprolactone)/bioactive glass composite was
because of their similarity to natural bone structures. The studied by Korpela et  al. [108]. Their experiment suggests
standard ceramic biomaterials used for medical applications that PCL with a 10 wt% BAG composition is stiffer than
are alumina, silica, zirconia, calcium phosphate, and bioac- the standard PCL structure. The operating parameters of the
tive glass–ceramics [104]. Liu et  al. [105] investigated the specimen preparation were the layer thickness 0.4 mm, raster
mechanical properties of PLA/ceramic and other compos- angle 0°/90°, and the temperature at 190 ℃. Wu et al. [109]

13


Table 1  Materials used and characteristics of different AM printing processes

Techniques Materials used Energy Resolution Production cost Surface properties Product properties Merits Demerits Applications
intake

13
Stereolithography Liquid photopolymers Less 10 µm Fair High accuracy Highly fragile Good surface finish Support structures Prototype and
Resolution and precision are required conceptual models,
are high Post-processing end-user parts,
Fabrication speed is high is essential to patterns for metal
remove the sup- processing (e.g.,
port structure and epoxy molding,
achieve improved metal spraying)
strength
Selective laser Polymers, metals, High 80–250 µm High limited High Mechanical No need for a support Machine cost is Agriculture sector,
sintering ceramics properties structure and unused high aerospace, and
materials can be Slow build rate. automotive indus-
recycled They are used for tries, medical and
Good accuracy and small & medium architecture
resolution and a wide size production
range of materials are High power usage
available Uneven surface
finish while using
polymer materials
Inkjet printing Polymers, metals, Less 5–200 µm High Good Fragile parts Can print multiple materials The maintenance Thin film transis-
ceramics and color products cost is high. In tors, light-emitting
There is no model material addition, thin and devices, solar cells,
waste small features Can
Can produce complex be affected by
structures also fast and post-processing
efficient
Laser object Polymer composites, Less The resolution is only High Fine Fragile parts Process speed is high, and Limited material Pattern making,
manufacturing ceramic papers depending on the the cost is less usages decorative objects,
thickness of the No need for supporting post-processing and visual represen-
laminate sheets structure, is required tation
Can print multi colors and depending on the
multi-materials materials
Fused deposition Polymers, composites Less 50–200 µm Low Good accuracy Fragile parts Simple to adapt and Complex structures Rapid prototyping,
modeling of ceramics, metals, scalable are tricky to print Aerospace, and
fibers, and nanopar- Low-cost machines and a Less precision and automobile sectors,
ticles variety of raw materi- build time are biomedical, elec-
als are available, and high tronics, construc-
Maintenance is less Anisotropic property tion, household
of the printed goods, and crafts
components
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

Fig. 8  Basic composites of
FDM

investigated the morphological and mechanical properties of cated that the increase in layer thickness would increase the
polylactic acid (PLA)/hydroxyapatite (HA) composite. Com- porosity and reduce the specimen's mechanical properties.
positions are 5, 10, and 15 wt% for HA with PLA at the oper- PLA/raw sugarcane bagasse and PLA/sugarcane bagasse
ating parameters of 0.6-mm layer thickness and the printing fiber were analyzed at different compositions of 3, 6, 9, and
head and the bed temperature was 210 ℃ and 60 ℃, respec- 12 wt% by Liu et  al. [111] and reported to have the best
tively. The mechanical properties of the composites were properties for industrial-scale applications. A study on bam-
found closer to the human bones, but the addition of HA into boo/PLA composite preparation using FDM was carried out
PLA composition reduces the quality of the printing. by Zhao [112]. The addition of bamboo powder into PLA
polymer was found to reduce the nozzle clogging and has
3.2.1.3  Natural fillers  Recently, the addition of natural superior biodegradable behavior. Daver et al. [113] analyzed
fillers into biodegradable polymers has received seem- the morphological, mechanical, and thermal properties of
ingly interest due to the increased demand for biodegrad- cork-filled PLA at various infill percentages. The printed
able materials in the medical sector. Fillers such as wood, parts’ tensile and yield strength were low compared with
bamboo wood, sugarcanes, kenaf with PLA, and other base the compression molded composites, but the elongation at
materials have been in progress for exploration. Ayrilmis break was higher. PLA/wood flour composite was examined
et  al. [110] investigated PLA with 30 wt% of wood by by Tao et  al. [114]. Their result exhibits that the melting
using FDM. The water absorption and mechanical property temperature of the composite does not change with the addi-
changes were investigated at various layer thicknesses of tion of 5 wt% wood flour into PLA. Vaidya et al. [115] ana-
0.05 mm, 0.1 mm, 0.2 mm, and 0.3 mm. The finding indi- lyzed the composite’s warping behavior with respect to fill-

Fig. 9  Biodegradable and non-biodegradable materials in FDM

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 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

ers addition polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB) and Pinus radiata 3.2.2 Non‑biodegradable materials
wood chips). The 20 wt% added filler into PHB changes the
melt viscosity and improves the warpage from 34 to 78% Non-biodegradable bioplastics are fascinating because they
compared with pure PHB printed parts. Tran et  al. [116] balance the advantages of decreased carbon footprint dur-
analyzed the thermal and mechanical properties of poly- ing processing and better resource quality with microbial
caprolactone (PCL)/cocoa shell composite. Different com- degradation persistence [127]. However, most materials are
position of cocoa shell added into PCL resulted into a low toxic, not easily decomposable by natural factors, and have
temperature composite that suitable for printing biomedical relatively poor mechanical properties. Therefore, metals,
scaffolds and toys. Frone et  al. [117] studied the morpho- fibers, nanomaterials have been used as filler materials to
structural and thermomechanical properties nano crystal improve the mechanical strength and biodegradability of the
cellulose added with Polylactic acid (PLA)/polyhydroxy materials.
butyrate (PHB) composite and Dicumyl peroxide (DCP) as
a cross-linking agent. The reported good bonding and ther- 3.2.2.1  Non‑biodegradable polymer blends  Peng [128]
momechnical properties of the specimen. prepared and investigated the mechanical properties and
shape memory effect of polypropylene(PP)/nylon 6 (PA6).
3.2.1.4  Natural fibers  The use of natural fibers as a filler The composition of 10, 20, and 30 wt% of PA6 was added
in the thermoplastic composite has been increasing. In into the PP. The specimen was printed with the param-
many applications, natural fibers are used as an alternative eters of 0.1-mm layer thickness, 45°/ − 45° orientation,
to petroleum products. Natural fibers have a high specific and with nozzle and bed temperatures of 250 ℃ and 110
strength, are relatively cheaper, light in weight, and are bio- ℃. The findings revealed that 30 wt% of PA6 blends with
degradable [118]. Mechanical properties of the harakeke PP have high dimensional stability and mechanical prop-
composite surpassed the plain PLA, as reported by Hu and erties and a suitable SME deformation temperature of 175
Lim et al. [119]. The harakeke was added at a composition ℃. S. Chen et al. [129] developed a polymer blend of 10,
of 30, 40, and 50 wt% into PLA, and the findings exhibit 20, and 30 wt% of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) with
that the 40wt% fille composite has the highest mechanical ABS as a primary blend. They added a small amount of
properties. Le Duigou et  al. [120] experimented on PLA/ methacrylate − butadiene − styrene (MBS) with the blends.
continuous flax fiber (CFF) composite. The filament and The specimen was produced with layer thickness 0.2 mm,
printed sample microstructure were characterized, and the orientation of the first layer is 45° and the second layer
mechanical properties were analyzed. PLA/jute fiber and is 135°, and the infill density of 100%. The impact strength
PLA/flax fiber composites were examined by Hinchcliffe of the ABS/PMMA blend found to be 14.9 kJ/m2 is lower
et  al. [121]. The jute fiber composite filament size was than the ABS. Singh and Singh [130] prepared PolyFlex™/
2 mm, and the flax fiber was 0.5 mm. The findings revealed ABS blend at the composition 70/30 vol%. In this research,
the tensile strength increased by 116% and 26%, respec- the polymer blends’ mechanical properties were compared
tively. The stiffness of the product was increased by 12% with the other materials. Their analysis shows that the Poly-
and 10%. The effect of different l/d ratios of PLA/ Bamboo Flex™/ABS blend has attained exceptional standards of
fiber and PLA/Flax fiber were studied by Depuydt et  al. both strength and elasticity. Ahmed et al. [131] investigated
[122] and reported an increase in the stiffness. Le Duigou the time-dependent mechanical properties of FDM process
et  al. [123] investigated and showed that it is possible to conditions using a definitive screen design of polycarbonate
print hygromph biocomposite of PLA/wood fiber compos- (PC)/ABS blends. Their result exhibits that parameters of
ite with dedicated bilayer microstructure. Mechanical prop- layer thickness 0.2540 mm, an air gap of 0 mm, raster angle
erties and potential of the hemp and harakeke reinforced 0° and the print direction at 20° are the optimum conditions
with Polypropylene were studied by Milosevic et al. [124]. for good properties.
The ultimate tensile strength and Young’s modulus were
reported to improve by 50% and 143%, respectively, com- 3.2.2.2  Polymer metal composites  In these polymer-metal
pared with pure polypropylene. The mechanical properties composites, metals in powder form are reinforced with the
of thermomechanical pulp (TMP) fiber reinforced with base materials and extruded in filament form. However, the
BioPE composite were analyzed by Tarrés et al. [125] and major drawback of using metal is the viscosity effect. Still, it
reported that the printing quality improved. Thibaut et al. can be improved by using additives such as plasticizers and
[126] examined the mechanical properties and anisotropic surfactants [132]. Aluminum and iron powders are the most
shrinkage of Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) with natural commonly used filler material in the PMC. Magnetic iron
cellulose fiber during drying. The result showed that the and bronze fill powder reinforced with the PLA’s mechani-
30 wt% composite has better mechanical properties and cal properties were compared by Fafenrot et al. [133]. The
reduced shrinkage. specimen is printed at various compositions and tempera-

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

tures. The results exhibit the mechanical strength of the 0.18 mm are the parameters used to print the specimens,
composites is lesser than the original material. Sa’ude et al. and the specimen printed different orientations (horizontal
[134] investigated the dynamic mechanical properties of the and vertical). The CF/PEEK flexural properties of the verti-
ABS/Copper composite. The filament composition was 57 cally printed specimens were higher than the horizontally
to 63% ABS and 22 to 24% of copper powder, and 15 to printed specimens; the porosity and uniform nucleation
19% surfactant. The outcome of the differential scanning of the CF added PEEK was improved compared with pure
calorimetry (DSC) analysis glass transition temperature (­ Tg) PEEK. The microstructure, processability, and mechanical
was obtained at 74% of ABS and 26% of the copper compo- properties of the ABS/CF reinforced composite were exam-
sition. The finding revealed improved ­Tg, tan delta, storage ined by Tekinalp et al. [141] using the FDM printing and
modulus, and loss modulus. ABS-iron polymer-metal com- compression molding techniques. The CF was reinforced
posite metal flow analysis was performed by Nikzad et al. with the ABS at 10, 20, 30, and 40 wt%, and the filament
[135]. The thermal conductivity of the 10wt% iron infilled was extruded at 1.75 mm diameter. The specimen is printed
composite was found to have increased to 0.258 (W/m.K). at 0.2 mm layer thickness using a 0.5 mm diameter nozzle at
Masood and Song [8] investigated the iron with nylon P301 the temperature range between 220 and 235 ℃ and the bed
PMC. Tensile properties of the PMC at different composi- temperature of 85 ℃. The author mentioned that the filament
tions 70% nylon, 30% iron and 60% nylon and 40% iron, and containing 40 wt% of CF with ABS could not be printed
60% nylon and 40% iron were investigated. The 70% nylon due to the nozzle clogging during the FDM printing. Apart
and 30% iron reported giving better tensile modulus (E) of from these difficulties, both FDM and CM processes are
54.52 MPa than the other two compositions. reported to have comparable tensile strength and modulus.
Spoerk et al. [142] investigated the anisotropic properties
3.2.2.3  Fiber‑reinforced composites  The fibers were added of the short carbon fiber (SCF) filled polypropylene (PP).
with the polymers to overwhelm the inadequate mechani- SCF was mixed with 10, 15, and 20 wt% into the PP also
cal properties of the 3D printed products. Fibers are mainly stabilizer and compatibilizer were added with the composi-
classified into two types: (a) short fiber and (b) continuous tion. Specimen printed 0.25-mm layer thickness using sin-
fiber. These fibers are naturally corrosion resistive, rigid, gle screw extruder the 1.75 mm diameter filament feed to
have high dimensional stability, stiffness, high strength, the printer at 230 ℃ temperature and different orientation
and are lightweight compared with natural polymers [136]. angles. This study concludes that 10 wt% of CF with PLA
These FRCs are mainly used in the aerospace and auto- has excellent characteristics compared with the 15 and 20
mobile sectors to reduce weight and increase the product’s wt% of CF with PP.
strength. However, the main limitation of the fibers is non-
biodegradable and non-eco-friendly. Therefore, Kevlar,
carbon, glass fibers are widely used to improve the perfor- 3.2.2.3.2 Continuous fiber reinforced composites  In 3D print-
mance of the polymers. ing technology, continuous fiber reinforcement (CFR) is a
major challenge for researchers. The CFR composites offer
3.2.2.3.1 Short fiber reinforced composites  Due to the insuf- significant mechanical properties compared to the short fib-
ficient strength of the pure polymers, the short fibers are ers. Since the fiber is continuous, the printing adapts the
reinforced with the polymers to enhance the resilience of co-extrusion method or uses dual-head printers [143]. The
the FDM printed part. The fiber-reinforced composite is thermoplastic and CFR filaments are supplied to the noz-
generally made by adding the fiber particles into the molten zle separately, and they will be fused inside the nozzle and
thermoplastic polymers [137]. When manufacturing a fiber- deposited over the build platform. Another method is a dual
reinforced filament, it is essential to monitor the orienta- head method [144]; the thermoplastic and the CFR filament
tion of the fiber, the percentage of the fiber mixture, and the are fed separately to the printer and printed through two
ideal size of the fiber to avoid unwanted problems such as different nozzles. Fabrication of nylon thermoplastic with
obstruction of the extruder during printing that will affect continuous carbon, glass, Kevlar fibers, and their mechani-
the mechanical properties of the final product [138]. Carbon cal performance was analyzed by Dickson et al. [145]. The
fiber has good thermal conductivity, electrical properties, standard filament diameter of the nylon was 1.75 mm, and
corrosion, wear, and moisture resistance; thus, many analy- the Kevlar, glass, and carbon were 0.3, 0.3, and 0.35 mm,
ses were performed using CF [139]. Li et al. [140] analyzed respectively. The specimen was printed at different sizes
the flexural properties of CF/PEEK fiber-reinforced compos- from 4 to 32 layers at 0.1 mm layer thickness and fiber lay-
ite. The geometrical models of the specimen were designed down at concentric and isotropic. The author exhibits that
by using CATIA V5. The nozzle and bed temperatures are the carbon fiber reinforced composite has better tensile, flex-
400 ℃ and 160 ℃, the layer thickness of 0.1 mm raster angle ural strength, and flexural modulus. Li et al. [146] examined
of 45°/ − 45°, printing speed is 15 mm/s, and the air gap is the continuous carbon fiber reinforced PLA composite’s

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 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

thermodynamic and mechanical properties. The PLA par- MWCNT with the ABS has a tensile strength of 58 MPa at
ticles partially dissolved in a magnetic stirring process for a raster angle of 0°/90°. Raster angle 45°/ − 45° resulted in
30 min with the methylene dichloride solution to increase a lower tensile strength. The 10 wt% of MWCNT achieved
the filament’s interfacial strength. The analysis result the highest electrical conductivity of 232 e­ −2 S/cm with the
shows that modified CFR/PLA composites’ tensile strength metal flow index (MFI) value decreased to 0.03  g/10  mm
improved by 13.8% and flexural strength by 164% better due to the nozzle clogging issues. The mechanical and
than the other composite. The storage modulus was 3.25 thermal properties of ABS/montmorillonite nanocom-
GPa, and the glass transition temperature (Tg) was 66.8 ℃. posites were researched by Weng et  al. [151]. The results
Mechanical properties of the continuous Kevlar fiber with showed that the overall mechanical strength of the FDM
nylon thermoplastic composite was analyzed by Dong et al. printed parts is lower than the injection molding process.
[147]. The specimen was made of 0.1 mm layer thickness However, the thermal stability of the OMMT nanocompos-
and infill density of 100% with different fiber orientations. It ite was reported to increase. Coppola et al. [152] analyzed
was reported that continuous Kevlar/nylon composites have the FDM printed PLA/clay nanocomposite. Different types
an elastic modulus of 27GPa and ultimate tensile strength of PLA were used, PLA 4032D and PLA 2003D, with a
of 333 MPa. The strength of the Kevlar composite found to layered silicate of 4 wt%. The study mainly focuses on the
be close with some metal-polymer composites. However, specimen printed using three different temperatures for PLA
the author reported the bonding between Kevlar and nylon 4032D (185–200–215 °C) and PLA 2003D (165–180–195
was relatively weak. °C), and the properties were analyzed. The experiment dem-
onstrates thermal stability, and the elastic modulus of PLA/
3.2.2.4  Nanocomposites  Thermoplastic polymers used in clay nanocomposite was higher than the ordinary PLA. Kim
FDM products have poor mechanical and thermal proper- et  al. [153] analyzed the piezoelectric properties of poly-
ties. Thus, to enhance the product’s strength, the nanomate- vinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and Barium titanate ­(BaTiO3)
rials are used in conjunction with thermoplastic polymers. composite. N-Dimethylformamide was used as a dissolving
The lack of adhesion contact between nanofillers and poly- agent in the fabrication of the PVDF/BaTiO3 composite.
mer material consequences the brittleness of the composite The finding revealed that, compared with solvent-casted
material [21]. Many hydrogels and polymer matrices, ther- nanocomposites, this nanocomposite has three times the
moplastics, and thermosetting resins have been introduced higher piezoelectric response.
with nanofillers such as carbonaceous nanofillers, nano clay, Table 2 establish the detail of various analysis carried
and metallic nanofiller to develop functional and property- out in the FDM process and the data obtained from various
enhanced structures. In the fabrication of electrically con- literatures [21, 89, 103, 112, 118, 131, 138–228]. It specifi-
ductive nanocomposites, metallic nanowires and nanopar- cally identifies the materials used in the FDM process and
ticles, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, and graphene the various test such as mechanical, electrical, and thermal
have been used owing to their excellent conductivity. These investigations.
improved composite structures have been used in various In this section, the various materials used in the FDM
applications, ranging from sensing instruments (e.g., liquid process and their findings were clearly discussed. ABS
sensors, strain sensors) to protect electromagnetic shield- and the PLA are the most commonly used materials for the
ing in aerospace to household industries [148]. Ivanov et al. entry-level. Materials such as nylon, polycarbonate, PEAK,
[149] analyzed the electrical and thermal properties of PLA/ PEEK are mainly utilized for high-strength properties.
Graphene/MWCNT composites. The composition of PLA/ Moreover, various composite materials were added with
Graphene and PLA/MWCNT were also studied. The mono- the polymers to increase the product's strength and other
fillers PLA/Graphene and PLA/MWCNT composition were properties. In many applications, fibers and nanocomposites
1.5, 3, and 6 wt%. Meanwhile, PLA/Graphene/MWCNT's are used to increase the product’s strength. Biocompatible
bi-filler composition varied between 3 and 6 wt%. The polymer blends and polymer composites are mainly used in
mono-fillers had 6wt% GNP and MWCNT were reported the medical sectors for human tissue and organs.
to have conductivity compared to the pure PLA success-
fully. The 6wt% of PLA/graphene/MWCNT composites
reported having measured thermal conductivity of 0.4692 4 Parameters of FDM process
(W/m.K) than the other bi-filler and mono-filler compos-
ites. Sezer and Eren [150] analyzed the MWCNT reinforced The noteworthy performance of the FDM products depends
into ABS thermoplastic. The specimen is printed by FDM on the proper selection of printing parameters during fabri-
using the parameters of 100% infill rate, 0.2 mm layer thick- cation. Due to the availability of several competing param-
ness, and the nozzle and the bed temperature of 245 ℃ and eters, the influence on the accuracy of the variable and the
110 ℃, respectively. Their study result shows that 7wt% of material properties varies. Appropriate process parameters

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Table 2  List of mechanical tests conducted in polymers, blends, and composite materials

Material Tensile test Compression Flexural test Impact test Thermal test Electrical test
test

ABS ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
PLA ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) ✔ x x x x x
Polypropylene (PP) ✔ x x x ✔ x
Nylon/Polyamide (pa) ✔ x x x ✔ ✔
Polycarbonate (PC) ✔ x ✔ x x x
Polyetherimide (PEI) ✔ x ✔ ✔ x x
PEKK x x ✔ x x x
PEEK ✔ x ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Polystyrene (PS) ✔ x x x x x
PET ✔ x ✔ x ✔ x
PET-G ✔ ✔ ✔ x x x
PLA/PCL ✔ x ✔ x x x
PLA/PET-G ✔ x x x ✔ x
Poly(3-hydroxybutate)/PLA ✔ x x ✔ x x
PBS/PLA ✔ x x ✔ x x
PLGA coated β-TCP x ✔ ✔ x x x
PCL/TCP x ✔ x x x x
GPET/PC ✔ x ✔ ✔ ✔ x
PLA/ceramic ✔ x ✔ x x x
PLA/β-TCP ✔ ✔ x x x x
PEI/PC x x x x ✔ x
PEI/PETG x x x x ✔ ✔
PVC/ionic liquid ✔ ✔ x x x x
Polyvinyl alcohol/β-TCP ✔ ✔ x x x x
PLA/HA ✔ x x x x x
PCL/HA ✔ x ✔ x x x
PLA/wood ✔ x ✔ x x x
PLA/coconut wood ✔ x ✔ x x x
PLA/bamboo powder ✔ x x x x x
PLA/wood flour ✔ x x x ✔ x
PLA/wood chips ✔ x x x x x
PLA/cocoa shell ✔ x x x x x
PLA/hemp ✔ x x x x x
PLA/Harakeke ✔ x x x x x
PLA/flax fiber ✔ x x x x x
PLA/continuous flax fiber ✔ x x x x x
PLA/bamboo fiber ✔ x x x x x
PLA/wood fiber ✔ x x x x x
PP/hemp fiber ✔ ✔ x x x x
PP/Harakeke fiber ✔ x x x x x
TMP/BioPE ✔ x x x x x
CMC/natural cellulose fiber ✔ x x x x x
CABS/ZnO ✔ x x x ✔ ✔
PP/Nylon 6 ✔ x x x x x
ABS/PMMA ✔ x ✔ ✔ x x
ABS/PMMA/MBS ✔ x ✔ ✔ x x
ABS/PolyFlexTM ✔ x x x x x
ABS/ZnO ✔ x x x ✔ ✔

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Table 2  (continued)
Material Tensile test Compression Flexural test Impact test Thermal test Electrical test
test

ABS/TiO2 ✔ x x x x x
ABS/Jute ✔ x x x x x
ABS/TP rubber ✔ x x x x
ABS/PC ✔ x x x ✔ x
ABS-PC /graphene ✔ x x x ✔ x
ABS/iron ✔ x x x ✔ x
Nylon/iron ✔ x x x ✔ x
PLA/magnetic iron ✔ x x x x x
PLA/bronze ✔ x x x x x
PLA/copper ✔ x ✔ x x x
PLA/aluminum ✔ x ✔ x x x
ABS/copper ✔ x x x x x
ABS/copper ✔ x x x x x
PE/copper x x ✔ x x x
ABS/CF ✔ x x x x x
PLA/CF ✔ x ✔ x ✔ x
PEEK/CF ✔ x ✔ ✔ ✔ x
PEEK/GF ✔ x ✔ ✔ ✔ x
PET-G/CF ✔ x x x x x
PP/GF ✔ x x x ✔ x
PP/CF x x x x x x
Nylon/Kevlar x x ✔ x x x
Nylon/carbon x x ✔ x x x
Nylon/glass x x ✔ x x x
ABS/graphene ✔ x x x ✔ ✔
PLA/graphene ✔ x x x ✔ ✔
Polyethylene/graphene ✔ x x x ✔ x
PLA/graphene/CNT ✔ x x x ✔ ✔
PLA/CNT ✔ x ✔ x ✔ ✔
ABS/CNT ✔ x x x ✔ x
PEEK/CNT ✔ x x x x x
ABS/MWCNT ✔ x x x x ✔
PLA/MWCNT ✔ x x x x ✔
PLA/graphene/CNT x x x x ✔ x
ABS/OMMT ✔ x ✔ x x x
PLA/clay nanocomposite ✔ x x x x x
PLA/cellulose nanofibril ✔ x x x x x
PET-G/sepiolite ✔ x x x x x
PEU/nano HA ✔ x x x x x
OMMT/nano clay ✔ x x ✔ ✔ x

are attributed to the fabricated part’s efficiency and mechani- build orientation, printing speed, air gap, and operating
cal characteristics [217]. The optimized process variables for temperature.
the FDM process are shown in Fig. 10.
The process parameters affect the efficiency of the pro- 4.1 Infill pattern
duction and the properties of the product. The essential
parameters used in the FDM printing are infill pattern, The infill pattern is the structure, shape, and technique of
infill density, raster angle, raster width, layer thickness, the material inside of the part. Grid, honeycomb, cubic,

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Fig. 10  Cause-and-effect
diagram of FDM process
parameters [218]

rectilinear, rectangular, triangular, octet, and wiggle are the 4.2 Infill density
commonly used infill patterns shown in Fig. 11. In terms of
the properties, i.e., the tensile and compressive properties Infill density implies the total amount of material used for
of the product, they reported changes with different infill printing the specimen. The mechanical properties of the
patterns. specimen are primarily affected by the infill density. Groza

Fig. 11  a–i Various infill pat-

terns used for the FDM process
[225]

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 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

and Shackelford [217] denotes three types of filling styles the CAD models and other parameters have led to differ-
in the study. A “solid normal” infill has a tough interior and ences in the interpretation of various authors.
good mechanical properties. In “spares,” the printing time
and the material volume are also minimized by leaving gaps, 4.4 Raster width
and it utilizes a uni-directional raster. Finally, in “sparse
double dense,” the printing time and material volume are Raster width is the size of the deposition of the material
reduced in “sparse double dense,” using a crosshatch raster droplet of the product. This raster or road width is usually
pattern. 1.2 to 1.5 times the nozzle diameter. Figure 12b shows the
raster width, which varies on the diameter of the nozzle.
4.3 Raster angle Thus, the reduced width value leads to improved strength
and reduced build time. Sood et al. [223] and Arumaikkannu
The raster angle is the most common printing vector for and Uma Maheshwaraa [224] reported the top surface finish
FDM printing optimization. The raster angle is how each and dimensional accuracy could be obtained using minimum
layer is oriented while printing the desired shape. Figure 12b raster width.
exhibits the raster angle used for printing. The generally
used raster angle differs from 0° to 90°, and regularly used 4.5 Layer thickness
raster angles are (0°/90°) and (45°/ − 45°). However, it is
possible to control this variable for each layer either at one The layer thickness is the breadth of material deposited by
angle or at a different angle. The raster angle proved to affect the nozzle on the vertical axis, as shown in Fig. 12c. The
the properties, and various experiments have been carried size of the nozzle tip usually determines or controls the layer
out to study the impact of the raster angle. Rajpurohit et al. thickness. The effect of layer thickness and other param-
[138] and Es-Said et al. [139] analyzed the effects of ras- eters of a specimen has been analyzed by Mohamed et al.
ter angle on mechanical properties in both experiments. [226], and the result displays 0.1-mm layer thickness has the
The raster angle of 0° was reported to have better tensile best flexural force. Therefore, this experiment directing less
and impact resistance. Meanwhile, the raster angle of 30° amount of layer thickness will increase the flexural proper-
presents maximum impact and tensile strength [220, 221]. ties of the product. On the other hand, Wu et al. [96] also
Nancharaiah et al. [222] reported the 0° angle having the mentioned that the increase in the size of the layer thickness
best surface finish and the worst at 60°. The differences in would reduce the product's strength.

Fig. 12  a Printing orientation of specimen [130], b operating parameters of raster angle, air gap, raster width, contours, and c layer thickness of
the product [231]

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4.6 Build orientation smooth surfaces. Vasudevarao et al. [230] distinguished after

the layer thickness, raster angle, the operating temperature is
The build orientation is the most versatile and impressive the third most significant factor affecting the product surface
pre-processing parameter to obtain the best surface proper- finish.
ties. The machine coordination system can be modified in Quite a number of research have been carried out on FDM
the CAD model to achieve desired objectives by the angle of parameters to improve process parameters aiming to enhance
orientation or deposition angle. It indicates the orientation of surface finishing, dimensional precision, and the mechanical
printing of the specimen inside the build platform in respect features of printed components. Since the process param-
of X, Y, and Z directions. Figure 12a shows the orienta- eters are essential for enhancing mechanical properties, build
tion and style (flat, on-edge) and orientation angles. The X, time, dimensional accuracy, and surface roughness. Several
Y direction printed parts do not need supporting structure, investigators proposed that the effects of process parameters
but the Z-direction requires support structure. Afrose [188] on FDM processed parts be analyzed with sufficient com-
investigated and observed the fatigue life and best capacity putational designs and optimization techniques to reduce
to store strain energy specimens printed at 45° orientation. the experimental effort and feasibility. The optimal process
parameter combination was established experimentally in
4.7 Printing speed most cases, and the best experimental result was deemed
the optimum solution. The optimal process parameter com-
Printing speed is the pass-through speediness of the nozzle binations may vary from the experimental combinations but
on the build platform during the printing. The printing speed must be within the process parameter range. Researchers
regulates the build time of the product. Also, the printing used several optimization techniques to address this flaw. It
speed has a maximum effect on the deformation of the prod- is a mathematical model of the connection between process
uct because, during the production, this fast printing could parameters and a single part attribute. Multi-objective opti-
induce substantial residual stresses. Vinitha et al. [227] mization represents the connection between process param-
examined the printing speed effect of burning parts built by eters and various component attributes using mathematical
FDM. They reported that reducing the speed of the print- models. This shows the FDM machine’s maximum and
ing would increase the surface finish of the product. When lowest levels of process parameters, or a range of process
thinner layers are printed, the impact of the print speed is parameters proven to provide excellent component qualities.
considered negligible [228]. Many studies have utilized the full factorial, fractional
factorial, and face-cantered central composite designs to
4.8 Air gap get more information from fewer trials. Alternatively, the
experimental design established optimal values for analyzing
In the same layer, the gap between two contiguous raster's component properties. In some of the researches validat-
is denoted as the air gap. The default value of the air gap is ing the relationship between the part quality and process
usually zero, which results in the two closest beads being parameter by creating various mathematical models such
touched. The positive air gap will reduce the density of the as quantum-behaved particle swarm optimization (QPSO),
part and reduce the product's build time. Hence, the denser differential evolution (DE), genetic algorithm (GA), non-
structure (negative air gap) would have a longer build time, dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) were
and the raster has good bonding strength. Also, the nega- used. Peng et al. [232] produced ABS components based
tive air gap was testified to significantly improve the tensile on a standardized experimental design. Controllable factors
strength [229]. Meanwhile, with negative and positive air in their case study were line width compensation, extrusion
differences, the surface finish generally increases [223]. The velocity, filling velocity, and layer thickness. Additionally,
air gap between the rasters is shown in Fig. 12b. they inferred from the experimental findings that a thin layer
thickness was preferred for dimensional accuracy improve-
4.9 Operating temperature ment. Additionally, they found the optimal combinations of
these four process parameters for three response variables,
The operating temperature is categorized into nozzle tem- including dimensional accuracy, using the response surface
perature (extrusion temperature) and bed temperature (build method (RSM), fuzzy inference system (FIS), artificial neu-
platform). Before the printing process, the nozzle is required ral network (ANN), and genetic algorithm (GA). Several
to reach a specific temperature to melt the filament to print studies improved the features of more than two components
the product, called nozzle temperature. Similarly, during the concurrently to find the optimal combination(s) for multiple
printing process, the building platform bed needs to be at a conflicting qualities. Sood et al. [233] identified the optimal
suitable temperature, termed bed temperature. Due to the combination of five process parameters (layer thickness,
delay in the solidification, the higher temperature produces build orientation, raster orientation, raster width, and air

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 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

gap) for dimensional accuracy in three dimensions (length, that the lower infill pattern and infill percentage of hexago-
width, and height). The authors optimized all dimensional nal infill pattern at 190 ℃ have fewer dimensional errors
accuracies using the Taguchi technique and found an opti- and better dimensional accuracy. The processing param-
mum solution that reduced three-dimensional dimensional eters of 0.3 mm layer thickness, 100% infill percentage at
accuracy. The author also used an ANN to make predic- 210 ℃, and triangular infill pattern reported having good
tions. Montero et al. [234] examined five process factors strength and young's modulus. Also, the author exhibits
(raster width, air gap, filament color, extrusion tempera- the product's mechanical properties while printing in high
ture, and raster orientation) and used a fractional factorial extrusion temperature, and the rectilinear infill pattern has
design to conduct their experiment. The experimental find- better strength and stiffness than the triangular pattern. The
ings indicated that the air gap and raster orientation were best relationship consequence and process variables are said
two important tensile strength factors and that a negative could be established using the Taguchi method [238]. In
air gap and 0° raster orientation were preferred for maximal contrast, compared with the RSM method, the number of
tensile strength. The effect of build orientation and raster experiments could also be reduced using the Taguchi method
orientation on tensile characteristics was investigated by [239]. Table 3 exposes the different mathematical optimiza-
Durgun and Ertan [235]. Their testing findings indicated tion methods that have been commonly used to analyze the
that the 0° raster and 0° build orientations were appropriate process conditions of the FDM prototyping process.
for optimizing tensile strength. The orientation of the build This section demonstrates the importance of the process
was shown to be more important than the orientation of the parameters in the FDM process. The most studied FDM
raster. The optimal combination of five process parameters parameters were layer thickness, build orientation, raster
(raster width, layer thickness, build orientation, raster ori- orientation, raster width, air gap, and infill density. Accord-
entation, and airgap) that optimize the tensile strength of ing to the previous research, the layer thickness and the build
ABS printed components was determined by Rayegani and orientation are the most important factors on dimensional
Onwubolu [229]. A mathematical model that linked process accuracy and surface roughness of the product. Reducing
characteristics to tensile strength was developed using the the layer thickness will increase the dimensional accuracy
group method of data handling (GMDH). To enhance tensile and surface roughness. Also, the shrinkage happens along
strength, a DE optimization technique was used to optimize the X- and Y-axes of construction platforms, whereas growth
each parameter. The optimization findings indicated that the occurs along the Z-axis. Low print speed and extrusion tem-
minimum layer thickness, build orientation, raster width, and perature are also important factors to increase the surface
negative air gap increased tensile strength. Raster orientation finish. The build orientation determined the tensile proper-
was shown to be less important. ties of the product, also the tensile and flexural strength was
Dimensional accuracy and surface quality of the FDM greatest at 0°. To increase the infill density and the extru-
component were investigated by Nancharaiah et al. [222]. sion temperature is recommended to increase the strength.
The properties of the component affected due to raster angle, Reducing the air gap of the layer would form voids in the
raster width, air gap, and layer thickness were analyzed, and products, which reduce the properties.
the analysis was conducted adapting Taguchi's DOE method.
The findings were evaluated statistically to assess the rel-
evant variables and their relationships. The ANOVA analysis 5 Mechanical properties of FDM parts
reports that the part accuracy and the surface quality of the
product were affected significantly by the raster width and The mechanical properties of the FDM printed specimen
layer thickness. Meanwhile, the air gap has more impact on are mainly dependent on the material and the input process
dimensional accuracy and little influence on surface quality. parameters. Layer thickness, build orientation, raster angle,
Pavan Kumar and Regalla et al. [236] analyzed the support raster width, and air gap are the primary factors affecting the
material and build time optimization on FDM adapting the mechanical properties of the 3D printing parts [205, 247,
DOE method. Based on the ANOVA result, the specimen’s 248]. The build orientation significantly affects the mechani-
orientation was found crucial to minimize the build time, cal properties and the surface roughness compared with the
and the build time is decreased as the layer thickness, ras- raster angle [235]. Research groups used ASTM standard
ter width, contour width, and raster angle increased. Using criteria in preparing the sample and performing mechanical
Taguchi's DOE method, the effect of the process parameters experiments; e.g., ASTM D638 was adopted by nearly all
on the PLA filament using FDM was analyzed by Alafaghani research groups tested for tensile tests [176, 205]. Most of
and Qattawi [237]. Adapting the L9 DOE method, infill pat- the research findings reported that the process parameters
tern, infill percentage, layer thickness, and extrusion tem- mainly affect the ultimate tensile strength, yield strength,
perature were investigated for the specimen's dimensional elasticity, and elongation of the component. Also, in most
accuracy and mechanical properties. Their result showed published literature, the mechanical behavior was revealed

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 Table 3  Previous analysis of mathematical optimization methods for analyzing the process condition of the FDM process
Authors Analyzed Methodology Input process parameters Determination Discussion
materials

Mohamed et al. [240] PC-ABS Response surface methodology Layer thickness, number of contours, Part structure and dynamic R2 values are high for the complex and dynamic
(RSM) raster angle, build orientation, air gap, mechanical properties module and the optimal process parameters for
and raster width concluded to be as ensues layer thickness is
0.3302 mm, air gap value is 0, raster angle is 0˚,
build orientation 90˚, raster width is 0.4572 mm,
and the number of contours is 10
Zhang and Peng [241] ABS Taguchi method combined with Wire-width compensation, extrusion Dimensional error and The findings of this paper do not entirely refer to
fuzzy velocity, filling velocity, and layer warpage deformation the real criteria, but the approach in this paper
comprehensive evaluation thickness can be used to direct the optimization of process
parameters
Nancharaiah [242] ABS DOE analyzed by S/N ratio and Layer thickness, air gap, and raster Build time ANOVA analysis observed layer thickness con-
ANOVA analysis angle tributes 66.57% at 99%, and air gap contributes
30.77% at 95% on build time significantly.
Therefore, the S/N ratio optimizes the build time
on layer thickness at level 3, air gap at level 3,
and raster angle at level 2
Mohamed et al. [243] PC-ABS Q-optimal design response surface Layer thickness, air gap, raster Build time, feedstock material The air gap, layer thickness build direction, and the
methodology angle, build orientation, road width, and consumption, and dynamic number of contours are affected by build time,
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

number of contours flexural modulus feedstock material consumption, and dynamic

flexural modulus. Build time and feedstock con-
sumption will be reduced while increasing the air
gap and layer thickness substantially
Nagendra and Prasad [244] Nylon–Aramid Gray Taguchi technique Layer thickness, raster angle, extrusion Optimize the process Tensile, flexural, impact, and compression strength
Composite temperature, infill density, and infill parameter were analyzed, and from the S/N ratio analysis,
pattern style the optimized parameters are layer thickness
0.4 mm, raster angle 90°, 90% infill pattern, and
the extrusion temperature of 300 ℃
Wankhede et al. [245] ABS Taguchi’s L8 orthogonal array (OA) Infill density, layer thickness, and Build time and surface The layer thickness is an effective parameter for
support style roughness both surface finish and the layer thickness from
the analysis. The optimized layer thickness for
build time is 0.3302 mm and for the surface finish
is 0.254 mm. Whereas the infill density is low-
density sparse and smart support style
Dong et al. [246] ABS Taguchi method Extrusion temperature, print speed, fan Lattice structures Horizontal and inclined struts of lattice structure
speed, layer thickness were investigated by the Taguchi method, and
parameters were optimized by S/N ratio analysis
and ANOVA. The result shows that the fan speed
is the most crucial parameter for inclined struts
and layer height for the horizontal struts. Also,
the mechanical performance of the lattice struc-
ture can increase using the proposed optimization
method

13


Table 4  Mechanical properties of the FDM products by using various materials and process parameters
Author Material Infill Process parameters Ultimate tensile Elastic modulus Flexural Flexural Compressive Elastic Elongation of Toughness (energy
strength (MPa) (MPa) strength modulus strength (MPa) modulus break (%) absorption Jm−3)

13
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

Samykano et al. ABS - Layer thickness 31.57 774.50 19.95 - - - 0.094 2.28
[171] 0.5 mm,
Raster angle 55°,
80% infill percentage
Chacón et al. [19] PLA - Layer thickness (­ Lt) 89.1 4409 65.0 1886 - - - -
0.06, 0.12, 0.18,
0.24 mm),
Infill pattern (flat,
upright, on-edge),
Print speed (20, 50,
80 mm/s)
Liu et al. [257] PLA - Layer thickness 67.6 901 109.5 2605.9 - - 8 -
Wood 0.3 mm, 38.7 808.1 71.0 2704.3 - - 6 -
Infill pattern
Ceramic linear, raster angle 46.5 1056.3 100.1 4621.4 - - 7 -
Copper 45°/ − 45 and 0°/ 58.3 1016.9 118.7 3845.1 - - 8 -
Aluminum 90°, Infill pattern 51.1 838.4 97.8 3275.8 - - 7 -
flat, upright, and
Carbon fiber 41.3 745.7 75.6 2939.2 - - 8 -
on edge
Kesavarma et al. PLA Coconut wood Layer height - - 23.183 515.1 - - - -
[198] 0.3 mm, printing
speed 30 mm/s,
extrusion tem-
perature 200 ℃,
different build
orientation and
infill percentage
25, 50, and 75%
Torrado Perez ABS TiO2 (5 wt%) Layer thickness 32.2 1708 23.8 - - - - -
et al. [154] Jute fiber 0.27 mm, 100% 25.9 1543 23.6 - - - - -
(5 wt%) infill percent-
age, the speed
TP rubber at 55 mm/s, 230 24.0 1580 18.1 - - - - -
(5 wt%) ℃ extrusion
temperature at
the orientation of
XYZ and ZYX
Chen et al. [107] PVA β-TCP Printing temperature 3.92 29.36 - - - - - -
(5, 10, 20 wt%) 175 ℃, speed
200 mm/s, raster
angle 0–90° and
0.3 mm layer
thickness
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 Table 4  (continued)
Author Material Infill Process parameters Ultimate tensile Elastic modulus Flexural Flexural Compressive Elastic Elongation of Toughness (energy
strength (MPa) (MPa) strength modulus strength (MPa) modulus break (%) absorption Jm−3)
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

Corcione et al. PLA HA micro- Range if temperature - - 124.04 - - - 2–10 -

[258] sphere 175–200 ℃, 50%
infill pattern, layer
thickness 0.9 mm
and the speed at
300 mm/s
Yu et al. [212] PEU Nano HA Layer thickness of 65–85 - - - - - - -
0.3 mm,70% infill
pattern printing
speed 2 mm/s at
165 ℃
Ning et al. [259] ABS CFRP Printing speed 42 2500 18.75 - - - 4.14 6.3
1.5 m/min, the
layer thickness
of 0.2 mm, infill
percentage 100%,
build orientation
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

45° and 135° at

230 ℃
Caminero et al. Nylon Carbon Layer thickness 70–90 (kJ/m2) - - - - - - -
[260] Kevlar 0.1 mm (for 160–200 (kJ/m2) - - - - - - -
carbon 0.125 mm),
glass infill Pattern 250–300 (kJ/m2) - - - - -
flat, on edge,
rectangular infill
pattern, 100%
infill density, and
raster angle 0°
Tekinalp et al. PLA Cellulose Layer thickness - 6570 – 1720 - - - -
[261] nanofibril 0.2 mm print
(CNF) speed 7.5 mm/s,
operating tempera-
ture 180 to 215 ℃,
and bed tempera-
ture of 93 ℃
Stoof et al. [262] PLA Hemp Layer thickness 35–40 3–4 (GPa) - - - - - -
Harakeke 1 mm, bed tem- 35–40 4–5 (GPa) - - - - - -
perature 110 ℃,
at 10, 20, and 30
wt% infills

13


Table 4  (continued)
Author Material Infill Process parameters Ultimate tensile Elastic modulus Flexural Flexural Compressive Elastic Elongation of Toughness (energy
strength (MPa) (MPa) strength modulus strength (MPa) modulus break (%) absorption Jm−3)

13
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

Yang et al. [263] PLA CNT (2, 4, 8 Build orientation 105–110 3.3–3.8 GPa 100–120 - - - - -
wt%) 0°, air gap 0,
bed temperature
200–230 ℃, layer
thickness 0.1, 0.2,
0.3 mm, and speed
at 20–60 mm/s
Camargo et al. PLA Graphene Infill pattern 33.7 907.759 - - - - 10.403 -
[173] (22–89 wt%) flat (internal
honeycomb fill
and external
rectilinear fill),
layer thickness
0.10–0.27 mm,
raster angle at
45°, extrusion
temperature 200
℃ and speed at
50 mm/sec
Sezer and Eren ABS MWCNT Layer thickness 55–60 1900–2100 - - - - 4–5 -
[264] (1–10 wt%) 0.2 mm, printing
speed 30 mm/sec,
extrusion tempera-
ture 245 ℃, 100%
infill percentage,
and raster angle
(0°/90°) and (45°/-
45°)
Xu et al. PCL HA - - - - - 15.43 80.16 - -
[265]
Nyberg et al. PCL Tricalcium The layer height of - - - - - 253 - -
[266] phosphate 0.640 mm for the
(TCP) 30 first two layers and
wt% raised to 4 mm
Hydroxyapatite - - - - - 338 - -
(HA) 30
wt%
Decellularized - - - - - 241 - -
bone matrix
(DCB) 30
wt%
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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

to be contingent on printing parameters [249]. The tensile effects of orientation, layer thickness, and fiber volume con-
strength of the product is mainly affected by the build ori- tent on impact properties of Kevlar, glass, and continuous
entation and the poor interlayer bonding. Likewise, high carbon-reinforced nylon composites. Their results exhibit
tensile can be obtained in the printing direction on parallel that the layer thickness has a higher impact on strength.
and longitudinal [250, 251]. Anisotropic mechanical proper- Table 4 shows the properties of different polymer materials
ties of the FDM printed ABS were analyzed by Ahn et al. and composites by various process parameters.
[205]. Their study shows that the negative air gap increases The materials used in the FDM process have various
the tensile and compressive strength of the FDM product ranges of strength and modulus. The wide range of materials
compared to injection molding. Reese [252] investigated the has the ultimate tensile strength between 40 and 70 Mpa, and
mechanical behavior on various raster angles of PEEK mate- Young’s modulus range is between 0.5 and 2.5. Figure 13
rial prepared by FDM. Their result showed that maximum indicates the Ultimate Tensile Strength and Young’s modu-
strength was observed at a 0° raster angle. Fatimatuzahraa lus of polymers, polymer blends, and various composite
et al. [253] studied the mechanical properties and the micro- materials used in the FDM process.
structure of the FDM printed ABS parts at different raster The mechanical properties of the FDM printed polymers
angle orientations. Their result showed that the angle at and polymer composites are demonstrated clearly in this
45°/ − 45° at crisscross cross-section structures has a higher section. Printing parameters played an important role in
strength for flexural, deflection, and impact tests. Hossain the mechanical properties. Reducing the layer thickness
et al. [254] examined how to improve the ultimate tensile and infill density seen could increase the strength of the
strength, young’s modulus, and tensile strain by modifying product. Besides, the materials like PP, PA, PE, PLA, and
the raster angle, contour width, air gap, and build orienta- ABS are reported to have lower properties compared with
tion. Three approaches have been used for this assessment: other materials. Hence, composite materials were added
default, insight, and visual response. The finding revealed with the base polymers to enhance their properties. Com-
that a higher UTS could be obtained by optimizing process pared with the other composites (Polymer blends, ceramic,
parameters using the insight revision method. Ognjan et al. metal), the fiber and nanocomposites are shown to have
[255] investigated the effect of raster angle variations in ten- high strength, stiffness, surface finish, and toughness. Also,
sile, flexural strength, and surface finish. The researcher rec- the research is mainly focused on the fiber (GF, CF) and
ommends 0° raster angle delivers higher mechanical strength nanocomposites (CNT, MWCNT, CNC) for the medical
with lower surface finish. Caminero et al. [256] assessed the and aerospace sector.

Fig. 13  Ultimate tensile strength and Young’s modulus of polymers, polymer blends, and various composites

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6 Applications of FDM process Stratasys has adopted FDM processes along with several
other aerospace industries like NASA Bell Helicopter and
FDM can generate virtually any geometry that can be Piper Aircrafts [272]. Figure 15a shows Evektor aircraft
designed. This technology can print hollow interiors and components fabricated using FDM. In NASA’s Mars rover,
irregular shapes with elegant geometrical forms. The essen- nearly 70 FDM-printed thermoplastic components have been
tial benefits of using FDM technology in various industries used and reported to be fairly robust to survive space rigors.
are printing lightweight products, multi-material printing, Stratasys and Aurora Flight Sciences also reported signifi-
short production time, reduced tool investment cost, and cant production time reduction in producing polycarbonate
optimum materials usage. This technique is used primarily cabling pipes of V-22 Osprey of Bell Helicopter using FDM
for prototyping and rapid manufacturing since it is inexpen- technology [273].
sive compared to conventional fabrication, which requires
expensive machines. Many potential applications for FDM 6.2 Electronics
parts include aerospace, automobile, electronics, biomedi-
cal, and construction sectors. Figure 14 shows the global use 3D printing technologies testified to shorten production
of additive manufacturing in various sectors. times for geometrically fitting electronic prototypes [274].
The 3D-printed polymer composites shown could act as
6.1 Aerospace electronic instruments and can be used in various forms in
combination with leading electrical materials. Using FDM,
Most of the components in the aerospace industry have com- the carbon-black/PCL composites were added to electronic
plicated geometry, and manufacturing these components has sensors to convert the piezoresistive to capacitive. Capaci-
high costs and is time-consuming. Compared with metal, tive sensors may be printed as part of the custom interface
the polymers have lower strength and flame retardant, but system or embedded in smart vessels [275]. FDM printed
these thermoplastic parts are used to reduce the weight of PLA/graphene electrodes for electrochemical sensing were
aircraft parts and improve fuel efficiency. In addition, the analyzed by Manzanares Palenzuela et al. [276]. A basic
aeronautical industries have always been expensive as many activation process consisting of the DMF supported the
iterations on the design occur for large products and limited partial dissolution of the polylactic acid insulating polymer
production. For these reasons, FDM could be the alterna- shown to contribute to the rise in electroactivity. Similarly,
tive to produce parts without any tool modifications and PLA/graphene printed electrodes were established for elec-
low production volume [268]. Using FDM and other AM troanalysis of picric and ascorbic acids with successful effi-
technologies, metallic and non-metallic components such ciency of sensing [277]. Figure 15b shows FDM printed
as engine parts, heat exchangers, and turbine blades can be electric circuit with an LED. Electrodes fabricated by carbon
manufactured for aerospace applications [269, 270]. FDM nanotube (CNT) /zinc oxide (ZnO) and CNT/copper (Cu)
is primarily used to produce plastics, ceramics, and fiber were blended with PLA and used for the electronic tongue
composites [271]. For rapid part production and tooling, research as cyclic voltammetric sensors [278]. Dawoud et al.

Fig. 14  Global additive manu-

facturing application of various
sectors [267]

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Fig. 15  a Evektor aircraft components and FDM printed duct adapter [290]. b FDM-printed electric circuit with LED [291]. c FDM-printed
Ribcage [292]. d FDM concrete printing process and the first FDM printed house by WinSun company in 2014 [293]

[279] developed the carbon black–filled acrylonitrile buta- and enhanced PLA postinduction. Rasoulianboroujeni et al.
diene styrene (ABS) composite strain sensor using FDM [284] reported that the polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)/
capable of analyzing the internal stresses. TiO2 scaffolds have higher compression modules, wetta-
bility, and glass transition temperature compared with pure
6.3 Biomedical PLGA. Medicines produced from polyethylene glycol fila-
ments filled with indomethacin (IND) and Hypromellose
At present, the biomedical sector accounts for 11% of the succinate (HPMCAS) are less bitter and dissolve quicker
overall AM market share and is anticipated to be the driver [285]. Chai et al. [286] prepared hollow intragastric floating
for AM production and growth. Unique requirements of sustained-release (FSR) tablets to reduce the frequency of
biomedical applications such as high complexity, ease of the administrating tablets. FDM printed human ribcage as
access, small production quantities, patient-specific needs, replacement are shown in Fig. 15c.
and customization have been the driving factor for the FDM
technology. In medical applications, using magnetic reso- 6.4 Construction
nance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) tech-
nology, 3D images of organs and tissues developed with The application in the building sector started in 2014. Cast-
high resolution [280]. The obtained image data allows 3D ing, molding, and extrusion are the traditional methods of
printing technology to generate patient-specific tissues and the building industry. 3D printing can be used in the con-
organs with sophisticated 3D micro-architectures. Currently, struction industry in areas where limitations such as geo-
several biocompatible natural and synthetic polymers are metric complexities and hollow structures are required. The
used for biomedical applications [281]. Printability, bio- contour craft technology for automated constructions of
compatibility, strong mechanical properties, and structural buildings and structures and space applications was devel-
properties are consideration factors for biomedical applica- oped by Khoshnevis 287]. The technology can be readily
tions [282]. Teixeira et al. [283] described that the FDM used to construct low-income homes and build a shelter on
printed PCL/TCP composite scaffold degradation rates were the moon because of its capacity to operate in situ materi-
faster than the PLA in PCL scaffold. Polydopamine coat- als. Using special bioplastic on XXL 3D printers and FDM
ing (PDA) with PLA scaffolds assists in smoothing over the technology, the European Union constructed the ‘Europe
scaffold of the type-1 collagen. The study has contributed to Building’. Also, using the 3D printer, a Chinese company
increased cell response and extracellular matrix deposition ZhuoDa Group built a two-story villa in 3 h at which cost

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of $400 to $480 [288]. Figure 15d shows the FDM concrete anisotropic mechanical properties of the product. A proper
printing process and the first FDM printed house by WinSun selection of the parameters would minimize the problem.
company in 2014. The house parts were initially printed in I.e., increasing the layer thickness will reduce the poros-
pieces; after that, the pieces were assembled. The cost of 200 ity but degrade the cohesion in the composite, reducing the
­m2 homes is stated to be less than $5000 [289]. Mainly, the tensile strength. Alternatively, reinforcing fibers with poly-
FDM-constructed buildings are classified as green buildings; mers helps to improve the product’s properties. However, the
more than 30% of energy costs are saved. addition of fiber during feedstock preparation and part fab-
rication results in void formation, which affects mechanical
6.5 Automobile and other sectors behavior. Several investigators have overcome this problem
by adding a thermally expandable microsphere to reduce
The FDM process is also frequently used in automotive and the void formation and increase the strength. Another vital
other sectors for prototype development and functional pro- challenge is the nozzle clogging due to the fiber or particle
totypes, architecture models, jewelry, toys, household prod- reinforcement. The clogging significantly affects the quality
ucts, and end-user products. High strength polymers such as and quantity of the production. Also, the filament will be
polycarbonate, nylon, ULTEM have been used in numerous brittle with the addition of a high amount of fillers.
applications essential for automobile production. The main Another limitation of the FDM technology is the mass
applications in the automotive sectors are for printing jigs, production and larger product fabrication capability. Com-
fixtures, check gauges, interior accessories, air ducts, lights, pared with the traditional manufacturing process, the 3D
bezels, and full-scale panels [294]. This technology is also printing process is not suitable for mass production. Still,
used in the jewelry industry to minimize wastage and to currently, researchers are attempting to fabricate large prod-
produce complex geometries. The FDM process was found uct manufacturing using FDM and other 3D printing tech-
to be a time saver and cost-effective in this sector [295]. This nology. At present, 3D printing technology has advanced
technique is also used for children’s toy fabrication and is to another phase of manufacturing technique known as 4D
also used in household product creation. printing technology. 4D printing uses shape memory poly-
mers as the printing materials. Also, 5D printing technol-
ogy is taking up the feasibility and possibility of additive
7 Technical challenges of FDM process manufacturing technology and is anticipated to capture the
market very soon. Compared to the 3D printing process,
This review discussed the techniques used in additive manu- the 5D printing process is highly accurate and efficiently
facturing, the materials, properties, process parameters, and minimizes material wastages.
FDM applications. The properties of the FDM products
shown could be improved by anticipating proper process-
ing parameters and materials. Also, different materials like 8 Conclusion
polymer composites, metal polymers composites, ceramic
composites, polymer blends, fiber composites, and nano- This paper presents a detailed review of AM process and mate-
composites used in FDM are discussed in detail. Several sig- rials, properties, process parameters, and the applications of
nificant studies are required in terms of technical advance- the FDM technique. The present review paper also discusses
ment, considering the advantages of FDM printing, such as the advanced materials used in the FDM process and the vari-
design freedom, customization, and the ability to print com- ous parameter optimization to achieve maximum mechani-
plex structures, seem required. On the other hand, the lim- cal properties and dimensional accuracy. Compared with the
ited materials availability, accuracy and quality, anisotropic conventional machining process, FDM is cost-effective and
mechanical properties, limited application in large production, user-friendly. The fiber-reinforced polymers and nanocompos-
mass production, printing time, clogging, and void formation ites are shown to have excellent characteristics than other pure
also need extensive research. materials. But in the filler reinforcement composites, increas-
Materials and process parameters play an essential role ing the composition percentage by more than 30 wt% produces
in this process. Currently, low gradient thermoplastic poly- clogging in the nozzle. Numerous analyses show that the layer
mers and some composites are used in the FDM process. thickness, raster angle, infill pattern affects the printing quality.
These delimited materials do not satisfy the range of indus- Various studies also show that the product’s tensile strength
try application criteria, so the range of materials should be increases in 0° raster and concentric patterns. Furthermore,
expanded. Most of the products prepared by suing FDM the product’s surface finish increases by reducing the layer
are stated to have low mechanical strength; the main rea- thickness, decreasing the air gap, minimizing the porosity,
son for this delinquent is the void formation between the and increasing the product's strength. Currently, the research
subsequent layers of the part. Thus, it results in inferior and in FDM focuses on developing new polymer composite and

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