Gaining Attention

What is the Weather?

What is Climate?
What is the Atmosphere?
 Objectives
•Given the completion of this lesson, the
student will have refreshed his or her
knowledge of basic atmospheric properties and
behavior and will demonstrate that knowledge
by passing the practical and written
assessments during this course.
 Prerequisites
•Some familiarity with the basic properties of the
atmosphere and its structure, including the
parameters used to measure the atmosphere
and quantify weather.
OR...
•The ability to quickly understand this
information
 Did I Get Your Attention?
What is Weather?
weather - 1. The state of the atmosphere, mainly with respect to its
effects upon life and human activities. As distinguished from climate,
weather consists of the short-term (minutes to months) variations of
the atmosphere. Popularly, weather is thought of in terms of
temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, brightness,
visibility, and wind. (from the Glossary of Meteorology, published
by the American Meteorological Society)
 Definition of Climate

• Climate refers to the average weather

characteristics of a region
• The climate of an area is fairly stable over the
course of centuries
 Climatology
• Pilot Charts provide monthly averages of
pressure, wind, currents, percent of gales,
and ship routes
• Coast Pilots provides local climatology of
various ports and surrounding local areas
world wide.
Pilot Charts
Coast Pilot and Sailing Directions
 Did I Get Your Attention?
What is the Atmosphere?
atmosphere - 1. The envelope of air surrounding the earth and bound
to it more or less permanently by virtue of the earth's gravitational
attraction; the system whose chemical properties, dynamic motions,
and physical processes constitute the subject of meteorology. (from
the Glossary of Meteorology, published by the American
Meteorological Society)
 Atmospheric Composition

78% Nitrogen
21% Oxygen
<1% Argon
<<1% others, including CO2, Ne, He,
CH4, H2, O3
variable - H2O
Atmospheric Composition

Most of atmospheric
composition is composed
of….

Note how Ozone

is so minuscule,
yet so very much
in the news!
 Atmospheric Structure Reflected by
Temperature, Altitude and Pressure
In Millibars

Majority of the
weather is
confined to the
Troposphere

In Meters
 Atmospheric Structure
Layers of the Atmosphere
Troposphere-
• The often turbulent layer of air near the earth’s surface
which contains almost all the weather we experience.
• Varies in thickness from about 5 miles over the poles to
11 miles over the equator.
• Temperature decreases with height.

Tropopause- The upper boundary of the troposphere

Atmospheric Structure…Simplified

The atmosphere is an
“Ocean of Air”
surrounding the earth
 Radiation Concepts
How does the sun heat the atmosphere?
•Radiation from the sun is emitted in the shorter
wavelength portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The wavelength of maximum solar radiation is in the
visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
•The properties of the gases in the atmosphere are
such that only a small portion of incoming solar
radiation is absorbed. Most is reflected, scattered, or
simply passes through the atmosphere and reaches
the earth’s surface.
 Radiation Concepts
How does the sun heat the atmosphere?
•The properties of the earth are such that it is quite
efficient at absorbing short wave incoming solar
radiation, and this radiation is converted to heat.
•The earth itself produces radiation, but at a longer
wavelength than the sun. Thus incoming solar
radiation is termed short wave radiation, and
outgoing terrestrial radiation is termed long wave
radiation.
 Radiation Concepts
How does the sun heat the atmosphere?

•The gases in the atmosphere are much better at

absorbing outgoing long wave terrestrial radiation.

•Thus, the atmosphere is largely heated from below.

 Radiation Concepts
How does the sun heat the atmosphere?

Radiation Budget of
the Earth-Atmosphere
System

Budget must be in
balance for
•Earth
•Atmosphere

Source:
NOAA
Long and Short Wave Lengths
The Total Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Radiation Properties…Insolation
• The amount of incoming solar radiation received by an
exposed surface from short wave radiation (as emitted by the
sun)

• Dependent on daily, seasonal and latitude variations

– DAILY: Highest when the sun is nearly overhead; Lowest in the

mornings/evenings when sun near horizon

– SEASONAL: Changes as position of the sun (declination) in the sky

changes; low declination yields solar radiation spread over a larger
area; high declination concentrates same amount of energy into
smaller area, causing hotter surface temperatures

– LATITUDE: Annual insolation greatest at equator and decreases at

the poles; over a full year, locations between 23°N-S will have two
periods when insolation values are high, Why? Note that poles have
higher insolation values during their summer solstices than do other
locations, because the poles have 24 hours daylight during this time
The seasonal path of the sun ensures an
imbalance of the earth’s heat budget…
 …Even during the sun’s Equinox…where the
energy is dispersed unevenly due to its incident
angles received in differencing latitudes…
…There is land and sea differential considerations as
noted below for the same geographical latitude for
annual Insolation and temperature cycles comparisons
 Distribution of Solar Radiation
• REFLECTIVITY: 40% of sun’s incoming short wave
radiation is reflected back into space by atmosphere
– known as albedo
– Snow has higher albedo than water
– Thick clouds have higher albedo than thin clouds

• ATOMSPHERIC WARMING FROM ABSORPTION:

– 20% of the sun’s short wave radiation is absorbed by the
lower portions of the atmosphere, due to “suspensoids”
– 40% of the sun’s short wave radiation is absorbed by surface
of earth and then re-radiated back into space as longer wave
length terrestrial radiation, where it warms the atmosphere
from below
 Infrared Radiation
•The rate of absorption and emission depends on surface
characteristics such as color, texture, moisture, and temperature
•IR Satellite images reveal temperatures of objects and surfaces
•Clouds especially low, thick ones, are excellent IR emitters
• Cloud tops radiate IR upwards and bases radiate IR back down to
earth where some is absorbed and remainder re-radiated back
within cloud
•This process keeps cloudy nights warmer than clear nights, and
cloudy days cooler than clear days
•Global Warming…the result of Greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases that absorb IR radiation
from the earth’s surfaces causing earth’s average temperature to rise
precipitating significant climate changes
 SUMMARY….

•Radiation is energy received by a body from the sun (insolation)

without affecting the atmosphere it travels through except for
suspensoids.

• Thus radiation (energy) from the sun warms the earth from above
in the form of Short Wave Radiation (Gamma-Rays/Visible).

•Long Wave Radiation (Terrestrial an Infrared) is emitted by the

earth, thus heating the atmosphere from below.
 Moisture in the Atmosphere
•Water (H20) is unique among substances in the
atmosphere because it can exist in all three phases
under existing atmospheric conditions. In fact, all
three phases can exist simultaneously!
•As noted earlier, the concentration of water vapor in
the atmosphere is variable.
•Because of the important role water plays in the
development of clouds, precipitation, and in other
atmospheric processes, it is important to be able to
measure and quantify the amount of water present.
 Moisture in the Atmosphere
•In particular, we are interested in the amount of water
present in the gas phase in the atmosphere. We call the gas
phase of water “Water Vapor”.
•The maximum amount of water vapor which is able to be
held in the atmosphere depends on temperature.
•This amount is greater for warmer temperatures, and less
for colder temperatures.
•If the amount of water vapor is greater than the maximum
amount for a given temperature, then usually some of the
vapor will be converted to liquid (clouds, rain) or solid
(snow).
Moisture in the Atmosphere
Quantifying Water Vapor
•Depends on temperature
 Moisture in the Atmosphere
Quantifying Water Vapor
Relative Humidity
actual water vapor content
saturation water vapor content
• Typically expressed as a percentage
Changes in Relative Humidity produced by:

• Changes in water vapor content

• Changes in temperature
 Moisture in the Atmosphere
Quantifying Water Vapor
Dew Point
Temperature to which air must be cooled to reach saturation
• A measure of the actual amount of water vapor present
Wet Bulb Temperature
Temperature to which air will be cooled to saturation by
evaporating water vapor into it
• Another measure of the actual amount of water vapor
present
 Moisture in the Atmosphere
Quantifying Water Vapor
It is important to Understand the Relationship Among:
•Temperature (Dry Bulb)
•Dew Point (Wet Bulb Temperature)
•Relative Humidity
 Moisture in the Atmosphere
Quantifying Water Vapor
When Air is Saturated:

•Temperature equals Dew Point

•Temperature equals Wet Bulb Temperature
•Relative Humidity is 100 percent

At Saturation, the air contains as much water vapor as

possible at its current temperature
Moisture in the Atmosphere
Quantifying Water Vapor

Source:
Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather
 Moisture in the Atmosphere
Phase Changes of Water
•When water changes from one phase to another,
energy is either absorbed or released by the water.
•For our purposes, we will be most concerned with
the phase change from gas (water vapor) to liquid.
•During this phase change, heat is released by the
water to the surrounding environment.
•To better understand this, it is helpful to first
examine the reverse process.
Moisture in the Atmosphere

Source:
Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather
Moisture in the Atmosphere

Source:
Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather
 Definition of Pressure
•The atmospheric pressure at a given point is
defined as the pressure exerted by the column
of air directly above that point. In more popular
terms, it can be thought of as the “weight” of
the column of air directly above a point.

•What happens to atmospheric pressure as one

goes higher in the atmosphere?

•Will the pressure drop more quickly as one goes

higher in a column of colder air or in a column of
warmer air?
Definition of Pressure

Source: Lee Chesneau’s Marine

Weather
 Balloon

•Weather analysis and forecast

process begins with balloon
launches at 1200 and 0000 UTC
where the atmosphere is profiled.
Para-shoot The data collected is called a
Sounding

•Atmospheric profiling: balloon

launches provide measured
Recoding Instruments
temperature/moisture/pressure/
altitude profiles
Temperature-Altitude Standard Lapse
Rate (Non- Environmental)
In the real atmospheric temperature varies with
altitude

A B Isothermal
+ Very stable
atmosphere – Very stable atmosphere
Flattened clouds Maybe fog below the
Inversion

Inversion Aloft
Z Surface Inversion
Temperature
+
 Basic Stability Concepts
•Upward motion in the atmosphere will lead to....
Cooling...
•Which can eventually lead to...
Saturation...
•Which could then lead to...
Condensation...
•Which will produce...
Clouds...
•Which might lead to...
Precipitation
44
 Basic Stability Concepts
•One of the easiest ways to evaluate atmospheric
stability is by using a thermodynamic diagram. This
diagram will plot temperature against height and
will be pre-printed with lines showing the adiabatic
lapse rate.
•The environmental lapse rate will be plotted on the
Stuve diagram noted on the subsequent slide.

45
Basic Stability Concepts…Begins with the
Stuve Adiabatic Diagram

46
 Basic Stability Concepts
•If upward vertical motions are likely to occur, the
atmosphere is termed unstable. if they are not likely to occur
(downward motion ), the atmosphere is termed stable.
•Atmospheric stability depends on the actual existing vertical
temperature structure of the atmosphere, called the
“Environmental Lapse Rate” (ELR) (discussed previously).
•The actual atmospheric lapse rate is determined by the
profiles of vertical temperature change in the in the
atmosphere.
•As previously noted, this is measured twice per day(12/00
UTC) by weather balloons which are launched from many
locations around the world.
47
 Basic Stability Concepts
•Because upward motion is linked to all of the
processes on the previous slide, and also other
dynamic processes in the atmosphere which leads to
changes in surface pressure and wind, it is critical for
meteorologists/weather forecasters to determine
when upward motion is likely (or unlikely) to occur.
•This requires an examination of Atmospheric
Stability. Stability is the tendency for vertical
motions (upward or downward to occur in the
atmosphere).
48
 Adiabatic Temperature Changes
When air moves vertically in the atmosphere,
it experiences a change in pressure
Upward movement leads to … Lower Pressure
Downward movement leads to…Higher Pressure

We can use the basic gas laws to relate a

change in pressure to a change in temperature
 Adiabatic Temperature Changes
We use the Parcel Method to evaluate
temperature changes which occur with
changes in pressure
•This method assumes that a parcel of air can be isolated,
and then moved up or down in the atmosphere.
•The term “adiabatic” means that there is no heat exchange
with the surrounding environment
•Thus, the only changes in temperature which occur in the
parcel of air will be due to changes in pressure leading to
expansion or compression of the parcel
•The gas laws will then be applied to allow evaluation of the
temperature change based on the pressure change
50
Adiabatic Temperature Changes

Source:
Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather
51
 Adiabatic Temperature Changes
•When an air parcel moves vertically in the
atmosphere, it experiences a change in pressure,
which leads to a change in temperature
Upward movement leads to ...
Cooling
Downward movement leads to ... Warming
•This change in temperature which is experienced by
a vertically displaced parcel is nearly constant in the
troposphere, and is termed the Adiabatic Lapse Rate

•It is approximately 10°C per kilometer,

52
or 1 degree C/100 meters (unsaturated air)
 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Dry Adiabats

Pressure

Temperature
 Basic Stability Concepts
What determines the stability?

Parcel rises and cools

Now cooler than surrounding air
Cooler air is denser, and heavier
Parcel returns to its original position
This is a STABLE atmosphere

Parcel rises and cools

Now warmer than surrounding air
Warmer air is less dense, and lighter
Parcel accelerates away from its
original position Source:
This is an UNSTABLE atmosphere Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather
54
 Basic Stability Concepts
•Stability is determined by comparing the
Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) to initially, the Dry
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (assuming the air is not
saturated).
•If the ELR is greater than the Dry Adiabatic Lapse
Rate (i.e. the temperature falls more with height
than the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate), an unstable
situation exists.
•If the ELR Rate is less than the Dry Adiabatic Lapse
Rate (i.e. the temperature falls less with height than
the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate), a stable situation 55
exists.
 Basic Stability Concepts
•However, when a dry lifted parcel of air is cooled to
saturation (100 percent relative humidity), continued
lifting (and therefore continued cooling) will lead to
condensation of water vapor.
•This will release heat into the parcel due to the
Latent Heat of Condensation.
•The parcel will now cool at a different rate, a rate
slower than the Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate due to
the addition of heat through condensation.

56
 Basic Stability Concepts
•This new rate is called the Moist Adiabatic
Lapse Rate. [The original rate is correctly termed
the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate.]
•The Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate is not
constant, but varies with temperature ~0.6
DegC/100 meters.
•At warmer temperatures, greater amounts of water
vapor are present at saturation. This means that as
a parcel is cooled, more vapor will be condensed,
and more latent heat released. 57
Basic Stability Concepts
Moist Adiabats

58
Basic Stability Concepts

Parcel rises and cools

If the parcel is not saturated, it cools at the dry adiabatic rate
and a STABLE condition exists
If the parcel is saturated, it cools at the moist adiabatic rate,
and an UNSTABLE condition exists

Conditional
Instability

Source:
Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather

59
 Basic Stability Concepts
There are three possible categories of stability:
1. Absolute Stability
The environmental lapse rate is less than
the moist adiabatic lapse rate
2. Absolute Instability
The environmental lapse rate is greater than
the dry adiabatic lapse rate
3. Conditional Instability
The environmental lapse rate is between the dry
adiabatic lapse rate and the moist adiabatic lapse
rate 60
 Basic Stability Concepts
1. Absolute Stability
•Little or no cloud development
•Temperature inversion is an extreme example
2. Absolute Instability
Cannot exist through a large portion of the
atmosphere
Shows up most frequently in very low levels on
sunny afternoons
3. Conditional Instability
•Fairly common
•Associated with showers and thundershowers
•Can lead to severe weather
61
North American Soundings
Stuve Sounding U of Wyoming…Wilmington, OH
Wilmington, OH in context with the a
Surface Analyses of the U.S.
Wilmington, OH in Context with a 500 Mb Analyses of the U.S.
Wilmington, OH in context with the a 500 Mb Analyses
of the Eastern Pacific, U.S, CAN, and Western Atlantic.
North American Soundings
Adiabatic Stuve Diagram
Kodiak, AK
OPC Surface Analysis Eastern North
Pacific Ocean VT 00 UTC 22 Sep 06

Kodiak, AK
500 Mb Analysis North Pacific
Ocean VT 00 UTC 22 Sep 06

Kodiak, AK
 Wind Basics
Wind is the horizontal movement of air
In order to explain these horizontal motions, we
need to examine the forces that act on a parcel of
air in the horizontal plane.
These forces are:
•Pressure Gradient Force
•Coriolis “Force”
•Friction
71
 Wind Basics
Pressure Gradient Force
• Acts from high pressure toward low pressure
• On a weather chart, oriented perpendicular to
isobars
• Magnitude is proportional to the pressure gradient

• On a weather chart, the pressure gradient is

indicated by the spacing between isobars

72
Wind Basics

Strong pressure gradient

Weak pressure gradient

73
Wind Basics…the Coriolis Effect
•Newton’s Laws of Motion apply to the movement
of air on the earth, but since Newton’s Laws only
apply in an inertial, or non-moving frame of
reference, and the earth is moving (rotating), a
correction factor must be applied.
•This is called the Coriolis Effect, and it takes
account of the apparent deflection of large scale
motions on the earth.

74
Wind Basics…the Coriolis Effect

Source:
Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather

75
Wind Basics…the Coriolis Effect

Source:
Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather

76
Wind Basics…the Coriolis Effect
Wind Basics…the Coriolis Effect
•Acts to the right of motion in the northern
hemisphere
•Initial direction of motion doesn’t matter
•Magnitude is proportional to the speed of motion
•The effect depends on latitude, highest at the
poles, zero at the equator
•Acts to the left of motion in the southern
hemisphere

78
Wind Basics…Combining the Forces
Geostrophic
Approximation

Balance between:
Pressure gradient
force and Coriolis
effect

Source:
Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather
79
Wind Basics…Geostrophic Winds
Geostrophic Approximation
• Air moves (wind blows) parallel to isobars
• Strength of the wind is determined solely by the
pressure gradient
• Spacing of isobars will determine geostrophic
wind speed
• If isobars are closer together, wind speed
will be higher

80
Wind Basics…Surface Friction Effect
Effect of friction
• Friction will slow down the motion of the air
• Slowing will reduce the Coriolis effect
• Thus the geostrophic balance is upset, and
the pressure force is a bit stronger than Coriolis
• The wind direction will therefore not be
parallel to the isobars, but across them at an
angle (approximately 30°) toward lower
pressure
81
Wind Basics…Combining the Three Forces

Source:
Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather
82
Wind Basics…Animation of Surface
Winds in Pressure Systems
Wind Basics…Practical Applications
Buys Ballot’s Law:
In the northern hemisphere, if you stand with
your back to the wind, low pressure will be found
to your left, and high pressure to your right
Modify to take account of friction:
In the northern hemisphere, if you stand with
your back to the wind, then turn clockwise
about 11°, low pressure will be found to your
left, and high pressure to your right
84
 Wind Basics…Buys-Ballot’s Law...
Another Version
• If an observer in the Northern Hemisphere
faces the surface wind, the center of low
pressure is toward his right, somewhat behind
him; and the center of high pressure is toward
his left and somewhat in front of him.
• If an observer in the Southern Hemisphere
faces the surface wind, the center of low
pressure is toward his left, somewhat behind
him; and the center of high pressure is toward
his right and somewhat in front of him.
Wind Basics…Practical Applications
On weather charts, wind is shown graphically using wind barbs
and feathers.
The “staff” portion of the wind barb points in the direction the
wind is blowing from, and the feathers indicate the wind speed.
A full feather indicates 10 knots, and a half feather indicates 5
knots.
A pennant indicates 50 knots.

W 65 knots
NE 10 knots
NW 25 knots S 5 knots 86
 Wind Basics…
Absolute Convergence and Divergence
Airflow which is coming together is termed convergence
Airflow which is moving apart is termed divergence

Source:
Ken McKinley,
Convergence Divergence Locus Weather

87
 Wind Basics…
Angular Convergence and Divergence
Airflow which is coming together is termed convergence
Airflow which is moving apart is termed divergence

Source:
Ken McKinley,
Convergence Divergence Locus Weather

88
 Wind Basics…
Absolute Convergence and Divergence
Upper Level
Divergence

Surface
Source:
Convergence
Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather
What happens to the
surface pressure?
89
 Wind Basics…
Absolute Convergence and Divergence
Upper Level
Convergence

Surface
Source:
Divergence
Ken McKinley,
Locus Weather
What happens to the
surface pressure?
90
 Wind Basics…
Upper Level Horizontal (Speed) Divergence

OCEAN SURFACE

What happens to the surface pressure?

Wind Basics… Upper Level Horizontal
(Speed) Convergence

OCEAN SURFACE
What happens to the surface pressure?
 Summary Questions
•The layer of the atmosphere where most weather occurs is
the ___________.
•The atmosphere is largely heated by _____ _____
radiation.
•What is the definition of atmospheric pressure?
•Water can exist in all three ______ in the atmosphere.
•The amount of water vapor that can be present in the
atmosphere depends on __________.
•The ratio of actual water vapor present to the amount of
water vapor required for saturation is called ____ _____.
 Summary Questions
•The temperature to which air must be cooled to reach
saturation is called ____ _____.
•When condensation occurs in the atmosphere, heat is
_________.
•The change in temperature which is experienced by a
vertically displaced parcel is given by the _______
_______ _______.
• Atmospheric Stability depends on the ______ ______.
_____.
•The Coriolis Effect deflects large scale motions in the
atmosphere to the ______ in the northern hemisphere.
 Summary Questions
•The geostrophic wind approximation is a balance between
which two “forces”?____ ____ and _____ _____.
•The geostrophic wind blows _________ to the isobars.
•Friction causes the wind to cut across the isobars toward
_______ pressure.
• Airflow which is coming together is termed ______.
•Airflow moving apart is termed ______.