TITLE

Experiments in Calorimetry

AIM
1. To use a calorimeter and minimize experimental errors.
2. To determine the following properties:
• Specific heat of a metal
• Latent heat of vaporization of water and
• Latent heat of fusion of water
3. To compute errors in the best estimation of the properties specified in Learning Objective
(Department of Physics 2022, 46)

ABSTRACT
This experiment had three sections. The specific heat capacity of a metal, latent heat of fusion
and vaporization of water was found along with its uncertainties. To decrease errors and improve
precision a calorimetry was used for each one. In experiment A, a metal bob was heated to a
certain temperature and placed in a calorimeter with water which was also measured. The
contents of the calorimeter were stirred and a final temperature was taken. For experiment B the
water was heated to a temperature which was set as the initial. Ice cubes were then added and
stirred until it reached a certain value. The experiment C the water was cooled to a certain
temperature and the calorimeter with its contents. Then steam was added to it via a tube to heat
the water.
The specific heat capacity of the metal mass 0.448 ± 0.063 J / g ° C it. The latent heat of fusion of
water l f was found to be 224.26 ± 19.74 J /g . The latent heat of vaporization was calculated to be
2356.6 ±105.7 J/g. Experimental errors were reduced by using a calorimeter.
INTRODUCTION

Different substances absorb heat at different rates due to their physical properties example, states
like solid, liquid or gas. Each substance has their own heat capacity which is a constant due to
that particular material. The specific heat capacity of a substance is the energy required to raise
one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius. Also, the energy needed to raise a substance by
Q
one degree Celsius is proportional to its mass. This is given by the equation c= with units of
gC
J/g °C.
Matter can exist in different states such as solid, liquid and gas. It can transform into either state
by melting and freezing between solid and liquid. Also vaporizing and condensing between
liquid and gas. During a change in phase of solid to liquid there is no change in temperature even
though heat is being added. Alternatively, it can go from liquid to solid without a change in
temperature as heat is being lost. The energy is used to break the intermolecular bonds between
the molecules in the substance. Therefore, melting will take place and solid transforms into
liquid. This is known as latent heat of fusion which is the quantity of heat required to melt one
Q
gram of substance. This is given by the equation Lf = with units J/g. However, during a change
g
of phase from liquid to gas (heat added) and gas to liquid (heat lost) there is no change in
Q
temperature. This is latent heat of vaporization and is given by the equation Lv = with unit J/g.
g
We know that substances can gain or lost heat. There are three methods in which heat is
transferred, conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction; if a metal spoon is left in a pot on
an open flame after a while the end of the handle gets hot. Energy is transferred from the open
flame to the spoon handle through thermal conduction. The vibration amplitudes of the atoms
and electrons of the spoon at flames becomes higher because of the high temperature. These
increased vibrational amplitudes, and thus the associated energy, are passed along the spoon
from atom to atom, during collisions between adjacent atoms. Hence, there is an increase in
temperature along the spoon. (Halliday, Resnick and Walker 2015, 534)
Convection is the heat flow through fluids (liquid and gas). This energy transfer occurs when a
fluid is in contact with an object hotter than the fluid. During this contact the vibration of
particles in the fluid increase along with its temperature causing it to become less dense and to
expand. As a result of buoyant forces, this enlarged fluid rises since it is now lighter than the
nearby colder fluid. A portion of the surrounding cooler fluid then flows to replace the rising hot
fluid allowing the process to continue. (Halliday, Resnick and Walker 2015, 536) Radiation is the
energy transfer through electromagnetic radiation. This does not require a medium, an example
is the sunlight travelling through space (a vacuum) to earth.
The motivation behind this experiment was to observe the heat transfer and change from one
object to another and its change in state. As stated in the beginning each substance has its own
specific heat capacity so finding the specific heat capacity of an unknown object is possible by
knowing the specific heat capacity of the object in which the heat transferred to. The enthalpy
information can be obtained by measuring and heat lost and heat gained between two substances.

THEORY

The quantity of heat gained or lost by a body when temperature is changed is given by the
equation:
∆ Q=mc ∆ T …. 1
Where:
∆ Q−quantity of heat gained∨lost by body ∈Joules( J )
m – mass in grams(g)
∆ T −temperature ∈° C
c- specific heat capacity in Joules per grams per degrees Celsius

The quantity of heat gained or lost by a body when it changes state without a change in
temperature is given by:
∆ Q=mL ….2
Where:
∆ Q−quanity of heat gained ∨lost by body∈ joules( J )
m – mass in grams(g)
L – latent heat in joules per grams

Experiment A:
Heat lost by metal = heat gained by water + calorimeter
∆ Qm =∆ Q w + ∆Q c

c m m m ( T 100 −T f ) =mc c c ( T f −T i ) +mw c w ( T f −T i )

 mc c c ( T f −T i ) + mw c w ( T f −T i )
c m= …..3
mm ( T 100 −T f )

Where:
∆ Qm −heat lost by metal

∆ Q w −heat gained by water

∆ Qc −heat gained by calorimeter

c m−specific heat capacity of metal

c c −specific heat capacity of calorimeter

c w −specific heat capacity of water

mw −mass of water

mc −mass of calorimeter

mm−mass of metal

T f −final temperature

T i−initial temperature

T 100 −temperature of metal ∈boiling water

( ( ) ( )
)
Δ mc ∆ T f +∆ T i Δ mw ∆ T f + ∆ T i
+ ∗B+ + ∗C
Error: mc T f −T i mw T f −T i Δmm ∆T 100+ ∆ T f …4
∆ cm = + + ∗c m
mc c c ( T f −T i ) + mw c w ( T f −T i ) mm T 100−T f

Experiment B:
Heat lost by calorimeter and water = Heat gained by ice and melted ice
∆ Qc + ∆Q w =∆ Q ice + ∆ Qmelted ice

mice l f + mice c w (T f −T 0 )=mc c c (T i−T f )+mw c w (T i −T f )

m c c c (T i −T f )+ mw c w (T i−T f )−m ice c w (T f −T 0)

lf = ….5
mice

l f −latent heat of fusion

mice −mass of ice

T 0−temperature of ice water

Error:

(( ) ( ) ( ) )
Δ mc ∆ T i+ ∆ T f Δmw ∆ T i + ∆T f Δ mice ∆ T f + ∆ T 0
+ ∗B+ + ∗C + + ∗D
mc T i−T f mw T i−T f m ice T f −T 0 Δmice
∆ lf= + ∗l f
mc c c (T i −T f )+ mw c w (T i−T f )−mice c w (T f −T 0) mice
….5

Experiment C:
Heat lost by steam and condensed steam = Heat gained by water and calorimeter
∆ Q steam + ∆Q condensed steam =∆ Qwater + ∆ Qcalorimeter

msteam l v +msteam c w (T 100 −T f )=mc c c (T f −T i )+ mw c w (T f −T i)

m c cc (T f −T i)+mw c w (T f −T i)−msteam c w (T 100 −T f )

lv = ….6
msteam

l v – latent heat of vaporization

msteam −mass of steam

Error:

( ( ) ( ) ( ) )
Δ mc ∆ T f +∆ T i Δm w ∆ T f + ∆ T i Δ msteam ∆ T 100 + ∆T f
+ ∗B+ + ∗C+ + ∗D
mc T f −T i mw T f −T i msteam T 100 −T f Δmsteam
∆ l v= + ∗l v
m c c c (T f −T i )+mw c w (T f −T i)−msteam c w (T 100 −T f ) msteam
…7

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

The method for this experiment was followed using the PHYS 1224 Introduction to
Thermodynamics and Modern Physics Laboratory Manual (Department of Physics 2022, 48-51)
There were a couple precautions taken during this experiment as heat was dealt with. Also, to
minimize errors and increase accuracy these were followed:
1) All measurements were taken at eye level to avoid parallax error to improve precision
2) It was ensured that while the thermometer was in the calorimeter that the lid was fully closed
so that no heat was lost or gained from the surroundings which would of decreased the accuracy
of results.
3) When the steam was passing through the tube into the calorimeter it was ensured that no
condensed steam (water droplets) fell from the end of the tub into the calorimeter. This would of
given inaccurate reading for the final temperature and mass of the calorimeter with its contents.

RESULTS

Error in scale =± 0.1 g

Error in thermometer =± 0.5 ° C
Room temperature = 28°C

Experiment A
Apparatus/Material Mass/g Temperature/°C
Final Initial
Metal 99.8
Calorimeter+Stirrer 65.0
Calorimeter+Stirrer+Wate 153.7
r
Water 88.7 28 20
Boiling Water 99

Experiment B
Apparatus/Material Mass/g Temperature/°C
Final Initial
Calorimeter+Stirrer 65.0
Calorimeter+Stirrer+Water 143.7
Water 78.7
Calorimeter+Stirrer+Water+ice 172.9 16 40
Ice 29.2 16 0

Experiment C
Apparatus/Material Mass/g Temperature/°C
Final Initial
Calorimeter+Stirrer 65.0
Calorimeter+Stirrer+Water 172.6
Water 107.6 48 9
Calorimeter+Stirrer+Water+stea 179.8
m
Steam 7.2

DATA ANALYSIS

Experiment A
Using:
mc c c ( T f −T i ) + mw c w ( T f −T i )
c m=
mm ( T 100 −T f )

c m=(65) 0.385¿ ( 28−20 ) +(88.7)(4.184) ( 28−20 ) ¿

(99.8) ( 99−28 )
c m=0.448 J /g ° C

Experiment B
Using:
m c c c (T i −T f )+ mw c w (T i−T f )−m ice c w (T f −T 0)
lf =
mice

[(65)(0.385)( 40−16)]+[(28.7)(4.184 )( 40−16)]−[(29.2)( 4.198)(16−0)]

lf =
29.2
l f =224.26 J / g

Experiment C
Using:
 m c cc (T f −T i)+mw c w (T f −T i)−msteam c w (T 100 −T f )
lv =
msteam

[(65)(0.385)( 48−9)]+[(107.6)( 4.184)(48.9)]−[(7.2)(4.184)(100−48)]

lv =
7.2
l v =2356.6 J /g

ERROR ANALYSIS
Experiment A:
mc c c ( T f −T i ) + mw c w ( T f −T i )
c m=
mm ( T 100 −T f )

ln c m =ln ( mc c c +m w c w ( T f −T i ) ) −ln ( mm ( T 100 −T f ) )

Δ cm
cm
=
A (
Δ A Δ mm ∆ T 100 +∆ T f
+
mm
+
T 100 −T f )
∆ cm = ( Δ A Δm m ∆ T 100 +∆ T f
A
+
mm
+
T 100 −T f
∗c m )
B=m c c c ( T f −T i )

lnB=lnmc +ln ( T f −T i )

B mc
+
(
Δ B Δ mc ∆ T f +∆ T i
=
T f −T i )
∆ B=
( Δmc ∆ T f + ∆ T i
mc
+
T f −T i
∗B
)
C=m w c w ( T f −T i )

lnC=lnm w + ln ( T f −T i )

ΔC
C
=
mw
+
(
Δ mw ∆T f +∆ T i
T f −T i )
∆ C=
( Δm w ∆ T f + ∆ T i
mw
+
T f −T i
∗C
)
A=B+C
∆ A=∆ B+ ∆C

∆ cm =
( Δ B+ ∆ C Δ mm ∆ T 100 + ∆T f
B+C
+
mm
+
T 100−T f
∗c m
)

( ( ) ( )
)
Δ mc ∆ T f +∆ T i Δmw ∆ T f + ∆ T i
+ ∗ B+ + ∗C
mc T f −T i mw T f −T i Δ mm ∆T 100 + ∆ T f
∆ cm = + + ∗c m
mc c c ( T f −T i ) + mw c w ( T f −T i ) mm T 100 −T f

(
(
65 28−20 )
∗200+(
88.7 28−20 )
)
0.1 0.5+0.5 0.1 0.5+0.5
+ + ∗2969
¿ + 0.1 0.5+0.5
∆c =
m ( 28−20 ) +(88.7)(4.184 ) ( 28−20 ) + ∗0.448
(65) 0.385 ¿ 99.8 99−28

∆ cm =± 0.063 J /g ° C

Experiment B:
m c c c (T i −T f )+ mw c w (T i−T f )−m ice c w (T f −T 0)
lf =
mice

ln l f =ln (m ¿ ¿ c c c (T i−T f )+ m w c w (T i−T f )−mice c w ( T f −T 0 ))−ln(m¿¿ ice) ¿ ¿

Δ lf
lf
=
A (
Δ A Δm ice
+
mice )
∆ lf=
( Δ A Δ mice
A
+
mice )
∗lf

B=m c c c ( T i−T f )

lnB=lnmc +ln ( T i−T f )

 B mc
+
(
Δ B Δ mc ∆ T i +∆ T f
=
T i−T )
∆ B= ( Δmc ∆ T i +∆ T f
mc
+
T i−T f )
∗B

C=m w c w ( T i−T f )

lnC=lnm w + ln ( T i −T f )

ΔC
C
=
mw (
Δ mw ∆T i +∆ T f
+
T i−T f )
∆ C= ( Δm w ∆ T i +∆ T f
mw
+
T i−T f )
∗C

D=mice c w ( T f −T 0 )

lnD=lnmice + ln(T f −T 0 )

ΔD
D
= (
Δ mice ∆ T f + ∆ T 0
mice
+
T f −T 0 )
∆ D= ( Δ mice ∆ T f + ∆ T 0
mice
+
T f −T 0
∗D)
A=B+C+D
ΔA=ΔB+ΔC+ΔD

∆ lf= ( Δ B+ ∆ C+ ΔD Δmice
B+C + D
+
mice
∗l f )

( ( ) ( ) ( ) )
Δ mc ∆ T i+ ∆ T f Δmw ∆ T i + ∆T f Δ mice ∆ T f + ∆ T 0
+ ∗B+ + ∗C + + ∗D
mc T i−T f mw T i−T f m ice T f −T 0 Δmice
∆ lf= + ∗l f
mc c c (T i −T f )+ mw c w (T i−T f )−mice c w (T f −T 0) mice
 ( ( )∗600.6+ ( )∗7902.7 +(
29.2 16−0 )
)
0.1 0.5+0.5 0.1 0.5+ 0.5 0.1 0.5+ 0.5
+ + + ∗1954.8
65 40−16 78.7 40−16 0.1
∆l =
f + ∗224.26
6548.5 29.2

∆ l f =± 19.74 J / g

Experiment C
m c cc (T f −T i)+mw c w (T f −T i)−msteam c w (T 100 −T i )
lv =
m steam

ln l v =ln(m ¿ ¿ c c c (T f −T i)+m w c w (T f −T i )−msteam c w (T 100 −T i))−ln(m¿¿ steam)¿ ¿

By repeating steps in Experiment B

A=B+C+D
ΔA=ΔB+ΔC+ΔD

∆ l v=
( Δ B+ ∆C + ΔD Δ msteam
B+C+ D
+
m steam
∗lv
)

(( ) ( ) ( ) )
Δ mc ∆ T f +∆ T i Δm w ∆ T f + ∆ T i Δ msteam ∆ T 100 + ∆T f
+ ∗B+ + ∗C+ + ∗D
mc T f −T i mw T f −T i msteam T 100 −T f Δmsteam
∆ l v= + ∗l v
m c c c (T f −T i )+mw c w (T f −T i)−msteam c w (T 100 −T f ) msteam

( ( )∗975.9+( )∗22014.7+ (
7.2 100−48 )
)
0.1 0.5+ 0.5 0.1 0.5+0.5 0.1 0.5+0.5
+ + + ∗1566.5
65 48−9 107.6 48−9 0.1
∆l =
v + ∗2356.6
21424.1 7.2

∆ l v =±105.7 J / g

DISCUSSION

The demonstration of the Stirling hot air engine shown (ENGINEDIY Youtube, 2022) displayed
how heat energy is transferred to mechanical energy. This illustrates the first law of
thermodynamics which states that the internal energy of a system increases if energy is added as
heat decreases if energy is lost as work done by the system. (Halliday, Resnick and Walker 2015,
531) A Stirling hot engine is a closed system in which mass does not leave the system but energy
can. It converts heat into kinetic energy by heating the fixed gas stored in a bulb. Due to the first
law of thermodynamics there is a positive change in internal energy of the gas in the bulb. As its
positive, work is done by the gas and hence it expands due to the increased vibration of gas
molecules. Therefore the gas exerts a pressure due to the work done which pushes the piston.
This gas reaches end of the gas bulb of a lower temperature. The gas gets colder then contracts
and work is done on the gas. The piston then gets pushed back, however, its connected to a
wheel in which when pushed manually it will kick start the motion of the second piston. This
process of expanding and contracting of the gas occurs repeatedly.
Based on the specific heat capacity of the metal which was found to be 0.448 ± 0.063 J /g ° C it is
deduced that metal is copper. The theoretical value of copper is 0.385 J/g °C which was a bit
close to the experimental value. This value isn’t accurate as there were limitation and sources of
errors throughout the experiment.
A) The mass of the outer shell of the calorimeter and insulting ring was not included because it
has no effect on the water temperature so therefore was not required to be recorded.
This experiment showed the specific heat capacity of water is higher than of solids. This is due to
the particles in a liquid are more spaced out therefore needing more energy increase kinetic
energy of the particles to raise its temperature.
The hot metal should be dried to avoid any droplets of water getting into the cold water which
adds more heat to it. There is a fixed amount of water in the calorimeter which was already
measured and any additional water can give inaccurate temperature readings when heat is being
transferred.
B) Heat of fusion can be used to guard against frost damage in plants. In extremely cold weather
water is sprinkled on plants. The layer of water freezes on the plant and due to heat of fusion
some of that heat energy is released to the plant while the ice remains at 0°C as during a change
of state the substance remains at 0°C. This layer of ice protects the plant as the environment is
under 0°C.
C) From the results in experiment C the latent heat of vaporization was found to be 2356.6 J / g
which is higher than compared to the energy needed to increase temperature in liquid. If steam
hits human skin and then condenses to water, the energy released while it changes state is far
greater than boiling water releasing energy. Latent heat of vaporization is released to change
state, heat energy released without change in temperature and then it condenses to water which
further burns the skin.
As know the boiling temperature varies with atmospheric pressure. The temperature at which
pressure is exerted by the water particles is equal to the atmospheric pressure and this is known
as the boiling point. At the boiling point the pressure that holds the molecules together is
released and hence the liquid expands to a gas. Therefore, more energy is to be absorbed by the
liquid to change its phase for the gas particles to be free. Hence, this does not fluctuate or change
with the boiling temperature but remains constant.

A few sources of errors that may have affected the results were:
1. The door was open which allowed more air to be let in and this change in external
temperature could have affected the heat transfer.
2. When the steam tube from removed from calorimeter, extra steam condensed steam
ended up in the calorimeter which might have affected the mass of steam.
3. While adding ice to the calorimeter it was not sapped in a napkin before. The droplets of
water may have affected the temperature change.
Some limitations were that calorimeter could not be stirred properly while the ice was being
added while trying not to touch the thermometer. Another was some of the steam escaping
from the calorimeter.

This experiment could have been improved by the use of more accurate thermometers to get
more precise readings to sense any slight fluctuation in temperature.

CONCLUSION
The specific heat capacity c m of the metal mass with its uncertainty error was found to be
0.448 ± 0.063 J /g ° C it. This was a bit off from the theoretical value of 0.385 J/g °C. Hence it
was a bit inaccurate due to experimental errors. The latent heat of fusion of water l f was
found to be 224.26 J / g with an uncertainty of ± 19.74 J /g which was also a bit off from the
actual value of 333 J / g. The latent heat of vaporization was calculated to be 2356.6 J/g with
an uncertainty of ±105.7 J/g which was very close to the theoretical value of ± 2240 J /g .
This experimental value found is said to be accurate and precise as its uncertainty value were
less compared to the specific heat capacity and latent heat of fusion.
REFERENCES

Halliday, David; Robert Resnick and Jearl Walker.2015. Fundamentals of Physics, 10th Edition.
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Department of Physics. 2020. PHYS 1224 Introduction to Thermodynamics and Modern Physics
Laboratory Manual. St. Augustine, Trinidad: The University of the West Indies.