PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

(University of the City of Manila)

General Luna corner Muralla Street
Intramuros, Manila, Philippines

PLM BUSINESS SCHOOL

MODULE 2: THE IMRAD ALIGNED- FORMAT OF WRITING REPORT ON THESIS/

DISSERTATION

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS IN THE SUBJECT BUSINESS

RESEARCH
CBM 0007-10

PREPARED BY:

ALFEROS, MARRON T.

AQUINO, ANGEL JOYCE O.

ASUNCION, KYLA NICOLE E.

BARROZO, LAARNI MAE S.

CUEZON, DANNA ARLIAM L.

ILAGAN, LETTICE MARGARET A.

QUINLOG, ELLA JHANE B.

TENGSON, MA. PIA CARMELA G.

SUBMITTED TO:

PROF. RAGRCIEL G. MANALO

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

● Briefly explain the contents of each chapter and section of the IMRAD Aligned

Format.

TOPIC OUTLINE:

The IMRAD-Aligned Format of Writing Report on Thesis/ Dissertation

Chapter 1: Introduction - Marron T. Alferos and Laarni Mae S. Barrozo

Chapter 2: Theoretical and Conceptual Framework - Danna Arliam L. Cuezon

and Ellajhane B. Quinlog

CHAPTER 3: Methodology - Kyla Nicole E. Asuncion and Lettice Margaret A.

Ilagan

CHAPTER 4: Results and Discussions - Angel Joyce O. Aquino and Pia

Carmela G. Tengson

CHAPTER 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations - Angel Joyce O.

Aquino and Ma. Pia Carmela G. Tengson

The IMRAD-Aligned Format of Writing Report on Thesis/ Dissertation

IMRaD is an acronym for Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. It

describes the format for the sections of a research report. This form is most obvious in
scientific studies, where the methods are clearly defined and described, and data is
often presented in tables or graphs for analysis.

In other fields, such as history, the method and results may be embedded in a
narrative, perhaps describing and interpreting events from archival sources. In this
case, the method is the selection of archival sources and how they were interpreted,
while the results are the interpretation and resultant story.

In full-length books, you might see this general pattern followed over the entire
book, within each chapter, or both. Articles that did not follow this structure were
considered non-IMRAD. They could be generally grouped as:
1. continuous text,
2. articles that used headings other than the IMRAD,
3. case reports, and
4. articles that partially adopted the IMRAD structure.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

A. INTRODUCTION - Marron T. Alferos

How to Write an Introduction?

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and
why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong
opening hook.
o The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance
of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a
question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

In the paragraph, follow the SPIN.

o S - describe the situation, the unsatisfactory situation
o P - describe the problem that may have caused the unsatisfactory
situation
o I - discuss your idea, your research topic
o N - discuss the need for your idea, your research topic. What can your
work contribute to the body of knowledge, to improve the situation, to the
improvement of the system, to the quality of life, etc
 Also, in this section, add a paragraph to briefly cite the qualification of the
researcher to pursue the present study, i.e., interest, profession, education, and
their relatedness to the study.

Two Tips in Writing an Introduction

Include a strong quotation or story upfront. You want your paper to be

full of substance. But that doesn’t mean it should feel boring or flat. Add a
relevant quotation or surprising anecdote to the beginning of your introduction.
This technique will pique the interest of your reader and leave them wanting
more.

Be concise. Research papers cover complex topics. To help your

readers, try to write as clearly as possible. Use concise sentences. Check for
confusing grammar or syntax. Read your introduction out loud to catch awkward
phrases. Before you finish your paper, be sure to proofread, too. Mistakes can
seem unprofessional.

B. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY - Marron T. Alferos

The background of the study establishes the context of the research. This
section explains why this particular research topic is important and essential to
understanding the main aspects of the study. Usually, the background forms the
first section of a research article/thesis and justifies the need for conducting the
study and summarizes what the study aims to achieve.

In the paragraph, give the background of the topic. Why have you chosen
such a topic? Discuss the concept of your topic as you relate them to your title
and your introduction. Cite your sources in in-text citation (parenthetical) using
APA format if you have used or adopted concepts of other authors. Maximum of
4 paragraphs.

How to Avoid Common Mistakes in Writing the Background?

o Don’t write a background that is too long or too short. Focus on including
all the important details but write concisely.
o Don’t be ambiguous. Writing in a way that does not convey the message
to the readers defeats the purpose of the background, so express yourself
keeping in mind that the reader does not know your research intimately.
 o Don’t discuss unrelated themes. Try and center your discussion around
the pivotal aspects of your research topic i.e. highlight the gaps in the literature,
state the novelty of the study, and the need to conduct the study.
o Don’t be disorganized. Not discussing the themes in a chronological
manner can confuse the reader about the progress in the field, so try and
organize your writing carefully.

C. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM - Marron T. Alferos

Your research problem defines the gap in existing knowledge you want to
address (e.g., global warming causes), an issue with a certain process (e.g.,
voter registration) or practices (e.g., patient treatment) that is known and well
documented and needs a solution, or some surprising phenomena or earlier
findings that point to the need for further investigation. Your approach can be
theoretical or practical, and the specific type of problem you choose to address
depends on the type of research you want to do.

How to Write a Statement of the Problem?

o Briefly present the overall concerns or issues based on the topic

introduced. Then, in a statement form, in one paragraph, state the General or
Main Problem. Lastly, in interrogative form, state the Specific Problems. Specific
problems must be numbered.

In any case, your paper should not repeat what other studies have already
said. It also should not ask a question that is too broad in scope to be answered
within your study, nor should it be so vague that your reader cannot grasp your
motivation or focus. To avoid such problems, you need to clearly define your
research question, put it into context, and emphasize its significance for your field
of research, the wider research community, or even the general public.

D. HYPOTHESIS - Laarni Mae S. Barrozo

Hypothesis is a statement of supposition or claim that will be tested by

research.

It outlines your assumptions for the findings of your study. It is a tentative answer
to your research question that has not yet been subjected to a test yet.
A hypothesis is not just a guess – it should be based on existing and current
theories and knowledge. Also, it has to be testable so that you can use scientific
research methods to either support or reject it (such as experiments,
observations and statistical analysis of data).

From the specific problems in the Statement of the Problem that must be
answered through testing of hypothesis, convert the statement and state into null
form. This must be numbered if more than one, otherwise, paragraphed if there is
only one hypothesis.

It must have foundations from the specific problems where there are significance
of contrasts, differences and associations, relationships that must be tested in
order to obtain the answers of such research questions.

Following are some hints for the formulation of your hypothesis:

1. Be sure to read on the topic to familiarize yourself with it before making a

final decision. You need to make certain that the topic is researchable in
an interdisciplinary sense, meaning that there is sufficient published
material on the topic in the legal literature.
2. As noted, a research hypothesis is more than just a topic. It has two
elements (variables) that are in relation to each other. Remember that,
within the word "hypothesis" is the word "thesis." Your hypothesis is what
you propose to “prove” by your research. As a result of your research, you
will arrive at a conclusion, a theory, or understanding that will be useful or
applicable beyond the research itself.
3. Avoid judgmental words in your hypothesis. Value judgments are
subjective and are not appropriate for a hypothesis. You should strive to
be objective. Therefore the use of personal opinion is to be avoided.
4. Your hypothesis must involve an issue or question that cannot be
answered exclusively by the discipline of law. You should try to limit your
inquiry to the literatures of 2 or 3 disciplines. It is best to choose a
hypothesis where you already have some level of familiarity with the
disciplines that are most relevant to the topic.
5. Be sure that each term in your hypothesis is clearly understood and
defined; do not deal in generalities or assume that the reader knows the
meaning of a technical term.
6. Know that your hypothesis may change over time as your research
progresses.
 E. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY - Laarni Mae S. Barrozo

A written statement of the study's significance highlights the importance of

the research. It's a justification of the significance of your work and impact that it
has on your research field, its contribution to new knowledge and how other
individuals will benefit from it.

Purpose of writing Significance of the Study

The significance of a study should pique the reader's interest.

Understanding the significance and (potential) impact of your work will help
researchers better appreciate it. Peer reviewers evaluate the relevance of the
study as well, which affects whether the manuscript is accepted or rejected.

How to write the significance of the study

A good significance statement may be written in different ways. The

approach to writing it also depends on the study area. In the arts and humanities,
the significance statement might be longer and more descriptive. In applied
sciences, it might be more direct.

A. Suggested sequence for writing the significance statement

● Think of the gaps your study is setting out to address.
● Look at your research from general and specific angles in terms of
its (potential) contribution.
● Once you have these points ready, start writing them, connecting
them to your study as a whole.
B. Some ways to begin your statement(s) of significance

Here are some opening lines to build on:

● The particular significance of this study lies in the…

● We argue that this study moves the field forward because…
● This study makes some important contributions to…
● Our findings deepen the current understanding about…
C. Don’ts of writing a significance statement
● Don’t make it too long.
● Don’t repeat any information that has been presented in other
sections.
● Don’t overstate or exaggerate the importance; it should match your
actual findings.
 Example:

This study's findings will further reveal how management-employee

bilateral relationships can be strengthened while improving workplace
productivity. The findings would be of major importance in assessing how
collective bargaining can be a major tool in improving workplace performance in
a developing economy like Nigeria. Collective bargaining would help both
management and employees bargain on terms and conditions of service and
resolve their grievances without leading to strikes, lock-outs, and other forms of
industrial actions. The best approach in negotiating on the bargaining table is to
provide employees with the importance of collective bargaining as the best
method of settling the industrial conflict, which will improve their productivity and
lead to higher organizational performance.

F. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS - Laarni Mae S. Barrozo

The parameters under which the study will be conducted are referred to as the
study's scope. The issue you're trying to address will fall within a specified range.
Consider the scope as the boundaries of your research's domain—what belongs
there and what doesn't. You must be as specific as you can about the topics you
will be researching and the variables that fall inside the parameters of your study.

In writing the paragraph of scope, cite the variables included in your study that
are listed in your Statement of the Problem along with the locale and study
population in the paragraph for scope.

Meanwhile, the paragraph for limitations talks about matter and situations that
occur during a study but are beyond the control of the researcher. They restrict
how far a study may be extended and occasionally have an impact on the
outcome and conclusions that can be made. Every study has limitations,
regardless of how well it was designed and conducted. One of the reasons we
avoid using the phrases "prove" and "disprove" in relation to research findings is
because of this. Future studies could potentially raise questions about the validity
of any theory or finding from a previous study. Your study might have access to
only certain people in an organization, certain documents, and certain data.

In the third paragraph, you also list your delimitation. These are the relevant
topics that readers may be looking for, but you purposefully left them out of your
study because they fall beyond its purview. Be ready for these. In this paragraph,
list them all and explain.
 Difference between Limitations and Delimitations

CHAPTER 2 : THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A. THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK - Ellajhane B. Quinlog

A theoretical framework is a comprehensive review of existing theories

that serves as the foundation for developing your own. It examines the
relationship between things in a specific phenomenon in a broad and general
context. It justifies and contextualizes your subsequent research by explaining
existing theories that support your research and demonstrating your paper's
topic.

How to write a theoretical framework

It is important to become familiar with the theories and models created by

previous researchers before creating a theoretical framework. Discuss the theory
or notion in paragraph form, and make sure it is cited in-text using APA format.
The basics of a theoretical framework include:

Definitions of Explanations Logical connections

terms of theories

This helps to identify Your theoretical A theoretical

key concepts and framework framework should
define any should provide connect concepts,
uncommon terms, an explanation terms and theories
phrases or words in for each of the logically so they're
your document to theories you easy to read and
provide a basis of plan to utilize understand. This can
understanding and a and show how also help support
point of reference they relate to your theory during
for the reader. your research. scientific questioning
and testing.

STEPS IN WRITING THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Identifying your key concepts

· The first step is to highlight the keywords in your research problem. The
theoretical framework should also define clearly what you intend when you use
each term.

Evaluating and explaining relevant theories

· You must evaluate and compare the approaches taken by different authors
as you write your theoretical framework. You must choose the model or theory
that best supports your research after evaluating a variety of models and
theories. Then combine theories from different domains to develop your own
unique framework, if it applies to your topic. However, be sure to highlight the
most important theories related to your research and explain why they are
relevant to your topic.

Showing how your research fits into existing research

· Your theoretical framework should not only summarize and discuss current
theories, but also demonstrate how your project will use these concepts and
improve them.
Benefits of using a theoretical framework

A theoretical framework's purpose is to relate your new study to

previously known information and to give the reader an explicit statement of your
theoretical assertions. It enables you to build the groundwork for your
investigation, analyze your findings, and draw bigger generalizations. Using a
framework allows you to organize your thoughts with relevant research, which
can aid future researchers in the understanding and supporting related studies.

B. LITERATURE REVIEW - Danna Arliam L. Cuezon

A literature review examines books, articles and other related

studies that are relevant to a particular field of study, it is a comprehensive
summary of previous studies. This previous research should enumerate,
describe, summarize, objectively evaluate and clarify in the review.

Purpose of a literature review

● Provide background information on the topic.

● Determine areas of existing studies to avoid redundancy and
to give credit to other researchers.
● Recognize contradictions such as gaps in research,
conflicts in previous studies, unanswered questions left from
other research.
● Identify the need for additional research.
● Determine the connection between the works and their
impact on the subject and other works.
● Put your own findings in the context of the existing literature
and argue why more research is necessary.

C. SYNTHESIS - Ellajhane B. Quinlog

This is the summary of related literature or study cited in the

theoretical framework and from the result of the reviews done on related
literature and studies. Briefly cite similarities and dissimilarities of the
concepts cited in related literature and studies to the present study.
 Summarizing vs. Synthesis

A summary is an objective, short written presentation in your own

words of ideas, facts, events, in a single piece of text while synthesis is a
“combination” of several texts into a single one, which aims to create an
understanding or original perspective of the information in those texts. In
synthesis, you need to combine the information from those multiple
sources and add your own analysis of the literature.

EXAMPLE OF SYNTHESIS

D. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK - Danna Arliam L. Cuezon

A Conceptual framework is often presented in a visual format or

illustration, it shows how one variable is related to one another, it
illustrates the relevant objective of the study and maps it out to provide
logical conclusions.
Steps in Developing a Conceptual Framework in Research

Step 1: Choose a research question.

By choosing a research question, it guides the researcher by

determining exactly what to find out.

Step 2: Select Independent and Dependent Variables

The Independent and Dependent variable must be identified

in order to test a cause-and-effect relationship and to move forward
with the study.

Step 3: Visualize cause-and-effect relationship

Visualizing the anticipated cause-and-effect relationship is

the first stage in developing a conceptual framework, after figuring
out the research question and the variables.

Step 4: Identify other influencing variables

It is critical to identify other factors that might have an impact

on how independent and dependent variables relate to one another.
Some common variables to include are moderating, mediating, and
control variables.

Different Types of Variables

What is Variable?

In statistics and research, a variable is any type of property or

characteristic that you are attempting to quantify, manage, or regulate. In
every study, a variable is analyzed. This variable may be a person, place,
item, or idea. The value of a variable may vary among groups or over
time.

● Independent Variables - A variable that stands alone and will

not be affected by any other variables or factors.
● Independent Variable - A variable that relies on and can be
affected by other factors that are measured.
● Quantitative Variables - Any data that involves numbers are
considered Quantitative Variables, example are height,
distance or number of items.

This can be divided in two groups:

■ Discrete: Any numerical that can realistically count.

■ Continuous: Numerical that could never finish
counting.
● Qualitative Variables - Non-numerical values or groupings,
examples are eye color and dog breed.

This can be divided into three groups:

■ Binary: Variables with only two categories.

■ Nominal: Variables that can be organized in more
than two categories that do not follow a particular
order.
■ Ordinal: Variables that can be organized in more than
two categories that follow a particular order.
■ Intervening Variables - A theoretical variable that
serves as an explanation for the cause or connection
between other study variables.
■ Moderating Variables - Changes the relationship
between dependent and independent variables by
strengthening or weakening the intervening variable's
effect
■ Extraneous Variables - Factors that affect the
dependent variable but did not originally consider
when designing the experiment.
■ Confounding Variables - Extra variables that the
researcher did not account for that can disguise
another variable's effects and show false correlations.
■ Control Variables - Characteristics that are constant
and do not change during a study.
■ Composite Variables - Two or more variables
combined to make a more complex variable.
 E. OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK - Ellajhane B. Quinlog

Operational framework is a measurement approach that will offer a reliable

evaluation of the idea. It outlines both the processes you'll use to observe or
measure the variables as well as the variables you'll utilize as indicators for your
concepts.

F. DEFINITION OF TERMS - Danna Arliam L. Cuezon

Definition of terms plays a vital role in research as this ensures that

the reader can comprehend the study where the significant words from the
study are described in detail, it can be found either at the beginning or
more likely near the end.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

A. INTRODUCTION OF THE CHAPTER - Lettice Margaret A. Ilagan

Methodology is the third chapter in the IMRAD format wherein information

regarding the population, sample size, materials and instruments used can be
found. Basically, chapter 3 or the methodology shows how the research or the
data gathering was done and its results. Methodology shows the instrument or
material used in conducting the research which makes future researchers use it
as a reference or make the material replicable and apply to their own research.
This part also serves as an assurance to the audience that the research was
done thoroughly and honestly which are all supported by data shown in the
chapter.

B. RESEARCH DESIGN - Lettice Margaret A. Ilagan

What is a research design?

A research design deals with the techniques and methods used in a research
paper. This part shows what kind of research you are conducting.
Types of research design

1. Qualitative research - one of the most common types of research design.

When a research is qualitative, it usually answers the questions “how” and
“why”. Results of this research are usually presented in words.
2. Quantitative research - is also one of the most common types of a
research design. If qualitative research answers the questions “how” and
“why”, quantitative research then answers the questions “who”, “what”,
“where”, and “when”. Results of this research are usually presented in
graphs and numbers.
3. Descriptive research - A type of research that uses techniques like case
study, observation, and survey. This type of research design is theoretical
and describes and tests these bases in an understandable way for the
audience. This also answers “why” and “how” questions.
4. Experimental research - This type of research uses a scientific approach
wherein it tests both independent and dependent variables and how they
are related to one another. Aside from testing independent and dependent
variables, this research aims to identify the cause and effects. This is
commonly used in quantitative research.
5. Correlational research - A type of research that correlates or sees the
relationship between the variables of a research. Observation is typically
the method used in collecting data and results. Results in this research
typically result in positive, negative, and zero correlation.
a. Positive - both variables change in the same direction.

Ex: As the price of gas increases, the prices of foods in restaurants

increase too.

b. Negative - the variables change in opposite directions.

Ex: As coffee consumption increases, sleepiness decreases.

c. Zero - the variables don't have relation with each other.

Ex: Coffee consumption does not have any relationship with taking
a bath everyday.

6. Diagnostic research - This type of research looks and solves the

problem. It has three (3) phases which are inception, diagnosis, and
solution for the issue.
 7. Explanatory research - This type of research answers the questions
“what”, “how”, and “why”. It aims to seek for undiscovered areas of the
research. Data gathering would usually be in the form of literature
research, interviews, and case studies.

A study is not exclusive to one research design, some studies usually combine 2
research designs like quantitative and experimental research.

C. RESEARCH LOCALE - Lettice Margaret A. Ilagan

In this part of the chapter, researchers must be able to cite where their research
would take place. This deals with the geographical location where the
respondents would be found for data gathering.

Guidelines in writing a research locale:

1. State a specific place only if permission is granted, otherwise refer to its

characteristics.

Ex: Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila or A university in Manila

2. Describe the geographical location

3. Explain why the location is important and why you chose to conduct the
research in this area.

D. POPULATION - Lettice Margaret A. Ilagan

This part tackles the population or the chosen respondents of the research being
done. Qualifications, demographic, economic status, expertise, etc must be
stated in this part of the chapter. The reason why they are chosen and why they
are qualified for the research must also be stated in this part.

E. SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES - Lettice Margaret A. Ilagan

Sample and population are often mistaken with each other. So what are the key
differences?
 POPULATION SAMPLE

Entire Group Specific group that may or may not

came from the population
Ex: Undergraduate students in Manila
Ex: 100 Undergraduate students from
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

In collecting data, the researchers Collection of data is easier considering

must be in contact with every the fact that the people involved are
individual. less than the population.

Determining a sample size is one of the key factors of making a research

successful. Having small or too much sample size could harm the study and give
unfavorable results. Smaller sample size would cause limited data to check for
the results while large sample size would consume too much time hence making
it time consuming.

Definition of Terms

a. Margin of Error - Also known as confidence interval. This is used to

measure the degree of uncertainty and certainty in a sampling method
used by the researchers.
b. Confidence Level - The remaining percentage after the margin of error is
stated.

Ex: 5% margin of error would mean you are 95% confident that the results
are accurate and reliable.

Formula for Sample Size

a. Cochran’s Formula
 With the given formula, all you have to do is substitute where

Z = 1.96

p = 5%

q= 5%

e = 5%

Proceed to the computation which you will get 384.16, round up since we
are dealing with sample size, meaning the sample size must be 385.

b. Yamane’s Formula

N= Population

e= Margin of Error

With the given formula, all you have to do is substitute where

N = 2000
 e= 5%

Proceed to the computation which you will get 333.33, again round up
since we are dealing with sample size, meaning the sample size must be
334.

Types of Sampling

1. Probability Sampling - when every member of the population has an

equal chance to be chosen and when the researchers use randomized
techniques to choose a sample.
a. Simple Random Sampling - When all elements have equal
chances to be part of the sample. It is usually used when
researchers don't have information regarding the population.

Ex: All 50 students of a population have equally 1/50 chance of

being chosen to be a respondent.

b. Stratified Sampling - Commonly used when the researchers have

little information about the population. The population is categorized
into subgroups called strata and after the respondents will then be
again chosen randomly.

Ex: The 50 students are categorized into their age ranges and per
range 2 will be chosen for the sample.

c. Cluster Sampling - Similar to stratified sampling, the population

will be categorized into subgroups but this time around the whole
subgroup will be chosen to be the sample.

Ex: The 50 students are categorized by their age ranges and those
whose age ranges from 15-20 will be the respondents.

d. Systematic Clustering - A type of sampling that is random but not

random at the same time. When used, there is some sort of pattern
which makes it easier to gather samples.

Ex: The researchers assigned the students a number ranging from

1-50 and those who got the number that are in even will be the
sample.
 2. Non-probability Sampling - a sampling technique that is not random and
not everyone has the chance to be chosen. It is often used in exploratory
and qualitative research.
a. Convenient Sampling - A type of technique where researchers
choose a sample that is easier to contact and is near to them. This
type of research however is at risk of sampling and selection bias.
b. Purposive Sampling - A type of technique where researchers
choose a sample that could potentially bring more information and
advantage to the research.
c. Referral/ Snowball Sampling - A type of technique researchers
use when the population is rare and is hard to contact. This will
typically lead to recommendations provided by other people who
have similar elements to what the researchers are looking for.

F. INSTRUMENTATION - Kyla Nicole E. Asuncion

Research instruments are tools used for data collection and analysis.
Researchers can use these tools in most fields. Choosing the right research
instrument is essential as it can reduce data collection time and provide more
accurate results for the research purpose.

In a paragraph, discuss how you constructed the instrument used in the data
gathering i.e. questionnaires, observation sheets, interview guides, interview
schedules, and then, discuss the mechanical device such as thermometer, video
recording, traffic counter, etc. used in obtaining data.

Research Instrument Examples:

● The interview is a qualitative research method that collects data by

asking questions. It includes three main types: structured, unstructured,
and semi-structured interviews.
● Survey research is another primary data collection method that involves
asking a group of people for their opinions on a topic. However, surveys
are often given out in paper form or online instead of meeting the
respondents face-to-face.
● Observation is another research instrument for marketers to collect data.
It involves an observer watching people interacting in a controlled or
uncontrolled environment.
 ● Focus groups are similar to interviews but include more than one
participant. It is also a qualitative research method which aims to
understand customers' opinions on a topic.
● Existing or secondary data is an instrument for secondary research.
Secondary research means using data that another researcher has
collected.

Types of Questions

● Open-ended questions are those that provide respondents with a question

prompt and provide them a space in which to construct their own
response.
● Closed-ended questions, alternatively, provide a question prompt and ask
respondents to choose from a list of possible responses.

The interview is a qualitative research method that collects data by asking

questions. It includes three main types: structured, unstructured, and
semi-structured interviews.

● Structured interviews include an ordered list of questions. These

questions are often closed-ended and draw a yes, no or a short answer
from the respondents. Structured interviews are easy to execute but leave
little room for spontaneity.
● Unstructured interviews are the opposite of structured interviews.
Questions are mostly open-ended and are not arranged in order. The
participants can express themselves more freely and elaborate on their
answers.
● Semi-structured interviews are a blend of structured and unstructured
interviews. They are more organized than unstructured interviews, though
not as rigid as structured interviews.

Tools used in interviews may include:

● Audio recorder (face-to-face interview)

● Cam recorder & video conferencing tools (online interview)

G. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF INSTRUMENT - Kyla Nicole E. Asuncion

If done and applicable, discuss here the process and result of obtaining validity
and testing the reliability of the questionnaire or any instrument used in gathering
data. Show the formula of the test used, i.e., Paired Sample t-test, Cronbach’s
Alpha, Correlations, or as applicable.

Reliability refers to the extent that the instrument yields the same results over
multiple trials. Validity refers to the extent that the instrument measures what it
was designed to measure.

Types of Reliability

1) Test-retest Reliability

This assessment refers to the consistency of outcomes over time. Testing

reliability over time does not imply changing the amount of time it takes to
conduct an experiment; rather, it means repeating the experiment multiple times
in a short time.

2) Internal Consistency

It’s also known as internal reliability. It refers to the consistency of results for
various items when measured on the same scale.

3) Inter-Rater Reliability

This method of measuring reliability helps prevent personal bias. Inter-rater

reliability assessment helps judge outcomes from the different perspectives of
multiple observers.

Types of Validity

1) Content Validity
 This refers to determining validity by evaluating what is being measured. So
content validity tests if your research is measuring everything it should to
produce an accurate result.

2) Criterion Validity

This measures how well your measurement correlates with the variables you
want to compare it with to get your result. The two main classes of criterion
validity are predictive and concurrent.

3) Face Validity

Quantifying face validity might be a bit difficult because you are measuring the
perception validity, not the validity itself.

4) Construct validity

Evaluates whether a measurement tool really represents the thing we are

interested in measuring. It’s central to establishing the overall validity of a
method.

H. PROCEDURES - Kyla Nicole E. Asuncion

In paragraphs, discuss the process in gathering the data, from asking

permission, to the formulation of instruments, down to the actual conduct of the
study, either survey, interview or narrative account.

This part of the thesis or dissertation includes all research-related activities to be

undertaken in order to achieve the objectives of the study and to offer some
possible solutions to the problem. It provides detailed description and complete
information on the preparation of the questionnaire and the interview, revision
and dry-run of the questionnaire and the interview, revision and dry-run of the
questionnaire, details of the

data collection strategies and approaches to be done, and approaches identifying

the person/s responsible for the administration and retrieval of the questionnaire,
and the conduct of the interview.

I. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA - Kyla Nicole E. Asuncion

Statistical analysis is a scientific tool that helps collect and analyze large
amounts of data to identify common patterns and trends to convert them into
meaningful information. In simple words, statistical analysis is a data analysis
tool that helps draw meaningful conclusions from raw and unstructured data.

For each specific problem, discuss the statistical tools used to process the data
into readable information. Show formula for each type. For confirmation
purposes, do a triangulation of the results of the formula by confirming the results
with the use of software like SPSS, Minitab, Stata, or any other statistical
software in deriving the statistical data. If such have been used, state that the
results have been validated with the use of such software. Whenever necessary,
consult a statistician. But make sure your statistician knows, understands fully
well your Statement of the Problem.

Types of Statistical Analysis

1. ·Descriptive Analysis involves collecting, interpreting, analyzing, and

summarizing data to present them in the form of charts, graphs, and
tables.
2. Inferential Analysis focuses on drawing meaningful conclusions on the
basis of the data analyzed.
3. Predictive Statistical Analysis is a type of statistical analysis that
analyzes data to derive past trends and predict future events on the basis
of them.
4. Prescriptive Analysis conducts the analysis of data and prescribes the
best course of action based on the results.
5. Exploratory analysis is similar to inferential analysis, but the difference is
that it involves exploring the unknown data associations.
6. Causal Statistical Analysis focuses on determining the cause and effect
relationship between different variables within the raw data.

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

A. INTRODUCTION OF THE CHAPTER - Angel Joyce O. Aquino

This chapter consists of results and discussions wherein the result

comprises the findings on the data collected and analyzed. This data
collected and analyzed can be the results of descriptive analysis, results
of inferential analysis for quantitative, and findings of text analysis for
qualitative.
 This chapter consists of telling the reader what your research problems
are. For a qualitative study in this chapter, the researchers must restate
the research problems and for a quantitative study, researchers must
present the hypothesis of the research paper itself.

B. TABULAR PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS -

Ma. Pia Carmela G. Tengson

Tabular Presentation of Data

It's a table that can make much information interesting, readable, and
well-organized. The information is laid down in rows and columns. Due to
their ease of use, data tables are a common information presentation
method.

Example:

Tabulation primarily organizes data for further statistical processing and

decision-making. Tabulation utilizes four distinct types of analysis. They
are:

1. Qualitative
2. Quantitative
3. Temporal
4. Spatial
 1. Qualitative classification: Qualitative classification is when groups
are grouped based on physical status, nationality, social status, etc.
2. Quantitative classification: The data is grouped based on
quantitative characteristics. In other words, numbers can be used to
estimate these things.
3. Temporal classification: Time is a sorting criterion, allowing for a
temporal breakdown of the data—a period measured in years,
months, weeks, days, hours, etc.
4. Spatial classification: Spatial classification is when things are
grouped based on location. The place could be a country, a state, a
district, a block, a village or town, or something like that.

Discussion of the Results

The discussion follows the results section, where the author

summarizes and interprets the study's findings. The significance of these
findings and their relation to the original study issue are discussed (s).
There is an activity after this handout designed to help you practice
identifying the components of a discussion section, as well as an
explanation of what a discussion section is and how to create one.

Example:

[Key finding] Our 20-year analysis of snakebites in California showed a

well-correlated inverse relationship between snakebite incidence and
severe drought phases, with a predictable increase of snakebites following
precipitation. [Placing findings in context] This is in contrast to popular
press reports of increased snake bites with drought conditions [29,30], and
Central American research that reported increased incidence of snakebite
during high temperatures of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ELSO) [9]. This
study also analyzed the effect of altitude and precipitation on the
periodicity of regional snakebites, and [Key finding] found that while
climate changes had a predictable effect on incidence, snake bites
clustered in regions with the highest precipitation [9] [...] After accounting
for seasonal trends, [Restating a key finding] we observed that prior
precipitation was a strong predictor of snakebites, with incidence peaks
following the heavy precipitation years of 2006 and 2011 […] [Limitation]
We cannot exclude the possibility that changes in the medical culture or
 technology of snakebite reporting may be a confounding variable.
[Recommendation for follow-up research] While we believe these
limitations have not impacted the primary outcome of the study, future
work could seek to include additional controls.

Its Purpose

The discussion reviews the results and shows how they fit into the
research. It ties together everything that came before it and lets the reader
see how each part of the paper fits together. In a discussion section, the
author must do three things: explain, analyze, and interpret. A good
discussion section will explain why the research results are essential and
how they fit in with other research. It will also be self-critical and honest
about the study's flaws.

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS - Ma. Pia Carmela G. Tengson

In the first two paragraphs, briefly talk about the overall goal of your study
by talking about your main problem, your research design, the location, the
population, and the statistical tools you used.

Then say, "After a careful look at the collected data, here are the results of this
study":

Numbered and in the order in which the specific problems and the
interpretations of each of the series of tables that answer each of the research
questions or particular issues appear, summarize your findings and analysis.

Example:

Employees can give their best in work if the management treats them well. The
employees can decide whether they should stay or not. Based on the result of
the study 25% of the respondents say that management by walking is the
management style that is effective in a catholic school in navotas city. The finding
of this study is supported by a study saying that the process of management by
 walking around (MBWA) was developed to improve team connection and general
communication (Hosmath et.al. 2015). The philosophy of MBWA states that
managers become more effective when they are acquainted with what is taking
place in their organizations, when they are in direct contact with their
subordinates, customers, and the workplace (Tucker and Singer, 2015). In a
highly effective team, members must understand the organization and goal or
destination and obtain signals over the course of their efforts to confirm that they
are on task.

B. CONCLUSIONS - Angel Joyce O. Aquino

The conclusion in a research paper is not as summary as you think of the whole
research study. It is the synthesis of the key points within the whole research.
The conclusion part helps the readers to know how reliable the paper is to them
as they tend to finish on reading the whole paper.

Conclusion contains explaining how significant your finding in your study is by

demonstrating the importance of your ideas. It also discusses the new ideas that
can be created by contextualizing the research problem constructed on the
results of the research study.

It must be in a paragraph form which answers the specific problems of the paper.
Research questions must be answered one paragraph each. It consists of
information such as interpretation, analysis, and implications.

Example:

While the role of cattle in climate change is by now common knowledge, countries
like the Netherlands continually fail to confront this issue with the urgency it
deserves. The evidence is clear: To create a truly futureproof agricultural sector,
Dutch farmers must be incentivized to transition from livestock farming to sustainable
vegetable farming. As well as dramatically lowering emissions, plant-based
agriculture, if approached in the right way, can produce more food with less land,
providing opportunities for nature regeneration areas that will themselves contribute
to climate targets. Although this approach would have economic ramifications, from a
long-term perspective, it would represent a significant step towards a more
sustainable and resilient national economy.
 Transitioning to sustainable vegetable farming will make the Netherlands greener
and healthier, setting an example for other European governments. Farmers,
policymakers, and consumers must focus on the future, not just on their own
short-term interests, and work to implement this transition now.

C. RECOMMENDATIONS - Ma. Pia Carmela G. Tengson

In a research paper's "Recommendations" section, you make vital

suggestions about the best way to handle a situation. In other words, this section
gives a helpful guide to solving some problems and producing a good result.
Recommendations say what should be done about policy, practice, theory, or
further research.

Recommendations depend significantly on the situation, so that they can

be very different. The researcher can give specific ideas for how more research
on the topic could be done. Also, they may suggest studies to fill in gaps in the
literature that their study may or may not have helped to create.

Example:

The current study can be interpreted as a first step in the research on COPD
speech characteristics. However, the results of this study should be treated with
caution due to the small sample size and the lack of details regarding the
participants’ characteristics.

Future research could further examine the differences in speech characteristics

between exacerbated COPD patients, stable COPD patients, and healthy
controls. It could also contribute to a deeper understanding of the acoustic
measurements suitable for e-health measurements.
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