A

LABORATORY REPORT

ON

EXPERIMENTAL WORK ON

DRYING OF SOLIDS IN A TRAY DRYER

WHICH WAS PERFORMED ON

THE 31ST OF MARCH, 2021

BY

ADEKOYA IFEOLUWA ISAIAH

CHE/2016/006

OF

GROUP 2

AND SUBMITTED TO

DR. O. SANDA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

UNIT OPERATIONS LABORATORY I

(CHE 409)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING,

OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY,

ILE-IFE,

OSUN STATE.

JUNE, 2021.
 Department Of Chemical Engineering,

Obafemi Awolowo University,

Ile-Ife,

Osun state.

June, 2021.

The Coordinator,

Unit Operations Laboratory I (CHE 409),

Chemical Engineering Department,

Obafemi Awolowo University,

Ile-Ife,

Osun state.

Dear Sir,

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

I, Adekoya Ifeoluwa Isaiah, with student registration number CHE/2016/006, write to

submit the report on the laboratory experiment conducted on “Drying Of Solids In A

Tray Dryer”. The experiment was performed on the 31st of March, 2021 in the

Chemical Engineering department of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun

state.

This is done in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Unit Operations Laboratory I

(CHE 409).

Yours Faithfully,

Adekoya Ifeoluwa Isaiah

CHE/2016/006

II
 ABSTRACT

The tray dryer is the most often used dryer in today's businesses. Tray dryers are used

as a drying equipment in many industries, including pharmaceutical and food, since

they consume less energy and hence save money. Drying is the process of eliminating

water or moisture from a substance. The main goal of the experiment was to

determine how quickly the solid dries (potato). The moisture content of a solid was

determined in this experiment. Before being placed in the dryer, the potato was sliced

and the sliced potato chips are placed on a tray. The mass of the potato was measured

before, during, and after the experiment. During the experiment, the potato chips were

weighed every two to five minutes and the mass is recorded. The potato's moisture

level diminished with time, causing it to dry more slowly.

III
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL ……………….…………………………….……….II

ABSTRACT ...………………………..……………..……………………………….III

TABLE OF CONTENTS .………………………..………………….……….……IV

LIST OF FIGURES …..……………………………….………………………….…VI

LIST OF TABLES ……...……………………….…..……………………………...VII

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 An Introduction To Drying ……….…………………………..……………1

1.2 Literature Review ……………………………………………………….….2

1.3 Theoretical Development ..…………………………………………………...2

1.4 Objective Of Experiment ………………………………….……………….…4

1.5 Scope Of Experiment ………………………………………………………...4

CHAPTER TWO: EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

2.1 Equipments And Materials Used .……….…………..…….………………….5

2.2 Determining The Rate Of Drying For Potato Chips ……..…………………..8

2.3 Assumptions …………………….……………………..……………….……9

2.5 Precautions And General Notes …….………………………………………..9

CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Drying At 60oC …..……………………………………………………..…..11

3.2 Drying At 80oC …..…………………………………………………………15

CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

IV
 4.1 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….20

4.2 Recommendations ..………………………………………………………20

REFERENCES …..…………..………………………………………………………21

APPENDIX A: IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS …………………..………………...22

APPENDIX B: GROUP MEMBERS ……………………………………………….23

V
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Drying Rate …………………………………………………………………3

Figure 2: Dryer ………………………………………………………………………..5

Figure 3: Mass Balance ……………………………………………………………….6

Figure 4: Stopwatch …………………………………………………………………..7

Figure 5: Knife ………………………………………………………………………..8

Figure 6: Plot of weight of sample against time ……………………………………..12

Figure 7: Plot of dry basis moisture content X against time ………………………...13

Figure 8: Plot of R against X ………………………………………………………..14

Figure 9: Plot of solid weight against time ………………………………………….17

Figure 10: Plot of moisture content against time for drying at 80oC ………………..17

Figure 11: Drying rate R versus Dry basis moisture content X ……………………..18

VI
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Condensed experimental data for drying at 60oC ………………………….11

Table 2: Data for drying at 80oC …………………………………………………….15

VII
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 An Introduction To Drying

Drying is a mass transfer process that involves removing water or another solvent

from a solid, semi-solid, or liquid through evaporation (Geankoplis, 1983). In

technical speak, drying is the process of separating volatile liquids from solids by

vaporizing the liquid and then extracting the vapour (Tsotsas et al., 2005).

Although drying is generally accepted to be a mass transfer process, it is a

complicated process in practice. This is because it involves simultaneous mass and

heat transfer, in addition to physicochemical transformations (Parikh, 2014).

Generally, dependent on the mechanism of heat transfer, drying can be categorized

into microwave drying (also called dielectric or radio frequency drying), conduction

(indirect or contact) drying and convection (direct) drying (Parikh, 2014). Hence, the

entire drying process can be viewed as a “Thermal Separation Process” (Tsotsas et al.,

2005).

Dryers are machines used in the industrial and laboratory process of drying. It works

by removing moisture from a surface or a solid. Dryers come in a variety of shapes

and sizes, including tray, rotary, vacuum, drum, and spray. A hot air stream runs over

a product surface in tray dryers, whether batch or continuous, supplying some of the

heat for evaporation and acting as a medium for water vapour to be moved away from

the food.

The sort of dryer employed in this report's experiment was a Tray Dryer, which is a

batch dryer. Batch drying is a method of drying a certain amount of sample at a time.

The material is put into trays in a drying apparatus (dryer) and left to dry. A

succession of trays containing the material are piled in batch dryers, with enough

1
space between trays to allow for airflow. The air is heated as it enters the tray and

driven parallel to the tray's hen exits. Batch dryers have a low throughput and drying

is not always uniform throughout the drying chamber, despite their basic design. The

trays are manually turned in certain circumstances to promote more consistent drying.

They're best for small and medium-scale production runs, as well as pilot facilities. In

drying experiments and processes, the time between loading and emptying the product

out of the dryer determines the drying time.

The rate of drying is influenced by a number of factors. Water evaporates readily

from the surface during the initial drying, known as the constant-rate drying stage.

Water must travel from the inside of the substance to the surface at later periods. This

might occur as a result of liquid diffusion, capillary movement, surface diffusion,

gaseous diffusion, or product shrinkage (Geankoplis, 1983).

1.2 Literature Review

In the last 100 years, knowledge of the drying process has become much better

understood. However, drying rates continue to be the most important topic in the

drying process for chemical engineers. Geankoplis (1983) rigidly explains the drying

process, the mechanism behind it, drying rates and rate equations and the importance

of the knowledge of drying to Chemical Engineering, Chemical Engineers and the

Industries that make use of the drying process.

1.3 Theoretical Background

Drying rate follows a well established trend that can be represented on a graph as

shown below.

2
 Figure 1: Drying Rate

Tsotsas et al. (2005) explained the concept of free and bound moisture in solids and

the role of pressure in the removal of a liquid from a solid or surface. However, the

rate of drying can be defined as the mass of evaporated liquid by unit time and by unit

of exposed surface area for drying. Mathematically,

Ms dX
R = − (1)
A dt

Where:

R = drying rate (kg H2O/sm2)

Ms = mass of dry solid (kg)

A = exposed surface area for drying (m2)

X = solid moisture content (kg H2O/kg dry solid)

t = time (s)

3
Other important definitions are included in Appendix A.

1.4 Objective Of Experiment

The aim of this experiment was experimental determination of the rate of drying

curve for a solid (potato chips). Also, the drying coefficient was determined in

addition to the moisture ratio, saturation humidity, wet and dry bulb temperatures, and

determination of best fit drying model from Newton’s model, Henderson & Pabis

model and Page model.

The experiment was carried out in a batch dryer and heat was supplied by direct

contact with heated air at atmospheric pressure. The drying oven was operated at three

temperatures - 60oC, 80oC and 100oC.

1.5 Scope Of Experiment

This experiment was wholly concerned with the rate of drying of a sample of potato

chips and the corresponding drying rate curve.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

2.1 Apparatus And Materials Used

The equipments used in this laboratory session were a dryer, a knife, a mass balance,

and a stopwatch.

The materials used for the experiment were water and potato tubers.

Figure 2: A Dryer

5
Figure 3: Mass Balance

6
Figure 4: Stopwatch

7
 Figure 5: Knife

2.2 Determining The Rate Of Drying For Potato Chips

A tuber of potato was peeled and then washed in water. Afterwards, the washed tuber

was sliced into thin strips of the same average diameter and thickness. Five random

strips were selected and their diameters and thicknesses were measured and recorded.

Then, 12 samples were arbitrarily chosen and their collective weight was measured

using the weighing balance and then recorded.

The air temperature of the laboratory was measured and recorded along with the air

velocity, and relative humidity.

Thereafter, the 12 potato chips selected and weighed earlier were placed in dryer,

under constant drying conditions and at a temperature of 60°C, with the loss in

moisture content being measured and recorded by taking the samples out at 2-minute

and 5-minute time intervals. This data was recorded and tabulated. This went on until

there was no change in the weight of the samples.

After, 12 fresh samples were selected and weighed as before. This weight was

recorded and then the samples were placed in the dryer at a temperature of 80°C. The

8
loss in moisture content was measured, recorded and tabulated at 2-minute intervals

and then at 5-minute intervals. This process was repeated until there was no change in

the weight of the samples as before.

Finally, another 12 samples of potato chips were chosen and weighed. The samples

were then placed in the dryer at 100oC and their weights were measured every 15

minutes until there is no change in the weight of the samples. This weight is the dry

weight of the sample.

From the procedures above, the solid moisture content of the samples at different

intervals was calculated and recorded.

With the data obtained, a graph of solid moisture content versus time was made for

each batch experiment. The drying rate curves were then plotted. From these curves,

the drying rate was determined at specific points and then plotted against solid

moisture content. Curves were made for the graph of drying rate against solid

moisture content for each constant drying temperature.

2.3 Assumptions

The following assumptions were made during the course of this experiment:

1. The potato chips used in each experiment are homogeneous, having the same

thickness and diameter.

2. The time taken to weigh the samples during the drying process was relatively

inconsequential to affect our calculations.

2.4 Precautions And General Notes

1. Great care and speed was applied when measuring the samples during the drying

process so as not to affect the drying rate considerably.

9
2. The potato chips used throughout the course of the experiment were of

approximately the same diameter and thickness.

10
 CHAPTER THREE

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Drying at 60oC

The following data were obtained from measurements during the experiment;

Dry weight of sample: 0.055kg

Initial moisture content: 102%

Air temperature: 27.5ºC

Air velocity: 1 m/s

Average sample thickness: 0.00440m

Average sample diameter: 0.0554m

Number of samples on each tray: 12

Surface area: 0.0289m2

The table below shows the weight of the solid samples measured at time intervals

during drying. It has been condensed to intervals of 10 minutes.

Table 1: Condensed experimental data for drying at 60oC

Time (s) Weight of solid (kg) X (kg H20/kg dry solid) dx/dt R (kg/s.m2)

0 0.111 1.020 0.000000 0.000000

600 0.102 0.850 -0.000283 0.000539

1200 0.092 0.630 -0.000367 0.000698

1800 0.084 0.530 -0.000167 0.000317

2400 0.077 0.400 -0.000217 0.000412

3000 0.071 0.300 -0.000167 0.000317

3600 0.065 0.180 -0.000200 0.000381

4200 0.061 0.120 -0.000100 0.000190

11
4800 0.057 0.036 -0.000140 0.000266

5400 0.055 0.000 -0.000060 0.000114

Figure 6: Plot of weight of sample against time

The dry basis moisture content, X was calculated as follows for each time interval

���� �� ����� (��)

�=
���� �� ��� ����� (��)

The corresponding X for each time interval can be found in Table 1

12
 Figure 7: Plot of dry basis moisture content X against time

From the graph above, the following can be identified

i) Constant rate of drying period: Between 0s and 4000s

ii) Critical moisture content Xc = 0.180

iii) Equilibrium moisture (X*) = 0.12

��
Also, using the graph in Fig 3.2, ��
at different values of t were calculated and can

be found on Table 3.1

Using these values, the rate of drying was calculated for each time interval as;

13
 �� ��
�= −
� ��

Where �� represents the dry mass of the sample and S represents the sample drying

surface area.

Figure 8: Plot of R against X

In the plot above, the treadline, based on the moving average illustrates clearly the

drying rate curve for the experiment.

From Figure 8,

Critical drying rate Rc = 0.000381 kg/s.m2

The drying coefficient for the experiment is given by;

��
�� =
�� − �

From a psychrometric graph at 60ºC,

Saturation humidity, Ys = 0.15

14
Humidity, Y = 0.075

Ky = 0.000381/(0.15-0.075) = 0.00508
��
Moisture ratio, �� = ��

At 3600 s,

MR = 0.180/1.02 = 0.1765

When the data was fitted into Newton’s, Henderson’s and Pabis models, it was

observed that the Newton’s model best described the sample.

3.2 Drying at 80oC

The following data were obtained from measurements during the experiment;

Dry weight of sample: 0.070kg

Initial moisture content: 51.2%

Air temperature: 27.5ºC

Air velocity: 1 m/s

Average sample thickness: 0.00440m

Average sample diameter: 0.0554m

Number of samples on each tray: 12

Surface area: 0.0289m2

The table below shows the measured weight at time intervals during the drying of the

potato chips at 80oC

Table 2: Data for drying at 80oC

Time (s) Weight of solid (kg) X (kg H20/kg dry solid) dx/dt R (kg/s.m2)

0 0.124 0.659 0.00000 0.000000

120 0.121 0.622 -0.00020 0.000577

15
240 0.119 0.598 -0.00020 0.000577

360 0.117 0.573 -0.00020 0.000577

480 0.115 0.549 -0.00020 0.000577

600 0.113 0.524 -0.00016 0.000461

900 0.109 0.476 -0.00020 0.000577

1200 0.104 0.415 -0.00012 0.000346

1500 0.101 0.378 -0.00012 0.000346

1800 0.098 0.341 -0.00016 0.000461

2100 0.094 0.293 -0.00012 0.000346

2400 0.091 0.256 -0.00008 0.000231

2700 0.089 0.232 -0.00004 0.000115

3000 0.088 0.220 -0.00012 0.000346

3300 0.085 0.183 -0.00012 0.000346

3600 0.082 0.146 0.00004 -0.000115

16
 Figure 9: Plot of solid weight against time

The dry basis moisture content, X was calculated as follows for each time interval

���� �� ����� (��)

�=
���� �� ��� ����� (��)

The corresponding X for each time interval can be found in Table 1.2

Figure 10: Plot of moisture content against time for drying at 80oC

17
From the graph above, the following can be identified

i) Constant rate of drying period = 0s to 2700s

ii) Critical moisture content Xc = 0.183 kg H20/kg dry solid

iii) Equilibrium moisture (X*) = 0.232 kg H20/kg dry solid

��
Also, using the graph in Fig 3.2, ��
at different values of t were calculated and can

be found in Table 3.2

Using these values, the rate of drying was calculated for each time interval as;

�� ��
�= −
� ��

Where �� represents the dry mass of the sample and S represents the sample drying

surface area.

Figure 11: Drying rate R versus Dry basis moisture content X

In the plot above, the treadline, based on the moving average illustrates clearly the

drying rate curve for the experiment.

18
From the graph,

Critical drying rate = 0.00035 kg/ms2

The drying coefficient for the experiment is given by;

��
�� =
�� − �

From a psychrometric graph at 80ºC,

Saturation humidity, Ys = 0.20

Humidity, Y = 0.075

Ky = 0.00035/(0.20-0.075) = 0.0028
��
Moisture ratio, �� = ��

At 3600 s,

MR = 0.146/0.659 = 0.222

When the data was fitted into Newton’s, Henderson’s and Pabis models, it was

observed that the Newton’s model best described the sample.

19
 CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 Conclusion

The drying rates and all the curves developed throughout this experiment are

consistent with already established theoretical knowledge. The drying rate and pattern

of the potato chips fit well with developed equations.

4.2 Recommendation

Although it still has a long way to go in terms of development, the drying process is

an important element of a Chemical Engineer's education and in majority of today's

industries, and it should be included in the curriculum as a stand-alone course or

taught more rigorously.

20
 REFERENCES

Geankoplis, Christie, J (1983). Transport Processes and Unit Operations, 2nd ed.

Massachusetts, Allyn and Bacon. Inc.

Parikh, Dilip. (2014). Solids Drying: Basics and Applications. Chemical Engineering

-New York- Mcgraw Hill Incorporated then Chemical Week Publishing Llc-. 121.

Evangelos Tsotsas, Volker Gnielinski and Ernst-Ulrich Schlunder (2005). Drying Of

Solid Materials. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

21
 APPENDIX A

Important Definitions

1. Humidity of an air-water vapor mixture (H): H = Mass of Water (kg) / Mass of

Dry Air (kg)

2. Moisture content of a solid (X): X = Mass of Water (kg) / Mass of Dry Solid (kg)

3. Equilibrium Moisture Content of a Solid (X*): Is the final moisture content of a

solid after being brought into contact with a stream of air (having humidity “Y” and

Temperature “T”) long enough, for equilibrium to be reached. Is expressed in the

same way as X.

4. Free Moisture Content of a solid: Is the moisture above the equilibrium moisture

content. Is the only moisture that can be removed by drying under the given drying

conditions.

5. Critical Moisture Content of a solid (Xc): Is the solid moisture content attained,

during the drying process, when the entire surface of the solid is no longer wetted.

22
 APPENDIX B

Group Members

CHE/2016/006 ADEKOYA IFEOLUWA ISAIAH

CHE/2016/019 AKINLEYE OYINBAYODE PETERS

CHE/2016/025 ANIFOWOSE MOYINOLUWA BLESSING

CHE/2016/036 EFUNYOLA DAVID OPEYEMI

CHE/2016/042 FAJOBI DAVID OLANREWAJU

CHE/2016/055 OBAZENU OGHENETEGA ILERIOLUWA

CHE/2016/063 OLADELE EMMANUEL

CHE/2016/073 OSIJONWO OLUWATOMISIN PRECIOUS

CHE/2016/079 SANNI MUHAMMED OPEOLUWA

CHE/2016/095 OBIENYI PEACE OLUEBUBE

CHE/2016/100 ONUK UTIBEABASI ETETIM

23