SIGNAL CONDITIONAL CIRCUITS

Part 1

1
INTRODUCTION
Since electrical circuits occur in virtually all avionic
and measurement system it is essential that
engineers develop a basic understanding of the
acquisition and processing of electrical signals.
Usually these signals come from transducers, which
convert physical quantities (e.g., temperature, strain,
displacement, flow rate) into currents or voltages,
usually the latter.
The transducer output is usually described as an
analog signal, which is continuous and time varying.

2
Often the signals from transducers are not in the form
we would like them to be. They may

1. Be too small, usually in the millivolt range

2. Be too “noisy,” usually due to electromagnetic

interference

3. Contain the wrong information, usually due to

poor transducer design or installation

4. Have a DC offset, usually due to the

transducer and instrumentation design
3
Many of these problems can be remedied, and the
desired signal information extracted through
appropriate analog signal processing.

The simplest and most common form of signal

processing is amplification;-
where the magnitude of the voltage signal is
increased.

Other forms include signal inversion, differentiation,

integration, addition, subtraction, and comparison.

4
Analog signals are very different from digital
signals, which are discrete, using only a finite
number of states or values.
Since computers and microprocessors require
digital signals, any application involving computer
measurement requires analog to digital (A/D)
conversion.
This chapter covers the basic elements of analog
signal processing including the design and analysis
of signal processing circuits
The operational amplifier is an integrated circuit
used as a building block in many of these circuits
5
AMPLIFIERS
Ideally, an amplifier increases the amplitude of a
signal without affecting the phase relationships of
different components of the signal.
When choosing or designing an amplifier, we must
consider size, cost, power consumption, input
impedance, output impedance, gain, and bandwidth.
Physical size depends on the components used to
construct the amplifier.
Prior to the 1960s vacuum tube amplifiers were
common, but they were heavy power consumers with
significant heat dissipation.
6
Portable units were large and heavy and required
frequent battery replacement.
Since its advent, solid state technology, where
charge carriers move through a solid semiconductor
material, has replaced the vacuum tube technology,
where bulky tubes enclosed a gas at low pressure
through which electrons flowed.
Today, solid state transistors and integrated circuits
have dramatically changed amplifier design,
resulting in small, cool-running amplifiers.
They are relatively light power consumers easily
made portable with rechargeable batteries.
7
Generally, we model an amplifier as a two-port
device, with an input and output voltage referenced
to ground, as illustrated below.
Iin Iout
+ +
Vin Amplifier Vout
- -

The voltage gain of an amplifier is defined as the

ratio of the output and input voltage amplitudes:

Vout
Av = (68)
Vin
8
Normally we want an amplifier to exhibit amplitude
linearity, where the gain is constant for all
frequencies.
However, amplifiers may be designed to
intentionally amplify only certain frequencies,
resulting in a filtering effect.
In such cases, the output characteristics are
governed by the amplifier's bandwidth and
associated cut - off frequencies.

9
The input and output impedances of an amplifier,
Zin and Zout, are found by measuring the ratio of the
respective voltage and current:

Vin Vout
Zin = Z out = (69)
Iin Iout

For the operational amplifiers described in the next

section, Zin is larger than 100 kΩ and Zout is a few
ohms or less.

10
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
The operational amplifier, or op amp, is a low-cost and
versatile integrated circuit consisting of many internal
transistors, resistors, and capacitors.
It can be combined with external discrete components
to create a wide variety of signal processing circuits.
The op amp is the basic building block for
• Amplifiers • Integrators • Differentiators
• Summers • Comparators • Active filters
• A/D and D/A converters • Sample and hold amplifiers
The op amp derives its name from its ability to perform
so many different mathematical operations.
11
Operational Amplifier Circuits

Part 1

12
IDEAL MODEL FOR THE OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER
Figure below shows the schematic symbol and
terminal nomenclature for an ideal op amp.
Inverting input terminal
V- -
Vout
∞
V+ +

Noninverting input terminal

It is a differential input, single output amplifier that is

assumed to have infinite gain.
The ∞ symbol is sometimes used in the schematic
to denote the infinite gain and the assumption that it
is an ideal op amp. 13
The voltages are all referenced to a common
ground.
The op amp is an active device requiring
connection to an external power supply, usually
plus and minus 15 V.
The external supply is not normally shown on
circuit schematics.
Since the op amp is an active device, output
voltages and currents can be larger than the
values applied to the inverting and noninverting
terminals.
14
 V-
-
Vout
∞
V+ +

As illustrated in Figure above, an op amp circuit usually

includes feedback from the output to the negative (inverting)
input.
This so-called closed loop configuration results in stabilization
of the amplifier and control of the gain.
When feedback is absent in an op amp circuit, the op amp is
said to have an open loop configuration.
This configuration results in considerable instability due to the
infinite gain, and it is seldom used.
The utility of feedback will become evident in the examples
presented in the following sections. 15
 I- = 0
V-
- Iout
∞ Vout
V+ +
+ Vout
I+ = 0

Figure above illustrates an ideal model that can aid in

analyzing circuits containing op amps. This model is
based on the following assumptions that describe an
ideal op amp:
1. It has infinite impedance at both inputs, hence no
current is drawn from the input circuits. Therefore,
I+ = I - = 0

16
2. It has infinite gain. As a consequence, the difference
between the input voltages must be 0; otherwise, the
output would be infinite.
This is denoted in Figure above by the
shorting of the two inputs. Therefore,
V+ = V-
Note that: Even though we indicate a short between
the two inputs, we assume no current may flow
through this short.

3. It has zero output impedance. Therefore, the output

voltage does not depend on the output current.
Note that Vout, V+, V- are all reference to a common
ground.
17
For stable linear behavior, there must be feedback
between the output and the inverting input.
These assumption and the model may appear
illogical and confusing, but they provide a close
approximation to the behavior of real op amp when
used in a circuit that includes negative feedback.
With the aid of this ideal model, we need only
Kirchhof’s laws and Ohm’s law to completely analyze
op amp circuits.

18
Operational Amplifier Circuits

Part 2

19
Actual op amps are usually package in eight-pin dual in-
line package (DIP) integrated circuit (IC) chips.

The designation for a general purpose op amp produced

by many IC manufacturer is 741.

It is illustrated in figure below with its pin configuration

(pin-out).

20
As with all ICs, one end of the chip is marked with
an indentation or spot, and the pins are
numbered counterclockwise and consecutively
starting with 1 at the left side of the marked end.
For a 741 series op amp, pin 2 in the inverting
input, pin 3 is the noninverting input, pins 4 and 7
are for the external power supply, and pin 6 is the
op amp output. Pin 1, 5, and 8 are not normally
connected.
Figure in the next slide illustrates the internal
design of a 741 IC available from National
Semiconductor.
21
Note that the circuits are composed of transistors,
resistors and capacitors that are easily
manufactured on a single silicon chip.

22
Note that the most valuable details for the user are the input
and output parts of the circuit having characteristics that
might affect externally connected components
Many different op amp designs are available from IC
manufacturers. The input impedances, bandwidth and power
ratings can vary significantly.
Also, some require only a single-output power supply.
Although the 741 is widely used, another common op amp is
the TL071 manufactured by Texas Instruments.
Its pin configuration is identical to the 741, but because it has
FET inputs, it has a larger input impedance (10 MΩ) and
wider bandwidth
23
 Op- Amp in Linear Applications
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
An inverting amplifier is constructed by connecting two
external resistors to an op amp as shown in figure below.

As the name implies, this circuit inverts and amplifies the input
voltage.

Note that the resistor RF forms the feedback loop.

This feedback loop always goes to the inverting input of the

op amp, implying negative feedback.

24
 RF

R
-
+ Vout
Vin
+

Inverting amplifier
Iout
RF

Iin R
--
+ C
Vin Vout
+
+ Vout

Equivalent circuit for inverting amplifier

25
Using Kirchhoff's laws and Ohm's law to analyze this
circuit.

First, we replace the op amp with its ideal model

shown within the dashed box in second figure above.

Applying Kirchhoff's current law at node C and

utilizing assumption 1, that no current can flow into
the inputs of the op amp,

iin = −iout
(70)

26
Also, since the two inputs are assumed to be shorted in the
ideal model, C is effectively at ground potential:
VC = 0 (71)

Since the voltage across resistor R is Vin – VC = Vin, from

Ohm’s law,
Vin = iinR (72)

And since the voltage across resistor RF is Vout – VC = Vout,

Vout = ioutRF (73)

Substituting for - iout with iin gives,

Vout = −iinRF (74)

27
Dividing Vout with Vin yields input / output
relationship:
Vout RF
=− (75)
Vin R

Therefore, the voltage gain of the amplifier is

determined simply by the external resistors RF and
R, and it is always negative.
The reason this circuit is called an inverting
amplifier is that it reverses the polarity of the input
signal.
This results in a phase shift of 1800 for periodic
signals.
28
For example, if the square wave Vin shown in figure below is
connected to an inverting amplifier with a gain of -2, the
output Vout is inverted and amplified, resulting in a larger
amplitude signal 180o out of phase with the input

Vin

Vout

29
NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER

The schematic of a noninverting amplifier is

shown in figure below.

As the name implies, this circuit amplifies the

input voltage without inverting the signal.

Again, we can apply Kirchhoff's laws and Ohm's

law to determine the voltage gain of this amplifier.

As before, we replace the op amp with the ideal

model shown in the dashed box in the second
figure shown
30
 RF

R
-
Vout
+
+
Vin NonInverting amplifier
Iout
RF

Iin R
--
C
Vout
+
+ Vout
+
Vin

Equivalent circuit for noninverting amplifier

31
The voltage at node C is Vin since the inverting and
noninverting inputs are at the same voltage.
Therefore, applying Ohm's law to resistor R,

− V in
iin = (76)
R
and applying it to resistor RF,
Vout − Vin
iout = (77)
RF

32
Solving for Vout gives
Vout = ioutRF + Vin (78)

Applying KCL at node C gives

iin = −iout (79)

Therefore we can rewrite Vin as;

Vin = ioutR (80)

Solving for Vout/Vin gives

Vout ioutRF + Vin ioutRF + ioutR RF
= = = 1+ (81)
Vin Vin ioutR R
33
Therefore, the non-inverting amplifier has a positive gain
greater than or equal to 1.

This is useful in isolating one portion of a circuit from

another by transmitting a scaled voltage without drawing
appreciable current.

If we let RF = 0 and R = ∞ the resulting circuit can be

represented as shown in figure below.

-
∞ Vout
Vin +
34
The circuit above is known as a buffer or voltage
follower since Vout = Vin.

It has a high input impedance and low output

impedance.

This circuit is useful in applications where you need

to couple to a voltage signal without loading the
source of the voltage.

The high input impedance of the op amp effectively

isolates the source from the rest of the circuit.

35
 SUMMER
The summer op amp circuit shown in figure below is used
to add analog signals.
By analyzing the circuit with R1 = R2 = RF
R1 RF

+
V1
-
+ R2
Vout
V2
+

We can show that:

Vout = −( V1 + V2 ) (82)

Therefore, the circuit output is the negative sum of the inputs.

36
DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
The difference amplifier circuit shown in figure
below is used to subtract analog signal.
In analyzing this circuit, we can use the principle of
superposition, which states that, whenever multiple
inputs we applied to a linear system (e.g., an op
amp circuit) we can analyze the circuit and
determine the response for each of the individual
inputs independently. RF

V1 R1
+
-
V2 R2 Vout
+
+
RF
Difference amplifier circuit
37
The sum of the individual responses is equivalent to the
overall response to the multiple inputs.

Specifically, when the inputs are ideal voltage sources, to

analyze the response due to one source, the other sources
are shorted.

If some inputs are current sources, they are replaced with

open circuits.

The first step in analyzing the circuit is to replace V2 with a

short circuit, effectively grounding R2.

As shown in figure below, the result is an inverting amplifier.

Therefore, the output due to input V1, is;

38
 RF
Vout1 =− V1
R1
RF

V1 R1
+
-
Vout
+
R 2RF
R 2 + RF

Difference amplifier with V2 shorted

39
The second step in analyzing the circuit to replace V1, with a
short circuit, effectively grounding R1, as shown in figure
below.
RF

R1
-
V2 R2 Vout
+
+
RF
V3

40
This circuit is equivalent to the circuit shown in the figure
below where the input voltage is
RF (83)
V3 = V2
R 2 + RF
since V2 is divided between resistors R2 and RF.
RF

R1
-
Vout
+
+
V3

41
The circuit above is a noninverting amplifier.
Therefore the output due to input V2 is given by

 RF 
Vout 2 = 1 +  V3 (84)
 R1 
By substituting for V3, this equation can be written as

 RF  RF 
Vout 2 = 1 +   V2 (85)
 R1  R 2 + RF 

42
The principle of superposition states that the total output Vout
is the sum of the outputs due to the individual inputs:
Vout = Vout1 + Vout 2
 RF   RF  RF 
= −  V1 + 1 +   V2 (86)
 R1   R1  R 2 + RF 
When R1 = R2 = R, the output voltage is an amplified
difference of the input voltages:

RF
Vout = ( V2 − V1 ) (87)
R
Note that this result can also be obtained using the op amp
rules, KCL, and Ohm's law
43
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER

The difference amplifier presented in previous lecture may

be satisfactory for low-impedance sources, but its input
impedance is too low for high-output impedance sources.

Furthermore, if the input signals are very low level and

include noise, the difference amplifier is unable to extract a
satisfactory difference signal.

The solution to this problem is the instrumentation

amplifier.

It has the following characteristics:

44
• Very high input impedance

• Large common mode rejection ratio (CMRR). The

CMRR is the ratio of the difference mode gain to the
common mode gain. The difference mode gain is the
amplification factor for the difference between the input
signals, and the common mode gain is the amplification
factor for the average of the input signals. For an ideal
difference amplifier, the common mode gain is 0,
implying an infinite CMRR. When the common mode
gain is nonzero, the output is nonzero when the inputs
are equal and nonzero. It is desirable to minimize the
common mode gain to suppress signals such as noise
that are common to both inputs.

45
• Capability to amplify low-level signals in a noisy
environment, often a requirement in differential output
sensor signal conditioning applications

• Consistent bandwidth over a large range of gains

Instrumentation amplifiers are commercially available as
monolithic ICs (e.g., Analog Devices 524 and 624 and
National Semiconductor LM 623).

A single external resistor is used to set the gain.

This gain can be higher and is more stable than gains

achievable with a simple difference amplifier.

46
47
An instrumentation amplifier can also be
constructed with inexpensive discrete op amps
and precision resistors as illustrated in figure
below.
V1 + V3

- R3 R4

-
I1 R2 Vout
R1
R2 +
-- R3

V2 + V4
R5
Instrumentation amplifier

48
We analyze this circuit in two parts.

The two op amps on the left provide a

high-impedance amplifier stage where each input is
amplified separately.

This stage involves a moderate CMRR

The outputs V3 and V4 are supplied to the op amp

circuit on the right, which is difference amplifier with
potentiometer R5 used to maximize the overall
CMRR.

49
Applying KCL and Ohm’s law to the left portion of the
circuit to express V3 and V4 in terms of V1 and V2.
Using the assumption and rules for an ideal op amp, I1
passes through R1 and both feedback resistors R2.
Applying Ohm’s law to feedback resistors gives

V3 − V1 = I1R 2
(88)

and V2 − V4 = I1R 2 (89)

Applying Ohm’s law to R1 gives

V1 − V2 = I1R1 (90)

50
Solving for I1 in equation (90) and substitute
into equations (88) and (89), gives

 R2  R2

V3 =  
+ 1 V1 − V2 (91)
 R1  R1
R2  R2 
and V4 = − V1 +  + 1 V2 (92)
R1  R1 

By analyzing the right portion of the circuit, it can be

shown that;
R 5 (R 3 + R 4 ) R4
Vout = V4 − V3
R 3 (R 3 + R 5 )
(93)
R3

51
We can substitute the expression for V3 and V4 from
equations (91) and (92) into equation (93) to express the
output Vout in terms of the input voltages V1 and V2.
Assuming R5 = R4, the result is;

R4  R 2 
Vout =  1 + 2  (V2 − V1 ) (94)
 R3  R1 

A design objective for the instrumentation amplifier is to

maximize the CMRR by minimizing the common mode gain.
For a common mode input, V1 = V2, equation (94) yields an
output Vout = 0. Hence, the common mode gain is 0 and the
CMRR is infinite if R5 = R4.
52
In practice, the resistances never match exactly.
Also, if the temperature varies within the discrete circuit,
resistance mismatches are further exaggerated.
By using potentiometer for R5, the designer can minimize the
mismatch between R5 and R4, resulting in maximum CMRR
The problems of resistor mismatching with discrete
components are avoided by using a monolithic
instrumentation amplifier constructed with laser-trimmed
resistors.
These amplifiers have a very high CMRR not usually
obtainable with discrete components.

53