UNIT 12.

1 FLUIDS

Fluid – substance that can flow (liquid and gas are fluids) and does not maintain their fixed shape
Two types of fluid:
i. Static fluid ii. Dynamic fluid

1.0 STATIC FLUIDS

– refers to fluid at rest.
When a fluid is a liquid, it is called hydrostatics. When the fluid is a gas, it is called aerostatics

1.1 STATES OF MATTER

Matter is anything that has mass and occupy space. Matter comes in three states that are
distinguished by the strength of the bonds that holds the molecules of the matter together. The
three states of matter are:

WORKSHEET 1.
1. Draw the particle arrangement in 3 states of matter
2. Describe the bonds in each of the three states of matter.
3. What states of matter is/are fluid/fluids? Explain?
4. What is fluid?
5. What is hydrostatics?

1.2 DENSITY IN SOLID AND LIQUIDS AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

• The density of a material tells us how much of the material (that is its mass) is packed into a
unit volume. Density explains why some things are light and some are heavy. Whether an
object will float or sink in a fluid depends on density
• An object will float in water if its density is less than the density of water and sink if its
density is greater than that of water.
• Density of water is 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 that means 1000 𝑘𝑔 of water will occupy a volume of
1 𝑚3 . In other words, 1 𝑚3 volume of water will have a mass of 1000 𝑘𝑔.
• Density (𝜌) is defined as mass per unit volume.

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 𝑚
• Density ρ = mass (m)/ volume (v) or 𝜌 = 𝑉 .
• Its unit is 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 or 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
• 1 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
• Density is a property of a substance.
• Objects with the same volume but different mass have different densities.
• Density is scalar quantity

Example:
An engineer needs to know the mass of a steel girder which is 20m long, 0.1m wide and 0.1m high.
(Density of steel = 8000kg/𝑚3 )
Volume = l x w x h = 20 x 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.2 𝑚3
Mass = density x volume = 8000 x 0.2 = 1600 kg

Specific gravity or relative density,

• is the ratio of density of a substance to the density of water (𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) at
4°𝐶.
• It has no unit
• Any object with specific gravity less than 1 will float and more than one will sink.
• Table below shows: Density (𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 ), density (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) and Specific gravity of few
substances

Material or Density (𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑 ) Density (𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 ) Relative density or

substances specific gravity
Solids
Gold 19.3 19300 19.3
Lead 11.4 11400 11.4
Copper 8.9 8900 8.9
Iron 7.9 7900 7.9
Radium 5.0 5000 5.0
Titanium 4.5 4500 4.5
Aluminum 2.7 2700 2.7
Glass 2.5 2500 2.5
Ice 0.92 920 0.92
Polythene 0.90 800 0.80
wood 0.80 800 0.80
Liquids
Mercury 13.6 13600 13.6
Pure water 1.0 1000 1.0
Benzene 0.88 880 0.88
Paraffin (kerosine) 0.80 800 0.8
Petrol (gasoline) 0.80 800 0.8
Alcohol 0.79 790 7.9
Gases
Carbon dioxide 2.0 2000 2.0
Air 1.3 1300 1.3
Hydrogen 0.09 90 0.09

Special property of water

When water is cooled it contract until 4°𝐶 is reached. After that, it expands slightly until it
reaches the freezing point. Density of water is maximum at 4°𝐶, that means water is more
dense at 4°𝐶 The freezing point of water is 0°𝐶. Page | 2
WORKSHEET 2
1. Define; a) Density b) Specific gravity
2. What is the density of an object of mass equal to 100 grams and a volume of 20 cubic
centimetres?
3. A stone of mass 30 grams is placed in a measuring cylinder containing some water. The reading of
the water level increases from 50 𝑐𝑚3 to 60 𝑐𝑚3 . What is the density of the stone?

4. An empty density bottle has a mass of 25g. Its mass is 50g when full of water and 45g when full of
another liquid.
(a) What is the specific gravity of the liquid?
(b) What is its density in 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3?

1.3.1 PRESSURE IN SOLID

• Pressure is defined as the force per unit area. P = F/A.

• The force acts perpendicular to the surface area A.
• Pressure is directly proportional to force for a constant area

• Pressure in inversely proportional to surface area for a constant force

• If a person stands on a wooden floor with spiked metal cleats, the floor will be damaged
because the person’s weight is not spread out over a very large area.
• However, if the person wears normal shoes, the weight is spread out over a larger area, so
the pressure is smaller, and the floor will not be damaged.
• Snow shoes spread the weight out over an even larger area, and so the pressure on the
snow is less, and a person does not sink into the snow.
• A person can lay on a bed of nails because there are so many nails that the person’s weight
is still spread out over a lot of area, and the pressure is not very high.
• The SI units of pressure is given by 𝑁/𝑚2 which is given the name a Pascal (Pa), named after
the French philosopher, theologian, and scientist Blaise Pascal. 1 𝑁/𝑚2 = 1 Pa.
• Pressure is a scalar quantity

Example 1
What pressure is exerted on the ground by an elephant weighing 40 000 N stands on one foot of
area 1000 𝑐𝑚2 (= 1/ 10 𝑚2 ).
𝐹 40 000
Solution: 𝑃=𝐴= 1⁄ = 400 000 𝑁𝑚−2
10

Example 2
Find the pressure exerted by a girl weighing 400N standing on one’s stiletto heel of area 1 𝑐𝑚2 (= 1 /
10 000 𝑚2 )?
𝐹 400
Solution: 𝑃=𝐴=1 = 4 000 000 𝑁𝑚−2 (i.e., ten times bigger than e.g.1)
⁄10 000

Example 3
If atmospheric pressure is 100 000N𝑚−2 , what force is exerted on a wall of area 10 𝑚2 ?
Solution: 𝐹 = 𝑃 x 𝐴 = 100 000 x 10 = 1 000 000 𝑁

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WORKSHEET 3.

Assume that g = 10𝑚𝑠 −2 , and that all forces are acting at right angles to any area mentioned.

1. A box weighs 100N, and its base has an area of 2 𝑚2 . What pressure does it exert on the ground?
2. A force of 200 N acts on an area of 4 𝑚2 .
(a) What pressure is produced?
(b) What would the pressure be if the same force acted on half of the area?

3. What force is produced if:

(a) A pressure of 1000 Pa acts on an area of 0.2 𝑚2 ?
(b) A pressure of 2kPa acts on an area of 0.2 𝑚2?

4. A water bed is 2.00 m square and 30.0 cm deep.

(a) What is its volume?
(b) What pressure does the bed exert on the floor, assuming the entire lower surface contacts the
floor?
5. Explain the following.
(a) Stiletto heels are more likely to mark floors.
(b) Eskimos wear snowshoes.
(c) It is useful for camels to have large flat feet.
(d) Why a tractors big tyres stop it sinking too far into soft soil.

6. A rectangular block of mass 30 kg measures 0.1 m by 0.4 m by 1.5 m.

(a) Calculate the weight of the block.
(b) Draw diagrams to show how the block must rest on the ground to exert
i. maximum pressure
ii. minimum pressure
(c) Calculate the maximum and minimum pressures in part b.

1.3.2 PRESSURE IN FLUIDS

Properties of pressure in a liquid

i. Pressure acts in all direction with same magnitude

ii. Pressure increases with depth
iii. Pressure depends on the density of the liquid.
iv. Pressure remains same in all direction at a given depth
v. Pressure doesn’t depend on the shape of the container.

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Pressure at depth h is given by:
𝑷 = 𝑷𝒐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉
𝑃𝑜 = pressure at the surface (atmospheric pressure), 𝜌𝑔ℎ = fluid pressure
The equation becomes
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝑨 + 𝑷𝑮
where 𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 is the absolute pressure, 𝑷𝑮 is the gauge pressure and 𝑷𝑨 is the atmospheric pressure.
The absolute pressure at the surface of sea level is 1 atm so the gauge pressure (fluid pressure) there
would be zero.

If a tank of liquid is open to atmosphere, 𝑃𝑜 is the atmospheric pressure and the pressure increase is

∆𝑷 = 𝝆𝒈∆𝒉
which is the fluid pressure
𝑷𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉

Example 1
Determine the pressure at a point 5.0m below the surface of fresh water of density 1000kg𝑚3 .
Solution: 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 1000 x 10 x 5 = 50 000 𝑃𝑎

Example 2
A plastic box is in the shape of a cube measuring 20 cm on each side. The box is completely filled
with water and remains at rest on a flat surface. The box is open to the atmosphere at the top.
Assume atmospheric pressure is 1.0 x 105 𝑃𝑎 and use 𝑔 = 10 𝑚𝑠 −2
(a) What is the gauge pressure at the bottom of the box?
∆𝑷 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂
(b) What is the absolute pressure at the bottom of the box?
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝑨 + 𝑷𝑮 = 𝟏. 𝟎 𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑷𝒂 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑷𝒂
(c) What is the force associated with this absolute pressure?
𝑭 = 𝑷𝑨 = (𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟓 )(𝟎. 𝟐𝟎) = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅
(d) What is the net force associated with pressure acting on one side of the box?
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒆

WORKSHEET 4.
1. Differentiate between mass and weight
2. What is the formula for weight.
3. Find the mass and weight of the air in a living room at 20℃ with a 4.0 m x 5.0 m floor and ceiling
3.0 m high. The density of air is 1.3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

4. What is the total downward force on the surface of the floor due to air air of 1.00 atm in (Q3)
above?
5. Differentiate between gauge pressure and absolute pressure?
6. A vertical tube open at the top contains 5.0 cm of oil with density 820 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3, floating on 5.0 cm
of water. Calculate the gauge pressure at the bottom of the tube.

7. A rectangular shaped dam is 70 m high and 180 m wide and water is filled to the top of the dam.
(a) What is the pressure on the dam from the water at the top?
(b) What is the pressure on the dam from the water at the bottom?
(c) What is the average pressure on the dam from the water?
(d) What is the total force on the dam?
(e) What if we include the pressure from the atmosphere?

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(f) Suppose that the dam was holding up a thin column of water instead of a huge lake. What would
be the pressure on the dam then?

8. Rank the pressures at different levels from big to small

A) D, C, A, B, E
B) E, B, D, C, A
C) A and C tie, D, B, E
D) D, C and A tie, B, E
E) None of the above

9. The pressure at the top of a cylindrical water tank of height h and cross – sectional area A open to
atmosphere is given by 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ. Research how this formula was obtained.

10. At the surface of a body of water, the pressure you experience is atmospheric pressure. Estimate
how deep you have to dive to experience a pressure of 2 atmospheres. Given that density of water is
1000 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and g = 10 𝑚𝑠 −2

11. A U-shaped tube open to the air at both ends contains some mercury. A quantity of water is
carefully poured into the left arm of the U-shaped tube until the vertical height of the water column
is 15cm.
(a) What is the gauge pressure at the water-mercury interface?

(b) Calculate the vertical distance h from the top of the mercury
in the right-hand arm of the tube to the top of the water in the
left-hand arm.

1.4 PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE

• Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted equally throughout the fluid.

• This is how a hydraulic lift works. Fluid is enclosed in a pipe with a small area at one end and
a large area at the other. Pressure is applied at the end with the small area. That same
pressure is transferred to the end with the large area.
𝑃1 = 𝑃2
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹
= , 𝐹2 = ( 1 ) 𝐴2
𝐴1 𝐹2 𝐴 1

If the area A2 is much larger than the area A1, then a small force F1 can be applied to create a large
force F2 at the output end. This large force can be used to jack up a car or lift heavy objects.

Example 1.
A large piston within a lift has a radius of 10.93 cm. How much force needs to be applied to smaller

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piston (that has a radius of 6.31 cm) to lift a 637.5 N person?
𝐹 637.5
𝐹2 = ( 1 ) 𝐴2 = (
𝐴 𝜋(0.0631)2
) 𝜋(0.1093)2 = 1913 𝑁
1

Example 2.
An engineering student wants to build a hydraulic pump to lift a 1,815 N crate. The pump will have
two pistons connected via a fluid chamber. The student calculates that a force of 442 N will be
exerted on the small piston, which will have an area of 50.2 𝑐𝑚2 . What must the area of the large
piston be to exert the desired force?

𝐹2 (𝐴1 ) (1815𝑁)(5.02 x 10−3 𝑚2 )

𝐴2 = = = 2.06 x 10−2 𝑚2
𝐹1 442 𝑁

Example 3.
What output force is needed on an area 𝐴2 , where the input force is 200 N, given that area 𝐴2 is
twice the area 𝐴1 .
𝐹 200
𝐹2 = ( 1 ) 𝐴2 = ( ) 2𝐴1 = 200 x 2 = 400 𝑁
𝐴 1 𝐴 1

Applications of pascal principle

i. Hydraulic lift
ii. Hydraulic jack
iii. Hydraulic brakes
iv. Hydraulic pumps
v. Aircraft hydraulic systems

WORKSHEET 5.
1) What is Pascal’s Principle?

2) write the equation of pascals law.

3) In the hydraulic press used in a trash compactor, the radii of the input piston and the output
plunger are 6.4 × 10−3 m and 5.1 × 10−2 m, respectively. What force is applied to the trash when
the input force is 330 N?

4) The area of the piston in a hydraulic hoist is 0.1 𝑚2 . Calculate the pressure the compressed oil
must have to lift a car on the hoist, if the weight of the car and the moveable part of the hoist is 20
000N.

5) For a hydraulic hoist, the area of the small piston is 0.001 𝑚2 while the area of the large piston is
0.1 𝑚2 . What weight can be lifted by the large piston when a force of 70N is applied to the small
piston?

6) The figure below shows a simple hydraulic jack.

The load is just being lifted using an effort of 20N
Find the pressure at:
(i) A?
(ii) B?

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7) A force of 500N in a hydraulic brake is applied to a piston of area 5 𝑐𝑚2 .
(a) What is the transmitted pressure throughout the liquid?
(b) If the piston has an area of 20 𝑐𝑚2 what is the force exerted on it?

8) The hydraulic lift has a large cross section and a small cross section. Large cross – sectional area is
20 times the small cross – sectional area. If on the small cross section is given an input force of 25 N,
then determine the output force.

1.5 BUOYANCY AND ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPAL

Any object which is partially or totally submerged in a fluid experiences an upward force called
buoyant force, which is equal in magnitude to the weight of the fluid displaced. That is why a rock
appears to weigh less when it is submerged in liquid, or why it is very difficult to push a beach ball
underwater. The famous Greek mathematician, Archimedes’ developed a principle which describes
this around 250 B.C. Archimedes’ principle can be stated as
“When a body is partly or totally submerged in a fluid the upthrust equals the weight of the fluid
displaced (i.e. pushed aside)”

𝑩 = 𝒘𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 B = Buoyant force (Upthrust) and 𝒘𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 is the weight of displaced fluid.

𝑩 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑨 − 𝑷𝟏 𝑨
= (𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 )𝑨
= 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝑨
= 𝝆𝒈𝑽 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒘
Buoyancy is the difference between air weight and underwater weight which is the apparent weight.

When a body floats in water the upthrust equals the weight of the body. The net force on the body is
zero. This is principle of floatation. “A floating body displaces its own weight of fluid”.

Example 1.
A block of density 2400 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 has a volume of 0.20 𝑚3 . What is
a) its mass
b) its weight
c) its apparent weight when completely immersed in a liquid of density 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ?
Solution:
𝑘𝑔
a) 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 2400 𝑚3 x 0.20 𝑚3 = 480 𝑘𝑔
b) 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 480 x 10 = 4800 𝑁
c) Weight in liquid = (mass in liquid) x (density of liquid)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝜌𝑉 = 800 x 0.20 = 160 𝑘𝑔 𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 x 10 = 160 x 10 = 1600 𝑁
Apparent weight = Upthrust = displaced weight = Buoyancy = weight in air – weight in liquid
=4800 𝑁 − 1600 𝑁 = 3200 𝑁

Example 2.
An object weighs 20N in the air. When placed in a can full of water it weighs only 15N. What is the
size of the upthrust of the object?
Upthrust = weight of an object in air – weight of an object in water = 20N – 15N = 5N

Example 3.
A hot air balloon and its basket together weigh 300 N and it contains hot air weighing 17 000 N. if it
displaces cold air of weight 25 000N what is the maximum load it can lift?
Solution: Displaced weight is equal to Buoyancy force, in order for the balloon to rise its weight must

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be less than 𝐹𝐵 .
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐹𝐵 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖ℎ𝑡 = 25 000 − 17 300 = 7700 𝑁

Applications of Archimedes principle

i. Ships. Have you ever wondered that why an iron nail sinks in the water but large ships do
not? ... The iron nail sinks in the water because the weight of the water displaced by the nail
is less than its own weight, i.e., the density of the iron nail is more than that of the water.
While ships, a large portion of the ships are kept hollow from inside that maintains their
density less than the water density, hence the weight of the ship becomes less than the
weight of the water displaced by it, and the buoyant force of magnitude equal to the
displaced water exerts on the ship, and the ship floats on the surface of the water.
ii. Beach Balls. Beach balls are filled with air only, so they have a very small weight, hence they
do not displace much water. Since they displace less water, the buoyant force acting on
them is also very less, but when we try to push the ball into the water, the buoyant force
acting on it increases, which does not let the beach ball sink into the water, and it floats on
the water surface.
iii. Submarines. Submarines can be submerged into the water and can also float on the surface
of the water by maintaining the densities of the displaced water and submarine.
iv. Floating. Every object displaces the water of weight equal to its own weight. If the weight of
the body is greater than the upthrust force acting upon it then the object sinks, whereas if
the weight of the body is equal to the upthrust force acting upon it then the body floats on
the liquid
v. Hot Air Balloon. The balloon rises in the air when the weight of the air surrounding the
balloon is greater than its own weight, whereas if the weight of the balloon is greater, it will
start descending. When the weight of the surrounding air and hot air balloon is equal, it
becomes stationary. The density between the air and the balloon is controlled by varying the
amount of hot air in the balloon.

WORKSHEET 6.

1. A block of wood of volume 50 𝑐𝑚3 and density 0.60 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 floats on water. What is
a) the mass of the block
b) the mass of water displaced
c) the volume immersed in the water? (Density of water 1.0 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 )
2. A swimmer dives off a raft in a pool. Does the raft rise or sink in the water? What happens to the
water level in the pool? Give reason for your answer.

3. (a) What is the buoyant force on a balloon filled with 1.0 𝑚3 helium at sea level.
(b) What is the gravitational force on the same balloon?

4. A raft is made of wood having a density of 600 kg/𝑚3 . Its surface area is 5.7 𝑚2 , and its volume is
0.60 𝑚2 . How much of it is below water level?

5. A hollow log is used as a canoe. It has a length of 3.00 m and a radius of 0.350 m. The canoe
weighs 1.00 × 103 N. What is the maximum weight it can carry without sinking?

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6. What is:
(a) Archimedes principal
(b) law of floatation

7. Given a hot air balloon of radius 10 meters and negligible mass, calculate the maximum
weight it can carry if the density of outside air is 1.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and the density of inside air is
0.9 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3.
1.6 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
We now look at what happens at the surface of a fluid. The surface of a fluid does not act like the
rest of the fluid, but instead acts something like a stretched membrane. This allows insects to walk
on water, and water drops to hang from a tap. This phenomena is due to attractive forces between
the fluid molecules called surface tension. The surface tension is defined as the force per unit length
that acts along any line of a surface.
𝑭
𝜸= 𝒍

When a small object is placed in a pool of water it depresses the water and this surface tension force
tends to hold up the object. Look at the forces on the object.

The vertical forces are given by

𝚺𝑭 = 𝟎
𝒘 − 𝟐𝜸𝑳𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟎
If the object is totally submerged, then L for each side is half of the circumference, or L = πr. Then,

𝒘 = 𝟐𝜸𝝅𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝑭
objects with one surface in contact with water surface, you will use the equation 𝜸 =
𝒍
𝑭
objects with two surfaces in contact with water surface, you will use the equation 𝜸 =
𝟐𝒍

objects with one surfaces Razor (all flat objects) and circular plate
objects with two surfaces needle (all cylindrical objects) circular loops (rings)

Example 1
A horizontal circular loop of wire has a diameter of 5cm and is lowered in a sample of crude oil. The
additional force required to pull the loop out of the oil is 0.04N; calculate the surface tension of the
sample of crude oil.
Solution: Circular loop have two surface, length = l = circumference = 2𝜋𝑟
𝑭 𝟎.𝟎𝟒 𝟎.𝟎𝟒
𝜸 = 𝟐𝒍 = 𝟐(𝟐𝝅𝒓) = 𝟐(𝟐𝝅𝒙𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟓) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝑵𝒎−𝟏

Example 2
Calculate the force required to pull a flat circular plate of radius 15cm away from the surface of a
liquid which has a surface tension of 0.053𝑁𝑚−1 .
𝑭
Solution: Circular plate there is only one surface: 𝜸 =
𝒍
𝑭 = 𝒍𝜸 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓(𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟑) = 𝟐𝝅(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟑) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝑵

Example 3
A needle has a length of 3.2cm. When placed gently on the surface of the water (0.073N/m) in a

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glass, this needle will float if it is not too heavy. What is the weight of the heaviest needle that can
be used in this demonstration?

𝒘 = 𝑭 = 𝟐𝜸𝝅𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟐𝜸𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟑)(𝝅)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟐)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎° = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓 𝑵

Capillary Action
Surface tension also explains why water rises up slightly in a glass, or can even climb up a very thin
tube. This phenomena is called capillarity. Capillary action is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small
passage such as a tube. Cohesion and Adhesion are two forces responsible for water movement.

Use Newton laws:

𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝟎
𝜸𝑳 − 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟎
𝜸(𝟐𝝅𝒓) − 𝝆(𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉)𝒈 = 𝟎
𝟐𝜸
𝒉 = 𝝆𝒈𝒓 , where 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, ℎ = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒, 𝛾 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙

The actual rise depends on the surface tension 𝜸 as well as the contact angle 𝜽 and the radius 𝒓of
the tube.
𝟐𝜸𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
therefore capillary rise: 𝒉 =
𝝆𝒈𝒓

Example 1
When a capillary tube stands upright in a beaker of water γ = 0.073 N/m ), the water rises h cm in
the tube. If the radius of the tube is 2mm, calculate h assume 𝜃 = 30° and density of water ρ = 1000
𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .
Solution:
𝟐𝜸𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝟐(𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟑)(𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟎°)
𝒉= = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝐱 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟑 𝐦 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟑 𝐜𝐦
𝝆𝒈𝒓

Example 2
At a certain temperature, water has a surface tension of 0.4N/m. In a 3mm diameter vertical tube if
the liquid rises 6 mm above the liquid outside the tube, calculate the contact angle.
Solution:
𝟐𝜸𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒉= 𝝆𝒈𝒓
𝝆𝒈𝒓𝒉 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒙 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟐𝜸
= 𝟐 𝒙 𝟎.𝟒
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟓) = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟖𝟐°
Bubbles and liquid drops
Because of surface tension, a liquid will tend to form droplets which are spherical in size. Surface
Tension acts to minimize the surface area of the liquid.

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Pressure difference in a bubble.
The pressure in a bubble is normally greater than the pressure on the outside.
𝟒𝜸
𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒐 =
𝑹
Pressure difference in a spherical droplet.
The pressure difference in a liquid droplet is about half that of a bubble.
𝟐𝜸
𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒐 =
𝑹
A bubble has two surfaces; whereas a droplet only has one surface.

Example 1
A student uses a circular loop of wire and a pan of soapy water, to produce a soap bubble whose
radius is 1.0mm. The surface tension of the soapy water is γ = 2.5 x 10−2 𝑁𝑚−1Determine the
pressure difference between the inside and outside of the bubble.
𝟒𝜸 𝟒 𝐱 𝟐.𝟓 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒐 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂
𝑹 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏

Example 2
The same soapy water used in example 1 is used to produce a spherical droplet whose radius is one-
half that of the bubble, or 0.50mm. Find the pressure difference between the inside and outside of
the droplet.
𝟐𝜸 𝟐 𝐱 𝟐.𝟓 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒐 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂
𝑹 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓

WORKSHEET 7.
1. Define the following terms:
i) Capillary Action;
ii) Surface tension:
iii) Adhesion;
iv) Cohesion;

2. Suppose a horizontal circular loop of wire has a diameter of 5cm and is lowered into sample of
crude oil and suppose the additional force that is required to pull the loop out of the oil is 0.04N.
Calculate the surface tension of the sample of crude oil.

3. A razor blade has a length of 4.2cm. When placed gently on the surface of the water (γ= 0.083
N/m) in a glass, the needle will float if it is not too heavy. What is the weight of the heaviest razor
blade that can be used?

4. A student using a pan of soapy water and a circular loop of wire produces a soap bubble whose
radius is 1.5mm. The surface tension of the soapy water is γ= 3.0 x 10−2 N/m. Find the bubble’s
pressure difference between the inside and outside.

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2.0 DYNAMIC FLUIDS
Fluid dynamics deals with fluids in motion (hydrodynamics). There are many categories of fluids in
motion, categorized by whether the fluid flow is:

i. Zero viscosity ; no internal friction between layers of fluid

ii. Non – compressibility; the density of fluid remain same throughout the fluid.
iii. Steady state condition; Fluid velocity and pressure at each point in the field do not change
with time
iv. Streamline or laminar flow; the fluid particles follow smooth, predictable flow lines

Definition of types of flow

1. Steady flow, Fluid particles that pass any given point in a steady flow follow the same path at the
same speed.
2. Turbulent flow, is a disorderly flow in which the fluid velocity of the fluid particles changes with
time.
3. Laminar flow, is a kind of steady flow in which the velocities of all particles on a given streamline
are the same. However, the particles of different streamlines may move at different speeds
4. Irrotational flow is the flow in which the element of the moving fluid suffers no net rotation from
one instant to the next with respect to the given frame of reference. It is the flow in which fluid
particles do not rotate about their own axes and retain their own orientations.

An incompressible flow is the flow of a fluid which cannot be compressed. Most liquids are nearly
incompressible. A viscous fluid is one which does not flow easily, like honey, while a nonviscous fluid
is one which flows more easily, like water.

Consider a steady flow of fluid through an enclosed pipe.

At some point how much fluid flows past us (Δ𝑚) in a short period of time (Δ𝑡)
Δ𝑚 𝜌Δ𝑉 ∆𝑙
Δ𝑡
= Δ𝑡
= 𝜌𝐴 ∆𝑡 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣
The mass flowing pass one point is the same at any other points so
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2
fluid is incompressible, and the density is the same at all points along the pipe so the equation
becomes
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 This equation is called: equation of continuity.

2.1 Equation of continuity

states that if the fluid is incompressible, the flow rate must be same everywhere along the pipe.
What goes in comes out:
𝑨𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Flow rate or flux
The flow rate or flux is defined as the rate with which the fluid flows and is given by the variable Q.
∆𝑽
𝑸= ∆𝒕
= 𝑨𝒗

Mass flow rate is defined as the rate of fluid mass through a unit area.
𝒎 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗

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Example 1.
A tank of capacity 500 𝑚3 is being filled in half an hour. Calculate its flow rate.
∆𝑉 500
Solution: 𝑄= ∆𝑡
= 180 = 2.778 𝑚3 𝑠 −1
Example 2.
Calculate the mass flow rate of a given fluid whose density is 785kg/𝑚3 . Velocity and area of cross
section are 10 𝑚𝑠 −1and 15𝑐𝑚2 respectively.
Solution: 𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 = 785 𝑥 0.15𝑥 10 = 1177.5 𝑘𝑔𝑠 −1
Example 3.
You are filling your car with petrol, which emerges from pump through a pipe with a 3 cm diameter
at a speed of 50 cm/s.
(a) Calculate the flow rate
𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗 = 𝝅(𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒎)𝟐 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟑 𝒔−𝟏 (𝒐𝒓 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝒍/𝒔)
(b) How long will it take to fill a car with 20 l of fuel?
∆𝑽 ∆𝑽 𝟐𝟎𝒍
𝑸= ∆𝒕
, ∆𝒕 = 𝑸
= 𝟎.𝟑𝟓𝒍𝒔−𝟏 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟎 𝒔

Example 4.
A garden hose has a diameter of 16 mm. The hose can fill a 10 litre bucket in 20 s.
(a) What is the speed of the water out the end of the hose?
𝑙
𝑄 = 10𝑙⁄20𝑠 = 0.5 𝑠 , convert to Si unit
1000 𝑐𝑚3
1𝑙 = 1000 𝑚𝑙 = 1000 𝑐𝑚3 = = 1 x 10−3 𝑚3 , so the flow rate is;
100 𝑥 100 𝑥 100
𝑄 = 5 𝑥 10−4 𝑚3 𝑠 −1

𝑄 𝑄 5 𝑥 10−4 𝑚3 𝑠−1
𝑣= = = = 2.5 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝐴 𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋 𝑥 (0.008 𝑚)2
(b) A nozzle with smaller diameter than the hose is attached to the end of the hose to increase the
flow speed out of the hose. What diameter nozzle with circular cross section is needed for the water
to exit the hose with a speed 4 times greater than the speed inside the hose?
𝐴1 𝐴 1
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 , 𝐴2 = 𝑣
𝑣1 2
= 4𝑣1 𝑣2 = 4 𝐴1
2
1
𝐴2 = 4 𝐴1
1
𝜋𝑟22 = 4 𝜋𝑟12
1 1 1
𝑟2 = √4 𝑟12 = 2 𝑟1 = 2 (0.008 𝑚) = 0.004 𝑚 = 4 𝑚𝑚

WORKSHEET 8.
1. Density and velocity of a fluid is given as 920 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3and 5𝑚/𝑠 , this fluid is flowing through an
area of 25 𝑚2 . Calculate the mass of flow rate.
2. A water hose with a radius of 1.00 cm is used to fill a 20.0 liter bucket. If it takes 1.00 min to fill
the bucket, what is the speed, v, at which the water leaves the hose? (1.00 liters = 103 𝑐𝑚3 )

3. The approximate inside diameter of the aorta is 1.0 cm (radius = 5.0 × 10−3 m) and that of a
capillary is 10 µm = 10 × 10−6 m. The approximate blood flow speed is .3 m/s in the aorta and 0.5
mm/s in the capillaries. Approximately how many capillaries get blood from the aorta?

Page | 14
4. Water enters a house from a ground pipe with an inside diameter of 2.0cm at an absolute
pressure of 4.0 x 105 Pa. A pipe that is 1.0cm in diameter leads to the second-floor bathroom 5.0m
above the ground floor. The flow speed at the ground pipe is 1.5 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
Find the:
(a) flow speed.
(b) pressure.

2.2 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Bernoulli’s principle states that swiftly moving fluids exert less pressure than slowly moving fluids.
Bernoulli’s equation can be derived using work – energy theorem:

Work done = Mechanical Energy (Kinetic energy) + Potential Energy

∆𝑊 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈
∆𝑊 = 𝐹1 𝑠1 − 𝐹2 𝑠2 = 𝑃1 𝐴𝑎 𝑠1 − 𝑃2 𝐴2 𝑠1 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃2 𝑉2 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )∆𝑉 (1)
1 1
∆𝐾 = 2 𝑚∆𝑣 2 = 2 𝜌∇𝑉(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )2 (2)
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦 = 𝜌∆𝑉(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) (3)
Combining (1), (2) and (3), we obtain
∆𝑊 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈
1 2 2 2
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )∆𝑉 = 𝜌∇𝑉(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) + 𝜌∆𝑉(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
2
𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟐 𝝆(𝒗𝟐𝟐 − 𝒗𝟐𝟏 ) + 𝝆(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ) (4)
This is called Bernoulli’s equation
We can also express in a more convenient form as
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝟏 + 𝟐 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟏 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟏 += 𝑷𝟐 + 𝟐 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟐 (𝟓)
Subscript 1 and 2 refers to any two points along the flow tube so we can also write:
𝟏
𝑷 + 𝟐 𝝆𝒗𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝟔)

Example 1.
Water enters a house through a pipe with an inside diameter of 2.0 cm at a pressure of 4 x 105 Pa. A
1.0 cm diameter pipe leads to the 2nd floor bathroom 5 m above. When the flow speed at the inlet
pipe is 1.5 m/s, Find
a) flow speed, b) volume flow rate, and c) pressure in the bathroom.
Solution:

Page | 15
Example 2.
Water flows through a pipe as shown below at a velocity of 0.20 m/s. The diameter at point 1 is 0.5
m. At point 2, which is 3.5 m higher than point 1, the diameter is 0.30 m.
If the end point 2 is open to the air, determine the pressure at point 2.

Solution:
i) Speed at point 2
𝐴1 𝑣1 𝜋(0.25)2 𝑥0.2
𝑣2 = = = 0.56 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝐴2 𝜋(0.15)2

Pressure at point 2 is;

𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = 𝝆(𝒗𝟐𝟐 − 𝒗𝟐𝟏 ) + 𝝆(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )
𝟐
1
= (1000)(0.562 − 0.22 ) + (1000)(10)(3.5 − 0)
2
= 136.8 + 35 000
= 35 136.8 𝑃𝑎
Application of Bernoulli’s priciple:

i. Dynamic lift on an aeroplane

ii. Pumps
iii. Medicine
iv. Pressure detection
v. baseball

Page | 16
WORKSHEET 9.

1. Water is flowing in a fire hose with a velocity of 1.0 m/s and a pressure of 200000 Pa. At the
nozzle the pressure decreases to atmospheric pressure (101300 Pa), there is no change in height.
Use the Bernoulli equation to calculate the velocity of the water exiting the nozzle.

2. Through a refinery, fuel ethanol is flowing in a pipe at a velocity of 1 m/s and a pressure of 101300
Pa. The refinery needs the ethanol to be at a pressure of 2 atm (202600 Pa) on a lower level. How far
must the pipe drop in height in order to achieve this pressure? Assume the velocity does not change.
(Hint: Use the Bernoulli equation. The density of ethanol is 789 kg/𝑚3 and gravity g is 9.8 m/𝑠 2 .

3. A needle inserted into a vein during blood transfusion has a gauge pressure of 1525 Pa. The
density of blood is 1.06 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. What is the height that a blood container is placed so that
blood may just enter the vein?

4. A wind blows at a speed of 30 m/s across a 175 𝑚2 flat roof of a house.

(a) what is the pressure difference between the inside of the house and the outside of the house just
above the roof? (Assume that the air pressure inside the house is atmospheric pressure)
(b) What is the force on the roof due to the pressure difference?

5. Water flows through the pipe shown below at a flow rate of 0.10 𝑚3 /𝑠. The diameter at point 1 is
0.4 m. At point 2, which is 3.0 m higher than point 1, the diameter is 0.20 m. If the end at point 2 is
open to the air, determine the gauge pressure at point 2.

6. Water enters a house from a ground pipe with an inside diameter of 3.0 cm at an absolute
pressure of 4.0 x 105 𝑃𝑎. A pipe that is 0.5 cm in diameter leads to the second – floor bathroom 4.0
m above the ground floor. The floor speed at the ground pipe is 1.0 m/s. Find the flow speed,
pressure and volume flow rate in the bathroom.

Page | 17