Weathering and Soil Formation

Weathering
 The breaking down of rocks and other
materials on the Earth’s surface is called
weathering. A slow, continuous process, it
affects all substances exposed to the
atmosphere.
Types of Weathering
 Rocks on the Earth’s surface are broken
down by two types of weathering:
mechanical and chemical.
Mechanical Weathering
 When the forces of weathering break rocks
into smaller pieces but do not change the
chemical makeup of the rocks, the process
is called mechanical weathering. During
mechanical weathering, rocks are broken
into different shapes and smaller pieces.
At the beginning the edges are jagged, as
weathering continues, they become round.
 Causes of Mechanical
Weathering
 There are several causes of mechanical
weathering.
 Temperature
 Frost action
 Organic activity
 Gravity
 abrasion
Temperature
 Rocks can be broken apart by changes in
temperature. As rocks are heat up in the
sun during the day, the outside of the rock
expands. The inside of the rocks remain
cool and do not expand. When the air
temperature drops at night, the outside of
the rock cools and contracts. This
continuing cycle causes particles to break
off. This is called exfoliation.
Frost Action
 Unlike most liquids, water expands when it
freezes. The repeated freezing and melting
of water, called frost action, is another
cause of mechanical weathering. When
water freezes in cracks in the rocks, it
expands, making the crack larger.In time,
this causes the rock to break into pieces.
Organic Activity
 Plants and animals can cause mechanical
weathering. The roots of plants sometimes
loosens rock material. A plant growing in
a crack can make the crack larger as the
root spread out. This is known as root-pry.
It is organic since this activity is caused by
living things.
Gravity
 Gravity is another agent of mechanical
weathering. Sometimes gravity pulls
loosened rocks down mountain cliffs in a
landslide. A landslide is a large movement
of loose rocks and soil. As the rocks fall,
they collide with one another and break
into smaller pieces. Falling rocks usually
occur in areas where a road has been cut
through, leaving cliffs on both sides.
Abrasion
 Wind-blown sand causes mechanical
weathering . Abrasion is the wearing away
of rocks by solid particles carried by wind,
water or other forces. In desert regions, the
wind easily picks up and moves sand. The
sharp edges of the sand particles scrape off
pieces of exposed rocks. Running water
also carries loose rocks which scrape
against each other and break.
Chemical Weathering
 When the chemical makeup of the rocks is
changed it is called chemical weathering.
During chemical weathering, changes
occur in the mineral composition of rocks.
Minerals can be added, removed or broken
down (decomposed).Many substances react
chemically with rocks to break them down.
Types of Chemical Weathering
 There are several causes of chemical
weathering.
 Water
 Oxidation
 Carbonation
 Sulfuric acid
 Plant acids
Water
Most chemical weathering is caused by water
and carbon dioxide. Water can dissolve
most of the mineral that hold rocks
together. Rocks that dissolve in water are
said to be soluble. Water can form acids
when it mixes with certain gases in the
atmosphere to speed up the decomposition
of rocks. Water can also combine with a
mineral to form a new mineral.
Oxidation
 Chemical weathering is also caused by
oxidation. Oxidation is the process in
which oxygen chemically combines with
another substance. The result of oxidation
is the formation of an entirely different
substance. Iron in rocks combines with
oxygen in the air to form iron oxide, or
rust.
Carbonation
 When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, a
weak acid called carbonic acid is formed.
When carbonic acid reacts chemically with
other substance, the process of carbonation
occurs. In nature, carbonic acid is formed
when carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in
rain. This acid rain falls to the ground and
sinks into the soil. It decomposes feldspar
and limestone.
Sulfuric Acid
 The air in certain areas is polluted with
sulfur oxides. Sulfur oxides are a
byproduct of the burning of coal as a
source of energy. These compounds
dissolve in rainwater to form sulfuric acid.
Rain that contains sulfuric acid is one type
of acid rain. It is much stronger than
carbonic acid. Sulfuric acid corrodes
rocks, metals and other materials quickly.
Plant Acids
 Plants produce weak acids that dissolve
certain minerals in rocks. Mosses and
lichens produce weak acids that dissolve
some of the minerals in the rocks they
grow on. Gradually the rocks break into
smaller pieces. They are important in the
formation of soil.
Rate of Weathering
 The rate of weathering depends on several
factors, including:
 The composition of the rock
 The amount of time that the rock is
exposed on the Earth’s surface
 The amount of exposed surface on a rock
Composition of Rocks
 Two different types of rocks in the same
climate can weather differently, depending
on the minerals that make up each rock
type. If the minerals in a rock resist
chemical weathering, the rock is called a
stable rock. The stability of a rock can
vary depending on the climate in which the
rock is found. Limestone is stable in a dry
climate but not in a wet climate.
Amount of Time of Exposure
 The amount of time that rock is exposed on
the Earth’s surface also affects its rate of
weathering. A very old rock that has not
been exposed to the forces of weathering
can remain almost unchanged. If a newly
formed rock is deposited on the Earth’s
surface it will begin to weather right away.
The Amount of Exposed Surface
 The amount of exposed surface area on a
rock also affects its rate of weathering. As
rocks are broken down into many small
pieces, more rock surfaces are exposed and
more weathering takes place. In rocks that
contain many joints or cracks, various
chemicals easily come into contact with the
rock surfaces and break them down.
Soil Formation
 The weathering of rocks on the Earth’s
surface results in the formation of soil.
Soil is formed when rocks are continuously
broken down by weathering. As rocks
weather, they break into smaller pieces.
These pieces are broken down into even
smaller pieces to form soil.
Importance of Soil
 The formation of soil is extremely
important to most living organisms. Plants
depend on soil as source of food. Soil
supplies plants with minerals and water
needed for growth. Animals depend
indirectly on soil since they eat plants and
other animals that eat plants.
Residual Soil
 Sometimes soil remains on top of its parent
rock, or the rock from which it was formed.
This is called residual soil. Residual soil
has a composition similar to that of the
parent rock it covers.
Transported Soil
 Some soil is removed from the parent rock
by water, wind, glaciers and waves.soil that
is moved away from its place of origin is
called transported soil. Transported soil
can be very different in composition from
the rock it covers.
Bedrock
 The layer of rock beneath the soil is called
bedrock.
Decay
 Certain bacteria in the soil cause the decay
of dead plants and animals. This decaying
material is called humus. Humus is a dark-
colored material that is important for the
growth of plants. Some of the chemicals
produced during the process of decay speed
up the breakdown of rocks into soil.
Living Things
 Living things such as moles, earthworms,
ants and beetles help to break apart large
pieces of soil as they burrow through the
ground. The burrows allow water to move
rapidly through the soil. The water speeds
up the weathering of the underlying rock.
Soil Composition
 Pieces of weathered rock and organic
material, or humus, are the two main
ingredients of soil. Organic materials is
material that was once living or was
formed by the activity of living organisms.
Rock particles form more than 80% of soil.
Air and water are also present in soil.
Minerals in Soil
 Clay and quartz are the most abundant
minerals in soil. Because they are stable,
they exist in the greatest quantities.
Potassium, phosphorus and the nitrogen
compounds called nitrates are important
chemicals in soil. They are vital to plant
growth.
Pore Spaces
 Air and water fill the spaces between soil
particles. These are called pore spaces.
Plants and animals use the water and air in
these spaces, as well as the minerals
dissolved in water. Pore spaces provide
needed oxygen for healthy plant root
growth.
Different Compositions of Soil
 The composition of soil varies from place
to place. The type of rock broken down by
weathering determines the kinds of
minerals in the soil. The type of
weathering also affects the composition of
soil. Mechanical weathering produces soil
with a composition similar to the rock
being weathered. Chemical weathering
produces soil with a different composition.
Soil Texture
 The type of weathering also affects soil
texture. Texture refers to the size of the
individual soil particles. Soil particles vary
from very small to large. Both mechanical
and chemical weathering first breaks rocks
into gravel (2-64mm) and then in sand (less
than 2mm) and finally into silt.
Soil Horizons
 As soil forms, it develops separate soil
layers called horizons. Each soil horizon is
different. A cross section of the soil
horizons is called soil profile. A soil
profile shows the different layers of soil.
Mature Soil
 Soil that has developed three layers is
called mature soil. It takes thousands of
years and the proper conditions for soil to
develop three layers. The uppermost layer
of mature soil is called the A horizon. The
A horizon is a dark-colored soil layer in
which much activity by living organisms
takes place. Bacteria, earthworms and
beetles help the decay.
A Horizon
 The soil in the A horizon is called topsail.
Topsail consists mostly of humus and other
organic materials. Humus supplies minerals
essential for plant growth. Humus is
spongy and stores water. It also contains
pore space for air and water. Topsoil is the
most fertile part of the soil.
B Horizon
 Water that soaks into the ground washes
some minerals from the A horizon into the
second layer of soil, or the B horizon.
This process is called leaching.The B
horizon is just below the A horizon. The B
horizon is also made of clay and some
humus. The soil in the B horizon is called
subsoil. Subsoil is formed very slowly.
C Horizon
 The third layer of soil is called the C
horizon. The C horizon consists of partly
weathered rock. The C horizon extends
down to the top of the unweathered parent
rock. The composition of the soil in the C
horizon is similar to that of the parent rock.
Immature Soil
 . In some places, the upper layers of soil
are removed and the rocks below the soil
are exposed. The weathering process then
forms new soil from the exposed rocks.
This recently formed soil is immature
because there has not been enough time for
all three soil layers to form. The soil in the
northern regions where glacial erosion has
taken place, is immature soil.
Formation of Soil
 There are several factors that determine
whether three layers of soil will form.
 Time
 Climate
 Type of rock
 Surface features of the region
Time
 Time is one of the most important factors
in soil formation. The longer a rock is
exposed to the forces of weathering, the
more it is broken down. Mature soil is
formed if all three layers have had time to
develop.
Climate
 Climate is another important factor in the
formation of soil. In areas with heavy
rainfall and warm temperatures, weathering
takes place more rapidly. Heavy rainfall
may wash much of the topsoil away. Since
Organisms are more plentiful these areas,
the soil is quickly replaced. They speed up
the chemical and mechanical weathering of
rocks.
Type of Rock
 The type of rock in an area also affects soil
formation. Some rocks do not weather as
rapidly as other do. Rocks that do not
break down easily do not form soil rapidly.
In some climates it takes along time for
granite to break down. So soil formation
from granite is slow. But sandstone breaks
easily and forms soil quickly.
Surface Features of Region
 The surface features of the region also
determine the speed at which soil is
formed. On very steep slopes, rainwater
running off the land erodes the soil and
exposes rock to weathering.
Soil: Definition

• Solid earth material that has been

altered by physical, chemical and organic
processes so that it can support rooted
plant life.

• Engineering definition: Anything that

can be removed without blasting
Physical weathering breaks rocks into small
mineral particles.
A Horizon

B Horizon

C Horizon
1.4 Transportation of Weathering
Products
1.4.1 Residual soils- 1.4.2 Transported soils-
to remain at the original to be moved and deposited
place to other places.
 In the top layer of rock is
 The particle sizes of transported
decomposed into residual soils
due to the warm climate and soils are selected by the
abundant rainfall . transportation agents such as
 Engineering properties of streams, wind, etc.
residual soils are different with Interstratifications of silts and
those of transported soils clays.
 The knowledge of "classical"  The transported soils can be
geotechnical engineering is categorize based on the mode of
mostly based on behavior of transportation and deposition (six
transported soils. The
types).
understanding of residual soils
is insufficient in general.
1.4.2 Transported Soils (Cont.)
 (1) Glacial soils: formed by transportation and
deposition of glaciers.
 (2) Alluvial soils: transported by running
water and deposited along streams.
 (3) Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in
quiet lakes .(e.g. soils in Taipei basin).
 (4) Marine soils: formed by deposition in the
seas
 (5) Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by
the wind.
 (6) Colluvial soils: formed by movement of
soil from its original place by gravity, such as
during landslide .
 Residual
VI soils

Completely
V decomposed
Most of the residual soils
in are in-situ
decomposed from Highly
igneous rocks
IV decomposed
The red or yellow color is
due to the presence of Moderately
III decomposed
iron oxides.

II Slightly
decomposed

I Fresh
If all five factors are the same in two geographic regions, the soil
will be the same in both. Some basic examples of different soil
types include:

Temperate deciduous soil Coniferous forest soil Grassland soil

Tropical rain forest soil Desert soil

Soil Properties
Texture (particle sizes)
Structure: organization into peds (lumps of soil)
Color (useful in soils)
Black rich in organic matter
Gray poor in organic matter and iron (hydr-) oxides Reducing =
poorly drained
Brown, yellow, red iron Oxidizing
Porosity percentage of volume occupied by air or water
Permeability speed at which fluid flows through it in response to
pressure gradient, high (fast) in coarse materials, low in fine materials)
Nutrient Availability Water, K, N, P, Ca, Mg, others
Engineering properties shrink-swell, bearing capacity, erodibility
Soil Classification
Old Scheme
Pedocal Calcium soil arid and semi-arid, caliche
Pedalfer Al Fe soil humid, no caliche
Laterites: tropical soils of iron and aluminum oxides

USDA Taxonomy (based on observable properties)

*Histosol (hist = tissue) O Thick O horizon, minimal mineral horizons near surface.
Aridisol arid soils
Verstisol Vertically mixed soils, due to shrink-swell clays
*Entisol (recent) Minimal development of horizons, weak A and O, no or minimal B
*Inceptisol (inception of soil development) Well developed A, weak B
*Spodosol (spod-= ash) much like an alfisol with a very pronounced E horizon. Often quartzose.
**Mollisol (moll- =soft) has mollic horizon (a thick, black, soft horizon as found under prairies)
**Alfisol (pedalfer soil) has an argillic (clay-rich) B horizon, and no mollic horizon
Ultisol ultimate weathering Like an alfisol, but more so. Soluble nutrients are low or gone.
Oxisol oxides only left (past ultisol) Also known as laterite. All soluble minerals, including quartz, are
gone, leaving only iron and aluminum oxides
Soil Evolution
Initially, a soil is parent material at the surface. It is subjected to the soil forming
processes, changing the nature of the material.
Organic matter accumulates, until a balance between deposition and decomposition is
reached.
Weathering of minerals leads to
release of soluble nutrients (K, Ca, Mg), which may be carried away by water
formation of clays
Translocation of clays downward and accumulation at water table (where speed
decreases) or where water is spread too thin to carry it onward

Example of till under grassland

1.Glacial till is exposed, not really a soil
2.Plants start to grow and organic matter accumulates as a weak A horizon Entisol
3.More organic matter accumulation to form a definite A horizon; weathering of
minerals and precipitation in soil causes a weak B horizon Inceptisol
4.Definite B horizon forms, much organic matter. Mollisol
5.Translocation of lots of clay from A horizon to B. Soluble minerals leached Alfisol
6.More translocation and leaching Ultisol
7.More translocation and leaching Oxisol
Soil Textures
 To determine the
texture of a soil
sample, find its
percent for sand, silt,
and clay.
 The texture of the
soil will be where all
three lines intersect.
Global Soil Regions USDA
Global Soil Regions FAO
 Soil
• Soil - a layer of weathered, unconsolidated
material on top of bedrock
– Common soil constituents:
• Clay minerals
• Quartz
• Water
• Organic matter

• Soil horizons
– O horizon - uppermost layer; organic material
– A horizon - dark layer rich in humus, organic acids
– E horizon - zone of leaching; fine-grained
components removed by percolating water
– B horizon - zone of accumulation; clays and iron
oxides leached down from above
– C horizon - partially weathered bedrock
 Soils and Climate
• Soil thickness and composition are
greatly affected by climate
– Wet climates:
• More chemical weathering and thicker soils
• Soils in moderately wet climates tend to have
significant clay-rich layers, which may be solid
enough to form a hardpan
– Arid climates:
• Less chemical weathering and thinner soils
• Subsurface evaporation leads to build-up of salts
• Calcite-rich accumulation zones may form,
cementing soil together into a hardpan
– Extremely wet climates (e.g., tropical rainforest)
• Highly leached and unproductive soils (laterites)
• Most nutrients come from thick O/A horizons
 Soil Development Over Time
• Residual soil - weathering of underlying rock
• Transported soil - brought in from elsewhere
– Floodplain deposits, etc.
– Wind-transported soil is called loess
• Soil composition
– Determined by parent rock composition
– Evolves with time and chemical weathering

• Soil thickness
– Increases with time
– Typically greater in wetter climates
– Greater in areas with low slopes
 Sandy soil
Sandy Soil- This type has the

Sandy Soil- This type has the biggest particles and the size of the
particles does determine the degree of aeration and drainage that the
soil allows. It is granular and consists of rock and mineral particles
that are very small. Therefore the texture is gritty and sandy soil is
formed by the disintegration and weathering of rocks such as
limestone, granite, quartz and shale. Sandy soil is easier to cultivate if
it is rich in organic material but then it allows drainage more than is
needed, thus resulting in over-drainage and dehydration of the plants
in summer
Sandy soil
 Clay soil
Clay Soil-Clay is a kind of material
that occurs naturally and consists of


very fine grained material with very

less air spaces, that is the reason it is
difficult to work with since the
drainage in this soil is low, most of
the time there is a chance of water
logging and harm to the roots of the
plant. Clay soil becomes very heavy
when wet and if cultivation has to be
done, organic fertilizers have to be
added. Clay soil is formed after
years of rock disintegration and
weathering. It is also formed as
sedimentary deposits after the rock
is weathered, eroded and
transported.
Clay soil

Loamy soil
 Loamy Soil- This soil consists of sand, silt and
clay to some extent. It is considered to be the
perfect soil. The texture is gritty and retains water
very easily, yet the drainage is well. There are
various kinds of loamy soil ranging from fertile to
very muddy and thick sod. Yet out of all the
different kinds of soil loamy soil is the ideal for
cultivation.
Loamy soil
Chalky soil
 Chalky Soil-Unlike Peaty soil, Chalky soil is very
alkaline in nature and consists of a large number
of stones. The fertility of this kind of soil depends
on the depth of the soil that is on the bed of chalk.
This kind of soil is prone to dryness and in
summers it is a poor choice for plantation, as the
plants would need much more watering and
fertilizing than on any other type of soil. Chalky
Soil, apart from being dry also blocks the
nutritional elements for the plants like Iron and
Magnesium.
 Chalky soil

Peaty soil
Peaty soil
 Though the soil is rich in organic matter,
nutrients present are fewer in this soil type than
any other type.

 Peaty soil is prone to water logging but if the soil

is fertilized well and the drainage of the soil is
looked after, it can be the ideal for growing
plants.
Sub soil

Sub soil
most soil are about a foot in depth ,though many of
them are no deeper than eight or nine inches below
this is what gardeners call the subsoil ,which may be
similar in character to the material above ,and yet
which may not contain available plant foods it is
important to try and get the soil to as great a depth as
possible.
Oll Difrent Types Of Soil
Dark Color Indicates Organic
Matter
Erosion
 a process in which the materials of Earth’s surface are
loosened, dissolved, or worn away and transported from
one place to another by a natural agent, such as wind,
water, ice, or gravity

 When rock weathers, the resulting rock particles do not

always stay near the parent rock.

 Various forces may move weathered fragments of rock

away from where the weathering occurred.
Soil Erosion
 Ordinarily, new soil forms about as fast as existing soil
erodes.

 Some farming and ranching practices increase soil

erosion.

 Soil erosion is considered by some scientists to be the

greatest environmental problem that faces the world
today.

 This erosion prevents some countries from growing the

crops needed to prevent widespread famine.
Water Erosion----- Rill erosion
Water Erosion----- gullies or gully erosion

Gullies are larger than rills and

cannot be fixed by tillage.
Gully erosion is an advanced
stage of rill erosion, just as
rills are often the result of
sheet erosion.
 Wind Erosion

Wind erosion, unlike water, cannot

be divided into such distinct
types. Surface texture is the
best key to wind erosion hazard
potential.
Gravity Erosion
Gravity is the principal force
acting to move surface
materials such as soil and
rock.
Frozen-melt Erosion
A particularly mysterious form of frost
damage is frost heave, resulting in damaged
roads, buildings and cropland. As can be
expected, frost heave works with the
strength of frost.
Gullying
 One farming technique that can accelerate soil erosion is
the plowing of furrows, or long, narrow rows.

 As soil is washed away with each rainfall, a furrow

becomes larger and forms a small gully.

 Eventually land that is plowed in this way can become

covered with deep gullies.

 This type of accelerated soil erosion is called gullying.

Gullying
Sheet Erosion
 the process by which water flows over a layer of
soil and removes the topsoil

 Another type of soil erosion strips away parallel

layers of top soil.

 Sheet erosion may occur where continuous

rainfall washes away layers of the topsoil.

 Wind also can cause sheet erosion during

unusually dry periods.
Map of Soil Erosion accelerated by
water
Results of Soil Erosion
 Constant erosion reduces the fertility of the soil be
removing the A horizon, which contains the fertile humus.

 The B horizon, which does not contain much organic

matter, is difficult to farm because it is much less fertile
than the A horizon.

 Without plants, the B horizon has nothing to protect it

from further erosion.

 So, within a few years, all the soil layers could be

removed by continuous erosion.
Soil Conservation
 Certain farming and grazing techniques and
construction projects can also increase the rate of
erosion.

 This land clearing removes protective ground

cover plants and accelerates topsoil erosions.

 But rapid, destructive soil erosion can be

prevented by soil conservation methods.
Contour Plowing
 In one method, called contour plowing, soil
is plowed in curved bands that follow the
contour, or shape of the land.

 This method of planting prevents water

from flowing directly down slopes, so the
method prevents gullying.
Contour Plowing
Strip-Cropping
 In strip-cropping, crops are planted in alternating
bands.

 The cover crop protects the soil by slowing the

runoff of rainwater.

 Strip-cropping is often combined with contour

plowing. The combination of these two methods
can reduce soil erosion by 75%.
Strip-Cropping
Terracing
 The construction of steplike ridges that
follow the contours of a sloped field is
called terracing.

 Terraces, especially those used for growing

rice in Asia, prevent or slow the downslope
movement of water and thus prevent rapid
erosion
Terracing
Crop Rotation
 In crop rotation, farmers plant one type of crop
one year and a different type of crop the next.

 For example, crops that expose the soil to the full

effects of erosion may be planted one year, and a
cover crop will be planted the next year.

 Crop rotation stops erosion in its early stages,

which allows small gullies that formed during
one growing season to fill with soil during the
next one.
Gravity and Erosion
 Mass movement - the movement of a large
mass of sediment or a section of land down
a slope

 Gravity causes rock fragments to move

down inclines.

 Some mass movements occur rapidly, and

others occur very slowly.
Rockfalls and Landslides
 The most dramatic and destructive mass movements occur
rapidly.

 The fall of rock from a steep cliff is called a rockfall. A

rockfall is the fastest kind of mass movement.

 When masses of loose rock combined with soil suddenly

fall down a slope, the event is called a landslide.

 Heavy rainfall, spring thaws, volcanic eruptions, and

earthquakes can trigger landslides.
Mudflows and Slumps
 The rapid movement of a large amount of mud
creates a mudflow.

 Mudflows occur in dry, mountainous regions

during sudden, heavy rainfall or as a result of
volcanic eruptions.

 Mud churns and tumbles as it moves down slopes

and through valleys, and it frequently spreads out
in a large fan shape at the base of the slope.
Slumps
Solifluction
 the slow, downslope flow of soil saturated with
water in areas surrounding glaciers at high
elevations

 Solifluction occurs in arctic and mountainous

climates where the subsoil is permanently frozen.
In the spring and summer, only the top layer of
soil thaws.

 Solifluction can also occur in warmer regions,

where the subsoil consists of hard clay.
Creep
 the slow downhill movement of weathered rock
material

 Soil creep moves the most soil of all types of

mass movements. But creep may go unnoticed
unless buildings, fences, or other surface objects
move along with the soil.

 Many factors contribute to soil creep

Soil texture and structure
Soil Textures
 To determine the
texture of a soil
sample, find its
percent for sand, silt,
and clay.
 The texture of the
soil will be where all
three lines intersect.
Soils by Properties
 Granular ( or cohesionless) Soils
 Soil particles do not tend to stick together
 Gravel
 Sand
 Silt
 Cohesive Soils
 Soil particles tend to stick together.
 Surface chemical effects
 Water-particle interaction and attractive forces between particles
 Clay
 Organic Soils
 Spongy, crumbly, and compressible
 Undesirable for use in supporting structures
Granular Soils
 High shear strength - Large bearing capacity
 Small lateral pressure; High permeability (easily drained)
 Good backfill materials for retaining walls
 Relatively small settlements
 Good embankment material
 Good foundation materials for supporting roads and structures
 Engineering properties of granular soils are affected by
 Grain sizes
 Shapes
 Grain-size distribution
 Compactness
Cohesive Soils
 Sticky, plastic, and compressible
 Expand when wetted; Shrink when dried
 Creep (deform plastically) over time under “constant”
load (when the shear stress is approaching its shear
strength)
 Develop large lateral pressure
 No good for retaining wall backfills
 Low permeability or Impervious
 Good core materials for earthen dams and dikes
 Lower shear strength
 Generally undesirable engineering properties
Silty Soil
 On the border between clayey and sandy
soils
 Result of mechanical weathering
 Clay: result of chemical weathering
 Fine-grained, but cohesionless
 High capillarity and susceptibility to frost
action
 Low permeability, Low relative densities
Organic Soil
 Soil containing a sufficient amount of organic
matter to affect its engineering properties
 Property: spongy, crumbly, compressible
 Low shear strength
 May contain harmful material
 Unacceptable for supporting foundations
Soil Temperature

Temperature of the earth is determined by the energy

balance:

RN = RS - RR -RL
RN = net energy
RS = short wave radiation coming
in from the sun
RR = short wave radiation
reflected
RL = long wave (infrared) radiation
emitted from the earth
 Soil Temperatures

Standard Soil Temperature is measured at 50 cm or at

rock/hardpan interface.

Mean Annual Soil Temperature (MAST): measured at 10

m; approximately equal to mean annual air temp plus
1oC. Measurements at 2 m are close.
Subsoil temperatures fluctuate much less than surface
soils because of buffering by upper soil layers.
2-11
 Soil Temperature fluctuations dampen with depth and
become close to mean annual temp + 1 oC at 2 m. Mulching
or litter layer dampens fluctuations at the surface.

Temperature
Soil Depth (m)

Without mulch
1
With mulch

2
 Factors Affecting Soil Temperature

Water:
Heat Capacity of the soil is the amount of heat
(calories) needed to raise 1 g of soil 1 degree Celsius.
It is a function of texture, organic matter and
moisture content. Finer textured soils (e.g., clays, clay
loams) have higher heat capacity than coarse
textured soils (e.g., sand).

Heat Capacity is highly dependent upon water

content: Heat Capacity of water is (1.0 cal g-1) about
5 times greater than that of the soil itself (0.2 cal g-1).
Thermal conductivity of soil refers to the
movement or penetration of thermal
energy into the soil profile.

Conductance is also strongly affected by texture

(increases with finer texture), organic matter
(lowers with increasing organic matter), and water
content (increases with increasing water content).

When soil water content is high enough to bridge

gaps between particles, further increases in soil
moisture have little effect upon conductance.
 Thermal Conductivity (ks): ability of the
substance to transfer heat
 Dependent upon soil composition (moisture content,
density of soil vs. that of air, type of soil, etc.)

 Heat Capacity (Cs): amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of a unit volume by 1°C/1 K
 Also dependent upon soil composition
 Related: specific heat (cs), amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass by 1°C/1 K
 Thermal Diffusivity (Ks): ratio of thermal
conductivity to the heat capacity (ks/Cs)
 Controlling influence upon the rate of speed at which a
temperature change propagates through a medium
 Analogous to an exchange coefficient

 Thermal Admittance (μs): the rate at which a

surface can accept or release heat energy [μs =
(ksCs)½]
 Admittance of both the soil and atmosphere are important
 Higher admittance = reduced temperature change because
heat is transferred efficiently rather than stored locally
Moister thermal conductivity
soils require more Moisterheat capacity
soils have a greater
thermal energy to warm by 1°C / ability to conduct heat because
1 K than drier soils because of of soil moisture dependence.
soil moisture dependence.

thermal diffusivity thermal admittance

Higher soil moisture content Soil moisture dependence
promotes a greater ability to relies on ratio between
transfer heat across a surface increases in ks and Cs.
(rather than being trapped).
Notice that adding water makes texture have
opposite effect (wet sand higher cond. than wet
clay)
Because water has higher heat capacity and
higher thermal conductivity than soil minerals, wet
soils are harder to heat up initially, but heat to
deeper depths than dry soils.

Dry soils tend to get very hot at surface. Moist soils

are usually cooler than dry soils because of their
high specific heat, even though conductance is also
greater in moist soils.

Rain and irrigation water can also cool or warm

soil quickly, depending upon the temperature
of the incoming water compared to the soil.
Properties of soil
 Behavior of sands and gravels is inferred from
 Shape
 Size
 Density of packing of the constituent particles
 Behavior of silts and clays is controlled by
 Surface activity of the particles
 Interaction of the particles with water
 USLE - Universal Soil Loss Equation

A = RKLSCP = Annual soil loss rate

 R= rainfall erosivity Hydrologic cycle factor
 K= soil erodibility
Soil/topography-
 L = slope length related factors
 S = slope steepness
Land
 C = cover and management
management
 P = erosion-control practices factors

Revised (RUSLE) and Modified (MUSLE)

versions also exist
http://cropandsoil.oregonstate.edu/classes/css305/lectures/Chpt13_erosion_short.pdf
http://snr.osu.edu/current/courses/NR675/transport_soil.pdf
http://snr.osu.edu/current/courses/NR675/transport_soil.pdf
R-factor Rainfall erosivity
 R = EI for a given storm
 E is the kinetic energy of the storm
 I is the maximum 30-minute intensity of the
storm
 EI is calculated for each storm and then
summed to get the annual erosivity index
SOIL ERODIBILITY - K
 General effect of texture
 Fine textures: (clays) resistant to detachment
because of aggregation
 Coarse textures: (sands) easily detached, but
low runoff, large, dense particles not easily
transported
 Medium textures: (loams) moderately
detachable, moderate to high runoff
 Silts: easily detached, high runoff, small,
easily transported sediment
K: soil erodibility factor
A = RKLSCP

 Infiltration capacity
 Structural stability
 Particle cohesion
 cementation by Organic Matter and clays

 Particle mass (2.0 g/cm3 for bauxite, 5.3 for

hematite, 7.6 for galena)
 Soil properties resulting in
low K values (less erosion)
 High organic matter content
 Non-expansive clays
 Strong granular structure
 “stoniness” & macropores, uses values
of: % silt and very fine sand, % sand, %
organic matter, soil structure, and soil
permeablity
 High organic matter content
 Non-expansive clays
 Strong granular structure
 “stoniness” & macropores.
Topographic factor - LS
 More erosion from steep, longer slopes
 Everything compared to a 9% slope of 72.6
feet.
Soil erodibility factor for various soil textures