1

CHEMISTRY

FORM 1

NOTES

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Introduction to chemistry
Chemistry is a branch of Science. Science is basically the study of living and non-
living things. The branch of science that study living things is called Biology. The
branch of science that study non-living things is called Physical Science. Physical
Science is made up of:
(i) Physics- the study of matter in relation to energy
(ii) Chemistry- the study of the composition of matter.
Chemistry is thus defined as the branch of science that deals with the structure
composition, properties and behavior of matter.
Basic Chemistry involves studying:
(a) States/phases of matter
Matter is anything that has weight/mass and occupies space/volume. Naturally,
there are basically three states of matter.
(i) Solid-e.g. soil, sand, copper metal, bucket, ice.
(ii)Liquid- e.g. water, Petrol, ethanol/alcohol, Mercury (liquid metal).
(iii) gas- e.g. Oxygen, Nitrogen ,Water vapour.
A solid is made up of particles which are very closely packed. It thus has a
definite/fixed shape and fixed/definite volume /occupies definite space. It has a
very high density.
A liquid is made up of particles which have some degree of freedom. It thus has no
definite/fixed shape. It takes the shape of the container it is put. A liquid has
fixed/definite volume/occupies definite space.
A gas is made up of particles free from each other. It thus has no definite/fixed
shape. It takes the shape of the container it is put. It has no fixed/definite
volume/occupies every space in a container.
(b) Separation of mixture
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances that can be separated by
physical means. Simple methods of separating mixtures at basic chemistry level
include:
i) Sorting/picking-this involve physically picking one pure substance from a
mixture with another/other. e. g. sorting maize from maize beans mixture.
ii) Decantation-this involve pouring out a liquid from a solid that has settled
/sinking solid in it. e. g. Decanting water forms sand.
iii)Filtration-this involves sieving /passing particles of a mixture through a filter
containing small holes that allow smaller particle to pass through but do not allow
bigger particle to pass through.

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iv) Skimming-this involve scooping floating particles. E.g. cream from milk
(c) Metals and non-metals
Metals are shiny, ductile(able to form wires), malleable(able to form sheet) and coil
without breaking. E.g. Iron, gold, silver, copper. Mercury is the only liquid metal
known.
Non-metals are dull, not ductile (do not form wires), not malleable (do not form
sheet) and break on coiling/brittle. E.g. Charcoal, Sulphur, pla-stics.
(d) Conductors and non-conductors
A conductor is a solid that allow electric current to pass through. A non-conductor
is a solid that do not allow electric current to pass through.
All metals conduct electricity. All non-metals do not conduct electricity except
carbon graphite.
(e) Drugs
A drug is a natural or synthetic/man-made substance that when taken changes/alter
the body functioning. A natural or synthetic/man-made substance that when taken
changes/alter the abnormal body functioning to normal is called medicine.
Medicines are thus drugs intended to correct abnormal body functions. . Medicines
should therefore be taken on prescription and dosage.
A prescription is a medical instruction to a patient/sick on the correct type of
medicine to take and period/time between one intake to the other.
A dosage is the correct quantity of drug required to alter the abnormal body
function back to normal. This is called treatment. It is the professional work of
qualified doctors/pharmacists to administer correct prescription and dosage of
drugs/medicine to the sick. Prescription and dosage of drugs/medicine to the sick
use medical language.
Example
(i) 2 x 4 ; means “2” tablets for solid drugs/spoonfuls for liquid drugs taken
“4” times for a duration of one day/24 hours and then repeated and continued until
all the drug given is finished.
(ii) 1 x 2 ; means “1” tablets for solid drugs/spoonfuls for liquid drugs
taken “2” times for a duration of one day/24 hours and then repeated and
continued until all the drug given is finished.
Some drugs need minimal prescription and thus are available without pharmacist/
doctor’s prescription. They are called Over The Counter (OTC) drugs. OTC drugs
used to treat mild headaches, stomach upsets, common cold include:
(i) Painkillers
(ii) Anti-acids

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(iii) cold/flu drugs.

All medicine requires correct intake dosage. When a prescription dosage is not
followed, this is called drug misuse/abuse. Some drugs are used for other purposes
other than that intended. This is called drug abuse.
Drug abuse is when a drug is intentionally used to alter the normal functioning of
the body. The intentional abnormal function of the drug is to make the victim have
false feeling of well being. The victim lack both mental and physical coordination.
Some drugs that induce a false feeling of well being are illegal. They include
heroin, cocaine, bhang, Mandrax and morphine.
Some abused drugs which are not illegal include: Miraa, alcohol, tobacco, sleeping
pills.
The role of chemistry in society
(a) Chemistry is used in the following:
(i) Washing/cleaning with soap:
Washing/cleaning is a chemical process that involves interaction of water, soap and
dirt so as to remove the dirt from a garment.
(ii) Understanding chemicals of life
Living thing grow, respire and feed. The formation and growth of cells involve
chemical processes in living things using carbohydrates, proteins and vitamins.
(iii) Baking:
Adding baking powder to dough and then heating in an oven involves interactions
that require understanding of chemistry.
(iv) Medicine:
Discovery, test, prescription and dosage of drugs to be used for medicinal purposes
require advanced understanding of chemistry
(v) Fractional distillation of crude oil:
Crude oil is fractional distilled to useful portions like petrol, diesel, kerosene by
applying chemistry.
(vi) Manufacture of synthetic compounds/substances
Large amounts of plastics, glass, fertilizers, insecticides, soaps, cements, are
manufactured worldwide. Advanced understanding of the chemical processes
involved is a requirement.
(vii) Diagnosis/test for abnormal body functions.
If the body is not functioning normally, it is said to be sick/ill. Laboratory test are
done to diagnose the illness/sickness.
(b) The following career fields require Chemistry as one of subject areas of
advanced/specialized study:

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(i) Chemical engineering/chemical engineer

(ii) Veterinary medicine/Veterinary doctor
(iii) Medicine/Medical doctor/pharmacist/nurse
(iv) Beauty/Beautician
(v) Teaching/Chemistry teacher.
The School Chemistry Laboratory
Chemistry is studied mainly in a science room called a school chemistry
laboratory. The room is better ventilated than normal classroom. It has electricity,
gas and water taps. A school chemistry laboratory has a qualified professional
whose called Laboratory technician/assistant.
All students user in a school chemistry laboratory must consult the Laboratory
technician/assistant for all their laboratory work. A school chemistry laboratory has
chemicals and apparatus.
A chemical is a substance whose composition is known. All chemical are thus
labeled as they are. This is because whereas physically a substance may appear
similar, chemically they may be different.
All Chemicals which are not labeled should never be used. Some chemicals are
toxic/poisonous, explosive, corrosive, caustic, irritants, flammable, oxidizing,
carcinogenic, or radioactive.
Care should always be taken when handling any chemical which have any of the
above characteristic properties.
Common school chemistry laboratory chemicals include:
(i) Distilled water
(ii) Concentrated mineral acid which are very corrosive (on contact with skin
they cause painful open wounds)
(iii) Concentrated alkali/bases which are caustic (on contact with skin they
cause painful blisters)
(iv) Very many types of salts
The following safety guideline rules should be followed by chemistry laboratory
users:
(i) Enter the laboratory with permission in an orderly manner without
rushing/pushing/scrabbling.
(ii) Do not try unauthorized experiments. They may produce flammable,
explosive or toxic substances that affect your health.
(iii) Do not taste any chemical in the laboratory. They may be poisonous.
(iv) Waft gas fumes to your nose with your palm. Do not inhale/smell gases
directly. They may be highly poisonous/toxic.

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(v) Boil substances with mouth of the test tube facing away from others and
yourself. Boiling liquids spurt out portions of the hot liquid. Products of heating
solids may be a highly poisonous/toxic gas.
(vi) Wash with lots of water any skin contact with chemicals immediately.
Report immediately to teacher/laboratory technician any irritation, cut, burn, bruise
or feelings arising from laboratory work.
(vii) Read and follow safety instruction. All experiments that evolve/produce
poisonous gases should be done in the open or in a fume chamber.
(viii )Clean your laboratory work station after use. Wash your hand before
leaving the chemistry laboratory.
(ix) In case of fire, remain calm, switch of the source of fuel-gas tap. Leave
the laboratory through the emergency door. Use fire extinguishers near the
chemistry laboratory to put of medium fires. Leave strong fires wholly to
professional fire fighters.
(x) Do not carry unauthorized item from a chemistry laboratory.
An apparator /apparatus are scientific tools/equipment used in performing scientific
experiments. The conventional apparator used in performing scientific experiments
is called standard apparator/apparatus. If the conventional standard
apparator/apparatus is not available, an improvised apparator/apparatus may be
used in performing scientific experiments. An improvised apparator/apparatus is
one used in performing a scientific experiment for a standard apparator/apparatus.
Most standard apparatus in a school chemistry laboratory are made of glass
because:
(i)Glass is transparent and thus reactions /interactions inside are clearly
visible from outside
(ii) Glass is comparatively cheaper which reduces cost of equipping the
school chemistry laboratory
(iii) Glass is comparatively easy to clean/wash after use.
(iv) Glass is comparatively unreactive to many chemicals.
Apparatus are designed for the purpose they are intended in a school chemistry
laboratory:
(a) Apparatus for measuring volume
1. Measuring cylinder
Measuring cylinders are apparatus used to measure volume of liquid/ solutions.
They are calibrated/ graduated to measure any volume required to the maximum.
Measuring cylinders are named according to the maximum calibrated/graduated
volume e.g.

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“10ml” measuring cylinder is can hold maximum calibrated/graduated

volume of “10mililitres” /“10 cubic centimetres”
“50ml” measuring cylinder is can hold maximum calibrated/graduated
volume of “50mililitres” /“50 cubic centimetres”
“250ml” measuring cylinder is can hold maximum calibrated/graduated
volume of “250mililitres” /“250 cubic centimetres”
“1000ml” measuring cylinder is can hold maximum calibrated/graduated
volume of “1000mililitres” /“1000 cubic centimetres”
2. Burette
Burette is a long and narrow/thin apparatus used to measure small accurate and
exact volumes of a liquid solution. It must be clamped first on a stand before being
used. It has a tap to run out the required amount out. They are calibrated/ graduated
to run out small volume required to the maximum 50ml/50cm3.
The maximum 50ml/50cm3 calibration/ graduation reading is at the bottom .This
ensure the amount run out from a tap below can be determined directly from
burette reading before and after during volumetric analysis.
Burettes are expensive and care should be taken when using them.
3. (i) Pipette
Pipette is a long and narrow/thin apparatus that widens at the middle used to
measure and transfer small very accurate/exact volumes of a liquid solution.
It is open on either ends.
The maximum 25ml/25cm3 calibration/ graduation mark is a visible ring on one
thin end.
To fill a pipette to this mark, the user must suck up a liquid solution upto a level
above the mark then adjust to the mark using a finger.
This requires practice.
(ii) Pipette filler
Pipette filler is used to suck in a liquid solution into a pipette instead of using the
mouth. It has a suck, adjust and eject button for ensuring the exact volume is
attained. This requires practice.
4. Volumetric flask.
A volumetric flask is thin /narrow but widens at the base/bottom. It is used to
measure very accurate/exact volumes of a liquid solution.
The maximum calibration / graduation mark is a visible ring.
Volumetric flasks are named according to the maximum calibrated/graduated
volume e.g.

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“250ml” volumetric flask has a calibrated/graduated mark at exact volume of

“250mililitres” /“250centimetres”
“1l” volumetric flask has a calibrated/graduated mark at exact volume of “one litre”
/“1000 cubic centimeters”
“2l” volumetric flask has a calibrated/graduated mark at exact volume of “two
litres” /“2000 cubic centimeters”
5. Dropper/teat pipette
A dropper/teat pipette is a long thin/narrow glass/rubber apparatus that has a
flexible rubber head.
A dropper/teat pipette is used to measure very small amount/ drops of liquid
solution by pressing the flexible rubber head. The numbers of drops needed are
counted by pressing the rubber gently at a time
(b)Apparatus for measuring mass
1. Beam balance
A beam balance has a pan where a substance of unknown mass is placed. The
scales on the opposite end are adjusted to “balance” with the mass of the unknown
substance. The mass from a beam balance is in grams.
2. Electronic/electric balance.
An electronic/electric balance has a pan where a substance of unknown mass is
placed. The mass of the unknown substance in grams is available immediately on
the screen.

(c)Apparatus for measuring temperature

A thermometer has alcohol or mercury trapped in a bulb with a thin enclosed outlet
for the alcohol/mercury in the bulb.
If temperature rises in the bulb, the alcohol /mercury expand along the thin narrow
enclosed outlet.
The higher the temperature, the more the expansion
Outside, a calibration /graduation correspond to this expansion and thus changes in
temperature.
A thermometer therefore determines the temperature when the bulb is fully dipped
in to the substance being tested. To determine the temperature of solid is thus very
difficult.
(d)Apparatus for measuring time
The stop watch/clock is the standard apparatus for measuring time. Time is
measured using hours, minutes and second.

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Common school stop watch/clock has start, stop and reset button for determining
time for a chemical reaction. This requires practice.
(e) Apparatus for scooping
1. Spatula
A spatula is used to scoop solids which do not require accurate measurement. Both
ends of the spatula can be used at a time.
A solid scooped to the brim is “one spatula end full” A solid scooped to half brim
is “half spatula end full”.
2. Deflagrating spoon
A deflagrating spoon is used to scoop solids which do not require accurate
measurement mainly for heating. Unlike a spatula, a deflagrating spoon is longer.
(f) Apparatus for putting liquids/solid for heating.
1. Test tube.
A test tube is a narrow/thin glass apparatus open on one side. The end of the
opening is commonly called the “the mouth of the test tube”.
2. Boiling/ignition tube.
A boiling/ignition tube is a wide glass apparatus than a test tube open on one side.
The end of the opening is commonly called the “the mouth of the boiling/ignition
tube”.
3. Beaker.
Beaker is a wide calibrated/graduated lipped glass/plastic apparatus used for
transferring liquid solution which do not normally require very accurate
measurements
Beakers are named according to the maximum calibrated/graduated volume they
can hold e.g.
“250ml” beaker has a maximum calibrated/graduated volume of “250mililitres”
/“250 cubic centimeters”
“1l” beaker has a maximum calibrated/graduated volume of “one litre” /“1000
cubic centimeters”
“5 l” beaker has a maximum calibrated/graduated volume of “two litres” /“2000
cubic centimeters”
4. Conical flask.
A conical flask is a moderately narrow glass apparatus with a wide base and no
calibration/graduation. Conical flasks thus carry/hold exact volumes of liquids that
have been measured using other apparatus. It can also be put some solids. The
narrow mouth ensures no spillage.

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Conical flasks are named according to the maximum volume they can hold e.g.
“250ml” Conical flasks hold a maximum volume of “250mililitres” /“250 cubic
centimeters”
“500ml” Conical flasks hold a maximum volume of “500ml” /“1000 cubic
centimeters”
5. Round bottomed flask
A round bottomed flask is a moderately narrow glass apparatus with a wide round
base and no calibration/graduation. Round bottomed flask thus carry/hold exact
volumes of liquids that have been measured using other apparatus. The narrow/thin
mouth prevents spillage. The flask can also hold (weighed) solids. A round
bottomed flask must be held/ clamped when in use because of its wide narrow base.
6. Flat bottomed flask
A flat bottomed flask is a moderately narrow glass apparatus with a wide round
base with a small flat bottom. It has no calibration/graduation.
Flat bottomed flasks thus carry/hold exact volumes of liquids that have been
measured using other apparatus. The narrow/thin mouth prevents spirage. They can
also hold (weighed) solids. A flat bottomed flask must be held/ clamped when in
use because it’s flat narrow base is not stable.
(g) Apparatus for holding unstable apparatus (during heating).
1. Tripod stand
A tripod stand is a three legged metallic apparatus which unstable apparatus are
placed on (during heating).Beakers. Conical flasks, round bottomed flask and flat
bottomed flasks are placed on top of tripod stand (during heating).
2. Wire gauze/mesh
Wire gauze/mesh is a metallic/iron plate of wires crossings. It is placed on top of a
tripod stand:
(i) Ensure even distribution of heat to prevent cracking glass apparatus
(ii) Hold smaller apparatus that cannot reach the edges of tripod stand
3 Clamp stand
A clamp stand is a metallic apparatus which tightly hold apparatus at their “neck”
firmly.
A clamp stand has a wide metallic base that ensures maximum stability. The height
and position of clamping is variable. This require practice
4. Test tube holder
A test tube holder is a hand held metallic apparatus which tightly hold
test/boiling/ignition tube at their “neck” firmly on the other end.

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Some test tube holders have wooden handle that prevent heat conduction to the
hand during heating.
5. Pair of tong.
A pair of tong is a scissor-like hand held metallic apparatus which tightly hold
firmly a small solid sample on the other end.
6. Gas jar
A gas jar is a long wide glass apparatus with a wide base.
It is open on one end. It is used to collect/put gases.
This requires practice.
(h) Apparatus for holding/directing liquid solutions/funnels (to avoid spillage).
1. Filter funnel
A filter funnel is a wide mouthed (mainly plastic) apparatus that narrow drastically
at the bottom to a long extension.
When the long extension is placed on top of another apparatus, a liquid solution can
safely be directed through the wide mouth of the filter funnel into the apparatus
without spirage.
Filter funnel is also used to place a filter paper during filtration.
2. Thistle funnel
A thistle funnel is a wide mouthed glass apparatus that narrow drastically at the
bottom to a very long extension.
The long extension is usually drilled through a stopper/cork.
A liquid solution can thus be directed into a stoppered container without spillage
3. Dropping funnel
A dropping funnel is a wide mouthed glass apparatus with a tap that narrow
drastically at the bottom to a very long extension.
The long extension is usually drilled through a stopper/cork.
A liquid solution can thus be directed into a stoppered container without spillage at
the rate determined by adjusting the tap.
4. Separating funnel
A separating funnel is a wide mouthed glass apparatus with a tap at the bottom
narrow extension.
A liquid solution can thus be directed into a separating funnel without spillage. It
can also safely be removed from the funnel by opening the tap.
It is used to separate two or more liquid solution mixtures that form
layers/immiscible. This requires practice.

(h) Apparatus for heating/Burners

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1. Candle, spirit burner, kerosene stove, charcoal burner/jiko are some apparatus
that can be used for heating.
Any flammable fuel when put in a container and ignited can produce some heat.
2. Bunsen burner
The Bunsen burner is the standard apparatus for heating in a Chemistry school
laboratory.
It was discovered by the German Scientist Robert Wilhelm Bunsen in1854.
(a)Diagram of a Bunsen burner

A Bunsen burner uses butane/laboratory gas as the fuel. The butane/laboratory gas
is highly flammable and thus usually stored safely in a secure chamber outside
Chemistry school laboratory. It is tapped and distributed into the laboratory through
gas pipes.
The gas pipes end at the gas tap on a chemistry laboratory bench .If opened the gas
tap releases butane/laboratory gas. Butane/laboratory gas has a characteristic
odor/smell that alerts leakages/open gas tap.
The Bunsen burner is fixed to the gas tap using a strong rubber tube.
The Bunsen burner is made up of the following parts:
(i) Base plate –to ensure the burner can stand on its own
(ii)Jet-a hole through which laboratory gas enters the burner
(iii)Collar/sleeve-adjustable circular metal attached to the main chimney/burell with
a side hole/entry. It controls the amount of air entering used during burning.

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(iv)Air hole- a hole/entry formed when the collar side hole is in line with chimney
side hole. If the collar side hole is not in line with chimney side hole, the air hole is
said to be “closed” If the collar side hole is in line with chimney side hole, the air
hole is said to be “open”
(v)Chimney- tall round metallic rod attached to the base plate.
(b)Procedure for lighting/igniting a Bunsen burner
1. Adjust the collar to ensure the air holes are closed.
2. Connect the burner to the gas tap using a rubber tubing. Ensure the rubber tubing
has no side leaks.
3. Turn on the gas tap.
4. Ignite the top of the chimney using a lighted match stick/gas lighter/wooden
splint.
5. Do not delay excessively procedure (iv) from (iii) to prevent highly flammable
laboratory gas from escaping/leaking.
(c)Bunsen burner flames
A Bunsen burner produces two types of flames depending on the amount of air
entering through the air holes.
If the air holes are fully open, a non luminous flame is produced. If the air holes
are fully closed, a luminous flame is produced. If the air holes are partially open/
closed, a hybrid of non luminous and luminous flames is produced.
Characteristic differences between luminous and non-luminous flame
Luminous flame Non-luminous flame

1. Produced when the air holes are 1. Produced when the air holes are
fully/completely closed. fully/completely open.

2. when the air holes are fully/ 2.when the air holes are fully/
completely closed there is completely open there is complete
incomplete burning/ combustion of burning/ combustion of the laboratory
the laboratory gas gas

3. Incomplete burning/ combustion of 3. Complete burning/ combustion of

the laboratory gas produces fine the laboratory gas does not produce
unburnt carbon particles which make carbon particles. This makes the
the flame sooty/smoky flame non-sooty /non- smoky.
4. Some carbon particles become 4. Is mainly blue in colour and is
white hot and emit light. This flame hotter than luminous flame. This

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is thus bright yellow in colour makes non-luminous flame useful for

producing light. This makes heating
luminous flame useful for lighting
5. Is larger, quiet and wavy/easily 5.Is smaller, noisy and steady
swayed by wind

Luminous flame has three main Non-luminous flame has four main
regions: regions:
(i)the top yellow region where there (i)the top colourless region
is incomplete combustion/burning (ii) Blue region just below where
(ii)the region of unburnt gas below there is complete burning. It is the
the yellow region where the gas does hottest region
not burn (iii) green region surrounded by the
(iii) blue region on the sides of blue region where there is complete
region of unburnt gas where there is burning
complete burning (Ii) The region of unburnt gas at the
innermost surrounded by green and
blue regions. No burning takes place
here

Scientific apparatus are drawn:

(i) Using a proportional two dimension (2D) cross-sections. Three dimensions (3D)
are not recommended.
(ii) Straight edges of the apparatus on a scientific diagram should be drawn using
ruler.
(iii) Curved edges of the apparatus on a scientific diagram should be drawn using
free hand.
(iv)The bench, tripod or clamp to support apparatus which cannot stand on their
own should be shown.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTANCES
Substances are either pure or impure. A pure substance is one which contains only
one substance.
An impure substance is one which contains two or more substances. A pure
substance is made up of a pure solid, pure liquid or pure gas.
A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances which can be separated
by physical means. The three states of matter in nature appear mainly as mixtures
of one with the other.

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Common mixtures include:

(a)Solutions/solid-liquid dissolved mixture
Experiment:
To make a solution of copper (II) sulphate (VI)/Potassium magnate(VII) /sodium
chloride
Procedure
Put about 100 cm3 of water in three separate beakers. Separately place a half
spatula end full of copper (II) sulphate (VI), Potassium manganate (VII) and
sodium chloride crystals to each beaker. Stir for about two minutes.
Observation
Copper (II) sulphate (VI) crystals dissolve to form a blue solution
Potassium manganate (VII) crystals dissolve to form a purple solution
Sodium chloride crystals dissolve to form a colourless solution
Explanation
Some solids, liquids and gases dissolve in some other liquids.
A substance/liquid in which another substance dissolves is called solvent.
A substance /solid /gas which dissolves in a solvent is called solute.
When a solute dissolves in a solvent it forms a uniform mixture called solution.
A solute dissolved in water as the solvent exists in another state of matter called
aqueous state. Water is referred as the universal solvent because it dissolves
many solutes. A solute that dissolves in a solvent is said to be soluble. Soluble
particles uniformly spread between the particles of water/solvent and cannot be
seen.
Solute + Solvent -> solution
Solute + Water -> aqueous solution of solute

The solute dissolved in water gives the name of the solution e. g.

1. Sodium chloride solution is a solution formed after dissolving sodium chloride
crystals/solid in water. Sodium chloride exists in aqueous state after dissolving.
Sodium chloride + Water -> Sodium chloride solution
NaCl(s) + (aq) -> NaCl(aq)
2. Ammonia solution is a solution formed after dissolving ammonia gas in water.
Ammonia exists in aqueous state after dissolving.
Ammonia gas + Water -> aqueous ammonia
NH3 (g) + (aq) -> NH3 (aq)

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3. Copper (II) sulphate (VI) solution is a solution formed after dissolving Copper
(II) sulphate (VI) crystals/solid in water. Copper (II) sulphate (VI) exists in aqueous
state after dissolving.
Copper (II) sulphate (VI) + Water -> Copper (II) sulphate (VI)
solution
CuSO4(s) + (aq) -> CuSO4 (aq)
4. Potassium manganate(VII) solution is a solution formed after dissolving
Potassium manganate(VII) crystals/solid in water.
Potassium manganate(VII)exist in aqueous state after dissolving.
Potassium manganate(VII) + Water -> Potassium manganate(VII) solution
KMnO4(s) + (aq) -> KMnO4 (aq)
(b)Suspension/ precipitates/solid-liquid mixture which do not dissolve
Experiment: To make soil, flour and Lead (II) Iodide suspension/precipitate
Procedure
Put about 100 cm3 of water in three separate beakers. Separately place a half
spatula end full of soil, maize and lead (II) Iodide to each beaker. Stir for about two
minutes.

Observation
Some soil, maize and lead (II) Iodide float in the water
A brown suspension/precipitate/particles suspended in water containing soil
A white suspension/precipitate/particles suspended in water containing flour
A yellow suspension/precipitate/particles suspended in water containing Lead (II)
iodide. Some soil, maize and lead (II) Iodide settle at the bottom after some time.
Explanation
Some solid substances do not dissolve in a liquid. They are said to be insoluble in
the solvent .When an insoluble solid is put in liquid:
(i) Some particles remain suspended/floating in the liquid to form a suspension
/precipitate.
(ii) Some particles sink/settle to the bottom to form sediments after being
allowed to stand.
An insoluble solid acquire the colour of the suspension/precipitate .e.g.
1. A white suspension /precipitate have some fine white particles suspended
/floating in the liquid. Not “white solution”
2. A blue suspension /precipitate has some fine blue particles suspended /floating
in the liquid.

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3. A green suspension /precipitate has some fine green particles suspended

/floating in the liquid.
4. A brown suspension /precipitate has some fine brown particles suspended
/floating in the liquid.
4. A yellow suspension /precipitate has some fine yellow particles suspended
/floating in the liquid.
(c) (i) Miscibles /Liquid-liquid mixtures
To form water-ethanol and Kerosene-turpentine miscibles
Procedure
(i)Measure 50cm3 of ethanol into 100cm3 beaker. Measure 50cm3 of water. Place
the water into the beaker containing ethanol. Swirl for about one minute.
(ii)Measure 50cm3 of kerosene into 100cm3 beaker. Measure 50cm3 of turpentine
oil. Place the turpentine oil into the beaker containing kerosene. Swirl for about one
minute.
Observation
Two liquids do not form layers.
Ethanol and water form a uniform mixture.
Kerosene and turpentine oil form uniform mixture
Explanation
Ethanol is miscible in Water. Kerosene is miscible in turpentine oil. Miscible
mixture form uniform mixture. They do not form layers. The particles of one liquid
are smaller than the particles of the other. The smaller particles occupy the spaces
between the bigger particles.
(iii) Immiscibles /Liquid-liquid mixtures
To form water-turpentine oil and Kerosene-water miscibles
Procedure
(i)Measure 50cm3 of water into 100cm3 beaker. Measure 50cm3 of turpentine oil.
Place the oil into the beaker containing water. Swirl for about one minute.
(ii) Measure 50cm3 of water into 100cm3 beaker. Measure 50cm3 of kerosene.
Place the kerosene into the beaker containing water. Swirl for about one minute.
Observation
Two liquids form layers.
Turpentine and water do not form a uniform mixture.
Water and kerosene do not form uniform mixture
Explanation

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Kerosene is immiscible in Water. Water is immiscible in turpentine oil. Immiscible

mixtures do not form uniform mixtures. They form layers. The size of the particles
of one liquid is almost equal to the particles of the other. The particles of one liquid
cannot occupy the spaces between the particles of the other. The heavier particles
settle at the bottom. The less dense particles settle on top.
(d)Solid-solid mixtures/Alloys
Before solidifying, some heated molten/liquid metals dissolve in another metal to
form a uniform mixture of the two. On solidifying, a uniform mixture of the metals
is formed. A uniform mixture of two metals on solidifying is called alloy. In the
alloy, one metallic particle occupies the spaces between the metallic particles of the
other.
c) Common alloys of metal.
Alloy name Constituents of the Uses of the alloy
alloy
Brass Copper and Zinc Making screws and bulb caps

Bronze Copper and Tin Making clock springs, electrical

contacts and copper coins

Soldier Lead and Tin Soldering, joining electrical contacts

because of its low melting points and
high thermal conductivity

Duralumin Aluminum, Copper and Making aircraft, utensils, and windows

Magnesium frames because of its light weight and
corrosion resistant.

Steel Iron, Carbon Railway lines, car bodies girders and

,Manganese and other utensils.
metals
Nichrome Nichrome and Provide resistance in electric heaters
Chromium and ovens

German silver Copper, Zinc and Nickel Making coins

METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES

Mixtures can be separated from applying the following methods:

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(a) Decantation
Sediments can be separated from a liquid by pouring out the liquid. This process is
called decantation.
Experiment
Put some sand in a beaker. Add about 200cm3 of water. Allow sand to settle. Pour
off water carefully into another beaker.
Observation
Sand settles at the bottom as sediments.
Less clean water is poured out.
Explanation
Sand does not dissolve in water. Sand is denser than water and thus settles at the
bottom as sediment. When poured out, the less dense water flows out.
(b)Filtration
Decantation leaves suspended particles in the liquid after separation. Filtration is
thus improved decantation.Filtration is the method of separating insoluble
mixtures/particles/solids from a liquid.
Experiment: To separate soil and water using filtration
Fold a filter paper to fit well into a filter funnel. Place the funnel in an empty 250
cm3 beaker.
Put one spatula end full of soil into 50cm3 of water. Stir. Put the soil/water mixture
into the filter funnel.
Observations
Clean water is collected below the filter funnel.
Soil remains above the filter paper.
Explanation
A filter paper is porous which act like a fine sieve with very small holes. The holes
allow smaller water particles to pass through but do not allow bigger soil particles.
The liquid which passes through is called filtrate. The solid which do not pass
through is called residue.
Set up of apparatus

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In industries, filtration is used in engine filters to clean up air.

(c)Evaporation
Evaporation is a method of separating a solute/solid from its solution. This involves
heating a solution (solvent and solute)to vapourize the solvent out of the solution
mixture leaving pure solute/solid. If a mixture contain insoluble solid, they are
filtered out.

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Experiment: To separate a mixture of soil and salt (sodium chloride).

Procedure:
Put one spatula end full of soil on a filter paper.
Put one spatula full of common salt/sodium chloride into the same filter paper. Mix
well using the spatula,.
Place about 200cm3 of water into a beaker.
Put the contents of the filter paper into the water. Stir thoroughly using a
glass/stirring rod for about one minute.
Fold a filter paper into a filter funnel.
Pour half portion of the contents in the beaker into the filter funnel.
Put the filtrate into an evaporating dish. Heat on a water bath.
Observation
(i)On mixing
Colourless crystals and brown soil particles appear on the filter paper.
(ii)On adding water
Common soil dissolves in water. Soil particles do not dissolve in water.
(iii)On filtration
Colourless liquid collected as filtrate below the filter funnel/paper.
Brown residue collected above the filter funnel/paper.
(iv)On evaporation
Colourless crystals collected after evaporation
Explanation
Solid mixture of sand and common salt take the colors of the two.
On adding water, common salt dissolves to form a solution.
Soil does not because it is insoluble in water and thus forms a suspension.
On filtration, a residue of insoluble soil does not pass through the filter paper.
It is collected as residue.
Common salt solution is collected as filtrate.
On heating the filtrate, the solvent/water evaporate/vaporize out of the evaporating
dish leaving common salt crystals.
Vapourization/evaporation can take place even without heating.
This is the principle/process of drying wet clothes on the hanging line.

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Set up of apparatus

(d) Distillation
Distillation is an improved evaporation where both the solute and the solvent in the
solution are separated /collected. Distillation therefore is the process of separating a
solution into constituent solid solute and the solvent. It involves heating the
solution to evaporate/vaporize the solvent out. The solvent vapour is then
condensed back to a liquid.
Experiment: To obtain copper (II) sulphate (VI) crystals and water from
copper (II) sulphate (VI) solution.
Procedure:
Put one spatula end full of copper (II) sulphate (VI) crystals into a 250cm3 beaker.
Place about 200cm3 of water into the beaker.
Stir thoroughly using a glass/stirring rod for about one minute.
Pour half portion of the contents in the beaker into a round bottomed/flat/conical
flask broken porcelain/sand/glass into the flask.
Put a few pieces of b Stopper the flask.
Connect the flask to a Liebig condenser using delivery tube.
Place a 200cm3 clean empty beaker/conical flask as a receiver at the end of the
Liebig condenser.
Circulate water in the Liebig condenser.
Heat the flask strongly on a tripod stand with wire mesh/gauze until there is no
more visible boiling bubbles in the flask.
Observation

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Copper (II) sulphate (VI) crystals dissolve in water to form a blue solution.
On heating, colourless liquid is collected in the receiver.
Blue crystals are left in the flask.
(If gently heated further, the blue crystals turn to white powder)
Explanation
On heating blue Copper (II) sulphate (VI) solution, the colourless liquid solvents
evaporate/vaporize.
The liquid vapour/gas passes through the delivery tube to the Liebig condenser.
The Liebig condenser has a cold water inlet near the receiver and cold water out
let.
This ensures efficient cooling. If the cold water outlet/inlet is reversed, the water
circulation would be less efficient.
The water in the receiver would be warm. In the Liebig condenser, the cold water
condenses the liquid vapour into liquid.
The condensed liquid collects in the receiver as distillate.
The solute of blue Copper (II) sulphate (VI) crystals is left in the flask as residue.
During simple distillation, therefore, the solution is heated to vaporize /evaporate
the solvent/one component which is condensed at a different part of the apparatus.
The purpose of pieces of broken porcelain/porous pot/glass/sand/ is to:
(i) Prevent bumping of the solution during boiling.
(ii) Ensure smooth and even boiling.
Salty sea water can be made pure through simple distillation.
Any mixture with a large difference /40oC in boiling point can be separated using
simple distillation.
Set up of apparatus

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e)Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation is an improved simple distillation used specifically to
separate miscible mixtures with very close /near boiling points.
Fractional distillation involves:
(i) Heating the mixture in a conical/round bottomed /flat bottomed flask.
The pure substance with a lower boiling point and thus more volatile
evaporates/boils/vaporize first.e.g. Pure ethanol has a boiling point of 78oC.Pure
water has a boiling point of 100 oC at sea level/one atmosphere pressure.
When a miscible mixture of ethanol and water is heated, ethanol vaporizes /boils/
evaporates first because it is more volatile.
(ii)The conical/round bottomed /flat bottomed flask is connected to a long glass
tube called fractionating column.
The purpose of the fractionating column is to offer areas of condensation for the
less volatile pure mixture.
The fractionating column is packed with glass beads/broken glass/ porcelain/
shelves to increase the surface area of condensation of the less volatile pure
mixture.
(iii)When the vapors rise they condense on the glass beads/broken glass /porcelain /
shelves which become hot.

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When the temperature of the glass beads/broken glass/porcelain/shelves is beyond

the boiling point of the less volatile pure substance, the pure substance rise and
condensation take place on the glass beads/broken glass/porcelain/shelves at a
higher level on the fractionating column.
The less volatile pure substance trickles/drips back down the fractionating column
or back into the conical/round bottomed /flat bottomed flask to be heated again. e.g.
If the temperature on glass beads/broken glass/porcelain/shelves is beyond 78oC,
the more volatile pure ethanol rise to condense on the glass beads/broken glass
/porcelain/shelves higher in the fractionating column.
Water condenses and then drip/trickle to the glass beads/broken glass /porcelain
/shelves lower in the fractionating column because it is less volatile.
(iv) The fractionating column is connected to a Liebig condenser. The Liebig
condenser has a cold water inlet and outlet circulation.
The more volatile mixture that reach the top of the fractionating column is
condenses by the Liebig condenser into a receiver. It is collected as the first
fraction.
(v)At the top of the fractionating column, a thermometer is placed to note/monitor
the temperature of the boiling mixtures.
Pure substances have constant/fixed boiling point. When one mixture is completely
separated, the thermometer reading rises.
E.g. the thermometer reading remains at78oC when ethanol is being separated.
When no more ethanol is being separated, the mercury/alcohol level in the
thermometer rises.
(vi)The second /subsequent fractions are collected in the receiver after noting a rise
the mercury/alcohol level in the thermometer.
E.g. the thermometer reading rises to 100oC when water is being separated. It is
passed through the Liebig condenser with the cold water inlet and outlet
circulation. It is collected different receiver as the second/subsequent fraction.
(vii)Each fraction collected should be confirmed from known physical/chemical
properties/characteristic.
Example
Ethanol
Ethanol is a colourless liquid that has a characteristic smell .When it is put in a
watch glass then ignited, it catches fire and burn with a blue flame.
Water
Water is a colourless liquid that has no smell/odour .When it is put in a watch glass
then ignited, it does not catch fire.

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Set up of apparatus

Industrial application of Fractional distillation

On a large scale,fractional distillation is used:
(i)In fractional distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery.
Crude oil is a mixture of many fractions. When heated in a furnace, the different
fractions separate out according to their boiling point. In Kenya,fractional
distillation takes place at Changamwe in Mombasa.
(ii)In fractional distillation of air.
Air contain a mixture of three main useful gases which are condensed by cooling to
very low temperature (-200oC) to form a liquid. The liquid is then heated. Nitrogen
is the most volatile (-196 oC) and thus comes out as the first fraction. Argon (at -
186 oC) is the second fraction. Oxygen ( at -183 oC) is the last fraction. The three
gases are very useful industrial gases.

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(f)Separation of immiscibles (Using a separating funnel)

Two or more liquids that form layers on mixing are immiscible. Immiscible
mixture arrange themselves according to their densities
i.e. The denser liquid sink to the bottom. The less dense liquid floats on the denser
one. Immicible mixtures can be separated from each other by using a separating
funnel.
Experiment: To separate an immiscible mixture of paraffin and water.
Procedure
Place about 100cm3 of water into a 250cm3 beaker. Add about 100cm3 of paraffin
into the beaker. Stir.
Transfer the mixture into a separating funnel. Allow to settle for about one minute.
Open the tap, run out the lower layer out slowly into a clean beaker. Close the tap
when the upper layer is very close to the tap.
Run out the intermediate small amount of the mixture near the tap into a beaker.
Discard it.
Run out the remaining upper layer into a fresh beaker.
Place a portion of upper and lower layer into a watch glass separately after
separating each. Ignite.
Observation
Water and paraffin are both colourless liquids.
Two layers are formed on mixing.

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Colourless odorless liquid collected first. It does not catch fire.

A colourless liquid with characteristic smell collected later/second. It catches fire
and burn with a yellow smoky flame.
Explanation
Water and paraffin are immiscible. Water is denser than paraffin. When put in a
separating funnel, paraffin float on water. On opening the tap, water runs out. A
mixture of water and paraffin at the junction of the two is discarded. It is not pure.
Set up of apparatus

(g)Sublimation/deposition
Some solids on heating do not melt to a liquid but change directly to a gas. The
process by which a solid changes to a gas is called sublimation. The gas cools
back and changes directly to a solid. The process by which a gas changes to a solid
is called deposition. Sublimation and deposition therefore are the same but
opposite processes.

GAS

Sublimation Deposition

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SOLID

Some common substances that undergo sublimation/ deposition include:

(i)Iodine (ii)Carbon(IV)oxide (iii)Camphor (iv)
ammonium chloride (v)Iron(III)chloride (vi)Aluminum(III)chloride
(vii) benzoic acid
If a mixture has any of the above as a component, then on heating it will change to
a gas and be deposited away from the source of heating.
Procedure
Place about one spatula full of ammonium chloride crystals into a clean dry
100cm3 beaker. Add equal amount of sodium chloride crystals into the beaker.
Swirl to mix.
Place the beaker on a tripod stand.
Put about 100cm3 of water into another beaker. Place carefully the beaker
containing water on top of the beaker containing the solid mixture. Light/ignite a
burner and heat the solid.
Set up of apparatus:

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Observation
(i)With ammonium chloride/common salt mixture
White fumes produced.
White sublimate deposited
Colourless residue left
(ii)With Iodine/common salt mixture
Purple fumes produced.
Dark grey sublimate deposited
Colourless residue left
Explanation
(i)On heating a mixture of ammonium chloride and common salt, a white fume of
ammonium chloride is produced. The white fumes solidify as white sublimate on
the cooler parts. Common salt remains as residue.
Chemical equation:
Ammonium chloride solid Ammonium chloride gas

NH4Cl(s) NH4Cl(g)
(ii)On heating a mixture of Iodine and common salt, a purple fume of Iodine
vapour is produced. The purple fumes solidify as dark grey sublimate on the cooler
parts. Common salt remains as residue.

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Chemical equation:
Iodine solid Iodine gas

I2(s) I2 (g)
(h)Chromatography
Chromatography is a method of separating components of a solution mixture by
passing it through a medium where the different components move at different
rates. The medium through which the solution mixture is passed is called
absorbent material.
Paper chromatography is a method of separating colored dyes by using paper as the
absorbent material.
Since dyes are insoluble/do not dissolve in water, ethanol and propanone are used
as suitable solvents for dissolving the dye.
Practically, a simple paper chromatography involve placing a dye/material on the
absorbent material, adding slowly a suitable soluble solvent on the dye/material
using a dropper, the solvent spread out on the absorbent material carrying the
soluble dye away from the origin.
The spot on which the dye is initially/originally placed is called baseline. The
farthest point the solvent spread is called solvent front.
The farthest a dye can be spread by the solvent depend on:
(i) Density of the dye-the denser the dye, the less it spread from the basely ne
by the solvent.
(ii) Stickiness of the dye-some dyes sticks on the absorbent material more
than other thus do not spread far from baseline.
Experiment: To investigate the colors in ink
Procedure
Method 1
Place a filter paper on an empty beaker. Put a drop of black/blue ink in the centre of
the filter paper. Wait for about one minute for the ink drop to spread. Using a clean
teat pipette/dropper add one drop of ethanol/propanone. Wait for about one minute
for the ink drop to spread further. Add about twenty other drops of ethanol waiting
for about one minute before each addition. Allow the filter paper to dry.
Experiment: To investigate the colors in ink
Procedure
Method 2

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Cut an 8 centimeter thin strip of a filter paper. At about 3cm on the strip, place a
drop of ink. Place the filter paper in a 10cm length boiling tube containing 5cm3 of
ethanol. Ensure the cut strip of the filter paper just dips into the ethanol towards the
ink mark. Cover the boiling tube. Wait for about twenty minutes. Remove the
boiling tube and allow the filter paper to dry.
Set up of apparatus
Method 1

Set up of apparatus
Method 2

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Explanation
When a drop of ink is placed on an absorbent material it sticks. On adding an
eluting solvent, it dissolves the dye spread out with it. The denser and sticky pure
dye move least. The least dense/sticky pure dye move farthest. A pure dye will
produce the same chromatogram/spot if the same eluting solvent is used on the
same absorbent material. Comparing the distance moved by a pure dye with a
mixture, the coloured dyes in a mixture can be deduced as below:
Example 1
The chromatogram of pure dyes A, B ,C and a dye mixture D is shown below
Determine the pure dyes present in D. On the diagram show:
(i)the solvent front
(ii) Baseline
(Iii) the most soluble pure dye

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(i) Solvent extraction

Solvent extraction is a method of separating oil from nuts/seeds. Most nuts contain
oil. First the nuts are crushed to reduce their size and increase the surface area. A
suitable volatile solvent is added. The mixture is filtered. The filtrate solvent is then
allowed to crystallize leaving the oil/fat. If a filter paper is rubbed/smeared with the
oil/fat, it becomes translucent. This is the test for the presence of oil/fat.
Experiment: To extract oil from Macadamia nut seeds
Procedure
Crush Macadamia nut seeds form the hard outer cover .Place the inner soft seed
into a mortar. Crush (add a little sand to assist in crushing).
Add a little propanone and continue crushing. Continue crushing and adding a little
propanone until there is more liquid mixture than the solid. Decant/filter. Put the
filtrate into an evaporating dish. Vapourize the solvent using solar energy /sunlight.
Smear/rub a portion of the residue left after evaporation on a clean dry filter paper.
Observation /Explanation
Propanone dissolve fat/oil in the macadamia nuts. Propanone is more volatile
(lower boiling point) than oil/fat. In sunlight/solar energy, propanone
evaporate/vaporize leaving oil/fat(has a higher boiling point).Any seed like corn,
wheat , rice, soya bean may be used instead of macadamia seed. When oil/fat is
rubbed/ smeared on an opaque paper, it becomes translucent.

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(j) Crystallization
Crystallization is the process of using solubility of a solute/solid to obtain the
solute/solid crystals from a saturated solution by cooling or heating the solution.
A crystal is the smallest regular shaped particle of a solute. Every solute has unique
shape of its crystals.
Some solutions form crystals when heated. This is because less solute dissolves at
higher temperature. Some other solutions form crystals when cooled. This is
because less solute dissolves at lower temperature.
Experiment; To crystallize copper (II) sulphate (VI) solution
Procedure:
Place about one spatula full of hydrated copper sulphate (VI) crystals into 200cm3
of distilled water in a beaker. Stir. Continue adding a little more of the hydrated
copper sulphate (VI) crystals and stirring until no more dissolve. Decant/filter.
Cover the filtrate with a filter paper. Pierce and make small holes on the filter paper
cover. Preserve the experiment for about seven days.
Observation/Explanation
Large blue crystals formed
When hydrated copper (II) sulphate crystals are placed in water, they dissolve to
form copper (II) sulphate solution. After some days water slowly evaporate leaving
large crystals of copper (II) sulphate. If the mixture is heated to dryness, small
crystals are formed.
Physical/Temporary and Chemical changes
A physical/temporary change is one which no new substance is formed and is
reversible back to original.
A chemical/permanent change is one which a new substance is formed and is
irreversible back to original.
The following experiments illustrates physical and chemical changes
(a)Heating ice
Place about 10g of pure ice in a beaker. Determine its temperature. Record it at
time “0.0” in the table below. Heat the ice on a strong Bunsen flame and determine
its temperature after every 60seconds/1minute to complete the table below:
Time/minutes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Temperature -2 0 0 40 80 90 95 95 96
(oC)
Plot a graph of time against Temperature (y-axes)
Explain the shape of your graph

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Melting/freezing/fusion/solidification and boiling /vaporization /evaporation

are the two physical processes.
Melting /freezing point of pure substances is fixed /constant.
The boiling point of pure substance depends on external atmospheric pressure.
Melting/fusion is the physical change of a solid to liquid.
Freezing is the physical change of a liquid to solid.
Melting/freezing/fusion/solidification is therefore two opposite but same reversible
physical processes i.e.
A (s) A (l)
Boiling/vaporization/evaporation is the physical change of a liquid to gas.
Condensation/ liquidification is the physical change of gas to liquid.
Boiling/vaporization/evaporation and condensation/ liquidification are therefore
two opposite but same reversible physical processes i.e.
B (l) B(g)
Practically
(i) Melting/liquidification/fusion involves heating a solid to weaken the strong
bonds holding the solid particles together.
Solids are made up of very strong bonds holding the particles very close to each
other (Kinetic Theory of matter).
On heating these particles gain energy/heat from the surrounding heat source to
form a liquid with weaker bonds holding the particles close together but with some
degree of freedom.
(ii)Freezing/fusion/solidification involves cooling a liquid to reform /rejoin the very
strong bonds to hold the particles very close to each other as solid and thus lose
their degree of freedom (Kinetic Theory of matter).
Freezing /fusion / solidification is an exothermic (-∆H) process that require
particles holding the liquid together to lose energy to the surrounding.
(iii)Boiling/vaporization/evaporation involves heating a liquid to completely
break/free the bonds holding the liquid particles together.
Gaseous particles have high degree of freedom (Kinetic Theory of matter).
Boiling /vaporization / evaporation is an endothermic (+∆H) process that
require/absorb energy from the surrounding.
(iv)Condensation/liquidification is reverse process of boiling /vaporization /
evaporation.
It involves gaseous particles losing energy to the surrounding to form a liquid.

AIR OXYGEN AND COMBUSTION

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A.THE ATMOSPHERE
1. The atmosphere is made up of air. Air is a mixture of colourless, odorless gases
which is felt as wind (air in motion).All living things breath in air for respiration.
Plants use air for respiration and photosynthesis.
2. The main gases present in the atmosphere/air:

Gas Approximate % composition by volume

Nitrogen 78.0
Oxygen 21.0
Carbon(IV)oxide 0.03
Noble gases 1.0
Water vapour Vary from region

3. The following experiments below shows the presence and composition of the
gases in air/atmosphere

(a)To find the composition of air supporting combustion using a candle stick

Procedure
Measure the length of an empty gas jar M1. Place a candle stick on a Petri dish.
Float it on water in basin/trough. Cover it with the gas jar. Mark the level of the
water in the gas jar M2. Remove the gas jar. Light the candle sick. Carefully cover
it with the gas jar. Observe for two minutes. Mark the new level of the water M3.
Set up of apparatus

Sample observations

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Candle continues to burn then extinguished/goes off

Level of water in the gas jar rises after igniting the candle
Length of empty gas jar = M1= 14cm
Length of gas jar without water before igniting candle = M2= 10 cm
Length of gas jar with water before igniting candle = M1 - M2= 14- 10 = 4 cm
Length of gas jar with water after igniting candle = M3 = 8 cm
Length of gas jar without water after igniting candle = M1 - M3 = 10 -8 = 2 cm
Explanation
Candle burns in air. In a closed system (vessel), the candle continues to burn using
the part of air that support burning/combustion. This is called the active part of
air. The candle goes off/extinguished when all the active part of air is used up. The
level of the water rises to occupy the space /volume occupied by the used active
part of air.
The experiment is better when very dilute sodium/potassium hydroxide is used
instead of water. Dilute Potassium/ sodium hydroxide absorb Carbon (IV) oxide
gas that comes out from burning/combustion of candle stick.
From the experiment above the % composition of the:
(i) Active part of air can be calculated:
M2 - M3 x 100% => 10- 8 x 100% = 20%
M2 10cm
(ii) Inactive part of air can be calculated:
100% -20% = 80% // M3 => 8 x 100% = 80%
M2 10cm
(b)To find the composition of active part of air using heated copper turnings.
Procedure
Clamp a completely packed/filled open ended glass tube with copper turnings. Seal
the ends with glass/cotton wool.
Label two graduated syringes as “A” and “B” Push out air from syringe “A”. Pull
in air into syringe “B”.
Attach both syringe “A” and “B” on opposite ends of the glass tube.
Determine and record the volume of air in syringe “B” V1.
Heat the glass tube strongly for about three minutes.
Push all the air slowly from syringe “B” to syringe “A” as heating continues. Push
all the air slowly from syringe “A” back to syringe “B” and repeatedly back and
forth.
After about ten minutes, determine the new volume of air in syringe “B” V2
Set up of apparatus

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Sample observations
Colour change from brown to black
Volume of air in syringe “B” before heating V1 = 158.0cm3
Volume of air in syringe “B” after heating V2 = 127.2cm3
Volume of air in syringe “B” used by copper V1 - V2 = 30.8cm3

Sample questions
1. What is the purpose of:
(i) glass/cotton wool
To prevent/stop copper turnings from being blown into the syringe/out of the glass
tube
(ii) Passing air through the glass tube repeatedly
To ensure all the active part of air is used up
(iii) Passing air through the glass tube slowly
To allow enough time of contact between the active part of and the heated copper
turnings
2. State and explain the observations made in the glass tube.
Colour change from brown to black
Brown copper metal reacts with the active part of air/oxygen to form black copper
(II) oxide.
Chemical equation
Copper + Oxygen -> Copper (II) oxide
2Cu(s) + O2 (g) -> 2CuO(s)

The reaction reduces the amount/volume of oxygen in syringe “B” leaving the
inactive part of air. Copper only react with oxygen when heated.
3. Calculate the % of

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(i) Active part of air

% active part of air = V1 - V2 x 100% => 30.8cm3 x 100% = 19.493%
V1 158.0cm3
(ii) Inactive part of air
Method 1
% inactive part of air = V2 x 100% =>127.2cm3 x 100% = 80.506%
V1 158.0cm3
Method 2
% inactive part of air = 100% -% active part of air
=> 100 % - 19.493 % = 80.507%
4. The % of active part of air is theoretically higher than the above while % of
inactive part of air is theoretically lower than the above. Explain.
Not all the active part of air reacted with copper
5. State the main gases that constitute:
(a )active part of air.
Oxygen

(b) Inactive part of air

Nitrogen, carbon (IV) oxide and noble gases

6. If the copper turnings are replaced with magnesium shavings the % of

active part of air obtained is extraordinary very high. Explain.
Magnesium is more reactive than copper. The reaction is highly exothermic. It
generates enough heat for magnesium to react with both oxygen and nitrogen in the
air.
A white solid/ash mixture of Magnesium oxide and Magnesium nitride is formed.
This considerably reduces the volume of air left after the experiment.
Chemical equation
Magnesium + Oxygen -> magnesium (II) oxide
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) -> 2MgO(s)
Magnesium + Nitrogen -> magnesium (II) nitride
3Mg(s) + N2 (g) -> Mg3N2 (s)
(c)To find the composition of active part of air using alkaline pyrogallol
Procedure
Measure about 2cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide into a graduated gas jar. Record
the volume of the graduated cylinder V1.

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Place about two spatula end full of pyrogallol/1, 2, 3-trihydroxobenzene into the
gas jar. Immediately place a cover slip firmly on the mouth of the gas jar. Swirl
thoroughly for about two minutes.
Invert the gas jar in a trough/basin containing water. Measure the volume of air in
the gas jar V2
Sample observations
Colour of pyrogallol/1, 2, 3-trihydroxobenzene change to brown.
Level of water in gas jar rises when inverted in basin/trough.
Volume of gas jar /air in gas jar V1= 800cm3
Volume of gas jar /air in gas jar after shaking with alkaline pyrogallol/1, 2, 3-
trihydroxobenzene V2= 640 cm3
Sample questions
1. Which gas is absorbed by alkaline pyrogallol/1,2,3-trihydroxobenzene
Oxygen
2. Calculate the
(i) % of active part of air
V1-V2 x 100% => (800cm3 - 640 cm3) x 100% = 20%
V1 800cm3
(ii) % of inactive part of air
V2 x 100% => 640 cm3 x 100% = 80%
V1 800cm3
(d)To establish the presence of carbon (IV) oxide in air using lime water
Pass tap water slowly into an empty flask as in the set up below

Sample observation questions

1. What is the purpose of paper cover?

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To ensure no air enters into the lime water.

2. What happens when water enters the flask?
It forces the air from the flask into the lime water.
3. What is observed when the air is bubbled in the lime water?
A white precipitate is formed. The white precipitate dissolves on prolonged
bubbling of air.
4. (a) Identify the compound that form:
(i)lime water
Calcium hydroxide / Ca(OH)2
(ii) White precipitate
Calcium carbonate/ CaCO3
(iii) When the white precipitate dissolves
Calcium hydrogen carbonate/ CaHCO3
(b)Write the chemical equation for the reaction that tale place when:
(i) White precipitate is formed
Calcium hydroxide + carbon (IV) oxide -> Calcium carbonate + water
Ca (OH) 2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O (l)
(ii) White precipitate dissolves
Calcium carbonate + water+ carbon (IV) oxide -> Calcium hydrogen carbonate
CaCO3(s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) -> CaHCO3 (aq)
5. State the chemical test for the presence of carbon (IV) oxide gas based on
4(a) and (b) above:
Carbon (IV) oxide forms a white precipitate with lime water that dissolves in
excess of the gas.
6. State the composition of carbon (IV) oxide gas by volume in the air.
About 0.03% by volume
B.OXYGEN
a) Occurrence.
1. Fifty 50% of the earth’s crust consist of Oxygen combined with other elements
e.g. oxides of metals
2. About 70% of the earth is water made up of Hydrogen and Oxygen.
3. About 20% by volume of the atmospheric gases is Oxygen that form the active
part of air.
b) School laboratory preparation.
Oxygen was first prepared in 1772 by Karl Scheele and later in 1774 by Joseph
Priestly. It was Antony Lavoisier who gave it the name “Oxygen”
Procedure

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Method 1: Using Hydrogen peroxide

Half fill a trough/basin with tap water. Place a bee hive shelf/stand into the water.
Completely fill the gas jar with water and invert in onto the bee hive shelf/stand.
Clamp a round bottomed flask and set up the apparatus as below.

Collect several gas jars of Oxygen covering each sample.

Sample observation questions
1. What is observed when the hydrogen peroxide is added into the flask?
Rapid effervescence/bubbling/fizzing
2. Describe the colour and smell of the gas
Colourless and odorless
3. (a)Name the method of gas collection used.
-Over water
-Upward delivery
-Down ward displacement of water
(b)What property of Oxygen makes it to be collected using the method
above?
-Slightly soluble in water
4. What is the purpose of manganese (IV) oxide?
Manganese (IV) oxide is catalyst.
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction but remain
chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Hydrogen peroxide decomposes slowly to form water and Oxygen gas.
A little Manganese (IV) oxide speeds up the rate of decomposition by reducing
the time taken for a given volume of Oxygen to be produced.
5. Write the equation for the reaction.
Hydrogen peroxide -> Water + Oxygen
2H2O2 (aq) -> 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

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6. Lower a glowing splint slowly into a gas jar containing Oxygen gas. State
what is observed.
The glowing splint relights/rekindles
Oxygen relights/rekindles a glowing splint. This is the confirmatory test for
the presence of Oxygen gas
Method 1: Using Sodium peroxide
Half fill a trough/basin with tap water. Add four drops of phenolphthalein
indicator.
Place a bee hive shelf/stand into the water.
Completely fill a gas jar with water and invert in onto the bee hive shelf/stand.
Clamp a round bottomed flask and set up the apparatus as below.

Collect several gas jars of Oxygen covering each sample.

Sample observation questions
1. What is observed when water is added?
(i) Into the flask containing sodium peroxide
Rapid effervescence/bubbling/fizzing
(ii) Phenolphththalein
Remains colourless /Phenolphthalein indicator is colourless in neutral solution
2. Describe the colour and smell of the gas
Colourless and odorless
3.(a)Name the method of gas collection used.
-Over water. Oxygen is slightly soluble in water.
4. Test the gas by lowering a glowing splint slowly into a gas jar containing the
prepared sample.
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The glowing splint relights/rekindles. This confirms the presence of Oxygen gas
5. Write the equation for the reaction.
Sodium peroxide + Water -> Sodium hydroxide + Oxygen
2Na2O2 (aq) + 2H2O (l) -> 4NaOH (aq) + O2 (g)

1. Test the gas by lowering a glowing splint slowly into a gas jar containing the
prepared sample.
The glowing splint relights/rekindles.
This confirms the presence of Oxygen gas
2. Write the equation for the reaction.
Potassium Chlorate (V) -> Potassium Chloride + Oxygen
2KClO3 (aq) -> 2KCl (aq) + 3O2 (g)
3. What is the purpose of manganese (IV) oxide?
Manganese (IV) oxide is catalyst.
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction but remain
chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Potassium Chlorate (V) decomposes slowly to form potassium chloride and
Oxygen gas.
A little Manganese (IV) oxide speeds up the rate of decomposition by reducing
the time taken for a given volume of Oxygen to be produced.
(c)Uses of Oxygen
1. Oxygen is put in cylinders for use where natural supply is not sufficiently
enough. This is mainly in:

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(i)Mountain climbing/Mountaineering-at high altitudes, the concentration of

air/oxygen is low. Mountain climbers must therefore carry their own supply of
oxygen for breathing.
(ii) Deep sea diving-Deep sea divers carry their own supply of Oxygen.
(iii) Saving life in hospitals for patients with breathing problems and during
anesthesia.
2. A mixture of oxygen and some other gases produces a flame that is very hot.
(i) Oxy-acetylene/ethyne flame is produced when Ethyne/acetylene gas is
burnt in pure oxygen. The flame has a temperature of about 3000oC.It is used
for welding /cutting metals.
(ii)Oxy-hydrogen flame is produced when Hydrogen is burn in pure oxygen.
The flame has a temperature of about 2000oC.It is used also for welding
/cutting metals.
3. Oxy-hydrogen mixture is used as rocket fuel
4. A mixture of charcoal, petrol and liquid Oxygen is an explosive.
(d) Chemical properties of Oxygen /combustion.
Oxygen is a very reactive non metal. Many elements react with oxygen through
burning to form a group of compounds called Oxides.
Burning/combustion is the reaction of Oxygen with an element/substances.
Reaction in which a substance is added oxygen is called Oxidation reaction.
Burning/combustion are an example of an oxidation reaction.
Most non metals burn in Oxygen/air to form an Oxide which in solution /
dissolved in water is acidic in nature. They turn blue litmus red.e.g. Carbon (IV)
oxide/CO2, Nitrogen (IV) oxide/ NO2, Sulphur (IV) oxide/ SO2
Some non metals burn in Oxygen/air to form an Oxide which in solution /
dissolved in water is neutral in nature. They don’t turn blue or red litmus. E.g.
Carbon (II) oxide/CO, Water/ H2O
All metals burns in Oxygen/air to form an Oxide which in solution/dissolved in
water is basic/alkaline in nature. They turn red litmus blue.e.g.
Magnesium oxide/MgO, Sodium Oxide/ Na2O, Copper (II) oxide/CuO
Elements/substances burn faster in pure Oxygen than in air
Air contains the inactive part of air that slows the rate of burning of
substances/elements.
(i)Reaction of metals with Oxygen/air
The following experiments show the reaction of metals with Oxygen and air.
I. Burning Magnesium
Procedure

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(a)Cut a 2cm length piece of magnesium ribbon. Using a pair of tongs introduce it
to a Bunsen flame. Remove it when it catches fire. Observe.
Place the products in a beaker containing about 5cm3 of water. Test the
solution/mixture using litmus papers
(b)Cut another 2cm length piece of magnesium ribbon. Using a pair of tongs
introduce it to a Bunsen flame. When it catches fire, lower it slowly into a gas jar
containing Oxygen.
Place about 5cm3 of water into the gas jar. Test the solution/mixture using litmus
papers. Test the solution/mixture using litmus papers
Observations
(a)In air
Magnesium burns with a bright blindening flame in air forming white solid/ash
/powder. Effervescence/bubbles/ fizzing Pungent smell of urine. Blue litmus paper
remains blue. Red litmus paper turns blue
(b) In pure Oxygen
Magnesium burns faster with a very bright blindening flame pure oxygen forming
white solid/ash /powder. No effervescence/bubbles/ fizzing. No pungent smell of
urine. Blue litmus paper remains blue. Red litmus paper turns blue
Explanation
Magnesium burns in air producing enough heat energy to react with both Oxygen
and Nitrogen to form Magnesium Oxide and Magnesium nitride. Both
Magnesium Oxide and Magnesium nitride are white solid/ash /powder.
Chemical equations
Magnesium + Oxygen -> Magnesium Oxide
2Mg(s) + O2(g) -> 2MgO(s)

Magnesium + Nitrogen -> Magnesium Nitride

3Mg(s) + N2(g) -> Mg3N2 (s)
Magnesium Oxide dissolves in water to form a basic/alkaline solution of
Magnesium hydroxide
Chemical equations
Magnesium Oxide + Water -> Magnesium hydroxide
2Mg(s) + O2 (l) -> 2MgO(s)
Magnesium Nitride dissolves in water to form a basic/alkaline solution of
Magnesium hydroxide and producing Ammonia gas. Ammonia is also an
alkaline/basic gas that has a pungent smell of urine.
Chemical equations

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Magnesium Nitride + Water -> Magnesium hydroxide + Ammonia gas

Mg3N2 (s) + 6H2O (l) -> 3Mg (OH)2 (aq) + 2NH3(g)
II. Burning Sodium
Procedure
(a)Carefully cut a very small piece of sodium. Using a deflagrating spoon
introduce it to a Bunsen flame. Remove it when it catches fire. Observe.
Place the products in a beaker containing about 20cm3 of water. Test the
solution/mixture using litmus papers
(b) Carefully cut another very small piece of sodium. Using a deflagrating spoon
introduce it to a Bunsen flame. When it catches fire, lower it slowly into a gas jar
containing Oxygen.
Place about 20 cm3 of water into the gas jar. Test the solution/mixture using litmus
papers. Test the solution/mixture using litmus papers
Observations
(a)In air
Sodium burns with a yellow flame in air forming a black solid. Blue litmus paper
remains blue. Red litmus paper turns blue
(b) In pure Oxygen
Sodium burns faster with a golden yellow flame in pure oxygen forming a yellow
solid. Effervescence/bubbles/ fizzing. Gas produced relights glowing splint. Blue
litmus paper remains blue. Red litmus paper turns blue.
Explanation
(a)Sodium burns in air forming black Sodium Oxide
Chemical equations
Sodium + Oxygen/air -> Sodium Oxide
4Na(s) + O2 (g) -> 2Na2O(s)
Sodium Oxide dissolves in water to form a basic/alkaline solution of Sodium
hydroxide
Chemical equations
Sodium Oxide + Water -> Sodium hydroxide
Na2O(s) + H2O (l) -> 2NaOH (aq)
(b)Sodium burns in pure oxygen forming yellow Sodium peroxide
Chemical equations
Sodium + Oxygen -> Sodium peroxide
2Na(s) + O2 (g) -> Na2O2 (s)
Sodium peroxide dissolves in water to form a basic/alkaline solution of Sodium
hydroxide. Oxygen is produced.

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Chemical equations
Sodium Oxide + Water -> Sodium hydroxide + Oxygen
2Na2O2 (s) + 2H2O (l) -> 4NaOH (aq) + O2 (l)
III. Burning Calcium
Procedure
(a)Using a pair of tongs hold the piece of calcium on a bunsen flame.
Observe.
Place the products in a beaker containing about 2cm3 of water. Test the
solution/mixture using litmus papers
(b)Using a pair of tongs hold another piece of calcium on a Bunsen flame.
Quickly lower it into a gas jar containing Oxygen gas .Observe.
Place about 2cm3 of water. Swirl.
Test the solution/mixture using litmus papers
Observations
(a)In air
Calcium burns with difficulty producing a faint red flame in air forming a white
solid. Blue litmus paper remains blue. Red litmus paper turns blue
(b) In pure Oxygen
Calcium burns with difficulty producing a less faint red flame Oxygen forming a
white solid. Blue litmus paper remains blue. Red litmus paper turns blue
Explanation
(a)Calcium burns in air forming white calcium Oxide. Calcium Oxide coat/cover
the calcium preventing further burning.
Chemical equations
Calcium + Oxygen/air -> calcium Oxide
2Ca(s) + O2(g) -> 2CaO(s)
Small amount of Calcium Oxide dissolves in water to form a basic/alkaline solution
of Calcium hydroxide. The common name of Calcium hydroxide is lime water.
Chemical equations
Calcium Oxide + Water -> Calcium hydroxide
CaO(s) + H2O (l) -> Ca (OH) 2 (aq)
IV. Burning Iron
Procedure
(a)Using a pair of tongs hold the piece of Iron wool/steel wire on a Bunsen flame.
Observe.
Place the products in a beaker containing about 2cm3 of water. Test the
solution/mixture using litmus papers

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(b)Using a pair of tongs hold another piece of Iron wool/steel wire on a Bunsen
flame.
Quickly lower it into a gas jar containing Oxygen gas .Observe.
Place about 2cm3 of water. Swirl. Test the solution/mixture using litmus papers
Observations
(a)In air
Iron wool/steel wire burns producing an Orange flame in air forming a brown
solid. Blue litmus paper remains blue. Red litmus paper turns faint blue
(b) In pure Oxygen
Iron wool/steel wire burns producing a golden Orange flame in Oxygen forming a
Brown solid. Blue litmus paper remains blue. Red litmus paper turns faint blue
Explanation
(a)Iron burns in air forming brown Iron (III) Oxide
Chemical equations
Iron + Oxygen/air -> Iron (III) Oxide
4Fe(s) + 3O2 (g) -> 2Fe2O3(s)
Very small amount of Iron (III) Oxide dissolves in water to form a weakly
basic/alkaline brown solution of Iron (III) hydroxide.
Chemical equations
Calcium Oxide + Water -> Iron (III) hydroxide
Fe2O3(s) + 3H2O (l) -> 2Fe (OH) 3 (s)
V. Burning Copper
Procedure
(a)Using a pair of tongs hold the piece of copper turnings/shavings on a Bunsen
flame.
Observe.
Place the products in a beaker containing about 2cm3 of water. Test the
solution/mixture using litmus papers
(b)Using a pair of tongs hold another piece of Copper turnings/shavings on a
Bunsen flame. Quickly lower it into a gas jar containing Oxygen gas .Observe.
Place about 2cm3 of water. Swirl. Test the solution/mixture using litmus papers
Observations
(a)In air
Copper turnings/shavings burns with difficulty producing a green flame in air
forming a black solid. Blue litmus paper remains blue. Red litmus paper turns faint
blue
(b) In pure Oxygen

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Copper turnings/shavings burns less difficulty producing a green flame in Oxygen

forming a Brown solid. Blue litmus paper remains blue. Red litmus paper turns
faint blue
Explanation
(a)Copper burns in air forming black Copper (II) Oxide
Chemical equations
Copper + Oxygen/air -> Copper (II) Oxide
2 Cu(s) + O2 (g) -> 2CuO(s)

Very small amount of Copper (II) Oxide dissolves in water to form a weakly
basic/alkaline blue solution of Copper (II) hydroxide.
Chemical equations
Copper (II) Oxide + Water -> Copper (II) hydroxide
CuO(s) + H2O (l) -> Cu (OH) 2 (s)
(i)Reaction of non metals with Oxygen/air
The following experiments show the reaction of non metals with Oxygen and air.
I. Burning Carbon
Procedure
(a)Using a pair of tongs hold a dry piece of charcoal on a Bunsen flame.
Observe.
Place the products in a beaker containing about 2cm3 of water. Test the
solution/mixture using litmus papers
(b)Using a pair of tongs hold another piece of dry charcoal on a Bunsen flame.
Quickly lower it into a gas jar containing Oxygen gas .Observe.
Place about 2cm3 of water. Swirl. Test the solution/mixture using litmus papers
Observations
-Carbon chars then burns with a blue flame
-Colourless and odorless gas produced
-Solution formed turn blue litmus paper faint red.
Red litmus paper remains red.
Explanation
Carbon burns in air and faster in Oxygen with a blue non-sooty/non-smoky flame
forming Carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Carbon burns in limited supply of air with a blue non-sooty/non-smoky flame
forming Carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Carbon (IV) oxide gas dissolves in water to form weak acidic solution of Carbonic
(IV) acid.

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Chemical Equation
Carbon + Oxygen -> Carbon (IV) oxide
(excess air/oxygen)
C(s) + O2 (g) -> CO2 (g) (in excess air)
Carbon + Oxygen -> Carbon (II) oxide
(limited air/oxygen)
2C(s) + O2 (g) -> 2CO (g) (in limited air)
Carbon (IV) oxide + Water -> Carbonic (IV) acid
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) -> H2CO3 (aq) (very weak acid)
II. Burning Sulphur
Procedure
(a)Using a deflagrating spoon place sulphur powder on a Bunsen flame.
Observe.
Place the products in a beaker containing about 3cm3 of water. Test the
solution/mixture using litmus papers
(b) Using a deflagrating spoon place sulphur powder on a Bunsen flame. Slowly
lower it into a gas jar containing Oxygen gas. Observe.
Place about 5cm3 of water. Swirl. Test the solution/mixture using litmus papers.
Observations
-Sulphur burns with a blue flame
-Gas produced that has pungent choking smell
-Solution formed turn blue litmus paper faint red.
Red litmus paper remains red.
Explanation
Sulphur burns in air and faster in Oxygen with a blue non-sooty/non-smoky flame
forming Sulphur (IV) oxide gas.
Sulphur (IV) oxide gas dissolves in water to form weak acidic solution of Sulphuric
(IV) acid.
Chemical Equation
Sulphur + Oxygen -> Sulphur (IV) oxide
S(s) + O2 (g) -> SO2 (g) (in excess air)
Sulphur (IV) oxide + Water -> Sulphuric (IV) acid
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) -> H2SO3 (aq) (very weak acid)
III. Burning Phosphorus
Procedure
(a)Remove a small piece of phosphorus from water and using a deflagrating spoon
(with a lid cover) places it on a Bunsen flame.

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Observe.
Carefully put the burning phosphorus to cover gas jar containing about 3cm3 of
water. Test the solution/mixture using litmus papers
(b) Remove another small piece of phosphorus from water and using a
deflagrating spoon (with a lid cover) place it on a Bunsen flame.
Slowly lower it into a gas jar containing Oxygen gas with about 5 cm3 of water.
Observe.
Swirl. Test the solution/mixture using litmus papers.
Observations
-Phosphorus catches fire before heating on Bunsen flame
-Dense white fumes of a gas produced that has pungent choking poisonous
smell
-Solution formed turn blue litmus paper faint red.
Red litmus paper remains red.
Explanation
Phosphorus is stored in water. On exposure to air it instantaneously fumes then
catch fire to burn in air and faster in Oxygen with a yellow flame producing dense
white acidic fumes of Phosphorus (V) oxide gas.
Phosphoric (V) oxide gas dissolves in water to form weak acidic solution of
Phosphoric (V) acid.
Chemical Equation
Phosphorus + Oxygen -> Phosphorous (V) oxide
4P(s) + 5O2 (g) -> 2P2O5(s)
Phosphorous (V) oxide + Water -> Phosphoric (V) acid
P2O5(s) + 3H2O (l) -> 2H3PO4 (aq) (very weak acid)
(e) Reactivity series/competition for combined Oxygen.
The reactivity series is a list of elements/metals according to their affinity for
oxygen.
Some metals have higher affinity for Oxygen than others.
A metal/element with higher affinity for oxygen is placed higher/on top of the one
less affinity.
The complete reactivity series of metals/elements
Element/Metal Symbol
Potassium K Most reactive
Sodium Na
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg

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Aluminum Al
Carbon C
Zinc Zn
Iron Fe
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Gold Au
Platinum Pt Least reactive
Metals compete for combined Oxygen. A metal/element with higher affinity for
oxygen removes Oxygen from a metal lower in the reactivity series/less affinity for
Oxygen.
When a metal/element gains/acquire Oxygen, the process is called Oxidation.
When metal/element donate/lose Oxygen, the process is called Reduction.
An element/metal/compound that undergoes Oxidation is called Reducing agent.
An element/metal/compound that undergoes Reduction is called Oxidizing agent.
A reaction in which both Oxidation and Reduction take place is called a Redox
reaction.
Redox reaction between Magnesium and copper (II) Oxide
Procedure
Place about 2g of copper (II) oxide in a crucible with a lid. Place another 2g of
Magnesium powder into the crucible. Mix thoroughly.
Cover the crucible with lid. Heat strongly for five minutes.
Allow the mixture to cool. Open the lid. Observe.
Observation
Colour change from black to brown. White solid power formed.
Explanation
Magnesium is higher in the reactivity series than Copper. It has therefore higher
affinity for Oxygen than copper.
When a mixture of copper (II) oxide and Magnesium is heated, Magnesium
reduces copper (II) oxide to brown copper metal and itself oxidized to Magnesium
oxide. Magnesium is the reducing agent because it undergoes oxidation process.
Copper (II) oxide is the oxidizing agent because it undergoes redox reduction
process.

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The mixture should be cooled before opening the lid to prevent hot brown copper
from being reoxidized back to black copper (II) oxide.
The reaction of Magnesium and Copper (II) oxide is a reaction
Chemical equation
Reduction process
Oxidation process

1. Copper (II) oxide + Magnesium -> Magnesium oxide + Copper

(black) (white ash/solid) (brown)
CuO(s) + Mg(s) -> MgO(s) + Cu(s)
(Oxidizing Agent) (Reducing Agent)
2. Zinc (II) oxide + Magnesium -> Magnesium oxide + Zinc
(yellow when hot) (white ash/solid) (grey)
ZnO(s) + Mg(s) -> MgO(s) + Zn(s)
(Oxidizing agent) (Reducing agent)
3. Zinc (II) oxide + Carbon -> Carbon (IV) oxide gas + Zinc
(yellow when hot) (colourless gas) (grey)
ZnO(s) + C(s) -> CO2 (g) + Zn(s)
(Oxidizing agent) (Reducing agent)
The reactivity series is used during extraction of metals from their ore. An ore is a
rock containing mineral element which can be extracted for commercial purposes.
Most metallic ores occur naturally as:
(i) oxides combined with Oxygen
(ii) sulphides combined with Sulphur
(iii) carbonates combined with carbon and Oxygen.
Metallic ores that naturally occur as metallic sulphides are first roasted in air to
form the corresponding oxide. Sulphur (IV) oxide gas is produced. e.g.
Copper (I) sulphide + Oxygen -> Copper (I) Oxide + Sulphur (IV)
oxide
Cu2S(s) + O2 (g) -> 2Cu(s) + SO2 (g)
Zinc (II) sulphide + Oxygen -> Zinc (II) Oxide + Sulphur (IV)
oxide
ZnS(s) + O2 (g) -> Zn(s) + SO2 (g)

Lead (II) sulphide + Oxygen -> Lead (II) Oxide + Sulphur (IV)
oxide
PbS(s) + O2 (g) -> Pb(s) + SO2 (g)

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Iron (II) sulphide + Oxygen -> Iron (II) Oxide + Sulphur (IV)
oxide
FeS(s) + O2 (g) -> Fe(s) + SO2 (g)
Metallic ores that naturally occur as metallic carbonates are first heated in air.
They decompose/split to form the corresponding oxide and produce Carbon (IV)
oxide gas. .e.g.
Copper (II) carbonate -> Copper (II) oxide + Carbon (IV) oxide
CuCO3(s) -> CuO(s) + CO2 (g)
Zinc (II) carbonate -> Zinc (II) oxide + Carbon (IV) oxide
ZnCO3(s) -> ZnO(s) + CO2 (g)
Lead (II) carbonate -> Lead (II) oxide + Carbon (IV) oxide
PbCO3(s) -> PbO(s) + CO2 (g)
Iron (II) carbonate -> Iron (II) oxide + Carbon (IV) oxide
FeCO3(s) -> FeO(s) + CO2 (g)
Metallic ores

WATER AND HYDROGEN

A.WATER
Pure water is a colourless, odorless, tasteless, neutral liquid. Pure water does not
exist in nature but naturally in varying degree of purity. The main sources of water
include rain, springs, borehole, lakes, seas and oceans:
Water is generally used for the following purposes:
(i) Drinking by animals and plants.
(ii) Washing clothes.
(iii) Bleaching and dyeing.
(iv) Generating hydroelectric power.
(v) Cooling industrial processes.
Water dissolves many substances/solutes.
It is therefore called universal solvent.
It contains about 35% dissolved Oxygen which support aquatic fauna and flora.
Water naturally exists in three phases/states solid ice, liquid water and gaseous
water vapour.
The three states of water are naturally interconvertible.
The natural interconvertion of the three phases/states of water forms the water
cycle.

condensation CLOUDS (Water in solid state)

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Precipitation

RAIN

Evaporation(Water in gaseous state)

SPRING, RIVERS,WELLS.

OCEAN,LAKES,SEAS(water as liquid)
Liquid water in land, lakes, seas and oceans use the solar/sun energy to
evaporate/vapourize to form water vapour/gas. Solar/sun energy is also used
during transpiration by plants and respiration by animals.
During evaporation, the water vapour rises up the earth’s surface. Temperatures
decrease with height above the earth surface increase. Water vapour therefore cools
as it rises up. At a height where it is cold enough to below 373Kelvin/100oC Water
vapour looses enough energy to form tiny droplets of liquid.
The process by which a gas/water vapour changes to a liquid is called
condensation/liquidification.
On further cooling, the liquid looses more energy to form ice/solid. The process by
which a liquid/water changes to a ice/solid is called freezing/solidification.
Minute/tiny ice/solid particles float in the atmosphere and coalesce/join together to
form clouds. When the clouds become too heavy they fall to the earth’s surface as
rain/snow as the temperature increase with the fall.

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Interconversion of the three phases/states water

Gas/water vapour
Evaporation Liquidification/
/boiling/Vapourization condensation

Liquid/Water

Melting
Freezing liquidification

Solid/Ice

Solidification
Pure water has:
(i) fixed/constant/sharp freezing point/melting point of 273K/0oC
(ii) fixed/constant/sharp boiling point of 373K/100oC at sea level/1 atmosphere
pressure
(iii) fixed density of 1gcm-3
This is the criteria of identifying pure/purity of water.
Whether a substance is water can be determined by using the following methods:
a) To test for presence of water using anhydrous copper (II) suphate (VI)
Procedure
Put about 2g of anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (VI) crystals into a clean test tube.
Add three drops of tap water. Repeat the procedure using distilled water.
Observation
Colour changes from white to blue
Explanation
Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (VI) is white. On adding water, anhydrous copper
(II) sulphate (VI) gains/reacts with water to form hydrated copper (II) sulphate
(VI).
Hydrated copper (II) sulphate (VI) is blue. Hydrated copper (II) sulphate (VI)
contains water of crystallization.
The change of white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (VI) to blue hydrated copper
(II) sulphate (VI) is a confirmatory test for the presence of water

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Chemical equation
Anhydrous Hydrated
copper (II) sulphate (VI) + Water -> copper (II) sulphate (VI)
(white) (blue)
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O (l) -> CuSO4.5H2O(s)
b) To test for presence of water using anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride
Procedure
Put about 5cm3 of water into a clean test tube.
Dip a dry anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride paper into the test tube.
Repeat the procedure using distilled water.
Observation
Colour changes from blue to pink
Explanation
Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride is blue. On adding water, anhydrous cobalt (II)
chloride gains/reacts with water to form hydrated cobalt (II) chloride.
Hydrated cobalt (II) chloride is pink.
Hydrated cobalt (II) chloride contains water of crystallization.
The change of blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride to pink hydrated cobalt (II)
chloride is a confirmatory test for the presence of water Chemical equation.
Anhydrous Hydrated
cobalt (II) chloride + Water -> cobalt (II) chloride
(Blue) (pink)
CoCl2 (s) + 5H2O (l) -> CoCl2.5H2O(s)
Burning a candle in air
Most organic substances/fuels burn in air to produce water. Carbon (IV) oxide gas
is also produced if the air is sufficient/excess.
Procedure
Put about 2g of anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (VI) crystals in a boiling tube.
Put about 5cm3 of lime water in a boiling tube.
Light a small candle stick. Place it below an inverted thistle/filter funnel
Collect the products of the burning candle by setting the apparatus as below
Set up of apparatus

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Observation
The sanction pump pulls the products of burning into the inverted funnel. Colour of
anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (VI) changes from white to blue. A white
precipitate is formed in the lime water/calcium hydroxide.
Explanation
When a candle burn it forms a water and carbon (IV) oxide.
Water turns anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (VI) changes from white to blue.
Carbon (IV) oxide gas forms white precipitate when bubbled in lime
water/calcium hydroxide.
Since:
(i) hydrogen in the wax burn to form water
Hydrogen + Oxygen -> Water
(from candle) (from the air)
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) -> 2H2O (g/l)
(ii) carbon in the wax burn to form carbon (IV) oxide
Hydrogen + Oxygen -> Water
(from candle) (from the air)
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2 (g)
The candle before burning therefore contained only Carbon and Hydrogen only.
A compound made up of hydrogen and carbon is called Hydrocarbon.
A candle is a hydrocarbon.

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Other hydrocarbons include: Petrol, diesel, Kerosene, and Laboratory gas.

Hydrocarbons burn in air to form water and carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Hydrocarbons + Oxygen -> Water + Oxygen

Water pollution
Water pollution takes place when undesirable substances are added into the water.
Sources of water pollution include:
(i)Industrial chemicals being disposed into water bodies like rivers, lakes and
oceans.
(ii)Discharging untreated /raw sewage into water bodies.
(iii)Leaching of insecticides/herbicides form agricultural activities into water
bodies.
(iv)Discharging non-biodegradable detergents after domestic and industrial use into
water bodies.
(v)Petroleum oil spilling by ships and oil refineries
(vi)Toxic/poisonous gases from industries dissolving in rain.
(vii) Acidic gases from industries dissolving in rain to form “acid rain”
(viii)Discharging hot water into water bodies. This reduces the quantity of
dissolved Oxygen in the water killing the aquatic fauna and flora.
Water pollution can be reduced by:
(i) Reducing the use of agricultural fertilizers and chemicals in agricultural
activities.
(ii) Use of biological control method instead of insecticides and herbicides
(iii) Using biodegradable detergents
REACTION OF WATER WITH METALS.
Some metals react with water while others do not. The reaction of metals with
water depends on the reactivity series. The higher the metal in the reactivity series
the more reactive the metal with water .The following experiments shows the
reaction of metals with cold water and water vapour/steam.
(a)Reaction of sodium/ potassium with cold water:
Procedure
Put about 500cm3 of water in a beaker. Add three drops of phenolphthalein
indicator/litmus solution/universal indicator solution/methyl orange indicator into
the water.
Cut a very small piece of sodium .Using a pair of forceps put the metal into the
water.
Observation

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Sodium melts to a silvery ball that floats and darts on the surface decreasing in size.
Effervescence/fizzing/ bubbles of colourless gas produced.
Colour of phenolphthalein turns pink
Colour of litmus solution turns blue
Colour of methyl orange solution turns Orange
Colour of universal indicator solution turns blue
Explanation
Sodium is less dense than water. Sodium floats on water and vigorously reacts to
form an alkaline solution of sodium hydroxide and producing hydrogen gas.
Sodium is thus stored in paraffin to prevent contact with water.
Chemical equation
Sodium + Water -> Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
2Na(s) + 2H2O (l) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g)
To collect hydrogen gas, Sodium metal is forced to sink to the bottom of the
trough/beaker by wrapping it in wire gauze/mesh.

Potassium is more reactive than Sodium. On contact with water it explodes/burst

into flames. An alkaline solution of potassium hydroxide is formed and hydrogen
gas

Chemical equation
Potassium + Water -> Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
2K(s) + 2H2O (l) -> 2KOH (aq) + H2(g)

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Caution: Reaction of Potassium with water is very risky to try in a school

laboratory.
(b)Reaction of Lithium/ Calcium with cold water:
Procedure
Put about 200cm3 of water in a beaker. Add three drops of phenolphthalein
indicator/litmus solution/universal indicator solution/methyl orange indicator into
the water.
Cut a small piece of Lithium .Using a pair of forceps put the metal into the water.
Repeat with a piece Calcium metal
Observation
Lithium sinks to the bottom of the water. Rapid effervescence/fizzing/ bubbles of
colourless gas produced.
Colour of phenolphthalein turns pink
Colour of litmus solution turns blue
Colour of methyl orange solution turns Orange
Colour of universal indicator solution turns blue
Explanation
Lithium and calcium are denser than water. Both sink in water and vigorously
react to form an alkaline solution of Lithium hydroxide / calcium hydroxide and
producing hydrogen gas. Lithium is more reactive than calcium. It is also stored in
paraffin like Sodium to prevent contact with water.
Chemical equation
Lithium + Water -> Lithium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
2Li(s) + 2H2O (l) -> 2LiOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Calcium + Water -> Calcium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2O (l) -> Ca (OH) 2(aq) + H2 (g)

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(c) Reaction of Magnesium/Zinc/ Iron with Steam/water vapour:

Procedure method1
Place some wet sand or cotton/glass wool soaked in water at the bottom of an
ignition/hard glass boiling tube.
Polish magnesium ribbon using sand paper.
Coil it at the centre of the ignition/hard glass boiling tube.
Set up the apparatus as below.
Heat the wet sand or cotton/glass wool soaked in water gently to:
(i) Drive away air in the ignition/hard glass boiling tube.
(ii) Generate steam
Heat the coiled ribbon strongly using another burner. Repeat the experiment using
Zinc powder and fresh Iron filings.
Set up of apparatus

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Observations
(i)With Magnesium ribbon:
The Magnesium glows with a bright flame (and continues to burn even if heating is
stopped)
White solid /ash formed
White solid /ash formed dissolve in water to form a colourless solution
Colourless gas produced/collected that extinguish burning splint with “pop sound”
(ii) With Zinc powder:
The Zinc powder turns red hot on strong heating
Yellow solid formed that turn white on cooling
White solid formed on cooling does not dissolve in water.
(iii)With Iron fillings:
The Iron fillings turn red hot on strong heating
Dark blue solid formed
Dark blue solid formed does not dissolve in water.

Procedure method 2
Put some water in a round bottomed flask
Polish magnesium ribbon using sand paper.
Coil it at the centre of a hard glass tube
Set up the apparatus as below.
Heat water strongly to boil so as to:
(i) drive away air in the glass tube.

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(ii) generate steam

Heat the coiled ribbon strongly using another burner. Repeat the experiment using
Zinc powder and fresh Iron filings.

Observations
(i)With Magnesium ribbon:
The Magnesium glows with a bright flame (and continues to burn even if heating is
stopped)
White solid /ash formed
White solid /ash formed dissolve in water to form a colourless solution
Colourless gas produced/collected that extinguish burning splint with “pop sound”
(ii) With Zinc powder:
The Zinc powder turns red hot on strong heating
Yellow solid formed that turn white on cooling
White solid formed on cooling does not dissolve in water.
(iii)With Iron fillings:
The Iron fillings turn red hot on strong heating
Dark blue solid formed
Dark blue solid formed does not dissolve in water.
Explanations
(a)Hot magnesium burn vigorously in steam. The reaction is highly exothermic
generating enough heat/energy to proceed without further heating.

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White Magnesium oxide solid/ash is left as residue.

Hydrogen gas is produced .It extinguishes a burning splint with a “pop sound”.
Chemical Equation
Magnesium + Steam -> Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2O(g) -> MgO(s) + H2(g)

Magnesium oxide reacts /dissolves in water to form an alkaline solution of

Magnesium oxide
Chemical Equation
Magnesium oxide + Water -> Magnesium hydroxide
MgO(s) + H2O(l) -> Mg(OH) 2 (aq)
(b)Hot Zinc react vigorously in steam forming yellow Zinc oxide solid/ash as
residue which cools to white.
Hydrogen gas is produced .It extinguishes a burning splint with a “pop sound”.
Chemical Equation
Zinc + Steam -> Zinc oxide + Hydrogen
Zn(s) + H2O(g) -> ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Zinc oxide does not dissolve in water.
(c)Hot Iron reacts with steam forming dark blue tri iron tetra oxide solid/ash as
residue.
Hydrogen gas is produced .It extinguishes a burning splint with a “pop sound”.
Chemical Equation
Iron + Steam -> Tri iron tetra oxide + Hydrogen
2Fe(s) + 4H2O(g -> Fe2O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Tri iron tetra oxide does not dissolve in water.
(d)Aluminum reacts with steam forming an insoluble coat/cover of impervious
layer of aluminum oxide on the surface preventing further reaction.
(e) Lead, Copper, Mercury, Silver, Gold and Platinum do not react with either
water or steam.

HYDROGEN
Occurrence
Hydrogen does not occur free in nature. It occurs as Water and in Petroleum.
School laboratory Preparation
Procedure
Put Zinc granules in a round/flat/conical flask. Add dilute sulphuric (VI)
/Hydrochloric acid.

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Add about 3cm3 of copper (II) sulphate (VI) solution.

Collect the gas produced over water as in the set up below.
Discard the first gas jar. Collect several gas jars.

Observation/Explanation
Zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric (VI)/hydrochloric acid to form a salt and produce
hydrogen gas.
When the acid comes into contact with the metal, there is rapid effervescence/
bubbles /fizzing are produced and a colourless gas is produced that is collected:
(i) Over water because it is insoluble in water
(ii) Through downward displacement of air/upward delivery because it is less
dense than air.
The first gas jar is impure. It contains air that was present in the apparatus.
Copper (II) sulphate (VI) solution act as catalyst.
Chemical equation
(a) Zinc + Hydrochloric acid -> Zinc chloride + Hydrogen
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Ionic equation
Zn (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Zn2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
Zinc + Sulphuric (VI) acid -> Zinc Sulphate (VI) + Hydrogen
Zn(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Ionic equation
Zn (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Zn2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
(b) Chemical equation

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Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid -> Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen

Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> MgCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation
Mg (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Mg2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
Magnesium + Sulphuric (VI) acid -> Magnesium Sulphate(VI) + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation
Mg (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Mg2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
(c) Chemical equation
Iron + Hydrochloric acid -> Iron (II) chloride + Hydrogen
Fe(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Ionic equation
Fe (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Fe2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
Iron + Sulphuric (VI) acid -> Iron (II) Sulphate (VI) + Hydrogen
Fe(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Ionic equation
Fe (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Fe2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
Note
1. Hydrogen cannot be prepared from reaction of:
(i)Nitric (V) acid and a metal. Nitric (V) acid is a strong oxidizing agent. It
oxidizes hydrogen gas to water.
(ii) Dilute sulphuric (VI) acid with calcium/Barium/Lead because Calcium
sulphate (VI), Barium sulphate (VI) and Lead (II) sulphate (VI) salts formed are
insoluble. Once formed, they cover/coat the unreacted calcium/Barium/Lead
stopping further reaction and producing very small amount/volume of hydrogen
gas.
(iii) Dilute acid with sodium/potassium. The reaction is explosive.
Properties of Hydrogen gas
(a)Physical properties
1. Hydrogen is a neutral, colourless and odorless gas. When mixed with air it has
a characteristic pungent choking smell
2. It is insoluble in water thus can be collected over water.
3. It is the lightest known gas. It can be transferred by inverting one gas jar over
another.
(b)Chemical properties
(i)Burning

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I. Hydrogen does not support burning/combustion. When a burning splint is

inserted into a gas jar containing Hydrogen, the flame is extinguished /put off.
II. Pure dry hydrogen burn with a blue quiet flame to form water. When a stream of
pure dry hydrogen is ignited, it catches fire and continues to burn with a blue flame.
III. Impure (air mixed with) hydrogen burns with an explosion. Small amount/
volume of air mixed with hydrogen in a test tube produce a small explosion as a
“pop” sound. This is the confirmatory test for the presence of Hydrogen gas. A gas
that burns with a “pop” sound is confirmed to be Hydrogen.
(ii)Redox in terms of Hydrogen transfer
Redox can also be defined in terms of Hydrogen transfer.
(i)Oxidation is removal of Hydrogen
(ii)Reduction is addition of Hydrogen
(iii)Redox is simultaneous addition and removal of Hydrogen
Example
When a stream of dry hydrogen gas is passed through black copper (II) oxide,
hydrogen gas gains the oxygen from copper (II) oxide.
Black copper (II) oxide is reduced to brown copper metal.
Black copper (II) oxide thus the Oxidizing agent.
Hydrogen gas is oxidized to Water. Hydrogen is the Reducing agent.
Set up of apparatus

(a)Chemical equation
(i) In glass tube
Copper (II) Oxide + Hydrogen -> Copper + Hydrogen gas
(oxidizing agent) (reducing agent)
(black) (brown)

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CuO (s) + H2(g) -> Cu(s) + H2O(l)

(ii) when excess Hydrogen is burning.
Oxygen + Hydrogen -> Water
O2 (g) + 2H2 (g) -> 2H2O (l)
(b)Chemical equation
(i) In glass tube
Lead (II) Oxide + Hydrogen -> Lead + Hydrogen gas
(oxidizing agent) (reducing agent)
(brown when hot/ (grey)
yellow when cool)
PbO (s) + H2 (g) -> Pb(s) + H2O (l)
(ii) when excess Hydrogen is burning.
Oxygen + Hydrogen -> Water
O2 (g) + 2H2 (g) -> 2H2O(l)
(c)Chemical equation
(i) In glass tube
Iron (III) Oxide + Hydrogen -> Iron + Hydrogen gas
(oxidizing agent) (reducing agent)
(Dark grey) (grey)
Fe2O3 (s) + 3H2 (g) -> Fe(s) + 3H2O (l)
(ii) when excess Hydrogen is burning.
Oxygen + Hydrogen -> Water
O2 (g) + 2H2 (g) -> 2H2O (l)
(iii) Water as an Oxide as Hydrogen
Burning is a reaction of an element with Oxygen. The substance formed when an
element burn in air is the oxide of the element. When hydrogen burns, it reacts/
combines with Oxygen to form the oxide of Hydrogen. The oxide of Hydrogen is
called water. Hydrogen is first dried because a mixture of Hydrogen and air
explode. The gas is then ignited .The products condense on a cold surface/flask
containing a freezing mixture. A freezing mixture is a mixture of water and ice.

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The condensed products are collected in a receiver as a colourless liquid.

Tests
(a) When about 1g of white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (VI) is added to a
sample of the liquid, it turns to blue. This confirms the liquid formed is water.
(b) When blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride paper is dipped in a sample of the
liquid, it turns to pink. This confirms the liquid formed is water.
(c)When the liquid is heated to boil, its boiling point is 100oC at sea level/one
atmosphere pressure. This confirms the liquid is pure water.
Uses of Hydrogen gas
1. Hydrogenation/Hardening of unsaturated vegetable oils to saturated
fats/margarine.
When Hydrogen is passed through unsaturated compounds in presence of Nickel
catalyst and about 150oC, they become saturated. Most vegetable oil is unsaturated
liquids at room temperature. They become saturated and hard through
hydrogenation.
2. In weather forecast balloons.
Hydrogen is the lightest known gas. Meteorological data is collected for analysis by
sending hydrogen filled weather balloons to the atmosphere. The data collected is
then used to forecast weather conditions.
3. In the Haber process for the manufacture of Ammonia

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Hydrogen is mixed with Nitrogen in presence of Iron catalyst to form Ammonia

gas. Ammonia gas is a very important raw material for manufacture of agricultural
fertilizers.
4. In the manufacture of Hydrochloric acid.
Limited volume/amount of Hydrogen is burnt in excess chlorine gas to form
Hydrogen chloride gas. Hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water to form
Hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is used in pickling/washing metal surfaces.
5. As rocket fuel.
Fixed proportions of Hydrogen and Oxygen when ignited explode violently
producing a lot of energy/heat. This energy is used to power/propel a rocket to
space.
6. In oxy-hydrogen flame for welding.
A cylinder containing Hydrogen when ignited in pure Oxygen from a second
cylinder produces a flame that is very hot. It is used to cut metals and welding.

Sample revision questions

1. A colourless liquid was added anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (VI) which
turned blue.
(a)Why is it wrong to conclude the liquid was pure water?
Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (VI) test for presence of water. Purity of water is
determined from freezing/melting/boiling point.
(b)Write an equation for the reaction that takes place with anhydrous copper
(II) sulphate (VI)
Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (VI) + Water -> hydrated copper (II) sulphate
(VI)
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O (l) -> CuSO4.5H2O(s)
(c)(i)Which other compound would achieve the same results as anhydrous
copper (II) sulphate (VI)
Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride/CoCl2.6H2O
(ii)Write the equation for the reaction
Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride + Water -> hydrated cobalt (II) chloride
CoCl2 (s) + 6H2O(l) -> CoCl2.6H2O (s)
(d)Complete the equation
(i) Sulphur (VI) oxide + Water -> Sulphuric (VI) acid
(ii) Sulphur (IV) oxide + Water -> Sulphuric (IV) acid
(iii) Carbon (IV) oxide + Water -> Carbonic (IV) acid
(iv) Nitrogen (IV) oxide + Water -> Nitric (V) acid

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(v) Phosphorus (V) oxide + Water -> Phosphoric (V) acid

(vi) Sodium oxide + Water -> Sodium hydroxide
(vi) Sodium peroxide + Water -> Sodium hydroxide
2. Metal B reacts with steam. Metal C reacts with cold water. Metal A does not
react with water.
(a)Arrange the metals as they should appear in the reactivity series.
B
C
A
(b)A product residue in D which was brown when hot but turned yellow on
cooling during the reaction of metal B was formed. Gas E was also evolved.
Identify
(i)Metal B Lead/Pb
(ii)Residue D Lead (II) oxide/PbO
(iii)Gas E Hydrogen/H2
(c)A portion of product residue in D was added dilute nitric (V) acid. Another
portion of product residue in D was added dilute sulphuric (VI) acid. State
and explain the observations made.
When added dilute nitric (V) acid, D dissolves to form a colourless solution.
Lead (II) Oxide + dilute nitric (V) acid -> Lead (II) nitrate (V) + Water
PbO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) -> Pb (NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)
When added dilute sulphuric (VI) acid, D does not dissolve. A white
suspension/precipitate was formed. Lead(II)Oxide reacts with sulphuric(VI)acid to
form insoluble Lead(II)sulphate(VI) that cover/coat unreacted Lead(II)Oxide,
stopping further reaction.
Lead (II) Oxide + dilute sulphuric (VI) acid -> Lead (II) sulphate (VI) + Water
PbO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + H2O (l)
3. (a) Hydrogen can reduce copper (II) Oxide but not alluminium oxide. Explain
(b) When water reacts with potassium metal the hydrogen produced ignites
explosively on the surface of water.
(i) What causes this ignition?
(ii) Write an equation to show how this ignition occurs
2. In an experiment, dry hydrogen gas was passed over hot copper (II) oxide in
a combustion tube as shown in the diagram below:

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(a) Complete the diagram to show how the other product, substance R could
be collected in the laboratory.

(b) Describe how copper could be obtained from the mixture containing
copper (II) oxide
3. The setup below was used to investigate the reaction between metals and
water.

(a) Identify solid X and state its purpose

Solid X .…………………………………………………………………..
Purpose …………………………………………………………………..
(b) Write a chemical equation for the reaction that produces the flame.
4. Gas P was passed over heated magnesium ribbon and
hydrogen gas was collected as shown in the diagram below:

(i) Name gas P

...............................................................................................................
(ii) Write an equation of the reaction that takes place in the combustion tube
(iii) State one precaution necessary at the end of this experiment

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5. When hydrogen is burnt and the product cooled, the following results are
obtained as shown in the diagram below:

Clamp Clamp

Burning Ice cold water

Dry hydrogen
Liquid Y

(a) Write the equation for the formation of liquid Y

(b) Give a chemical test for liquid Y
Jane set-up the experiment as shown below to collect a gas. The wet sand was
heated before
heating Zinc granules

Wet sand
(a) Complete the diagram for the laboratory preparation of the gas
(b) Why was it necessary to heat wet sand before heating Zinc granules?
7.

(a) Between N and M which part should be heated first? Explain

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(b) Write a chemical equation for the reaction occurring in the combustion tube.
8. The set-up below was used to investigate electrolysis of a certain molten
compound;-

(a) Complete the circuit by drawing the cell in the gap left in the diagram

(b) Write half-cell equation to show what happens at the cathode

(c) Using an arrow show the direction of electron flow in the diagram above
9. Hydrogen can be prepared by reacting zinc with dilute hydrochloric acid.
a) Write an equation for the reaction.
b) Name an appropriate drying agent for hydrogen gas.
c) Explain why copper metal cannot be used to prepare hydrogen gas.
d) Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form an oxide.
(i) Write an equation for the reaction.
(ii) State two precautions that must be taken before the combustion begins and at
the end of the combustion.
e) Give two uses of hydrogen gas.
f) When zinc is heated to redness in a current of steam, hydrogen gas is obtained.
Write an equation for the reaction.

g) Element Q reacts with dilute acids but not with cold water. Element R does not
react with dilute acids. Elements S displaces element P from its oxide. P reacts
with cold water. Arrange the four elements in order of their reactivity, starting
with the most reactive.
h) Explain how hydrogen is used in the manufacture of margarine.

10. a) The set-up below is used to investigate the properties of hydrogen.

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i) On the diagram, indicate what should be done for the reaction to occur
ii) Hydrogen gas is allowed to pass through the tube for some time before it is
lit. Explain
iii) Write an equation for the reaction that occurs in the combustion tube
iv) When the reaction is complete, hydrogen gas is passed through the apparatus
until they cool down. Explain
v) What property of hydrogen is being investigated?
vi) What observation confirms the property stated in (v) above?
vii) Why is zinc oxide not used to investigate this property of hydrogen gas?

11. The set up below was used to collect gas K, produced by the reaction
between water and Gas K
calcium metal. o

Water gas K ……………………………………………………………..

(a) Name o

o Calcium metal
(b) At the end of the experiment, the solution in the beaker was found to be a
weak base. Explain why the solution is a weak base

ACIDS, BASES AND INDICATORS

INTRODUCTION TO ACIDS, BASES AND INDICATORS

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1. In a school laboratory:
(i)An acid may be defined as a substance that turns litmus red.
(ii)A base may be defined as a substance that turns litmus blue.
Litmus is lichen found mainly in West Africa. It changes its colour depending on
whether the solution it is in, is basic/alkaline or acidic. It is thus able to
identify/show whether another substance is an acid, base or neutral.
(iii)An indicator is a substance that shows whether another substance is a
base/alkaline,acid or neutral.
2. Common naturally occurring acids include:
Name of acid Occurrence
1.Citric acid Found in ripe citrus fruits like passion
fruit/oranges/lemon
2.Tartaric acid Found in grapes/baking
powder/health salts
3.Lactic acid Found in sour milk
4.Ethanoic acid Found in vinegar
5.Methanoic acid Present in ants, bees stings
6.Carbonic acid Used in preservation of fizzy drinks
like coke, Lemonade, Fanta
7.Butanoic acid Present in cheese
8.Tannic acid Present in tea
3. Most commonly used acids found in a school laboratory are not naturally
occurring. They are manufactured. They are called mineral acids.
Common mineral acids include:
Name of mineral acid Common use
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Used to clean/pickling surface of metals
Is found in the stomach of mammals/human
beings
Sulphuric(VI) acid Used as acid in car battery, making battery,
(H2SO4) making fertilizers
Nitric(V)acid (HNO3) Used in making fertilizers and explosives
4. Mineral acids are manufactured to very high concentration. They are corrosive
(causes painful wounds on contact with the skin) and attack/reacts with
garments/clothes/metals.
In a school laboratory, they are mainly used when added a lot of water. This is
called diluting. Diluting ensures the concentration of the acid is safely low.

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5. Bases are opposite of acids. Most bases do not dissolve in water.

Bases which dissolve in water are called alkalis.
Common alkalis include:
Name of alkali Common uses
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) Making soaps and detergents
Potassium hydroxide(KOH) Making soaps and detergents
Ammonia solution(NH4OH) Making fertilizers, softening hard
water
Common bases (which are not alkali) include:
Name of base Common name
Magnesium oxide/hydroxide Anti acid to treat indigestion
Calcium oxide Making cement and neutralizing soil
acidity
6. Indicators are useful in identifying substances which look-alike.
An acid-base indicator is a substance used to identify whether another substance is
alkaline or acidic.
An acid-base indicator works by changing to different colors in neutral, acidic and
alkaline solutions/dissolved in water.
Experiment: To prepare simple acid-base indicator
Procedure
(a)Place some flowers petals in a mortar. Crush them using a pestle. Add a little
sand to assist in crushing.
Add about 5cm3 of propanone/ethanol and carefully continue grinding.
Add more 5cm3 of propanone/ethanol and continue until there is enough extract in
the mortar.
Filter the extract into a clean 100cm3 beaker.
(b)Place 5cm3 of filtered wood ash, soap solution, ammonia solution, sodium
hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, distilled water, sulphuric (VI) acid, sour milk,
sodium chloride, toothpaste and calcium hydroxide into separate test tubes.
(c)Put about three drops of the extract in (a)to each test tube in (b). Record the
observations made in each case.
Sample observations
Solution mixture Colour on adding indicator Nature of solution
extract
wood ash green Base/alkaline
soap solution green Basic/alkaline
ammonia solution green Basic/alkaline

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sodium hydroxide green Basic/alkaline

hydrochloric acid Red Acidic
distilled water orange Neutral
sulphuric(VI)acid Red Acidic
sour milk green Basic/alkaline
sodium chloride orange Neutral
Toothpaste green Basic/alkaline
calcium hydroxide green Basic/alkaline
Lemon juice Red Acidic
The plant extract is able to differentiate between solutions by their nature. It is
changing to a similar colour for similar solutions.
(i)Since lemon juice is a known acid, then sulphuric (VI) and hydrochloric acids
are similar in nature with lemon juice because the indicator shows similar colors.
They are acidic in nature.
(ii)Since sodium hydroxide is a known base/alkali, then the green colour of
indicator shows an alkaline/basic solution.
(iii) Since pure water is neutral, then the orange colour of indicator shows neutral
solutions.
7. In a school laboratory, commercial indicators are used. A commercial indicator
is cheap, readily available and easy to store. Common indicators include: Litmus,
phenolphthalein, methyl orange, screened methyl orange, bromothymol blue.
Experiment:
Using commercial indicators to determine acidic, basic/alkaline and neutral
solutions
Procedure
Place 5cm3 of the solutions in the table below. Add three drops of litmus solution
to each solution.
Repeat with phenolphthalein indicator, methyl orange, screened methyl orange and
bromothymol blue.
Sample results
Substance/ Indicator used
Solution
Litmus Phenolphthal Methyl Screene Bromothy
ein orange d methyl mol
orange blue
wood ash Blue Pink Yellow Orange Blue
soap solution Blue Pink Yellow Orange Blue

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ammonia Blue Pink Yellow Orange Blue

solution
sodium Blue Pink Yellow Orange Blue
hydroxide
hydrochloric Red Colourless Red Purple Orange
acid
distilled water Colourless Colourless Red Orange Orange
sulphuric(VI)aci Red Colourless Red Purple Orange
d
sour milk Blue Pink Yellow Orange Blue
sodium chloride Colourless Colourless Red Orange Orange
Toothpaste Blue Pink Yellow Orange Blue
calcium Blue Pink Yellow Orange Blue
hydroxide
Lemon juice Red Colourless Red Purple Orange

From the table above, then the colour of indicators in different solution can be
summarized.
Indicator Colour of indicator in
Acid Base/alkali Neutral
Litmus paper/solution Red Blue Colourless
Methyl orange Red Yellow Red
Screened methyl Purple Orange Orange
orange
Phenolphthalein Colourless Purple Colourless
Bromothymol blue Orange Blue Orange
The universal indicator
The universal indicator is a mixture of other indicator dyes. The indicator uses the
pH scale. The pH scale shows the strength of bases and acids. The pH scale ranges
from 1-14.These numbers are called pH values:
(i) pH values 1, 2, 3 shows a substance is strongly acid
(ii) pH values 4, 5, 6 shows a substance is a weakly acid
(iii) pH value 7 shows a substance is a neutral
(iv) pH values 8, 9, 10, 11 shows a substance is a weak base/alkali.
(v) pH values 12, 13, 14 shows a substance is a strong base/alkali
The pH values are determined from a pH chart. The pH chart is a multicolored
paper with each colour corresponding to a pH value.i.e

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(i) red correspond to pH 1, 2, 3 showing strongly acidic solutions.

(ii)Orange/ yellow correspond to pH 4, 5, 6 showing weakly acidic solutions.
(iii)Green correspond to pH 7 showing neutral solutions.
(iv)Blue correspond to pH 8, 9, 10, 11 showing weakly alkaline solutions.
(v)Purple/dark blue correspond to pH 12,13,14 showing strong alkalis.
The universal indicator is available as:
(i) Universal indicator paper/pH paper
(ii) Universal indicator solution.
When determining the pH of a unknown solution using
(i) pH paper then the pH paper is dipped into the unknown solution. It changes/turn
to a certain colour. The new colour is marched/compared to its corresponding one
on the pH chart to get the pH value.
(ii) universal indicator solution then about 3 drops of the universal indicator
solution is added into about 5cm3 of the unknown solution in a test tube. It
changes/turn to a certain colour. The new colour is marched/compared to its
corresponding one on the pH chart to get the pH value.
Experiment: To determine the pH value of some solutions
(a)Place 5cm3 of filtered wood ash, soap solution, ammonia solution, sodium
hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, distilled water, sulphuric (VI) acid, sour milk,
sodium chloride, toothpaste and calcium hydroxide into separate test tubes.
(b)Put about three drops of universal indicator solution or dip a portion of a piece
of pH paper into each. Record the observations made in each case.
(c)Compare the colour in each solution with the colors on the pH chart provided.
Determine the pH value of each solution.
Sample observations
Solution mixture Colour on the pH pH value Nature of
paper/adding solution
universal indicator
wood ash Blue 8 Weakly alkaline
soap solution Blue 8 Weakly alkaline
ammonia solution green 8 Weakly alkaline
sodium Purple 14 Strongly alkaline
hydroxide
hydrochloric acid red 1 Strongly acidic
distilled water green 7 Neutral
sulphuric(VI)acid red 1 Strongly acidic
sour milk blue 9 Weakly alkaline

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sodium chloride green 7 Neutral

toothpaste Blue 10 Weakly alkaline
calcium Blue 11 Weakly alkaline
hydroxide
Lemon juice Orange 5 Weakly acidic
Note
1. All the mineral acids Hydrochloric, sulphuric (VI) and nitric (V) acids are strong
acids
2. Two alkalis/soluble bases, sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are strong
bases/alkali. Ammonia solution is a weak base/alkali. All other bases are weakly
alkaline.
3. Pure/deionized water is a neutral solution.
4. Common salt/sodium chloride is a neutral salt.
5. When an acid and an alkali/base are mixed, the final product has pH 7 and is
neutral.
Properties of acids
(a)Physical properties of acids
1. Acids have a characteristic sour taste
2. Most acids are colourless liquids
3. Mineral acids are odorless. Organic acids have characteristic smell
4. All acids have pH less than 7
5. All acids turn blue litmus paper red, methyl orange red and phenolphthalein
colourless.
6. All acids dissolve in water to form an acidic solution. Most do not dissolve in
organic solvents like propanone, kerosene, tetrachloromethane, petrol.
(b)Chemical properties of acids
1. Reaction with metals
All acids react with reactive metals to form a salt and produce /evolve hydrogen
gas.
Metal + Acid -> Salt + Hydrogen gas
Experiment: reaction of metals with mineral acids.
(a)Place 5cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid in a small test tube. Add 1cm length of
polished magnesium ribbon. Stopper the test tube using a thump. Light a wooden
splint. Place the burning splint on top of the stoppered test tube. Release the thump
stopper. Record the observations made.
(b)Repeat the procedure in (a) above using Zinc granules, iron filings, copper
turnings, aluminum foil in place of Magnesium ribbon

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(c)Repeat the procedure in (a) then (b) using dilute sulphuric (VI) acid in place of
dilute hydrochloric acid.
Sample observations
(i) effervescence/bubbles produced/fizzing in all cases except when using
copper
(ii) Colourless gas produced in all cases except when using copper
(iii) Gas produced extinguishes a burning wooden splint with an
explosion/pop sound.
Explanation
Some metals react with dilute acids, while others do not. Metals which react with
acids produce bubbles of hydrogen gas. Hydrogen gas is a colourless gas that
extinguishes a burning splint with a pop sound. This shows acids contain hydrogen
gas.
This hydrogen is displaced/removed from the acids by some metals like
Magnesium, Zinc, aluminium, iron and sodium.
Some other metals like copper, silver, gold; platinum and mercury are not reactive
enough to displace/remove the hydrogen from dilute acids.
Chemical equations
1. Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid -> Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> MgCl2 (aq) + H2(g)

2. Zinc + Hydrochloric acid -> Zinc chloride + Hydrogen

Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
3. Iron + Hydrochloric acid -> Iron (II) chloride + Hydrogen
Fe(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> FeCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
4. Aluminium + Hydrochloric acid -> Aluminium chloride + Hydrogen
2Al(s) + 3HCl (aq) -> AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2(g)
5. Magnesium + Sulphuric (VI) acid -> Magnesium sulphate (VI) + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
6. Zinc + Sulphuric (VI) acid -> Zinc sulphate (VI) + Hydrogen
Zn(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
7. Iron + Sulphuric (VI) acid -> Iron (II) sulphate (VI) + Hydrogen Fe(s)
+ H2SO4 (aq) -> FeSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
8. Aluminium + Sulphuric (VI) acid -> Aluminium sulphate (VI) + Hydrogen
2Al(s) + 3H2SO4 (aq -> Al2 (SO4)3 (aq + 3H2 (g)
2. Reaction of metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates with mineral acids.

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All acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salt, water and
produce /evolve carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Metal carbonate + Acid -> Salt + Water+ Carbon(IV)oxide gas
Metal hydrogen carbonate + Acid -> Salt + Water + Carbon (IV) oxide
gas
Experiment: reaction of metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates with
mineral acids.
(a)Place 5cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid in a small test tube. Add half spatula full
of sodium carbonate. Stopper the test tube using a cork with delivery tube directed
into lime water. Record the observations made. Test the gas also with burning
splint.
(b)Repeat the procedure in (a) above using Zinc carbonate, Calcium carbonate,
copper carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, Potassium hydrogen carbonate in
place of Sodium carbonate.
(c)Repeat the procedure in (a) then (b) using dilute sulphuric (VI) acid in place of
dilute hydrochloric acid.

Set up of apparatus

Acid Lime water

Sodium carbonate
Sample observations
(i) effervescence/bubbles produced/fizzing in all cases.
(ii) Colourless gas produced in all cases.
(iii) Gas produced forms a white precipitate with lime water.
Explanation
All metal carbonate/hydrogen carbonate reacts with dilute acids to produce bubbles
of carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon (IV) oxide gas is a colourless gas that
extinguishes a burning splint. When carbon (IV) oxide gas is bubbled in lime water,
a white precipitate is formed.
Chemical equations
1. Sodium carbonate +Hydrochloric acid -> Sodium chloride + Carbon (IV)
Oxide+ Water
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> 2NaCl (aq) + H2O(g) + CO2 (g)

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2. Calcium carbonate +Hydrochloric acid -> Calcium chloride + Carbon (IV)

Oxide+ Water
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> CaCl2 (aq) + H2O(g) + CO2 (g)
3. Magnesium carbonate +Hydrochloric acid ->Magnesium chloride + Carbon
(IV) Oxide+ Water
MgCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
4. Copper carbonate +Hydrochloric acid ->Copper (II) chloride + Carbon (IV)
Oxide+ Water
CuCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> CuCl2 (aq) + H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
5. Copper carbonate +Sulphuric (VI) acid ->Copper (II) sulphate (VI) +
Carbon (IV) Oxide+ Water
CuCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
6. Zinc carbonate +Sulphuric (VI) acid ->Zinc sulphate (VI) + Carbon (IV)
Oxide+ Water
ZnCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
7. Sodium hydrogen carbonate +Sulphuric (VI) acid ->Sodium sulphate (VI) +
Carbon (IV) Oxide+ Water
NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
8. Potassium hydrogen carbonate +Sulphuric (VI) acid ->Potassium sulphate
(VI) + Carbon (IV) Oxide+ Water
KHCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> K2SO4 (aq) + H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
9. Potassium hydrogen carbonate +Hydrochloric acid ->Potassium chloride +
Carbon (IV) Oxide+ Water
KHCO3(s) + HCl (aq) -> KCl (aq) + H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
10. Sodium hydrogen carbonate +Hydrochloric acid ->Sodium chloride +
Carbon (IV) Oxide+ Water
NaHCO3(s) + HCl (aq) -> NaCl (aq) + H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
3. Neutralization by bases/alkalis
All acids react with bases to form a salt and water only. The reaction of an acid
with metal oxides/hydroxides (bases) to salt and water only is called neutralization
reaction.
Since no effervescence/bubbling/fizzing take place during neutralization:
(i) The reaction with alkalis requires a suitable indicator. The colour of the
indicator changes when all the acid has reacted with the soluble solution of the
alkali (metal oxides/ hydroxides).
(ii) Excess of the base is added to ensure all the acid reacts. The excess acid is then
filtered off.

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Experiment 1: reaction of alkali with mineral acids.

(i)Place about 5cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid in a boiling tube. Add one drop of
phenolphthalein indicator. Using a dropper/teat pipette, add dilute sodium
hydroxide dropwise until there is a colour change.
(ii)Repeat the procedure with dilute sulphuric (VI) acid instead of hydrochloric
acid.
(iii)Repeat the procedure with potassium hydroxide instead of sodium hydroxide.
Sample observation:
Colour of phenolphthalein change from colourless to pink in all cases.
Explanation
Bases/alkalis neutralize acids. Acids and bases/alkalis are colourless. A suitable
indicator like phenolphthalein change colour to pink, when all the acid has been
neutralized by the bases/alkalis. Phenolphthalein change colour from pink, to
colourless when all the bases/alkalis has been neutralized by the acid.
Chemical equation
Sodium oxide + Hydrochloric acid -> Sodium chloride + Water
Na2O(s) + HCl -> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Potassium oxide + Hydrochloric acid -> Potassium chloride + Water
K2O(s) + HCl -> KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Sodium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid -> Sodium chloride + Water
NaOH(s) + HCl -> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ammonia solution + Hydrochloric acid -> Ammonium chloride + Water
NH4OH(s) + HCl -> NH4Cl (aq) + H2O (l)
Potassium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid -> Potassium chloride + Water
KOH(s) + HCl -> KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Sodium hydroxide + sulphuric (VI)acid -> Sodium sulphate(VI) + Water
2NaOH(s) + H2SO4 -> Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
Potassium hydroxide + sulphuric (VI) acid -> Potassium sulphate (VI) +
Water
2KOH(s) + H2SO4 -> K2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
Ammonia solution + sulphuric (VI) acid -> Ammonium sulphate (VI) + Water
2NH4OH(s) + H2SO4 -> (NH4)2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
Magnesium hydroxide + sulphuric (VI) acid -> Magnesium sulphate (VI) + Water
Mg (OH)2(s) + H2SO4 -> MgSO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Magnesium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid -> Magnesium chloride + Water
Mg (OH)2(s) + HCl(aq) -> MgCl2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)

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CHEMISTRY FORM TWO NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROLYSIS (ELECTROLYTIC CELL)

1. Electrolysis is defined simply as the decomposition of a compound by an
electric current/electricity.
A compound that is decomposed by an electric current is called an electrolyte.
Some electrolytes are weak while others are strong.
2. Strong electrolytes are those that are fully ionized/dissociated into (many) ions.
Common strong electrolytes include:
(i) All mineral acids
(ii) All strong alkalis/sodium hydroxide/potassium hydroxide.
(iii) All soluble salts
3. Weak electrolytes are those that are partially/partly ionized/dissociated into (few)
ions.
Common weak electrolytes include:
(i) All organic acids
(ii) All bases except sodium hydroxide/potassium hydroxide.
(iii)Water
4. A compound that is not decomposed by an electric current is called non-
electrolyte.
Non-electrolytes are those compounds /substances that exist as molecules and thus
cannot ionize/dissociate into (any) ions.
Common non-electrolytes include:
(i) Most organic solvents (e.g.
petrol/paraffin/benzene/methylbenzene/ethanol)
(ii) All hydrocarbons (alkanes /alkenes/alkynes)
(iii)Chemicals of life (e.g. proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, starch, sugar)
5. An electrolytes in solid state have fused /joined ions and therefore do not
conduct electricity but the ions (cations and anions) are free and mobile in molten
and aqueous (solution, dissolved in water) state.
6. During electrolysis, the free ions are attracted to the electrodes.
An electrode is a rod through which current enter and leave the electrolyte during
electrolysis.
An electrode that does not influence/alter the products of electrolysis is called an
inert electrode.
Common inert electrodes include:

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(i)Platinum
(ii)Carbon graphite
Platinum is not usually used in a school laboratory because it is very expensive.
Carbon graphite is easily/readily and cheaply available (from used dry cells).

7. The positive electrode is called Anode. The anode is the electrode through
which current enter the electrolyte/electrons leave the electrolyte
8. The negative electrode is called Cathode. The cathode is the electrode through
which current leave the electrolyte / electrons enter the electrolyte
9. During the electrolysis, free anions are attracted to the anode where they lose
/donate electrons to form neutral atoms/molecules. i.e.
M(l) -> M+(l) + e (for cations from molten electrolytes)
M(s) -> M+(aq) + e (for cations from electrolytes in aqueous state /
solution / dissolved in water)
The neutral atoms /molecules form the products of electrolysis at the anode. This
is called discharge at anode
10. During electrolysis, free cations are attracted to the cathode where they gain
/accept/acquire electrons to form neutral atoms/molecules.
X+ (aq) + 2e -> X(s) (for cations from electrolytes in aqueous state / solution /
dissolved in water)
2X+ (l) + 2e -> X (l) (for cations from molten electrolytes)
The neutral atoms /molecules form the products of electrolysis at the cathode. This
is called discharge at cathode.
11. The below set up shows an electrolytic cell.
Simple set up of electrolytic cell

Gaseous product at cathode Gaseous product at anode

Electrolyte

Cathode(-) Anode(+)

Battery

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12. For a compound /salt containing only two ion/binary salt the products of
electrolysis in an electrolytic cell can be determined as in the below examples:
a) To determine the products of electrolysis of molten Lead (II) chloride
(i)Decomposition of electrolyte into free ions;
PbCl2 (l) -> Pb 2+ (l) + 2Cl-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)
(ii)At the cathode/negative electrode (-);
Pb 2+ (l) + 2e -> Pb (l)
(Cation / Pb 2+ gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)
(iii)At the anode/positive electrode (+);
2Cl-(l) -> Cl2 (g) + 2e
(Anion / Cl- donate/lose electrons to form free atom then a gas molecule)
(iv)Products of electrolysis therefore are;
I. At the cathode grey beads /solid lead metal.
II.At the anode pale green chlorine gas.
b) To determine the products of electrolysis of molten Zinc bromide
(i)Decomposition of electrolyte into free ions;
ZnBr2 (l) -> Zn 2+ (l) + 2Br-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)
(ii)At the cathode/negative electrode (-);
Zn 2+ (l) + 2e -> Zn (l)
2+
(Cation / Zn gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)
(iii)At the anode/positive electrode (+);
2Br-(l) -> Br2 (g) + 2e
-
(Anion / Br donate/lose electrons to form free atom then a liquid molecule which
change to gas on heating)
(iv)Products of electrolysis therefore are;
I. At the cathode grey beads /solid Zinc metal.
II.At the anode red bromine liquid / red/brown bromine gas.
c) To determine the products of electrolysis of molten sodium chloride
(i)Decomposition of electrolyte into free ions;
NaCl (l) -> Na +(l) + Cl-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)
(ii)At the cathode/negative electrode (-);
2Na+ (l) + 2e -> Na (l)
+
(Cation / Na gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)
(iii)At the anode/positive electrode (+);

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2Cl-(l) -> Cl2 (g) + 2e

(Anion / Cl- donate/lose electrons to form free atom then a gas molecule)
(iv)Products of electrolysis therefore are;
I. At the cathode grey beads /solid sodium metal.
II.At the anode pale green chlorine gas.
d) To determine the products of electrolysis of molten Aluminum (III) oxide
(i)Decomposition of electrolyte into free ions;
Al2O3 (l) -> 2Al 3+ (l) + 3O2-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)
(ii)At the cathode/negative electrode (-);
4Al 3+ (l) + 12e -> 4Al (l)
(Cation / Al 3+ gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)
(iii)At the anode/positive electrode (+);
6O2-(l) -> 3O2 (g) + 12e
(Anion /6O2- donate/lose 12 electrons to form free atom then three gas molecule)
(iv)Products of electrolysis therefore are;
I. At the cathode grey beads /solid aluminum metal.
II.At the anode colourless gas that relights/rekindles glowing splint.
13. In industries electrolysis has the following uses/applications:
(a)Extraction of reactive metals from their ores
Potassium, sodium, magnesium, and aluminum are extracted from their ores using
electrolytic methods.
(b)Purifying copper after extraction from copper pyrites ores
Copper obtained from copper pyrites ores is not pure. After extraction, the copper
is refined by electrolyzing copper (II) sulphate (VI) solution using the impure
copper as anode and a thin strip of pure copper as cathode. Electrode ionization
takes place there:
(i)At the cathode; Cu2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s) (Pure copper deposits on the strip
(ii)At the anode; Cu(s) ->Cu2+ (aq) + 2e (impure copper erodes/dissolves)
(c)Electroplating
The label EPNS (Electro Plated Nickel Silver) on some steel/metallic utensils mean
they are plated/coated with silver and/or Nickel to improve their appearance (add
their aesthetic value) and prevent/slow corrosion(rusting of iron). Electroplating
is the process of coating a metal with another metal using an electric current.
During electroplating, the cathode is made of the metal to be coated/impure.
Example:
During the electroplating of a spoon with silver

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(i) The spoon/impure is placed as the cathode (negative terminal of battery)

(ii) The pure silver is placed as the anode (positive terminal of battery)
(iii) The pure silver erodes/ionizes/dissociates to release electrons:
Ag(s) ->Ag+ (aq) + e (impure silver erodes/dissolves)
+
(iv) silver (Ag )ions from electrolyte gain electrons to form pure silver
deposits / coat /cover the spoon/impure
Ag+ (aq) + e ->Ag(s) (pure silver deposits /coat/cover on spoon)

CHEMICAL BONDING AND STRUCTURE

A. CHEMICAL BONDING
A chemical bond is formed when atoms of the same or different elements share,
gain, donate or delocalize their outer energy level electrons to combine during
chemical reactions in order to be stable.
Atoms have equal number of negatively charged electrons in the energy levels and
positively charged protons in the nucleus.
Atoms are chemically stable if they have filled outer energy level. An energy level
is full if it has duplet (2) or octet (8) state in outer energy level.
Noble gases have duplet /octet. All other atoms try to be like noble gases through
chemical reactions and forming molecules.
Only electrons in the outer energy level take part in formation of a chemical bond.
There are three main types of chemical bonds formed by atoms:
(i) Covalent bond

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(ii) ionic/electrovalent bond

(iii) Metallic bond
(i)COVALENT BOND
A covalent bond is formed when atoms of the same or different element share some
or all the outer energy level electrons to combine during chemical reactions in order
to attain duplet or octet.
A shared pair of electrons is attracted by the nucleus (protons) of the two atoms
sharing.
Covalent bonds are mainly formed by non-metals to form molecules. A molecule
is a group of atoms of the same or different elements held together by a covalent
bond. The number of atoms making a molecule is called atomicity. Noble gases are
monatomic because they are stable and thus do not bond with each other or other
atoms. Most other gases are diatomic
The more the number of electrons shared, the stronger the covalent bond.
A pair of electrons that do not take part in the formation of a covalent bond is
called a lone pair of electrons.
Mathematically, the number of electrons to be shared by an atom is equal to the
number of electrons remaining for the atom to be stable/attain duplet/octet /have
maximum electrons in outer energy level.
The following diagrams illustrate the formation of covalent bonds:
a) Hydrogen molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms in the outer energy level
each requiring one electron to have a stable duplet.
To show the formation of covalent bonding in the molecule then the following
data/information is required;
Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding H H
Number of protons/electrons 1 1
Electron configuration/structure 1: 1:
Number of electron in outer energy level 1 1
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 1 1
Number of electrons not shared (lone pairs) 0 0
Diagram method 1

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Diagram method 2

H H
●x

Note:
After bonding the following intermolecular forces exist:
(i) The attraction of the shared electrons by both nucleus /protons of the atoms
(ii) The repulsion of the nucleus of one atom on the other.
(iii) Balance of the attraction and repulsion is maintained
inside/intermolecular/within the molecule as follows;

E1

P1 P1

E1

(iv)Protons (P1) from nucleus of atom 1 repel protons (P2) from nucleus of atom 2.
(v)Electron (E1) in the energy levels of atom 1 repel electron (E2) in the energy
levels of atom 2.
(vi) Protons (P1) from nucleus of atom 1 attract electron (E2) in the energy levels
of atom 2.
(vii) protons (P2) from nucleus of atom 2 attract electron (E2) in the energy levels
of atom 2.
b) Fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine molecules are made up also of two atoms
sharing the outer energy level electrons to have a stable octet.
To show the formation of covalent bonding in the molecule then the following
data/information is required:
(i) Fluorine
Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding F F
Number of protons/electrons 9 9
Electron configuration/structure 2:7 2:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 7 7

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Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 1 1

Number of outer electrons not shared (3-lone pairs) 6 6
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

(ii) Chlorine
Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding Cl Cl
Number of protons/electrons 17 17
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:7 2:8:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 7 7
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 1 1
Number of outer electrons not shared (3-lone pairs) 6 6
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

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(iii) Bromine
Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding Br Br
Number of protons/electrons 35 35
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:18:7 2:8:18:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 7 7
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 1 1
Number of outer electrons not shared (3-lone pairs) 6 6
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

(iv) Iodine
Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding I I
Number of protons/electrons 53 53
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:18:18:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 7 7
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 1 1
Number of outer electrons not shared (3-lone pairs) 6 6
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

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c) Oxygen molecule is made up of two atoms sharing each two outer energy level
electrons to have a stable octet as shown below;
Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding O O
Number of protons/electrons 8 8
Electron configuration/structure 2:6 2:6
Number of electron in outer energy level 6 6
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 2 2
Number of outer electrons not shared (2-lone pairs) 4 4
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

d) Nitrogen and phosphorus molecule is made up of two atoms sharing each three
outer energy level electrons to have a stable octet as shown below;
(i) Nitrogen
Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding N N
Number of protons/electrons 7 7
Electron configuration/structure 2:5 2:5
Number of electron in outer energy level 5 5
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 3 3
Number of outer electrons not shared (3-lone pairs) 2 2
Diagram method 1

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Diagram method 2

(ii) Phosphorus
Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding P P
Number of protons/electrons 15 15
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:5 2:8:5
Number of electron in outer energy level 5 5
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 3 3
Number of outer electrons not shared (3-lone pairs) 2 2
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

e) Water molecule is made up of hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen requires sharing

one electron with oxygen to be stable/attain duplet. Oxygen requires to share two
electrons to be stable/attain octet. Two hydrogen atoms share with one oxygen
atom for both to be stable as shown below;
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding O H
Number of protons/electrons 8 1
Electron configuration/structure 2:6 1
Number of electron in outer energy level 6 1

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Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 2 1

Number of electrons not shared (2-Oxygen lone pairs) 4 0
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

f) Ammonia molecule is made up of Hydrogen and Nitrogen. Hydrogen requires

sharing one electron with Nitrogen to be stable/attain duplet. Nitrogen requires to
share three electrons to be stable/attain octet. Three hydrogen atoms share with one
nitrogen atom for both to be stable as shown below;
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding N H
Number of protons/electrons 7 1
Electron configuration/structure 2:5 1:
Number of electron in outer energy level 5 1
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 3 1
Number of electrons not shared (1-Nitrogen lone pairs) 2 0
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

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g) Carbon (IV) oxide molecule is made up of carbon and oxygen. Carbon requires
to share four electrons with oxygen to be stable/attain octet. Oxygen requires to
share two electrons to be stable/attain octet. Two oxygen atoms share with one
carbon atom for both to be stable as shown below;
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding O C
Number of protons/electrons 8 6
Electron configuration/structure 2:6 2:4
Number of electron in outer energy level 6 4
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 2 4
2-lone pairs from each Oxygen atom) 2 0
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

h) Methane molecule is made up of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrogen requires

sharing one electron with carbon to be stable/attain duplet. Carbon requires sharing
four electrons to be stable/attain octet. Four hydrogen atoms share with one carbon
atom for both to be stable as shown below;
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding C H
Number of protons/electrons 6 1
Electron configuration/structure 2:4 1
Number of electron in outer energy level 4 1
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 4 1
Number of electrons not shared ( No lone pairs) 0 0
Diagram method 1

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Diagram method 2

i) Tetrachloromethane molecule is made up of chlorine and carbon. Chlorine

requires sharing one electron with carbon to be stable/attain octet. Carbon requires
sharing four electrons to be stable/attain octet. Four chlorine atoms share with one
carbon atom for both to be stable as shown below;
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding C Cl
Number of protons/electrons 6 17
Electron configuration/structure 2:4 2:8:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 4 7
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 4 1
3-lone pairs from each Chlorine atom (24 electrons) 0 6
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

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j) Ethane molecule is made up of six hydrogen and two carbon atoms. Hydrogen
requires to share one electron with carbon to be stable/attain duplet. Carbon
requires to share four electrons to be stable/attain octet. Three hydrogen atoms
share with one carbon atom while another three hydrogen atoms share with a
different carbon atom. The two carbon atoms bond by sharing a pair of the
remaining electrons as shown below;
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding C H
Number of protons/electrons 6 1
Electron configuration/structure 2:4 1
Number of electron in outer energy level 4 1
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 4 1
Number of electrons not shared (No lone pairs) 0 0
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

k) Ethene molecule is made up of four hydrogen and two carbon atoms. Hydrogen
requires to share one electron with carbon to be stable/attain duplet. Carbon
requires to share four electrons to be stable/attain octet. Two hydrogen atoms share
with one carbon atom while another two hydrogen atoms share with a different
carbon atom. The two carbon atoms bond by sharing two pairs of the remaining
electrons as shown below;
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding C H
Number of protons/electrons 6 1
Electron configuration/structure 2:4 1
Number of electron in outer energy level 4 1
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 4 1
Number of electrons not shared (No lone pairs) 0 0
Diagram method 1

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Diagram method 2

l) Ethyne molecule is made up of two hydrogen and two carbon atoms. Hydrogen
requires to share one electron with carbon to be stable/attain duplet. Carbon
requires to share four electrons to be stable/attain octet. One hydrogen atoms share
with one carbon atom while another hydrogen atoms share with a different carbon
atom. The two carbon atoms bond by sharing three pairs of the remaining electrons
as shown below;
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding C H
Number of protons/electrons 6 1
Electron configuration/structure 2:4 1
Number of electron in outer energy level 4 1
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 4 1
Number of electrons not shared (No lone pairs) 0 0
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

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j) Ethanol molecule is made up of six hydrogen one Oxygen atom two carbon
atoms.
Five Hydrogen atoms share their one electron each with carbon to be stable/attain
duplet. One Hydrogen atoms share one electron with Oxygen for both to attain
duplet/octet
Each Carbon uses four electrons to share with “O”and “H”attains octet/duplet.
NB: Oxygen has two lone pairs

j) Ethanoic molecule is made up of four hydrogen two Oxygen atom two

carbon atoms.
Three Hydrogen atoms share their one electron each with carbon to be
stable/attain duplet. One Hydrogen atoms share one electron with Oxygen for
both to attain duplet/octet
Each Carbon uses four electrons to share with “O”and “H”attains
octet/duplet.
NB: Each Oxygen atom has two lone pairs

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By convention (as a rule), a

(i) Single covalent bond made up of two shared (a pair) electrons is
represented by a dash (---)
(ii) Double covalent bond made up of four shared (two pairs) electrons is
represented by a double dash (==)
(iii) Triple covalent bond made up of six shared (three pairs) electrons is
represented by a triple dash (==)
The representation below show the molecules covered in (a) to (k) above:
a) Hydrogen molecule(H2) H--H
b) Fluorine molecule(F2) F--F
c) Chlorine molecule(Cl2) Cl--Cl
d) Bromine molecule(Br2) Br--Br
e) Iodine molecule(I2) I--I
f) Oxygen molecule(O2) O=O
g) Nitrogen molecule(N2) N=N
h) Phosphorus molecule(P2) P=P
i) Water molecule (H2O) H--O--H
j Ammonia molecule(NH3) H--N--H

k) Carbon (IV) oxide molecule (CO2) O==C==O

H
l) Methane molecule (CH4) H--C--H
H

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Cl
m) Tetrachloromethane molecule (CCl4 Cl--C--Cl
Cl

H H
n) Ethane molecule (C2H6) H--C—C--H
H H

p) Ethene molecule (C2H4) H-C==C-H

H H

q) Ethyne molecule (C2H6) H-C—C-H

Dative /coordinate bond
A dative/coordinate bond is a covalent bond formed when a lone pair of electrons is
donated then shared to an electron-deficient species/ion/atom.
During dative/coordinate bonding, all the shared pair of electrons are donated by
one of the combining/bonding species/ ion/atom.
Like covalent bonding, coordinate /dative bond is mainly formed by non-metals.
Illustration of coordinate /dative bond
a) Ammonium ion (NH4+)
The ammonium ion is made up of ammonia (NH3) molecule and hydrogen (H+)
ion. (H+) ion has no electrons. NH3 is made up of covalent bonding from Nitrogen
and Hydrogen. One lone pair of electrons is present in Nitrogen atom after the
bonding. This lone pair is donated and shared with an electron-deficient H+ ion
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

b) Phosphine ion (PH4+)

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The Phosphine ion is made up of Phosphine (NH3) molecule and hydrogen (H+)
ion. (H+) ion has no electrons. PH3 is made up of covalent bonding from
Phosphorus and Hydrogen. One lone pair of electrons is present in Phosphorus
atom. After the bonding this lone pair is donated and shared with the electron-
deficient H+ ion
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

c) Hydroxonium (H3O+) ion

The hydroxonium ion is made up of water (H2O) molecule and hydrogen (H+) ion.
(H+) ion has no electrons. The H2O molecule is made up of covalent bonding from
Oxygen and Hydrogen. One lone pair of electrons out of the two present in Oxygen
atom after the bonding is donated and shared with the electron-deficient H+ ion
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

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d) Carbon (II) oxide (CO)

Carbon (II) oxide is made up of carbon and Oxygen atoms sharing each two outer
electron and not sharing each two electrons. Oxygen with an extra lone pair of
electrons donates and share with the carbon atom for both to be stable.
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

e) Aluminum (III) chloride (AlCl3/Al2Cl6)

Aluminum (III) chloride is made up of aluminum and chlorine. One aluminum
atom shares its outer electrons with three separate chlorine atoms. All chlorine
atoms attain stable octet but aluminum does not. Another molecule of aluminum
chloride shares its chlorine lone pair of electrons with the aluminum atom for both
to be stable. This type of bond exists only in vapour phase after aluminum chloride
sublimes.
Diagram method 1

Diagram method 2

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A dative/coordinate bond is by convention represented by an arrow (→) heading

from the donor of the shared pair of electrons.
Below is the representation of molecules in the above examples;
a) Ammonium ion.
H
H− N→H
H
b) Phosphine ion H
H− P→H
H

c) Hydroxonium ion
H− O→H
H

d) Carbon (II) oxide O→C

d) Aluminum (III) chloride Cl Cl Cl

Al Al

Cl Cl Cl
(ii)IONIC/ELECTROVALENT BOND
An ionic/electrovalent bond is extreme of a covalent bond.
During ionic/electrovalent bonding there is complete transfer of valence electrons
to one electronegative atom from an electropositive atom.
All metals are electropositive and easily/readily donate/lose their valence electrons.
All non-metals are electronegative and easily/readily gain/acquire extra electrons.
Ionic/electrovalent bonding therefore mainly involves transfer of electrons from
metal/metallic radical to non-metallic radical.
When an electropositive atom donates /loses the valence electrons, it forms a
positively charged cation to attain stable octet/duplet.
When an electronegative atom gains /acquires extra valence electrons, it forms a
negatively charged anion to attain stable octet/duplet.

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The electrostatic attraction force between the stable positively charged cation
and the stable negatively charged anion with opposite charges constitute the ionic
bond.
Like in covalent/dative/coordinate bonding, only the outer energy level electrons
take part in the formation of ionic/electrovalent bond
Like in covalent/dative/coordinate bonding, the more electrons taking part /
involved in the formation of ionic/electrovalent bond, the stronger the ionic
/electrovalent bond. Illustration of ionic /electrovalent bond
a) Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is formed when a sodium atom donates its outer valence
electrons to chlorine atom for both to attain stable octet:
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding Na Cl
Number of protons/electrons 11 17
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:1
2:8:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 11 7
Number of electrons donated and gained to be stable 1 1
New electron configuration/structure 2:8: 2:8:
+
Symbol of cation/anion after bonding Na Cl-
Diagram

b) Magnesium chloride (MgCl2)

Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) is formed when a magnesium atom donate its two
outer valence electrons to chlorine atoms. Two chlorine atoms are required to gain
each one electron. All the ions (cations and anions) attain stable octet:
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding Mg Cl
Number of protons/electrons 11 17
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:2
2:8:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 2 7
Number of electrons donated and gained to be stable 2 1
New electron configuration/structure 2:8: 2:8:
Symbol of cation/anion after bonding Mg2+ Cl-

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Diagram

c) Lithium oxide (Li2O)

Lithium oxide (Li2O) is formed when a Lithium atom donate its outer valence
electrons to Oxygen atom. Two Lithium atoms are required to donate/lose each one
electron and attain stable duplet. Oxygen atom acquires the two electrons and attain
stable octet:
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding Li O
Number of protons/electrons 3 8
Electron configuration/structure 2:1 2:6
Number of electron in outer energy level 1 6
Number of electrons donated and gained to be stable 1 2
New electron configuration/structure 2: 2:8:
Symbol of cation/anion after bonding Li+ O2-
Diagram

d) Aluminum (III) oxide (Al2O3)

Aluminum (III) oxide (Al2O3) is formed when a Aluminum atom donate its three
outer valence electrons to Oxygen atom. Two Aluminum atoms are required to
donate/lose each three electron and attain stable octet. Three Oxygen atoms gain/
acquire the six electrons and attain stable octet:
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding Al O
Number of protons/electrons 13 8
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:3 2:6
Number of electron in outer energy level 3 6
Number of electrons donated and gained to be stable 3 2
New electron configuration/structure 2:8: 2:8:
Symbol of cation/anion after bonding Al3+ O2-

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Diagram

e) Calcium oxide (CaO)

Calcium oxide (CaO) is formed when a Calcium atom donate its two outer valence
electrons to Oxygen atom. Both attain stable octet:
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding Ca O
Number of protons/electrons 20 8
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:8:2 2:6
Number of electron in outer energy level 2 6
Number of electrons donated and gained to be stable 2 2
New electron configuration/structure 2:8:8: 2:8:
2+
Symbol of cation/anion after bonding Ca O2-
Diagram

Some compounds can be formed from ionic/electrovalent, covalent and

dative/coordinate bonding within their atoms/molecules:
a) Formation of ammonium chloride:
Ammonium chloride is formed from the reaction of ammonia gas and hydrogen
chloride gas. Both ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas are formed from covalent
bonding. During the reaction of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas to form
Ammonium chloride;
-ammonia forms a dative/coordinate bond with electron deficient H+ ion from
Hydrogen chloride to form ammonium ion(NH4+)ion.
-the chloride ion Cl- and ammonium ion(NH4+)ion bond through ionic /
electrovalent bond from the electrostatic attraction between the opposite/unlike
charges.
Diagram

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b) Dissolution/dissolving of hydrogen chloride:

Hydrogen chloride is formed when hydrogen and chlorine atoms form a covalent
bond. Water is formed when hydrogen and Oxygen atoms also form a covalent
bond. When hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water;
-water molecules forms a dative/coordinate bond with electron deficient H+
ion from Hydrogen chloride to form hydroxonium ion(H3O+)ion.
-the chloride ion Cl- and hydroxonium ion(H3O+)ion bond through ionic /
electrovalent bond from the electrostatic attraction between the opposite/unlike
charges.
Diagram

.
c) Dissolution/dissolving of ammonia gas:
Ammonia gas is formed when hydrogen and Nitrogen atoms form a covalent bond.
Water is formed when hydrogen and Oxygen atoms also form a covalent bond.
When Ammonia gas is dissolved in water;
-ammonia forms a dative/coordinate bond with electron deficient H+ ion from a
water molecule to form ammonium ion(NH4+)ion.
-the hydroxide ion OH- and ammonium ion(NH4+)ion bond through ionic /
electrovalent bond from the electrostatic attraction between the opposite/unlike
charges.
Diagram

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(iii)METALLIC BOND
A metallic bond is formed when metallic atoms delocalize their outer electrons in
order to be stable.
Metals delocalize their outer electrons to form positively charged cation .
The electrostatic attraction force between the metallic cation and the negatively
charged electrons constitute the metallic bond.
The more delocalized electrons the stronger the metallic bond.
Illustration of ionic /electrovalent bond
a) Sodium (Na) is made of one valence electron. The electron is donated to form
Na+ ion. The electron is delocalized /free within many sodium ions.
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding Na Na Na
Number of protons/electrons 11 11 11
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:1 2:8:1 2:8:1
Number of electron in outer energy level 1 1 1
Number of electrons delocalized/free within 1 1 1
New electron configuration/structure 2:8: 2:8: 2:8:
Symbol of cation after metallic bonding Na+ Na+ Na+
Diagram

(three)Metallic cations attract

(three) free/delocalized electrons

b) Aluminium (Al) is made of three valence electron. The three electrons are
donated to form Al3+ ion. The electrons are delocalized /free within many
aluminium ions.
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding Al Al Al
Number of protons/electrons 13 13 13
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:3 2:8:3 2:8:3
Number of electron in outer energy level 3 3 3
Number of electrons delocalized/free within 3 3 3
New electron configuration/structure 2:8: 2:8: 2:8:
Symbol of cation after metallic bonding Al3+ Al3+ Al3+
Diagram

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(three)Metallic cations attract

(nine) free/delocalized electrons

c)Calcium (Ca) is made of two valence electron.The two electrons are donated to
form Ca2+ ion.The electrons are delocalized /free within many Calcium ions.
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding Ca Ca Ca
Number of protons/electrons 20 20 20
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:8:2 2:8:8:2
2:8:8:2
Number of electron in outer energy level 2 2 2
Number of electrons delocalized/free within 2 2 2
New electron configuration/structure 2:8:8: 2:8:8:
2:8:8:
Symbol of cation after metallic bonding Ca2+ Ca2+ Ca2+
Diagram

(three)Metallic cations attract

(six) free/delocalized electrons

d) Magnesium (Mg) is made of two valence electron. The two electrons are donated
to form Mg2+ion.The electrons are delocalized /free within many Magnesium ions.
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding Mg Mg
Number of protons/electrons 12 12
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:2
2:8:2
Number of electron in outer energy level 2 2
Number of electrons delocalized/free within 2 2
New electron configuration/structure 2:8: 2:8:
Symbol of cation after metallic bonding Mg2+ Mg2+
Diagram

(two)Metallic cations attract

(four) free/delocalized electrons

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e)Lithium (Li) is made of one valence electron. The electron is donated to form Li+
ion. The electron is delocalized /free within many Lithium ions.ie;
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding Li Li Li Li
Number of protons/electrons 3 3 3 3
Electron configuration/structure 2:1 2:1 2:1 2:1
Number of electron in outer energy level 1 1 1 1
Number of electrons delocalized/free within 1 1 1 1
New electron configuration/structure 2:1: 2:1: 2:1: 2:1:
Symbol of cation after metallic bonding Li+ Li+ Li+ Li+
Diagram

(four)Metallic cations attract

(four) free/delocalized electrons

B.CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
Chemical structure is the pattern/arrangement of atoms after they have bonded.
There are two main types of chemical structures:
(i) Simple molecular structure
(ii) Giant structures
(i)Simple molecular structure
Simple molecular structure is the pattern formed after atoms of non-metals have
covalently bonded to form simple molecules.
Molecules are made of atoms joined together by weak intermolecular forces called
Van-der-waals forces.The Van-der-waals forces hold the molecules together
while the covalent bonds hold the atoms in the molecule.

Illustration of simple molecular structure

a)Hydrogen molecule(H2)
Hydrogen gas is made up of strong covalent bonds/intramolecular forces between
each hydrogen atom making the molecule. Each molecule is joined to another by
weak Van-der-waals forces/ intermolecular forces.
Illustration of simple molecular structure
a)Hydrogen molecule(H2)

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Hydrogen gas is made up of strong covalent bonds/intramolecular forces between

each hydrogen atom making the molecule. Each molecule is joined to another by
weak Van-der-waals forces/ intermolecular forces
b)Oxygen molecule(O2)
Oxygen gas is made up of strong covalent bonds/intramolecular forces between
each Oxygen atom making the molecule. Each molecule is joined to another by
weak Van-der-waals forces/ intermolecular forces.
Strong intramolecular forces/covalent bond
O=O:::: O=O:::: O=O:::: O=O
:: :: :: :: :: :: weak intermolecular
O=O:::: O=O:::: O=O:::: O=O forces/van-der-waals forces
c) Iodine molecule(I2)
Iodine solid crystals are made up of strong covalent bonds/intramolecular forces
between each iodine atom making the molecule. Each molecule is joined to another
by weak Van-der-waals forces/ intermolecular forces.
Strong intramolecular forces/covalent bond
I--- I:::: I --- I:::: I --- I:::: I --- I
:: :: :: :: :: :: :: weak intermolecular
I --- I:::: I --- I:::: I --- I:::: I --- I forces/van-der-waals forces
d)Carbon(IV) oxide molecule(CO2)
Carbon (IV) oxide gas molecule is made up of strong covalent
bonds/intramolecular forces between each Carbon and oxygen atoms making the
molecule. Each molecule is joined to another by weak Van-der-waals forces/
intermolecular forces.
Strong intramolecular forces/covalent bond
O=C=O:::: O=C=O:::: O=C=O
:: :: :: weak intermolecular
O=C=O:::: O=C=O:::: O=C=O forces/van-der-waals forces

The following are the main characteristic properties of simple molecular structured
compounds:
a)State
Most simple molecular substances are gases, liquid or liquids or solid that sublimes
or has low boiling/melting points at room temperature (25oC) and pressure
(atmospheric pressure).

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Examples of simple molecular substances include:

-all gases eg Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon (IV) oxide,
-Petroleum fractions eg Petrol, paraffin, diesel, wax,
-Solid non-metals eg Sulphur, Iodine
-Water
b) Low melting/boiling points
Melting is the process of weakening the intermolecular/ van-der-waal forces/ of
attraction between the molecules that holding the substance/compound.
Note;
(i)Melting and boiling does not involve weakening/breaking the strong
intramolecular force/covalent bonds holding the atoms in the molecule.
(ii) Melting and boiling points increase with increase in atomic radius/size of the
atoms making the molecule as the intermolecular forces / van-der-waal forces of
attraction between the molecules increase. e.g.
Iodine has a higher melting/boiling point than chlorine because it has a higher
/bigger atomic radius/size than chlorine, making the molecule to have stronger
intermolecular force/ van-der-waal forces of attraction between the molecules than
chlorine. Iodine is hence a solid and chlorine is a gas.
(c)Insoluble in water/soluble in organic solvents
Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents. Water is a polar solvent .Molecular
substances do not thus dissolve in water because they are non-polar. They dissolve
in non-polar solvents like methylbenzene, benzene, tetrachloromethane or
propanone.
d) Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Substances with free mobile ions or free mobile/delocalized electrons conduct
electricity. Molecular substances are poor conductors of heat/electricity because
their molecules have no free mobile ions/electrons. This makes them very good
insulators. Hydrogen bonds
A hydrogen bond is an intermolecular force of attraction in which a very
electronegative atom attracts hydrogen atom of another molecule.
The most electronegative elements are Fluorine, Oxygen and Nitrogen .Molecular
compounds made up of these elements usually have hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bonds are stronger than van-der-waals forces but weaker than covalent
bonds. Molecular compounds with hydrogen bonds thus have higher
melting/boiling points than those with van-der-waals forces.
Illustration of Hydrogen bonding
a)Water molecule

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During formation of covalent bond, the oxygen atom attract/pull the shared
electrons more to itself than Hydrogen creating partial negative charges(δ-)in
Oxygen and partial positive charges(δ+)in Hydrogen.
Two molecules attract each other at the partial charges through Hydrogen bonding.

The hydrogen bonding in water makes it;

(i)a liquid with higher boiling and melting point than simple molecular substances
with higher molecular mass. e.g. Hydrogen sulphide as in the table below;
Influence of H-bond in water (H2O) in comparison to H2S
Substance Water/ H2O Hydrogen sulphide/ H2S
Relative molecular mass 18 34
o
Melting point( C) 0 -85
o
Boiling point( C) 100 -60

(ii)have higher volume in solid (ice) than liquid (water) and thus ice is less dense
than water. Ice therefore floats above liquid water.
b)Ethanol molecule
Like in water, the oxygen atom attracts/pulls the shared electrons in the covalent
bond more to itself than Hydrogen.
This creates a partial negative charge (δ-) on oxygen and partial positive charge(δ+)
on hydrogen.
Two ethanol molecules attract each other at the partial charges through Hydrogen
bonding forming a dimmer.
A dimmer is a molecule formed when two molecules join together as below:
Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds

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R1 O δ-…………………….…H δ+ O δ-

H δ+ R2
R1 and R2 are extensions of the molecule.
For ethanol it is made up of CH3CH2 – to make the structure:
Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds
δ-………………………….… δ+
CH3CH2 O H O δ-

H δ+ CH2CH3

b)Ethanoic acid molecule

Like in water and ethanol above, the oxygen atom attracts/pulls the shared electrons
in the covalent bond in ethanoic acid more to itself than Hydrogen.
This creates a partial negative charge (δ-)on oxygen and partial positive charge(δ+)
on hydrogen.
Two ethanoic acid molecules attract each other at the partial charges through
Hydrogen-bonding forming a dimer.
Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds

R1 C O δ-………………………….…H δ+ O δ-

O δ- H δ+………………..….O δ- C R2

R1 and 2 are extensions of the molecule.

For ethanoic acid the extension is made up of CH3 – to make the structure;
Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds
δ-…………………………………….… δ+
CH3 C O H O δ-

O δ- H δ+…………………..……..………O δ- C CH3
Ethanoic acid like ethanol exists as a dimer.

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Ethanoic acid has a higher melting/boiling point than ethanol .This is because
ethanoic acid has two/more hydrogen bond than ethanol.
d) Proteins and sugars in living things also have multiple/complex hydrogen
bonds in their structures.
(ii) Giant structure
This is the pattern formed after substances /atoms /ions bond to form a long chain
network.
Giant structures therefore extend in all directions to form a pattern that continues
repeating itself.
There are three main giant structures.
a) giant covalent/atomic structure
b)giant ionic structure
c)giant metallic structure
a) giant covalent/atomic structure
Giant covalent/atomic structure is the pattern formed after atoms have covalently
bonded to form long chain pattern consisting of indefinite number of atoms
covalently bonded together.
The strong covalent bonds hold all the atoms together to form a very well packed
structure. Examples of substances with giant covalent/atomic structure include:
(i) carbon-diamond
(ii) carbon-graphite
(iii)silicon
(iv) silicon(IV) oxide/sand
Carbon-graphite and carbon-diamond are allotropes of carbon.
Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one stable physical form at
the same temperature and pressure.
Allotropes are atoms of the same element existing in more than one stable physical
form at the same temperature and pressure.
Other elements that exhibit/show allotropy include;
-Sulphur as monoclinic sulphur and rhombic sulphur
-Phosphorus as white phosphorus and red phosphorus
The structure of carbon-diamond
Carbon has four valence electrons. The four valence electrons are used to form
covalent bonds. During the formation of diamond, one carbon atom covalently
bond with four other carbon atoms.
C C
x x.

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x C x ----->C .x C x. C ------> C C C
x x.
C C
After the bonding, the atoms rearrange to form a regular tetrahedral in which one
carbon is in the centre while four are at the apex/corners.

C C

This pattern repeats itself to form a long chain number of atoms covalently bonded
together indefinitely. The pattern is therefore called giant tetrahedral structure. It
extends in all directions where one atom of carbon is always a centre of four others
at the apex/corner of a regular tetrahedral.
C

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C C
C C

C
C

The giant tetrahedral structure of carbon-diamond is very well/closely packed and

joined/bonded together by strong covalent bond.
This makes carbon-diamond to have the following properties:
a) High melting/boiling point.
The giant tetrahedral structure is very well packed and joined together by strong
covalent bonds.
This requires a lot of energy/heat to weaken for the element to melt and break for
the element to boil.
b) High density.
Carbon diamond is the hardest known natural substance.
This is because the giant tetrahedral structure is a very well packed
pattern/structure and joined together by strong covalent bonds.
This makes Carbon diamond be used to make drill for drilling boreholes/oil wells.
The giant tetrahedral structure of carbon diamond is a very closely packed pattern
/structure such that heat transfer by conduction is possible. This makes carbon
diamond a good thermal conductor.
c) Poor conductor of electricity.
Carbon-diamond has no free/delocalized electrons within its structure and thus do
not conduct electricity.

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d) Insoluble in water.
Carbon-diamond is insoluble in water because it is non-polar and do not bond with
water molecules.
e) Is abrasive/Rough.
The edges of the closely well packed pattern/structure of Carbon-diamond make its
surface rough/abrasive and thus able to smoothen /cut metals and glass.
f) Have characteristic luster.
Carbon-diamond has a high optical dispersion and thus able to disperse light to
different colours .This makes Carbon-diamond one of the most popular gemstone
for making jewellery.
The structure of carbon-graphite
During the formation of graphite, one carbon atom covalently bond with three
other carbon atoms leaving one free/delocalized electron.

C C
x x .
x C x -----> C .x C x ------> C C x free/delocalized electron
x x.
C C
After the bonding, the atoms rearrange and join together to form a regular hexagon
in which six carbon atoms are at the apex/corners.
The regular hexagon is joined to another in layers on the same surface by van-der-
waals forces.
Each layer extends to form a plane in all directions.
The fourth valence electron that does not form covalent bonding is free/mobile
/delocalized within the layers.
This structure/pattern is called giant hexagonal planar structure.

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The giant hexagonal planar structure of carbon-graphite is closely packed and

joined/bonded together by strong covalent bonds. This makes carbon-graphite to
have the following properties:
a) High melting/boiling point.
The giant hexagonal planar structure of carbon-graphite is well packed and joined
together by strong covalent bonds.
This requires a lot of energy/heat to weaken for the element to melt and break for
the element to boil.

b) Good conductor of electricity.

Carbon-graphite has free/delocalized 4th valence electrons within its structure and
thus conducts electricity.
c) Insoluble in water.
Carbon-graphite is insoluble in water because it is non-polar and do not bond with
water molecules.
d) Soft.
Layers of giant hexagonal planar structure of carbon graphite are held together by
van-der-waals forces.
The van-der-waals forces easily break when pressed and reform back on
releasing/reducing pressure/force thus making graphite soft.
e) Smooth and slippery.

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When pressed at an angle the van-der-waals forces easily break and slide over each
other making graphite soft and slippery.
It is thus used as a dry lubricant instead of oil.
f)Some uses of carbon-graphite.
1. As a dry lubricant- carbon graphite is smooth and slippery and thus better
lubricant than oil.Oil heat up when reducing friction.
2. Making Lead-pencils- When pressed at an angle on paper the van-der-waals
forces easily break and slide smoothly over contrasting background producing its
characteristic black background.
3. As moderator in nuclear reactors to reduce the rate of decay/disintegration of
radioactive nuclides/atoms/isotopes.
4. As electrode in dry/wet cells/battery- carbon graphite is inert and good conductor
of electricity. Current is thus able to move from one electrode/terminal to the other
in dry and wet cells/batteries. Carbon graphite is also very cheap.
b) giant ionic structure
Giant ionic structure is the pattern formed after ions have bonded through
ionic/electrovalent bonding to form a long chain consisting of indefinite number of
ions.
The strong ionic/electrovalent bond holds all the cations and anions together to
form a very well packed structure.
Substances with giant ionic structure are mainly crystals of salts e.g. sodium
chloride, Magnesium chloride, Sodium iodide, Potassium chloride, copper (II)
sulphate(VI).

The structure of sodium chloride

Sodium chloride is made up of sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-)ions.
Sodium (Na+) ion is formed when a sodium atom donate /loose/donate an electron.
Chloride (Cl-) ion is formed when a chlorine atom gain /acquire an extra electron
from sodium atom.
Many Na+ and Cl- ions then rearrange such that one Na+ ion is surrounded by six
Cl- ions and one Cl- ion is surrounded by six Na+ ions.
The pattern formed is a giant cubic structure where Cl- ion is sand witched
between Na+ ions and the same to Na+ ions.
This pattern forms a crystal.
A crystal is a solid form of a substance in which particles are arranged in a definite
pattern regularly repeated in three dimensions.
The structure of sodium chloride

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The giant cubic structure/crystal of sodium chloride is as below;

The giant cubic structure/crystal of sodium chloride is very well packed and joined
by strong ionic/electrovalent bonds. This makes sodium chloride and many ionic
compounds to have the following properties:
a) Have high melting /boiling points.
The giant cubic lattice structure of sodium chloride is very closely packed into a
crystal that requires a lot of energy/heat to weaken and melt/boil. This applies to all
crystalline ionic compounds.
b) Are good conductors of electricity in molten and aqueous state but poor
conductor of electricity in solid.
Ionic compounds have fused ions in solid crystalline state.
On heating and dissolving in water, the crystal is broken into free mobile ions (Na+
and Cl- ions).
The free mobile ions are responsible for conducting electricity in ionic compounds
in molten and aqueous states.
c)Soluble in water
Ionic compounds are polar and dissolve in polar water molecules.
On dissolving, the crystal breaks to free the fused ions which are then surrounded
by water molecules.
b) giant metallic structure
This is the pattern formed after metallic atoms have bonded through metallic bond.
The pattern formed is one where the metallic cations rearrange to form a cubic
structure.
The cubic structure is bound together by the free delocalized electrons that move
freely within.
The more delocalized electrons, the stronger the metallic bond.
The structure of sodium and aluminium.
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Sodium has one valence electrons.

Aluminium has three valence electrons.
After delocalizing the valence electrons ,the metal cations (Na+ and Al3+) rearrange
to the apex /corners of a regular cube that extend in all directions.
The delocalized electrons remain free and mobile as shown below:

The giant cubic structure makes metals to have the following properties:
a) Have high melting/boiling point
The giant cubic structure is very well packed and joined/bonded together by the
free delocalized electrons.
The more delocalized electrons the higher the melting/boiling point.
The larger/bigger the metallic cation, the weaker the packing of the cations and thus
the lower the melting/boiling point. e.g.
(i) Sodium and potassium have both one valence delocalized electron.
Atomic radius of potassium is larger/bigger than that of sodium and hence less well
packed in its metallic structure.
Sodium has therefore a higher melting/boiling point than potassium.
(ii) Sodium has one delocalized electron.
Aluminium has three delocalized electrons.
Atomic radius of sodium is larger/bigger than that of aluminium and hence less
well packed in its metallic structure.
Aluminium has therefore a higher melting/boiling point than sodium because of
the smaller well packed metallic (Al3+) ions and bonded/joined by more/three
delocalized electrons.
The table below shows the comparative melting/boiling points of some metals:
Metal Electronic Atomic Melting Boiling
o
structure radius(nM) point( C) point(oC)
Sodium 2:8:1 0.155 98 890
Potassium 2:8:8:1 0.203 64 774
Magnesium 2:8:2 0.136 651 1110
Aluminium 2:8:3 0.125 1083 2382

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b) Good electrical and thermal conductor/electricity.

All metals are good conductors of heat and electricity including Mercury which is a
liquid.
The mobile delocalized electrons are free within the giant metallic structure to
move from one end to the other transmitting heat/electric current.
The more delocalized electrons the better the thermal/electrical conductivity.
High temperatures/heating lowers the thermal/electrical conductivity of metals
because the delocalized electrons vibrate and move randomly hindering transfer of
heat
From the table above:
Compare the electrical conductivity of:
(i)Magnesium and sodium
Magnesium is a better conductor than sodium.
Magnesium has more/two delocalized electrons than sodium. The more delocalized
electrons the better the electrical conductor.
(ii)Potassium and sodium
Potassium is a better conductor than sodium.
Potassium has bigger/larger atomic radius than sodium. The delocalized electrons
are less attracted to the nucleus of the atom and thus more free /mobile and thus
better the electrical conductor.
c) Insoluble in water
All metals are insoluble in water because they are non polar and thus do not bond
with water.
Metals higher in the reactivity/electrochemical series like; Potassium, sodium,
Lithium and Calcium reacts with cold water producing hydrogen gas and forming
an alkaline solution of their hydroxides.ie
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq)+ H2(g)
Heavy metal like Magnesium, Aluminium, Iron, Zinc and Lead react with
steam/water vapour to produce hydrogen gas and form the corresponding oxide.
Mg(s) + H2O(g) -> MgO(s) + H2(g)
Fe(s) + H2O(g) -> FeO(s) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2O(g) -> ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Pb(s) + H2O(g) -> PbO(s) + H2(g)
2Al(s) + 3H2O(g) -> Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)

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Metals lower in the reactivity/electrochemical series than hydrogen like; copper,

Mercury, Gold Silver and Platinum do not react with water/vapour.
d) Shiny metallic-lustre
All metals have a shiny grey metallic luster except copper which is brown.
When exposed to sunlight, the delocalized electrons gain energy, they vibrate on
the metal surface scattering light to appear shiny.
With time, most metals corrode and are covered by a layer of the metal oxide.
The delocalized electrons are unable to gain and scatter light and the metal surface
tarnishes/become dull.
e) Ductile and malleable
All metals are malleable (can be made into thin sheet) and ductile (can be made
into wire.
When beaten/hit/pressed lengthwise the metallic cations extend and is bound
/bonded by the free/mobile electrons to form a sheet.
When beaten/hit/pressed lengthwise and bredthwise the metallic cations extend
and is bound /bonded by the free/mobile electrons to form a wire/thin strip.
f) Have high tensile strength
Metals are not brittle. The free delocalized electrons bind the metal together when it
is bent /coiled at any angle.
The metal thus withstand stress/coiling

g) Form alloys
An alloy is a uniform mixture of two or more metals.
Some metals have spaces between their metallic cations which can be occupied by
another metal cation with smaller atomic radius.
Common alloys include:
Brass(Zinc and Copper alloy)
Bronze(Copper and Tin alloy)
German silver

Summary of Bonding and structure

Simple molecular Giant covalent Giant ionic Giant metallic

structure /atomic structure structure
structure
(i)Examples I2,S8,HCl,O2,CH4 Graphite,diamo NaCl, KCl, Na,Fe,Cr,Hg,K
nd CaO,CuSO4

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Si,SiO2
Constituent molecules Atoms Ions Atoms
particles (of non-metals) (cation and (of metals)
making anions)
structure
Type of Non-metal Group IV non- Metal-non
substance element/non-metal metals and metal Metallic
molecule/non- some of their compounds(c elements (with
metal oxides ompounds of low
compound(electron electropositiv electonegativity
egative elements) e and and high
electronegativ electropositivity
e compounds) )
-Strong covalent Atoms are Electrostatic
Bonding in bonds hold atoms linked through attraction of Electrostatic
solid state together within the whole cations and attraction of
separate molecules structure by anions link the outer mobile
(intramolecular very strong whole electrons for
forces) covalent bonds. structure positive nuclei
-Weak van-der- through binds atoms
waals forces hold strong ionic together though
separate molecules bond. metallic bond
together
(intermolecular
forces)
Properties -Highly volatile with -Non volatile -Non volatile
(i) Volatility low melting/boiling with very high with very high -Non volatile
point melting/boiling melting/boilin with very high
-Low latent heat of points g points melting/boiling
fusion/vaporization -Low latent heat -Low latent points
of fusion / heat of fusion -Low latent heat
vaporization / vaporization of fusion /
vaporization

(ii) State at Usually solids solids

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room gases,volatile
temperatur liquids or solids that Solids except
e /pressure sublimes Mercury(liquid)
(iii) Soft and brittle(low Hard and Hard and Hard, malleable,
Hardness tensile strength) brittle(low brittle(low ductile and have
tensile strength) tensile high tensile
strength) strength
(iv) Poor thermal and Poor thermal Poor thermal Good thermal
Thermal electrical conductor and electrical and electrical and electrical
/electrical when solid ,liquid or conductor when conductor conductor in
conductivit aqueous solutions solid ,liquid or when solid. solid and
y but some dissolve aqueous Good thermal liquid/molten
and react to form solutions but and electrical states due to
electrolytes e.g. -Carbon- conductor in the free mobile
Hydrogen chloride graphite is a liquid/molten /delocalized
and ammonia good electrical and aqueous electrons
gases. conductor while states when
-Carbon- the ions are
diamond is a not fused
good thermal
conductor.
(v) Insoluble in polar Insoluble in all Soluble in Insoluble in
Solubility solvents e.g. Water solvents polar solvents polar/non-polar
Soluble in non-polar e.g. Water colvents.
solvents e.g. Insoluble in -Some react
tetrachloromethane non-polar with polar
, benzene, solvents e.g. solvents
methylbenzene tetrachlorome -Some metal
thane, dissolve in other
benzene, metals to form
methylbenzen alloys e.g. Brass
e is formed when
Zinc dissolve in
copper.

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 134

C. PERIODICITY OF BONDING AND STRUCTURE

The periodic table does not classify elements as metals and non-metals. The table
arranges them in terms of atomic numbers.
However, based on structure and bonding of the elements in the periodic table;
(i)-the top right hand corner of about twenty elements is non-metals
(ii)-left of each non-metal is an element which shows characteristics of both metal
and non-metal.
These elements are called semi-metals/metalloids. They include Boron, silicon,
Germanium, Arsenic, and Terullium
(iii)-all other elements in the periodic table are metal.
(iv)-Hydrogen is a non-metal with metallic characteristic/property of
donating/losing outer electron to form cation/H+ ion.
(v) –bromine is the only known natural liquid non-metal element at room
temperature and pressure.
(vi) –mercury is only known natural liquid metal element at room temperature and
pressure.
(vii) Carbon-graphite is a semi metals/metalloids. Carbon-diamond is a pure non-
metal yet both are allotropes of carbon (same element)
a) Sketch of the periodic table showing metals ,metalloid and non-metals
Metals Metalloids Non-metals

H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Transition metals Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra

b)Periodicity in the physical properties of elements across period 2 and 3

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Study table I and II below:

Table I(period 2)

Property Li Be B C N O F Ne

Melting 180 1280 2030 3700 -210 -219 -220 -250

point(oC) (graphite
)
3550
(diamond
)
Boiling 1330 2480 3930 Graphite -200 -180 -190 -245
point(oC) sublimes
4830
(diamond
)
Density at 0.50 1.85 2.55 2.25 0.81 0.14 0.11 0.021
room (graphite
temperatu )
re (gcm-3) 3.53
(diamond
)
Type of Metal Metal Metal Metalloid Non- Non- Non- Non-
element metal metal metal metal

Chemical Giant Giant Giant Giant Simple Simple Simple Simple

structure metalli metalli atomic/ atomic/ molecu molecul molecu molecu
c c covalent covalent la a la la
or or or or
molecu molecul molecu molecu
le/ N2 es le/F2 le/Ne
/O2
State at Solid Solid Solid Solid gas gas gas gas
room

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 136

temperatu
re
Electron 2:1 2:2 2:3 2:4 2:5 2:6 2:7 2:8
structure

Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 -

Formular Li+ Be2+ B3+ - N3- O2- F- -

of ion

Table II (period 3)

Property Na Mg Al Si P(whit S(Rhomb Cl Ar

e) ic)
Melting 98 650 660 1410 44 114 -101 -189
point(oC)
Boiling 890 1120 2450 2680 280 445 -34 -186
o
point( C)
Density at 0.97 1.74 2.70 2.33 1.82 2.07 0.157 0.011
room (graphit
temperatu e)
re (gcm-3) 3.53
(diamon
d)
Type of Metal Metal Metal Metalloi Non- Non- Non- Non-
element d metal metal metal metal

Chemical Giant Giant Giant Giant Simple Simple Simple Simple

structure metalli metalli metalli atomic/ molecu molecula molecu molecul
c c c covalent la or la a
or molecule or or
molecu s molecu molecul
le/ P4 /S8 le/Cl2 e/Ar

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State at Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid gas gas

room
temperatu
re
Electron 2:8:1 2:8:2 2:8:3 2:8:4 2:8:5 2:8:6 2:8:7 2:8:8
structure

Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 -

Formular Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ - P3- S2- Cl- -

of ion

From table I and II above:

1. Explain the trend in atomic radius along /across a period in the periodic
table
Observation
Atomic radius of elements in the same period decrease successively across/along a
period from left to right.
Explanation
Across/along the period from left to right there is an increase in nuclear charge
from additional number of protons and still additional number of electrons entering
the same energy level.
Increase in nuclear charge increases the effective nuclear attraction on the outer
energy level pulling it closer to the nucleus successively across the period .e.g.
(i)From the table 1and 2 above, atomic radius of Sodium (0.157nM) is higher than
that of Magnesium(0.137nM). This is because Magnesium has more effective
nuclear attraction on the outer energy level than Sodium hence pulls outer energy
level more nearer to its nucleus than sodium.
(ii)The rate of decrease in the atomic radius become smaller as the atom become
heavier e.g. Atomic radius of Magnesium from sodium falls by(0.157nM-
0.137nM) =0.02
Atomic radius of Chlorine from sulphur falls by(0.104nM- 0.099nM) =0.005

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 138

This is because gaining/adding one more proton to 11 already present cause greater
proportional change in nuclear attraction power to magnesium than
gaining/adding one more proton to 16 already present in sulphur to chlorine.
(iii)Period 3 elements have more energy levels than Period 2 elements. They have
therefore bigger/larger atomic radius/size than corresponding period 2 elements in
the same group.
2. Explain the trend in ionic radius along/across a period in the periodic table
Observation
Ionic radius of elements in the same period decrease successively across/along a
period from left to right for the first three elements then increase drastically then
slowly successively decrease.
Explanation
Across/along the period from left to right elements change form electron
donors/losers (reducing agents) to electron acceptors (oxidizing agents).
(i)An atom form stable ion by either gaining/acquiring/ accepting extra electron or
donating/losing outer electrons.
(ii)Metals form stable ions by donating/losing all the outer energy level electrons
and thus also the outer energy level .i.e.
-Sodium ion has one less energy level than sodium atom. The ion is formed by
sodium atom donating/losing (all) the outer energy level electron and thus also the
outer energy level making the ion to have smaller ionic radius than atom.
(iii)Ionic radius therefore decrease across/along the period from Lithium to Boron
in period 2 and from Sodium to Aluminium in period 3.This is because the number
of electrons donated/lost causes increased effective nuclear attraction on remaining
electrons /energy levels.
(iv) Non-metals form stable ion by gaining/acquiring/accepting extra electron in
the outer energy level. The extra electron/s increases the repulsion among electrons
and reduces the effective nuclear attraction on outer energy level. The outer energy
level therefore expand/enlarge/increase in order to accommodate the extra repelled
electrons .The more electrons gained/accepted/acquired the more repulsion and the
more expansion to accommodate them and hence bigger/larger atomic radius. e.g.
-Nitrogen ion has three electrons more than Nitrogen atom. The outer energy level
expand/enlarge/increase to accommodate the extra repelled electrons. Nitrogen
atom thus has smaller atomic radius than the ionic radius of nitrogen ion.
(v) Ionic radius decrease from group IV onwards from left to right. This because
the number of electrons gained to form ion decrease across/along the period from
left to right. e.g. Nitrogen ion has bigger/larger ionic radius than Oxygen.

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 139

3. Explain the trend in melting and boiling point of elements in a period in the
periodic table.
Observation
The melting and boiling point of elements rise up to the elements in Group
IV(Carbon/Silicon) along/across the period then continuously falls.
Explanation
Melting/boiling points depend on the packing of the structure making the element
and the strength of the bond holding the atoms/molecules together.
Across/along the period (2 and 3) the structure changes from giant metallic, giant
atomic/covalent to simple molecular.
(i)For metals, the number of delocalized electrons increases across/along the period
and hence stronger metallic bond/structure thus requiring a lot of heat/energy to
weaken.
The strength of a metallic bond also depends on the atomic radius/size. The melting
/boiling point decrease as the atomic radius/size of metals increase due to decreased
packing of larger atoms. e.g.
-The melting /boiling point of Lithium is lower than that of Beryllium because
Beryllium has two/more delocalized electrons and hence stronger metallic
structure/bond.
- The melting /boiling point of Lithium is higher than that of Sodium because the
atomic radius/size Lithium is smaller and hence better packed and hence forms
stronger metallic structure/bond.
(ii)Carbon-graphite/carbon-diamond in period 2 and Silicon in period 3 form very
well packed giant atomic/covalent structures held together by strong covalent
bonds. These elements have therefore very high melting/boiling points.
Both Carbon-graphite/ carbon-diamond have smaller atomic radius/size than
Silicon in period 3 and thus higher melting/boiling points due to better/closer
packing of smaller atoms in their well packed giant atomic/covalent structures.
(ii) Non-metals from group V along/across the period form simple molecules joined
by weak intermolecular /van-der-waals force. The weak intermolecular /van-der-
waals force require little energy/heat to weaken leading to low melting/boiling
points. The strength of the intermolecular /van-der-waals forces decrease with
decrease in atomic radius/ size lowering the melting/boiling points along/across the
period (and raising the melting/boiling points down the group).e.g.
-The melting /boiling point of Nitrogen is higher than that of Oxygen. This is
because the atomic radius/ size of Nitrogen is higher than that of Oxygen and hence
stronger intermolecular /van-der-waals forces between Nitrogen molecules.

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 140

-The melting /boiling point of Chlorine is higher than that of Fluorine. This is
because the atomic radius/ size of Chlorine is higher than that of Fluorine and
hence stronger intermolecular /van-der-waals forces between Chlorine molecules.
(iii) Rhombic sulphur exists as a puckered ring of S8atoms which are well packed.
Before melting the ring break and join to very long chains that entangle each other
causing the unusually high melting/boiling point of Rhombic sulphur.
(iv) Both sulphur and phosphorus exists as allotropes.
Sulphur exists as Rhombic-sulphur and monoclinic-sulphur. Rhombic-sulphur is
the stable form of sulphur at room temperature and pressure.
Phosphorus exists as white-phosphorus and red-phosphorus.
White-phosphorus is the stable form of Phosphorus at room temperature and
pressure.
4. State and explain the trend in density of elements in a period in the periodic
table.
Observation: Density increase upto the elements in group IV then falls across/along
the period successively
Explanation:
Density is the mass per unit volume occupied by matter/particles/atoms/molecules
of element.
(i)For metals ,the stronger metallic bond and the more delocalized electrons ensure
a very well packed giant metallic structure that occupy less volume and thus higher
density.The more the number of delocalized electrons along/across the period, the
higher the density. e.g.
(i)Aluminium has a higher density than sodium. This is because aluminium has
more /three delocalized electrons than /one sodium thus forms a very well packed
giant metallic structure that occupy less volume per given mass/density.
(ii)Carbon-graphite ,carbon-diamond and silicon in group IV form a well packed
giant atomic/covalent structure that is continuously joined by strong covalent bonds
hence occupy less volume per given mass/density.
Carbon-graphite form a less well packed giant hexagonal planar structure joined by
Van-der-waals forces. Its density (2.25gcm-3) is therefore less than that of Carbon-
diamond(3.53gcm-3) and silicon(2.33gcm-3).Both diamond and silicon have giant
tetrahedral structure that is better packed. Carbon-diamond has smaller atomic
radius/size than silicon. Its density is thus higher because of better packing and
subsequently higher density. Carbon-diamond is the hardest known natural
substance by having the highest density.

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 141

(iii) For non-metals, the strength of the intermolecular /van-der-waals forces

decreases with decrease in atomic radius/size along/across the period. This
decreases the mass occupied by given volume of atoms in a molecule from group
VI onwards. e.g.
Phosphorus has a higher atomic radius/size than chlorine and Argon and thus
stronger intermolecular/van-der-waals forces that ensure a given mass of
phosphorus occupy less volume than chlorine and neon.
5. State and explain the trend in thermal/electrical conductivity of elements in
a period in the periodic table.
Observation:
Increase along/across the period from group I, II, and III then decrease in Group
IV to drastically decrease in group V to VIII (O).
Explanation
(i)Metals have free delocalized electrons that are responsible for thermal/electrical
conductivity.Thermal/electrical conductivity increase with increase in number of
delocalized electrons. The thermal conductivity decrease with increase in
temperature/heating. e.g. Aluminium with three delocalized electrons from each
atom in its metallic structure has the highest electrical /thermal conductivity in
period 3.
(ii)Carbon-graphite has also free 4th valency electrons that are delocalized within its
layers of giant hexagonal planar structure. They are responsible for the electrical
conductivity of graphite.
(iii)Silicon and carbon diamond do not conduct electricity but conducts heat. With
each atom too close to each other in their very well packed giant tetrahedral
structure, heat transfer /radiate between the atoms. The thermal conductivity
increase with increase in temperature/heating.
(iv) All other non-metals are poor /non-conductor of heat and electricity. They are
made of molecules with no free /mobile delocalized electrons in their structure.

Periodicity of the oxides of elements along/across period 3

The table below summarizes some properties of the oxides of elements in period 3
of the periodic table.

Formular Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO2 Cl2O7

of oxide/ P4O6 SO3 Cl2O
Property

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 142

Melting 1193 3075 2045 1728 563 -76 -60

point(oC)
Boiling 1278 3601 2980 2231 301 -10 -9

point(oC)
Bond type Ionic Ionic IonicCovalen Covale Covalent Covalent
t nt
Chemical Giant Giant Giant Giant Simple Simple Simple
structure ionic ionic ionic atomic/ molecu molecula molecula
structu structu structure covalent la or or
re re or molecule molecule
molecu s
le

State at Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid gas Gas

room (Cl2O7 is a
temperatu liquid)
re
Nature of Basic/ Basic/ Amphote 2:8:4 2:8:5 2:8:6 2:8:7
Oxide alkalin alkalin llic oxide
e e
Reaction React React Don’t Don’t React -SO2 -Cl2O7
with to to react react to react to reacts to
water form form with with form form form
NaOH MgOH) water. water. H2PO4 H2SO3 . HClO4
/alkalin 2 /weakl H2SO3 is /weakly
e /weakl y acidic quickly acidic
solutio y solutio oxidized solution
n alkalin n to H2SO4
e -SO2
solutio react to
n form
H2SO4/
strongly

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 143

acidic
Reaction Reacts Reacts Reacts to No No No No
with to to form salt reaction reactio reaction reaction
dilute form form and n
acids salt salt water
and and
water water

1. All the oxides of elements in period 3 except those of sulphur and chlorine are
solids at room temperature and pressure.
2. Across/along the period, bonding of the oxides changes from ionic in sodium
oxide magnesium oxide and aluminium oxide (show both ionic and covalent
properties) to covalent in the rest of the oxides.
3. Across/along the period, the structure of the oxides changes from giant ionic
structure in sodium oxide, magnesium oxide and aluminium oxide to giant
atomic/covalent structure in silicon (IV) oxide. The rest of the oxides form simple
molecules/molecular structure.
4. Sodium oxide and magnesium oxide are basic /alkaline in nature. Aluminium
oxide is amphotellic in nature (shows both acidic and basic characteristics). The
rest of the oxides are acidic in nature.
5. Ionic compounds/oxides have very high melting/boiling points because of the
strong electrostatic attraction joining the giant ionic crystal lattice.
The melting/boiling points increase from sodium oxide to aluminium oxide as the
number of electrons involved in bonding increase, increasing the strength of the
ionic bond/structure.
6. Silicon (IV) oxide is made of a well packed giant atomic/covalent structure
joined by strong covalent bonds.
This results in a solid with very high melting/boiling point.
7.Phosphorus (V) oxide, sulphur(IV) oxide/ sulphur (VI) oxide and dichloride
heptoxide exist as simple molecules/molecular structure joined by weak van-der-
waals/intermolecular forces.
This results in them existing as low melting /boiling point solids/gases.
8. Ionic oxide conducts electricity in molten and aqueous states but not in solid.
In solid state the ions are fused/fixed but on heating to molten state and when
dissolved in water, the ions are free / mobile.
Sodium oxide, magnesium oxide and aluminium oxide are therefore good
conductors in molten and aqueous states.

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 144

9. Covalent bonded oxides do not conduct electricity in solid, molten or in aqueous

states.
This is because they do not have free / mobile ion. Phosphorus (V) oxide, sulphur
(IV) oxide/ sulphur (VI) oxide and dichloride heptoxide are thus non-
conductors/insulators.
10. Silicon (IV) oxide is a poor/weak conductor of heat in solid state. This is
because it has very closely packed structure for heat to radiate conduct along its
structure.
11. Electopositivity decrease across the period while electronegativity increase
across the period. The oxides thus become less ionic and more covalent
along/across the period.
12.The steady change from giant ionic structure to giant atomic/ covalent structure
then simple molecular structure lead to profound differences in the reaction of the
oxides with water,acids and alkalis/bases:
(i) Reaction with water
a) Ionic oxides react with water to form alkaline solutions e.g.;
I.Sodium oxide reacts/dissolves in water forming an alkaline solution of sodium
hydroxide.
Chemical equation: Na2O(s) + H2O (l) -> 2NaOH(aq)
II. Magnesium oxide slightly/ slowly reacts/dissolves in water forming an alkaline
solution of magnesium hydroxide
Chemical equation: MgO(s) + 2H2O (l) -> Mg(OH) 2 (aq)
III. Aluminium oxide does reacts/dissolves in water.
b) Non-metallic oxides are acidic. They react with water to form weakly acidic
solutions:
I. Phosphorus (V) oxide readily reacts/dissolves in water forming a weak acidic
solution of phosphoric (V) acid.
Chemical equation: P4O10 (s) + 6H2O (l) -> 4H3PO4 (aq)
Chemical equation: P2O5 (s) + 3H2O (l) -> 2H3PO4 (aq)
II. Sulphur (IV) oxide readily reacts/dissolves in water forming a weak acidic
solution of sulphuric (IV) acid.
Chemical equation: SO2 (g) + H2O (l) -> H2SO3 (aq)
Sulphur (VI) oxide quickly fumes in water to form concentrated sulphuric (VI)
acid which is a strong acid.
Chemical equation: SO3 (g) + H2O (l) -> H2SO4 (aq)
III. Dichlorine oxide reacts with water to form weak acidic solution of chloric(I)
acid/hypochlorous acid.

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 145

Chemical equation: Cl2O (g) + H2O (l) -> 2HClO (aq)

IV. Dichlorine heptoxide reacts with water to form weak acidic solution of
chloric(VII) acid.
Chemical equation: Cl2O7 (l) + H2O (l) -> 2HClO4 (aq)
c) Silicon (IV) oxide does not react with water.
It reacts with hot concentrated alkalis forming silicate (IV) salts. e.g.
Silicon (IV) oxide react with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide to form sodium
silicate (IV) salt.
Chemical equation: SiO2 (s) + 2NaOH (aq) -> Na2SiO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
(ii) Reaction with dilute acids
a) Ionic oxides react with dilute acids to form salt and water only. This is a
neutralization reaction. e.g.
Chemical equation: Na2O(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation: MgO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Mg (NO3) 2 (aq) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation: Al2O3 (s) + 6HCl(aq) -> 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
Aluminium oxide is amphotellic and reacts with hot concentrated strong alkalis
sodium/potassium hydroxides to form complex sodium aluminate(III) and
potassium aluminate(III) salt.
Chemical equation: Al2O3 (s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2 NaAl(OH)4 (aq)
Chemical equation: Al2O3 (s) + 2KOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2 KAl(OH)4 (aq)

b) Acidic oxides do not react with dilute acids.

c) Periodicity of the Chlorides of elements along/across period 3

The table below summarizes some properties of the chlorides of elements in period
3 of the periodic table.

Formular NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4 PCl5 SCl2 Cl2

of PCl3 S2Cl2
chloride/
Property
Melting 801 714 Sublimes -70 PCl5 -78 -101
at Sublimes
point(oC) 180 oC at

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 146

-94 oC
Boiling 1465 1418 423(as 57 74(as decompo -34
Al2Cl6 P2Cl6 ses
point(oC) vapour Vapour at 59 oC
164 (as
PCl5)

Bond type Ionic Ionic Ionic/ Covalent Covalent Covalent Covalen

Covalent/ t
dative
Chemical Giant Giant Molecula Simple Simple Simple Simple
structure ionic ionic r/ molecula molecula molecula molecul
structu structu dimerizes or or or a
re re molecule molecule molecule or
s molecul
e
State at Solid Solid Solid liquid Liquid liquid Gas
room PCl5
temperatu is solid
re
Nature of Neutra Neutra Strongly Strongly Strongly Strongly Strongly
Chloride l l acidic acidic acidic acidic acidic
7.0 7.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
pH of
solution
Reaction Dissolv Dissolv - - Hydrolys Hydrolys Forms
with e e Hydrolys Hydrolys ed ed HCl and
water ed ed by water by water HClO
by water by water -Acidic -Acidic
-Acidic -Acidic hydrogen hydrogen
hydrogen hydrogen chloride chloride
chloride chloride fumes fumes
fumes fumes produced produced
produced produced
Electrical good good poor nil nil nil nil

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 147

conductivi
ty in
molten/aq
ueous
state

1. Sodium Chloride, Magnesium chloride and aluminium chloride are solids at

room temperature and pressure.
Silicon(IV) chloride, phosphorus(III)chloride and disulphur dichloride are liquids.
Phosphorus(V)chloride is a solid. Both chlorine and sulphur chloride are gases.
2. Across/along the period bonding changes from ionic in Sodium Chloride and
Magnesium chloride to covalent in the rest of the chlorides.
3. Anhydrous aluminium chloride is also a molecular compound .Each aluminium
atom is covalently bonded to three chlorine atoms.
In vapour/gaseous phase/state two molecules dimerizes to Al2O6 molecule through
coordinate/dative bonding.
4. Across/along the period the structure changes from giant ionic in Sodium
Chloride and Magnesium chloride to simple molecules/molecular structure in the
rest of the chlorides.
5. Ionic chlorides have very high melting /boiling points because of the strong ionic
bond/electrostatic attraction between the ions in their crystal lattice.The rest of the
chlorides have low melting /boiling points because of the weak van-der-waal
/intermolecular forces.
6. Sodium Chloride and Magnesium chloride in molten and aqueous state have
free/mobile ions and thus good electrical conductors. Aluminium chloride is a poor
conductor. The rest of the chlorides do not conduct because they have no
free/mobile ions.
7. Ionic chloride form neutral solutions with pH =7. These chlorides
ionize/dissociate completely into free cations and anions.i.e;
Sodium Chloride and Magnesium chloride have pH=7 because they are
fully/completely ionized/dissociated into free ions.
Chemical equation NaCl (s) -> Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Chemical equation MgCl2 (s) -> Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
8 Across/along the period from aluminium chloride, hydrolysis of the chloride
takes place when reacting/dissolved in water.
Hydrolysis is the reaction of a compound when dissolved in water.

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 148

a) Aluminium chloride is hydrolyzed by water to form aluminium hydroxide and

fumes of hydrogen chloride gas. Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to acidic
hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid with low pH and thus the
mixture is strongly acidic.
Chemical equation AlCl3 (s) + 3H2O(l)-> Al(OH)3(s) +
3HCl(g)
b)Silicon(IV) chloride is hydrolyzed by water to form silicon(IV)oxide and fumes
of hydrogen chloride gas. Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to acidic
hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid with low pH and thus the
mixture is strongly acidic.
Chemical equation SiCl4 (l) + 2H2O(l)-> SiO2(s) +
4HCl(g)
This reaction is highly exothermic producing /evolving a lot of heat that cause a
rise in the temperature of the mixture.
c) Both phosphoric (V) chloride and phosphoric (III) chloride are hydrolyzed by
water to form phosphoric (V) acid and phosphoric (III) acid respectively. Fumes of
hydrogen chloride gas are produced. Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to
acidic hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid with low pH and thus
the mixture is strongly acidic.
Chemical equation PCl5 (s) + 4H2O(l)-> H3PO4(aq) +
5HCl(g)
Chemical equation PCl3 (s) + 3H2O(l)-> H3PO4(aq) +
3HCl(g)
This reaction is also highly exothermic producing /evolving a lot of heat that cause
a rise in the temperature of the mixture.
d) Disulphur dichloride similarly hydrolyzes in water to form yellow deposits of
sulphur and produce a mixture of sulphur (IV) oxide and hydrogen chloride gas.
Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to acidic hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric
acid is a strong acid with low pH and thus the mixture is strongly acidic.
Chemical equation 2S2Cl2 (l) + 2H2O(l)-> 3S(s) + SO2(g) +
4HCl(g)

D. COMPREHENSIVE REVISION QUESTIONS

1.The grid below represents periodic table. Study it and answer the questions that
follow. The letters do not represent the actual symbols of the elements.

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 149

A
B G H E C
J I L
D N M
(a) (I) Indicate on the grid the position of an element represented by letter N whose
electronic configuration of a divalent cation is 2:8:8 . ( 1 mark )
(II) Name the bond formed between D and H react. Explain your answer.(2 marks )
Ionic/electrovalent
D is electropositive thus donates two electrons to electronegative H
(III) Write an equation for the reaction between B and water. ( 1 mark )
Chemical equation 2B (s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2BOH(aq) + H2 (g)

(IV) How do the atomic radii of I and L compare. Explain. (2 marks)

(V) In terms of structure and bonding explain why the oxide of G has lower melting
point than oxide of L. (2 marks)
(b) Study the information given below and answer the questions that follow.

Formula of NaCl MgCl 2 Al2Cl6 SiCl4 PCl3 SCl2

compound N
B.P(0C) 1470 1420 Sublimes 60 75 60
M.P(0C) 800 710 At 8000C -70 90 -80
( I)Why is the formula of aluminium chloride given as Al2Cl6 and not AlCl3 ?
( 1 mark )
(II) Give two chlorides that are liquid at room temperature. Give a reason for the
answer. (2 marks )
(III) Give a reason why Al2Cl6 has a lower melting point than MgCl2 although
both Al and Mg are metals. (1 mark )
(IV) Which of the chlorides would remain in liquid state for the highest
temperature range explain why? (2 mark )
(Kakamega)
2. a) Study the information given below and answer the questions that follow.
Element Atomic Ionic Formula Melting point
radius radius of oxide of oxide (‘C)
(nm) (nm)

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 150

P 0.364 0.421 A2O -119

Q 0.830 0.711 BO2 837
R 0.592 0.485 E2O3 1466
S 0.381 0.446 G2O5 242
T 0.762 0.676 JO 1054
(i) Which elements are non-metals? Give a reason. (2mks)
(ii) Explain why the melting point of the oxide of R is higher than that of the oxide
of S. (2mks)
(iii) Give two elements that would react vigorously with each other. Explain
your answer. (2mks)
b) Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow
(The letters do not represent the actual symbols of the elements)

Ionization Energy_kJ/Mole
Elemen Electronic 1st ionization 2nd ionization
t configuration energy energy
A 2.2 900 1800
B 2.8.2 736 1450
C 2.8.8.2 590 1150
(i) What chemical family do the elements A, B and C belong?
(1mk)
(ii) What is meant by the term ionization energy?
(1mk)

iii) The 2nd ionization energy is higher that the 1st ionization energy of each.
Explain
(1mk)
(iv)When a piece of element C is placed in cold water, it sinks to the bottom and
an effervescence of a colourless gas that burns explosively is produced. Use a
simple diagram to illustrate how this gas can be collected during this experiment.
(3mks)
3. The grid below represents part of the periodic table. The letters do not represent
the actual symbols.

A
B X G Z E V

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 151

J I L T
D N M

a) Select the most reactive non-metal.

(1mk)
b) Write the formula of the compound consisting of
I.D and Z only.
(2mk)
II. X and Z
c) Select an element that can form an ion of change +2
(1mk)
d) Which element has the least ionization energy? Explain
(2mks)
e) Suggest with reasons a likely pH value of an aqueous solution of the chlorine
of:(3mks)
T.
B
X

f) To which chemical family do the following elements belong? (2mk)

J
V
g) An element K has relative atomic mass of 40.2.It has two isotopes of masses 39
and 42. Calculate the relative abundance of each isotope. (3mks)
4.The grid below shows part of the periodic table study it and answer the questions
that follow. The letters do not represent the true symbols.

A
B C D E
F G
H

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 152

\(a) Which element forms ions with charge of 2-. Explain (2mks)
(b) What is the nature of the oxide formed by C. (1mk)
(c) How does the reactivity of H compare with that of E. Explain? (2mks)
(d)Write down a balanced equation between B and Chlorine. (1mk)
(e) Explain how the atomic radii of F and G compare. (1mk)
(f) If the oxides of F and D are separately dissolved in water, state and explain the
effects of their aqueous solutions on litmus. (3mks)
5. (a) The grid below show part of the periodic table.(The letter do not represent the
actual symbols).Use it to answer the questions that follow.

T Q
S R K
A J Y U L
W M B
C N
P

(i)Select the most reactive non-metal. (1mk)

(ii)Select an element that forms a divalent cation. (1mk)
(iii)Element Z has atomic number 14.Show its position in the grid. (1mk)
(iv)How do the atomic radii of U and J compare?
(2mks)
(v)How do electrical conductivity of A and Y compare?
(2mks)
(vi)How does the boiling point of elements K, L and M vary? Explain (2mks
(b) The table below gives information on four elements by letters K, L, M and N.
Study it and answer the questions that follow. The letters do not represent the actual
symbols of the elements.
Element Electron Atomic Ionic radius
arrangement radius
K 2:8:2 0.136 0.065
L 2:8:7 0.099 0.181
M 2:8:8:1 0.203 0.133
N 2:8:8:2 0.174 0.099
(a) Which two elements have similar properties? Explain. (2mks)
(b) Which element is a non-metal? Explain. (1mk)

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 153

(c) Which one of the elements is the strongest reducing agent. (1mk)
6. The grid given below represents part of the periodic table study it and answer the
questions that follow. (The letters do not represent the actual symbols of the
elements.)
A
B
C D E
F

(i) What name is given to the group of elements to which C and F belong?
(1mk)
(ii) Which letter represents the element that is the least reactive? (1mk)
(iii) What type of bond is formed when B and E react? Explain (2mks)
(iv)Write formula of the compound formed where elements D and oxygen gas
react. (1mk)
(v) On the grid indicate the a tick (√) the position of element G which is in the third
period of the periodic table and forms G3- ions.
(1mk)
(b) Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow.
(The letter do not represents the actual symbols of the substance).
Substance Melting point Boiling point Solubility in Density at
o o
C C water room.
Temp/g/cm3
H -117 78.5 Very soluble 0.8
J -78 -33 Very soluble 0.77x 1-3
K -23 77 Insoluble 1.6
L - 219 -183 Slightly 1.33 x 10-3
Soluable

I.(i) Which substance would dissolve in water and could be separated from the
solution by fractional distillation. (1mk)
(ii) Which substances is a liquid at room temperature and when mixed with water
two layers would be formed?
(1mk)
II. Which letter represents a substance that is a gas at room temperature and which
can be collected;

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(i) Over water? (1mk)

(ii) By downward displacement of air? Density of air at room temperature = 1.29 x
10-3 g/C (1mk)

A.ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The atom is the smallest particle of an element that take part in a chemical
reaction. The atom is made up of three subatomic particles:
(i)Protons
(ii)Electrons
(iii)Neutrons
(i)Protons
1. The proton is positively charged
2. Is found in the centre of an atom called nucleus
3. It has a relative mass 1
4. The number of protons in a atom of an element is its Atomic number
(ii)Electrons
1. The Electrons is negatively charged
2. Is found in fixed regions surrounding the centre of an atom called energy
levels/orbitals.
3. It has a relative mass 1/1840
4. The number of protons and electrons in a atom of an element is always equal
(iii)Neutrons
1. The Neutron is neither positively nor negatively charged thus neutral.
2. Like protons it is found in the centre of an atom called nucleus
3. It has a relative mass 1
4. The number of protons and neutrons in a atom of an element is its Mass
number
Diagram showing the relative positions of protons, electrons and neutrons in an
atom of an element

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Diagram showing the relative positions of protons, electrons and neutrons in an

atom of Carbon

The table below show atomic structure of the 1st twenty elements.
Symbol Protons Electrons Neutrons Atomic Mass number
Element number

Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 4
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 7
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 9
Boron B 5 5 6 5 11
Carbon C 6 6 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 14

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Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 16
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 19
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 20
Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 23
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 24
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 27
Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 28
PhosphorusP 15 15 16 15 31
Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 35
Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 40
Potassium K 19 19 20 19 39
Calcium Ca 20 20 20 20 40
Most atoms of elements exist as isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element, having the same number of
protons/atomic number but different number of neutrons/mass number.
By convention, isotopes are written with the mass number as superscript and the
atomic number as subscript to the left of the chemical symbol of the element. i.e.
mass number
m
atomic number n X symbol of element
st
Below is the conventional method of writing the 1 twenty elements showing the
mass numbers and atomic numbers:
1 4 7 9 11 12
1H 2He 3Li 4Be 5B 6C

14 16 19 20 23
7N 8O 9F 10Ne 11Na
24
12Mg

27 28 31 32 35 40
13Al 14Si 15P 16S 17Cl 18Ar

39 40
19K 20C

The table below shows some common natural isotopes of some elements
Element Isotopes Protons Electrons Neutrons Atomic Mass
number number

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1
Hydrogen 1H 1 1 0 1 1
2
1H(deuterium) 1 1 2 1 2
3
1H(Tritium) 1 1 3 1 3

35
Chlorine 17Cl 17 17 18 17 35
37
17Cl 17 17 20 17 37
39
Potassium 19K 19 19 20 19 39
40
19K 19 19 21 19 40
41
19K 19 19 22 19 41
16
Oxygen 8O 8 8 8 8 16
18
8O 8 8 10 8 18
235
Uranium 92U 92 92 143 92 235
238
92U 92 92 146 92 238

22
Neon 10Ne 10 10 12 10 22
20
10Ne 10 10 10 10 20
21
10Ne 10 10 11 10 21
-22
The mass of an average atom is very small (10 g).Masses of atoms are therefore
expressed in relation to a chosen element.
The atom recommended is 12C isotope whose mass is arbitrarily assigned as
12.000 atomic mass units(a.m.u) .
All other atoms are compared to the mass of 12C isotope to give the relative at The
relative atomic mass(RAM) is therefore defined as “the mass of average atom of
an element compared to 1/12 an atom of 12C isotope whose mass is arbitrarily
fixed as 12.000 atomic mass units(a.m.u) ” i.e;
RAM = mass of atom of an element
1
/12 of one atom of 12C isotope
Accurate relative atomic masses (RAM) are got from the mass spectrometer. Mass
spectrometer determines the isotopes of the element and their relative
abundance/availability.
Using the relative abundances/availability of the isotopes, the relative atomic
mass (RAM) can be determined /calculated as in the below examples.
a) Chlorine occurs as 75% 3517Cl and 25% 3717Cl isotopes. Calculate the relative
atomic mass of Chlorine.

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Working
100 atoms of chlorine contains 75 atoms of 3517Cl isotopes
100 atoms of chlorine contains 75 atoms of 3717Cl isotopes
Therefore;
RAM of chlorine = ( 75/100 x 35) + 25/100 x 37 = 35.5
Note that:
Relative atomic mass has no units
More atoms of chlorine exist as 3517Cl(75%) than as 3717Cl(25%) therefore
RAM is nearer to the more abundant isotope.
b) Calculate the relative atomic mass of potassium given that it exist as;
93.1% 3919K , 0.01% 4019K , 6.89% 4119K ,
Working
100 atoms of potassium contains 93.1 atoms of 3919K isotopes
100 atoms of potassium contains 0.01 atoms of 4019K isotopes
100 atoms of potassium contains 6.89 atoms of 4119K isotopes
Therefore;
RAM of potassium = (93.1/100 x39) + (0.01/100 x 40) +(6.89 /100 x 39)
Note that:
Relative atomic mass has no units
More atoms of potassium exist as 3919K (93.1%) therefore RAM is nearer to
the more abundant 3919K isotope.
c) Calculate the relative atomic mass of Neon given that it exist as;
90.92% 2010Ne , 0.26% 2110Ne , 8.82% 2210Ne,
Working
100 atoms of Neon contains 90.92 atoms of 2010Ne isotopes
100 atoms of Neon contains 0.26 atoms of 2110Ne isotopes
100 atoms of Neon contains 8.82 atoms of 2210 Ne isotopes Therefore;
RAM of Neon = (90.92/100 x20) + (0.26/100 x 21) +(8.82 /100 x 22)

Note that:
Relative atomic mass has no units
More atoms of Neon exist as 2010Ne (90.92%) therefore RAM is nearer to
the more abundant 2010Ne isotope.
d) Calculate the relative atomic mass of Argon given that it exist as;
90.92% 2010Ne , 0.26% 2110Ne , 8.82% 2210Ne,

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NB
The relative atomic mass is a measure of the masses of atoms. The higher the
relative atomic mass, the heavier the atom.
Electrons are found in energy levels/orbital.
An energy level is a fixed region around/surrounding the nucleus of an atom
occupied by electrons of the same (potential) energy.
By convention energy levels are named 1,2,3… outwards from the region nearest
to nucleus.
Each energy level is occupied by a fixed number of electrons:
The 1st energy level is occupied by a maximum of two electrons
The 2nd energy level is occupied by a maximum of eight electrons
The 3rd energy level is occupied by a maximum of eight electrons( or
eighteen electrons if available)
The 4th energy level is occupied by a maximum of eight electrons( or
eighteen or thirty two electrons if available)
This arrangement of electrons in an atom is called electron configuration /
structure.
By convention the electron configuration / structure of an atom of an element can
be shown in form of a diagram using either cross(x) or dot(●) to
Practice examples drawing electronic configurations
a)11H has - in nucleus1proton and 0 neutrons
- 1 electron in the 1st energy levels thus:
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)
Electronic structure of Hydrogen is thus: 1:

b) 42He has - in nucleus 2 proton and 2 neutrons Comment [s1]:

- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels thus:

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)
Electronic structure of Helium is thus: 2:
c) 73Li has - in nucleus 3 proton and 4 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels

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-1 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)
Electronic structure of Lithium is thus: 2:1
d) 94Be has - in nucleus 4 proton and 5 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-2 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)
Electronic structure of Beryllium is thus: 2:2
e) 115B has - in nucleus 5 proton and 6 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-3 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)
Electronic structure of Boron is thus: 2:3
f) 126C has - in nucleus 6 proton and 6 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-4 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)
Electronic structure of Carbon is thus: 2:4
g) 147N has - in nucleus 7 proton and 7 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-5 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)
Electronic structure of Nitrogen is thus: 2:5
h) 168O has - in nucleus 8 proton and 8 neutrons

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- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels

-6 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)
Electronic structure of Oxygen is thus: 2:6
i) 199F has - in nucleus 9 proton and 10 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-7 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)
Electronic structure of Fluorine is thus: 2:7
i) 2010Ne has - in nucleus 10 proton and 10 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by cross(x)
Electronic structure of Neon is thus: 2:8
j) 2311Na has - in nucleus 11 proton and 12 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-1 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot (.)
Electronic structure of Sodium is thus: 2:8:1
k) 2412Mg has - in nucleus 12 proton and 12 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-2 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus

Nucleus
Energy levels

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Electrons (represented by dot (.)

Electronic structure of Magnesium is thus: 2:8:2
l) 2713Al has - in nucleus 13 proton and 14 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-3 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot (.)
Electronic structure of Aluminium is thus: 2:8:3
m) 2814Si has - in nucleus 14 proton and 14 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-4 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot (.)
Electronic structure of Silicon is thus: 2:8:4
n) 3115P has - in nucleus 14 proton and 15 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-5 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot (.)
Electronic structure of Phosphorus is thus: 2:8:5
o) 3216S has - in nucleus 16 proton and 16 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-6 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot (.)
Electronic structure of Sulphur is thus: 2:8:6

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 163

p) 3517Cl has - in nucleus 18 proton and 17 neutrons

- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-7 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot (.)
Electronic structure of Chlorine is thus: 2:8:7
p) 4018Ar has - in nucleus 22 proton and 18 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-8 electron in the 3rd energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot (.)
Electronic structure of Argon is thus: 2:8:8
q) 3919K has - in nucleus 20 proton and 19 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-8 electron in the 3rd energy levels
-1 electron in the 4th energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot (.)
Electronic structure of Potassium is thus: 2:8:8:1
r) 4020Ca has - in nucleus 20 proton and 20 neutrons
- 2 electron in the 1st energy levels
-8 electron in the 2nd energy levels
-8 electron in the 3rd energy levels
-2 electron in the 4th energy levels thus
Nucleus
Energy levels
Electrons (represented by dot (.)
Electronic structure of Calcium is thus: 2:8:8:2

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B.PERIODIC TABLE
There are over 100 elements so far discovered. Scientists have tried to group them
together in a periodic table.
A periodic table is a horizontal and vertical arrangement of elements according to
their atomic numbers.
This table was successfully arranged in 1913 by the British scientist Henry Moseley
from the previous work of the Russian Scientist Dmitri Mendeleev.
The horizontal arrangement forms period. Atoms in the same period have the
same the same number of energy levels in their electronic structure. i.e.
The number of energy levels in the electronic configuration of an element
determine the period to which the element is in the periodic table.
e.g.
Which period of the periodic table are the following isotopes/elements/atoms?
a) 126C
Electron structure 2:4 => 2 energy levels used thus Period 2
b) 2311Na
Electron structure 2:8:1 => 3 energy levels used thus Period 3
c) 3919K
Electron structure 2:8:8:1 => 4 energy levels used thus Period 4
d) 11H
Electron structure 1: => 1 energy level used thus Period 1
The vertical arrangement of elements forms a group. Atoms in the same have the
same the same group have the same number of outer energy level electrons as
per their electronic structure. i.e.
The number of electrons in the outer energy level an element determine the
group to which the element is, in the periodic table.
a) 126C
Electron structure 2:4 => 4 electrons in outer energy level thus Group IV
b) 2311C
Electron structure 2:8:1 => 1 electron in outer energy level thus Group I
c) 3919K

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Electron structure 2:8:8:1=>1 electron in outer energy level thus Group I

d) 11H
Electron structure 1: => 1 electron in outer energy level thus Group I
By convention;
(i)Periods are named using English numerals 1, 2, 3, 4…
(ii)Groups are named using Roman numerals I, II, III, IV…

There are eighteen groups in a standard periodic table.

There are seven periods in a standard periodic table.

THE STANDARD PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

When an atom has maximum number of electrons in its outer energy level, it is
said to be stable.
When an atom has no maximum number of electrons in its outer energy level, it
is said to be unstable.
All stable atoms are in group 8/18 of the periodic table. All other elements are
unstable.
All unstable atoms/isotopes try to be stable through chemical reactions. A
chemical reaction involves gaining or losing outer electrons (electron transfer)
.When electron transfer take place, an ion is formed.

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 166

An ion is formed when an unstable atom gain or donate electrons in its outer
energy level in order to be stable. Whether an atom gain or donate electrons
depend on the relative energy required to donate or gain extra electrons i.e.
Examples
1. 199 F has electronic structure/configuration 2:7.
It can donate the seven outer electrons to have stable electronic
structure/configuration 2:.
It can gain one extra electron to have stable electronic structure/configuration
2:8. Gaining requires less energy, and thus Fluorine reacts by gaining one extra
electrons.
2. 2313 Al has electronic structure/configuration 2:8:3
It can donate the three outer electrons to have stable electronic
structure/configuration 2:8.
It can gain five extra electrons to have stable electronic structure/configuration
2:8:8. Donating requires less energy, and thus Aluminium reacts by donating its
three outer electrons.
Elements with less than four electrons in the outer energy level donates /lose the
outer electrons to be stable and form a positively charged ion called cation.
A cation therefore has more protons (positive charge) than electrons (negative
charge)
Generally metals usually form cation
Elements with more than four electrons in the outer energy level gain /acquire
extra electrons in the outer energy level to be stable and form a negatively
charged ion called anion.
An anion therefore has fewer protons (positive charge) than electrons (negative
charge)
Generally non metals usually form anion. Except Hydrogen
The charge carried by an ion is equal to the number of electrons gained/acquired
or donated/lost.
Examples of ion formation
1.11H
H -> H+ + e
(atom) (monovalent cation) (electrons donated/lost)
Electronic configuration 1: (No electrons remains)
2. 2713 Al

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Al -> Al3+ + 3e
(atom) (trivalent cation) (3 electrons donated/lost)
Electron 2:8:3 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)
3. 2311 Na
Na -> Na+ + e
(atom) (cation) ( 1 electrons donated/lost)
Electron 2:8:1 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)
4. 2412Mg
Mg -> Mg2+ + 2e
(atom) (cation) ( 2 electrons donated/lost)
Electron 2:8:1 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)

5. 168O
O + 2e -> O2-
(atom) ( 2 electrons gained/acquired) (anion)
Electron 2:6 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)
6. 147N
N + 3e -> N3-
(atom) ( 3 electrons gained/acquired) (anion)
Electron 2:5 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)
7. 3115P
P + 3e -> P3-
(atom) ( 3 electrons gained/acquired) (anion)
Electron 2:5 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)
8. 199F
F + e -> F-
(atom) ( 1 electrons gained/acquired) (anion)
Electron 2:7 2:8
structure (unstable) (stable)

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9. 3517Cl
Cl + e -> Cl-
(atom) ( 1 electrons gained/acquired) (anion)
Electron 2:8:7 2:8:8
structure (unstable) (stable)
3. 3919 K
K -> K+ + e
(atom) (cation) ( 1 electrons donated/lost)
Electron 2:8:8:1 2:8:8
structure (unstable) (stable)
When an element donates/loses its outer electrons, the process is called
oxidation. When an element acquires/gains extra electrons in its outer energy
level, the process is called reduction. The charge carried by an atom, cation or
anion is its oxidation state.
Table showing the oxidation states of some isotopes
Element Symbol of element / Charge of ion Oxidation state
isotopes
1
Hydrogen 1H H+ +1
2 +
1H(deuterium) H +1
3 +
1H(Tritium) H +1
35 -
Chlorine 17Cl Cl -1
37 -
17Cl Cl -1

39
Potassium 19K K+ +1
40
19K K+ +1
41
19K K+ +1

16
Oxygen 8O O2- -2
18
8O O2- -2

24
Magnesium 12Mg Mg2+ +2

23
sodium 11Na Na+ +1

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Copper Cu Cu+ +1
Cu2+ +2
Iron Fe2+ +2
Fe3+ +3
Lead Pb2+ +2
Pb4+ +4
Manganese Mn2+ +2
Mn7+ +7
Chromium Cr3+ +3
Cr6+ +6
Sulphur S4+ +4
S6+ +6
Carbon C2+ +2
C4+ +4

Note:
Some elements can exist in more than one oxidation state. They are said to have
variable oxidation state.
Roman capital numeral is used to indicate the oxidation state of an element with a
variable oxidation state in a compound.

Examples:
(i) Copper (I) means Cu+ as in Copper(I)oxide
(ii) Copper (II) means Cu2+ as in Copper(II)oxide
(iii) Iron (II) means Fe2+ as in Iron(II)sulphide
(iv) Iron (III) means Fe3+ as in Iron(III)chloride
(iv) Sulphur(VI)mean S6+ as in Iron(III)sulphate(VI)
(v) Sulphur(VI)mean S6+ as in sulphur(VI)oxide
(vi) Sulphur(IV)mean S4+ as in sulphur(IV)oxide
(vii) Sulphur(IV)mean S4+ as in sodium sulphate(IV)
(ix) Carbon(IV)mean C4+ as in carbon(IV)oxide
(x) Carbon(IV)mean C4+ as in Lead(II)carbonate(IV)
(xi) Carbon(II)mean C2+ as in carbon(II)oxide
(xii) Manganese(IV)mean Mn4+ as in Manganese(IV)oxide

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A compound is a combination of two or more elements in fixed proportions. The

ratio of the atoms making a compound is called the chemical formulae. Elements
combine together to form a compound depending on their combining power.
The combining power of atoms in an element is called Valency. Valency of an
element is equal to the number of:
(i) Hydrogen atoms that an atom of element can combine with or displace.
(ii) Electrons gained /acquired in outer energy level by non metals to be
stable/attain duplet/octet.
(iii) Electrons donated/lost by outer energy level of metals to be
stable/attain octet/duplet.
(iv) Charges carried by ions/cations/ions
Group of atoms that react as a unit during chemical reactions are called radicals.
Elements with variable oxidation state also have more than one valency.
Table showing the valency of common radicals
Radical name Chemical formulae Combining power /
Valency
+
Ammonium NH4 1
Hydroxide OH- 1
-
Nitrate(V) NO3 1
-
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3 1
Hydrogen HSO4- 1
sulphate(VI)
Hydrogen HSO3- 1
sulphate(IV)
Manganate(VII) MnO4- 1
Chromate(VI) CrO42- 2
2-
Dichromate(VI) Cr2O7 2
2-
Sulphate(VI) SO4 2
Sulphate(IV) SO32- 2
2-
Carbonate(IV) CO3 2
2-
Phosphate(V) PO4 3
Table showing the valency of some common metal and non metals
Element/metal Valency Element/non metal Valency

Hydrogen 1 Florine 1

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Lithium 1 Chlorine 1
Beryllium 2 Bromine 1
Boron 3 Iodine 1
Sodium 1 Carbon 4
Magnesium 2 Nitrogen 3
Aluminium 3 Oxygen 2
Potassium 1 Phosphorus 3
Calcium 2
Zinc 2
Barium 2
Mercury 2
Iron 2 and 3
Copper 1 and 2
Manganese 2 and 4
Lead 2 and 4

From the valency of elements, the chemical formular of a compound can be

derived using the following procedure:
(i)Identify the elements and radicals making the compound
(ii)Write the symbol/formular of the elements making the compound
starting with the metallic element
(iii)Assign the valency of each element /radical as superscript.
(iv)Interchange/exchange the valencies of each element as subscript.
(v)Divide by the smallest/lowest valency to derive the smallest whole
number ratios
Ignore a valency of 1.
This is the chemical formula.

Practice examples
Write the chemical formula of
(a)Aluminium oxide
Elements making compound Aluminium Oxygen
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Al O
Assign valencies as superscript Al3 O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Al2 O3
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 172

subscript
Divide by smallest valency to get whole - -
number
Chemical formula of Aluminium oxide is thus: Al2 O3
This means: 2atoms of Aluminium combine with 3 atoms of Oxygen
(b)Sodium oxide
Elements making compound Sodium Oxygen
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Na O
Assign valencies as superscript Na1 O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Na2 O1
subscript
Divide by smallest valency to get whole - -
number
Chemical formula of Sodium oxide is thus: Na2 O
This means: 2atoms of Sodium combine with 1 atom of Oxygen
(c)Calcium oxide
Elements making compound Calcium Oxygen
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Ca O
2
Assign valencies as superscript Ca O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Ca2 O2
subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number Ca1 O1
ratio
Chemical formula of Calcium oxide is thus: CaO
This means: 1 atom of calcium combine with 1 atom of Oxygen.
(d)Lead (IV) oxide
Elements making compound Lead Oxygen
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Pb O
4
Assign valencies as superscript Pb O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Pb2 O4
subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number Pb1 O2
ratio
Chemical formula of Lead (IV) oxide is thus: PbO2
This means: 1 atom of lead combine with 2 atoms of Oxygen.
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 173

(e)Lead (II) oxide

Elements making compound Lead Oxygen
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Pb O
Assign valencies as superscript Pb2 O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Pb2 O2
subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number Pb1 O1
ratio
Chemical formula of Lead (II) oxide is thus: PbO
This means: 1 atom of lead combine with 1 atom of Oxygen.
(e)Iron (III) oxide
Elements making compound Iron Oxygen
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Fe O
3
Assign valencies as superscript Fe O2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Fe2 O3
subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number - -
ratio
Chemical formula of Iron(III) oxide is thus: Fe2O3
This means: 2 atom of lead combine with 3 atom of Oxygen.
(f)Iron (II) sulphate (VI)
Elements making compound Iron sulphate(VI)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Fe SO4
2
Assign valencies as superscript Fe SO4 2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Fe2 SO4 2
subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number Fe1 SO4 1
ratio
Chemical formula of Iron (II) sulphate (VI) is thus: FeSO4
This means: 1 atom of Iron combine with 1 sulphate (VI) radical.
(g)Copper (II) sulphate (VI)
Elements making compound Copper sulphate(VI)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Cu SO4
2
Assign valencies as superscript Cu SO4 2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Cu2 SO4 2
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subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number Cu1 SO4 1
ratio
Chemical formula of Cu(II)sulphate(VI) is thus: CuSO4
This means: 1 atom of Copper combine with 1 sulphate (VI) radical.
(h)Aluminium sulphate (VI)
Elements making compound Aluminium sulphate(VI)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Al SO4
Assign valencies as superscript Al3 SO4 2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Al2 SO4 3
subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number - -
ratio
Chemical formula of Aluminium sulphate (VI) is thus: Al2(SO4)3
This means: 2 atom of Aluminium combine with 3 sulphate (VI) radical.
(i)Aluminium nitrate (V)
Elements making compound Aluminium nitrate(V)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Al NO3
3
Assign valencies as superscript Al NO3 1
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Al1 NO3 3
subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number - -
ratio
Chemical formula of Aluminium sulphate (VI) is thus: Al (NO3)3
This means: 1 atom of Aluminium combine with 3 nitrate (V) radical.
(j)Potassium manganate (VII)
Elements making compound Potassium manganate(VII)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound K MnO4
1
Assign valencies as superscript K MnO4 1
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as K1 MnO4 1
subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number - -
ratio
Chemical formula of Potassium manganate (VII) is thus: KMnO4
This means: 1 atom of Potassium combine with 4 manganate (VII) radical.
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(k)Sodium dichromate (VI)

Elements making compound Sodium dichromate(VI)

Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Na Cr2O7
1
Assign valencies as superscript Na Cr2O7 2
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Na2 Cr2O7 1
subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number - -
ratio
Chemical formula of Sodium dichromate (VI) is thus: Na2 Cr2O7
This means: 2 atom of Sodium combine with 1 dichromate (VI) radical.
(l)Calcium hydrogen carbonate
Elements making compound Calcium Hydrogen
carbonate
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Ca CO3
2
Assign valencies as superscript Ca HCO3 1
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Ca1 HCO3 2
subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number - -
ratio
Chemical formula of Calcium hydrogen carbonate is thus: Ca (HCO3)2
This means: 1 atom of Calcium combine with 2 hydrogen carbonate radical.
(l)Magnesium hydrogen sulphate (VI)
Elements making compound Magnesium Hydrogen
sulphate(VI)
Symbol of elements/radicals in compound Mg HSO4
Assign valencies as superscript Mg 2 HSO4 1
Exchange/Interchange the valencies as Mg1 HSO4 2
subscript
Divide by two to get smallest whole number - -
ratio
Chemical formula of Magnesium hydrogen sulphate (VI) is thus: Mg (HSO4)2
This means: 1 atom of Magnesium combine with 2 hydrogen sulphate (VI)
radical.

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Compounds are formed from chemical reactions. A chemical reaction is formed

when atoms of the reactants break free to bond again and form products. A
chemical reaction is a statement showing the movement of reactants to form
products. The following procedure is used in writing chemical equations:
1. Write the word equation
2. Write the correct chemical formula for each of the reactants and products
3. Check if the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is equal to
the number of atoms of each element on the product side.
4. Multiply the chemical formula containing the unbalanced atoms with the lowest
common multiple if the number of atoms on one side is not equal. This is called
balancing.
Do not change the chemical formula of the products/reactants.
5. Assign in brackets, the physical state/state symbols of the reactants and
products after each chemical formula as:
(i) (s) for solids
(ii) (l) for liquids
(iii) (g) for gas
(iv) (aq) for aqueous/dissolved in water to make a solution.
Practice examples
Write a balanced chemical equation for the following
(a) Hydrogen gas is prepared from reacting Zinc granules with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
Procedure
1. Write the word equation
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid -> Zinc chloride + hydrogen gas
2. Write the correct chemical formula for each of the reactants and products
Zn + HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2
3. Check if the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is equal
to the number of atoms of each element on the product side.
Number of atoms of Zn on the reactant side is equal to product side
One atom of H in HCl on the reactant side is not equal to two atoms in H2 on
product side.
One atom of Cl in HCl on the reactant side is not equal to two atoms in ZnCl2
on product side.

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4. Multiply the chemical formula containing the unbalanced atoms with the
lowest common multiple if the number of atoms on one side is not equal.
Multiply HCl by “2” to get “2” Hydrogen and “2” Chlorine on product and
reactant side.
Zn + 2 HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2
5. Assign in brackets, the physical state/state symbols .
Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
(b) Oxygen gas is prepared from decomposition of Hydrogen peroxide solution
to water
Procedure
1. Write the word equation
Hydrogen peroxide -> Water + oxygen gas
2. Write the correct chemical formula for each of the reactants and products
H2O2 -> H2O + O2
3. Check if the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is equal
to the number of atoms of each element on the product side.
Number of atoms of H on the reactant side is equal to product side
Two atom of O in H2O2 on the reactant side is not equal to three atoms (one
in H2O and two in O2) on product side.
4. Multiply the chemical formula containing the unbalanced atoms with
the lowest common multiple if the number of atoms on one side is not equal.
Multiply H2O2 by “2” to get “4” Hydrogen and “4” Oxygen on reactants
Multiply H2O by “2” to get “4” Hydrogen and “2” Oxygen on product side
When the “2” Oxygen in O2 and the“2” in H2O are added on product side they
are equal to the“4” Oxygen on reactants side.
2H2O2 -> 2H2O + O2
5. Assign in brackets, the physical state/state symbols.
2H2O2(aq) -> 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
(c) Chlorine gas is prepared from Potassium manganate (VII) reacting with
hydrochloric acid to form potassium chloride solution, manganese (II)
chloride solution, water and chlorine gas.
Procedure
1. Write the word equation
Potassium manganate (VII) + Hydrochloric acid ->
Potassium chloride + manganese (II) chloride + chlorine +water

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2. Write the correct chemical formula for each of the reactants and products
KMnO4 + HCl -> KCl + MnCl2 +H2O + Cl2
3. Check if the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is equal
to the number of atoms of each element on the product side.
Number of atoms of K and Mn on the reactant side is equal to product side
Two atom of H in H2O on the product side is not equal to one atom on
reactant side.
Four atom of O in KMnO4 is not equal to one in H2O
One atom of Cl in HCl on reactant side is not equal to three (one in H2O and two
in Cl2)
4. Multiply the chemical formula containing the unbalanced atoms with
the lowest common multiple if the number of atoms on one side is not equal.
Multiply HCl by “16” to get “16” Hydrogen and “16” Chlorine on reactants
Multiply KMnO4 by “2” to get “2” Potassium and “2” manganese, “2 x4 =8”
Oxygen on reactant side.
Balance the product side to get:
2 KMnO4 +16 HCl -> 2 KCl + 2 MnCl2 +8 H2O + 5 Cl2
5. Assign in brackets, the physical state/state symbols.
2KMnO4(s) +16 HCl(aq)-> 2 KCl (aq) + 2MnCl2(aq)+8 H2O(l)+5 Cl2(g)
(d)Carbon (IV) oxide gas is prepared from Calcium carbonate reacting with
hydrochloric acid to form calcium chloride solution, water and carbon (IV) oxide
gas.
Procedure
1. Write the word equation
Calcium carbonate + Hydrochloric acid ->
Calcium chloride solution+ water +carbon (IV)oxide
2. Write the correct chemical formula for each of the reactants and products
CaCO3 + HCl -> CaCl2 +H2O + CO2
3. Check if the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is equal
to the number of atoms of each element on the product side.
4. Multiply the chemical formula containing the unbalanced atoms with the
lowest common multiple if the number of atoms on one side is not equal.
5. Assign in brackets, the physical state/state symbols.
CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(d)Sodium hydroxide solution neutralizes hydrochloric acid to form salt and water.

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NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)

(e)Sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
(f)Calcium reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
(g)Copper (II) Oxide solid reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form copper
(II) chloride and water.
CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
(h)Hydrogen sulphide reacts with Oxygen to form sulphur (IV) Oxide and
water.
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(i)Magnesium reacts with steam to form Magnesium Oxide and Hydrogen
gas.
Mg(s) + 2H2O(g) -> MgO(s) + H2(g)
(j)Ethane (C2H6) gas burns in air to form Carbon (IV) Oxide and water.
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) -> 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
(k)Ethene (C2H4) gas burns in air to form Carbon (IV) Oxide and water.
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

(l)Ethyne (C2H2) gas burns in air to form Carbon (IV) Oxide and water.
2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) -> 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

C. PERIODICITY OF CHEMICAL FAMILES/DOWN THE GROUP

The number of valence electrons and the number of occupied energy levels in an
atom of an element determine the position of an element in the periodic table .i.e
The number of occupied energy levels determines the Period and the valence
electrons determine the Group.
Elements in the same group have similar physical and chemical properties. The
trends in physical and chemical properties of elements in the same group vary
down the group. Elements in the same group thus constitute a chemical family.
(a) Group I elements: Alkali metals
Group I elements are called Alkali metals except Hydrogen which is a non metal.
The alkali metals include:
Element Symbol Atomic Electron Oxidation Valency
number structure state

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Lithium Li 3 2:1 Li+ 1

+
Sodium Na 11 2:8:1 Na 1
+
Potassium K 19 2:8:8:1 K 1
Rubidium Rb 37 2:8:18:8:1 Rb+ 1
+
Caesium Cs 55 2:8:18:18:8:1 Cs 1
+
Francium Fr 87 2:8:18:32:18:8:1 Fr 1
All alkali metals atom has one electron in the outer energy level. They therefore
are monovalent. They donate /lose the outer electron to have oxidation state M+
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Lithium to Francium.
The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic size. e.g.
The atomic size of Potassium is bigger/larger than that of sodium because
Potassium has more/4 energy levels than sodium (3 energy levels).
Atomic and ionic radius
The distance between the centre of the nucleus of an atom and the outermost
energy level occupied by electron/s is called atomic radius. Atomic radius is
measured in nanometers(n).The higher /bigger the atomic radius the bigger
/larger the atomic size.
The distance between the centre of the nucleus of an ion and the outermost
energy level occupied by electron/s is called ionic radius. Ionic radius is also
measured in nanometers (n).The higher /bigger the ionic radius the bigger /larger
the size of the ion.
Atomic radius and ionic radius depend on the number of energy levels occupied by
electrons. The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic
/ionic radius. e.g.
The atomic radius of Francium is bigger/larger than that of sodium because
Francium has more/7 energy levels than sodium (3 energy levels).
Atomic radius and ionic radius of alkali metals increase down the group as the
number of energy levels increases.
The atomic radius of alkali metals is bigger than the ionic radius. This is because
alkali metals react by losing/donating the outer electron and hence lose the outer
energy level.
Table showing the atomic and ionic radius of some alkali metals
Element Symbol Atomic Atomic Ionic radius(nM)
number radius(nM)
Lithium Li 3 0.133 0.060

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Sodium Na 11 0.157 0.095

Potassium K 19 0.203 0.133
The atomic radius of sodium is 0.157nM .The ionic radius of Na+ is 0.095nM. This
is because sodium reacts by donating/losing the outer electrons and hence the
outer energy level. The remaining electrons/energy levels experience more
effective / greater nuclear attraction/pull towards the nucleus reducing the atomic
radius.
Electropositivity
The ease of donating/losing electrons is called electropositivity. All alkali metals
are electropositive. Electropositivity increase as atomic radius increase. This is
because the effective nuclear attraction on outer electrons decreases with
increase in atomic radius. The outer electrons experience less nuclear attraction
and can be lost/ donated easily/with ease. Francium is the most electropositive
element in the periodic table because it has the highest/biggest atomic radius.
Ionization energy
The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom of
element in its gaseous state is called 1st ionization energy. The SI unit of
ionization energy is kilojoules per mole/kJmole-1 .Ionization energy depend on
atomic radius. The higher the atomic radius, the less effective the nuclear
attraction on outer electrons/energy level and thus the lower the ionization
energy. For alkali metals the 1st ionization energy decrease down the group as the
atomic radius increase and the effective nuclear attraction on outer energy level
electrons decrease.
e.g. The 1st ionization energy of sodium is 496 kJmole-1 while that of potassium is
419 kJmole-1 .This is because atomic radius increase and thus effective nuclear
attraction on outer energy level electrons decrease down the group from sodium
to Potassium. It requires therefore less energy to donate/lose outer electrons in
Potassium than in sodium.
Physical properties
Soft/Easy to cut: Alkali metals are soft and easy to cut with a knife. The softness
and ease of cutting increase down the group from Lithium to Francium. This is
because an increase in atomic radius, decreases the strength of metallic bond and
the packing of the metallic structure

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Appearance: Alkali metals have a shiny grey metallic luster when freshly cut. The
surface rapidly/quickly tarnishes on exposure to air. This is because the metal
surface rapidly/quickly reacts with elements of air/oxygen.
Melting and boiling points: Alkali metals have a relatively low melting/boiling
point than common metals like Iron. This is because alkali metals use only one
delocalized electron to form a weak metallic bond/structure.
Electrical/thermal conductivity: Alkali metals are good thermal and electrical
conductors. Metals conduct using the outer mobile delocalized electrons. The
delocalized electrons move randomly within the metallic structure.
Summary of some physical properties of the 1st three alkali metals
Alkali Appearanc Ease Melting Boiling Conductivit 1st
metal e of point point y ionizatio
cutting (oC) (oC) n energy
Lithium Silvery Not 180 1330 Good 520
white easy
Sodium Shiny grey Easy 98 890 Good 496

Potassiu Shiny grey Very 64 774 Good 419

m easy
Chemical properties
(i)Reaction with air/oxygen
On exposure to air, alkali metals react with the elements in the air.
Example
On exposure to air, Sodium first reacts with Oxygen to form sodium oxide.
4Na(s) + O2(g) -> 2Na2O(s)
The sodium oxide formed further reacts with water/moisture in the air to form
sodium hydroxide solution.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq)
Sodium hydroxide solution reacts with carbon (IV) oxide in the air to form sodium
carbonate.
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (g) + H2O (l)
(ii)Burning in air/oxygen
Lithium burns in air with a crimson/deep red flame to form Lithium oxide
4Li (s)+ O2 (g) -> 2Li2O(s)
Sodium burns in air with a yellow flame to form sodium oxide

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4Na (s) + O2 (g) -> 2Na2O(s)

Sodium burns in oxygen with a yellow flame to form sodium peroxide
2Na (s) + O2 (g) -> Na2O2 (s)
Potassium burns in air with a lilac/purple flame to form potassium oxide
4K (s) + O2 (g) -> 2K2O (s)
(iii) Reaction with water:
Experiment
Measure 500 cm3 of water into a beaker.
Put three drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
Put about 0.5g of Lithium metal into the beaker.
Determine the pH of final product
Repeat the experiment using about 0.1 g of Sodium and Potassium.
Caution: Keep a distance
Observations
Alkali metal Observations Comparative
speed/rate of the
reaction
Lithium -Metal floats in water Moderately vigorous
-rapid
effervescence/fizzing/bubbling
-colourless gas produced (that
extinguishes burning splint with
explosion /“pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn
phenolphthalein indicator pink
-pH of solution = 12/13/14

Sodium -Metal floats in water Very vigorous

-very rapid effervescence /fizzing
/bubbling
-colourless gas produced (that
extinguishes burning splint with
explosion /“pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn
phenolphthalein indicator pink

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 184

-pH of solution = 12/13/14

Potassium -Metal floats in water Explosive/burst into
-explosive effervescence /fizzing flames
/bubbling
-colourless gas produced (that
extinguishes burning splint with
explosion /“pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn
phenolphthalein indicator pink
-pH of solution = 12/13/14

Explanation
Alkali metals are less dense than water. They therefore float in water. They react
with water to form a strongly alkaline solution of their hydroxides and producing
hydrogen gas. The rate of this reaction increase down the group. i.e. Potassium is
more reactive than sodium .Sodium is more reactive than Lithium.
The reactivity increases as electropositivity increases of the alkali increases. This is
because as the atomic radius increases, the ease of donating/losing outer electron
increases during chemical reactions.
Chemical equations
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Rb(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2RbOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Cs(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2CsOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Fr(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2FrOH(aq) + H2(g)
Reactivity increase down the group
(iv) Reaction with chlorine:
Experiment
Cut about 0.5g of sodium into a deflagrating spoon with a lid cover. Introduce it on
a Bunsen flame until it catches fire. Quickly and carefully lower it into a gas jar
containing dry chlorine to cover the gas jar.
Repeat with about 0.5g of Lithium.
Caution: This experiment should be done in fume chamber because chlorine is
poisonous /toxic.

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Observation
Sodium metal continues to burn with a yellow flame forming white solid/fumes.
Lithium metal continues to burn with a crimson flame forming white solid / fumes.
Alkali metals react with chlorine gas to form the corresponding metal chlorides.
The reactivity increase as electropositivity increase down the group from Lithium
to Francium. The ease of donating/losing the outer electrons increase as the
atomic radius increase and the outer electron is less attracted to the nucleus.
Chemical equations
2Li(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2LiCl(s)
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)
2K(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2KCl(s)
2Rb(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2RbCl(s)
2Cs(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2CsCl(s)
2Fr(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2FrCl(s)
Reactivity increase down the group
The table below shows some compounds of the 1st three alkali metals

Lithium sodium Potassium

Hydroxide LiOH NaOH KOH
Oxide Li2O Na2O K2O
Sulphide Li2S Na2S K2S
Chloride LiCl NaCl KCl
Carbonate Li2CO3 Na2CO3 K2CO3
Nitrate(V) LiNO3 NaNO3 KNO3
Nitrate(III) - NaNO2 KNO2
Sulphate(VI) Li2SO4 Na2SO4 K2SO4
Sulphate(IV) - Na2SO3 K2SO3
Hydrogen carbonate - NaHCO3 KHCO3
Hydrogen - NaHSO4 KHSO4
sulphate(VI)
Hydrogen - NaHSO3 KHSO3
sulphate(IV)
Phosphate - Na3PO4 K3PO4
Manganate(VI) - NaMnO4 KMnO4
Dichromate(VI) - Na2Cr2O7 K2Cr2O7
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 186

Chromate(VI) - Na2CrO4 K2CrO4

Some uses of alkali metals include:

(i)Sodium is used in making sodium cyanide for extracting gold from gold ore.
(ii)Sodium chloride is used in seasoning food.
(iii)Molten mixture of sodium and potassium is used as coolant in nuclear reactors.
(iv)Sodium is used in making sodium hydroxide used in making soapy and soapless
detergents.
(v)Sodium is used as a reducing agent for the extraction of titanium from Titanium
(IV) chloride.
(vi)Lithium is used in making special high strength glasses
(vii)Lithium compounds are used to make dry cells in mobile phones and computer
laptops.
Group II elements: Alkaline earth metals
Group II elements are called Alkaline earth metals . The alkaline earth metals
include:
Element Symbol Atomic Electron Oxidation Valency
number structure state
Beryllium Be 4 2:2 Be2+ 2
Magnesium Mg 12 2:8:2 Mg2+ 2
2+
Calcium Ca 20 2:8:8:2 Ca 2
2+
Strontium Sr 38 2:8:18:8:2 Sr 2
Barium Ba 56 2:8:18:18:8:2 Ba2+ 2
2+
Radium Ra 88 2:8:18:32:18:8:2 Ra 2
All alkaline earth metal atoms have two electrons in the outer energy level. They
therefore are divalent. They donate /lose the two outer electrons to have
oxidation state M2+
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Beryllium to Radium.
The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic size. e.g.
The atomic size/radius of Calcium is bigger/larger than that of Magnesium
because Calcium has more/4 energy levels than Magnesium (3 energy levels).
Atomic radius and ionic radius of alkaline earth metals increase down the group as
the number of energy levels increases.

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The atomic radius of alkaline earth metals is bigger than the ionic radius. This is
because they react by losing/donating the two outer electrons and hence lose the
outer energy level.
Table showing the atomic and ionic radius of the 1st three alkaline earth metals
Element Symbol Atomic Atomic Ionic radius(nM)
number radius(nM)
Beryllium Be 4 0.089 0.031
Magnesium Mg 12 0.136 0.065
Calcium Ca 20 0.174 0.099
The atomic radius of Magnesium is 0.136nM .The ionic radius of Mg2+ is 0.065nM.
This is because Magnesium reacts by donating/losing the two outer electrons and
hence the outer energy level. The remaining electrons/energy levels experience
more effective / greater nuclear attraction/pull towards the nucleus reducing the
atomic radius.
Electropositivity
All alkaline earth metals are also electropositive like alkali metals. The
electropositivity increase with increase in atomic radius/size. Calcium is more
electropositive than Magnesium. This is because the effective nuclear attraction
on outer electrons decreases with increase in atomic radius. The two outer
electrons in calcium experience less nuclear attraction and can be lost/ donated
easily/with ease because of the higher/bigger atomic radius.
Ionization energy
For alkaline earth metals the 1st ionization energy decrease down the group as the
atomic radius increase and the effective nuclear attraction on outer energy level
electrons decrease. e.g. The 1st ionization energy of Magnesium is 900 kJmole-1
while that of Calcium is 590 kJmole-1 .This is because atomic radius increase and
thus effective nuclear attraction on outer energy level electrons decrease down
the group from magnesium to calcium.
It requires therefore less energy to donate/lose outer electron in calcium than in
magnesium.
The minimum amount of energy required to remove a second electron from an
ion of an element in its gaseous state is called the 2nd ionization energy.
The 2nd ionization energy is always higher /bigger than the 1st ionization energy.

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This is because once an electron is donated /lost form an atom, the overall
effective nuclear attraction on the remaining electrons/energy level increase.
Removing a second electron from the ion require therefore more energy than the
first electron.
The atomic radius of alkali metals is higher/bigger than that of alkaline earth
metals. This is because across/along the period from left to right there is an
increase in nuclear charge from additional number of protons and still additional
number of electrons entering the same energy level. Increase in nuclear charge
increases the effective nuclear attraction on the outer energy level which pulls it
closer to the nucleus. e.g.
Atomic radius of Sodium (0.157nM) is higher than that of Magnesium (0.137nM).
This is because Magnesium has more effective nuclear attraction on the outer
energy level than Sodium hence pulls outer energy level more nearer to its
nucleus.

Physical properties
Soft/Easy to cut: Alkaline earth metals are not soft and easy to cut with a knife
like alkali metals. This is because of the decrease in atomic radius of
corresponding alkaline earth metal, increases the strength of metallic bond and
the packing of the metallic structure. Alkaline earth metals are:
(i) ductile(able to form wire/thin long rods)
(ii) malleable(able to be hammered into sheet/long thin plates)
(iii) have high tensile strength(able to be coiled without breaking/ not
brittle/withstand stress)
Appearance: Alkali earth metals have a shiny grey metallic luster when their
surface is freshly polished /scrubbed. The surface slowly tarnishes on exposure to
air. This is because the metal surface slowly undergoes oxidation to form an oxide.
This oxide layer should be removed before using the alkaline earth metals.
Melting and boiling points: Alkaline earth metals have a relatively high melting/
boiling point than alkali metals. This is because alkali metals use only one
delocalized electron to form a weaker metallic bond/structure. Alkaline earth
metals use two delocalized electrons to form a stronger metallic bond /structure.

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The melting and boiling points decrease down the group as the atomic radius/size
increase reducing the strength of metallic bond and packing of the metallic
structure. e.g.
Beryllium has a melting point of 1280oC. Magnesium has a melting point of
650oC.Beryllium has a smaller atomic radius/size than magnesium .The strength of
metallic bond and packing of the metallic structure is thus stronger in beryllium.
Electrical/thermal conductivity: Alkaline earth metals are good thermal and
electrical conductors. The two delocalized valence electrons move randomly
within the metallic structure.
Electrical conductivity increase down the group as the atomic radius/size increase
making the delocalized outer electrons less attracted to nucleus. Alkaline earth
metals are better thermal and electrical conductors than alkali metals because
they have more/two outer delocalized electrons. e.g.

Magnesium is a better conductor than sodium because it has more/two

delocalized electrons than sodium. The more delocalized electrons the better the
electrical conductor.
Calcium is a better conductor than magnesium.
Calcium has bigger/larger atomic radius than magnesium because the delocalized
electrons are less attracted to the nucleus of calcium and thus more free /mobile
and thus better the electrical conductor

Summary of some physical properties of the 1st three alkaline earth metals
Alkaline Appearan Ease Melti Boilin Condu 1st 2nd
earth ce of ng g ct- ionizatio ionizatio
metal cutti point point ivity n n
o o
ng ( C) ( C) energy energy
Berylliu Shiny Not 1280 3450 Good 900 1800
m grey easy
Magnesi Shiny Not 650 1110 Good 736 1450
um grey Easy
calcium Shiny Not 850 1140 Good 590 970
grey easy
Chemical properties
(i) Reaction with air/oxygen

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On exposure to air, the surface of alkaline earth metals is slowly oxidized to its
oxide on prolonged exposure to air.
Example
On exposure to air, the surface of magnesium ribbon is oxidized to form a thin film
of Magnesium oxide
. 2Mg(s) + O2(g) -> 2MgO(s)
(ii) Burning in air/oxygen
Experiment
Hold a about 2cm length of Magnesium ribbon on a Bunsen flame. Stop heating
when it catches fire/start burning.
Caution: Do not look directly at the flame
Put the products of burning into 100cm3 beaker. Add about 5cm3 of distilled
water. Swirl. Test the mixture using litmus papers.
Repeat with Calcium
Observations
-Magnesium burns with a bright blindening flame
-White solid /ash produced
-Solid dissolves in water to form a colourless solution
-Blue litmus paper remain blue
-Red litmus paper turns blue
-colourless gas with pungent smell of urine
Explanation
Magnesium burns in air with a bright blindening flame to form a mixture of
Magnesium oxide and Magnesium nitride.
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) -> 2MgO(s)
3Mg (s) + N2 (g) -> Mg3N2 (s)
Magnesium oxide dissolves in water to form magnesium hydroxide.
MgO(s) + H2O (l) -> Mg (OH)2(aq)
Magnesium nitride dissolves in water to form magnesium hydroxide and produce
ammonia gas.
Mg3N2 (s) + 6H2O (l) -> 3Mg (OH)2(aq) + 2NH3 (g)
Magnesium hydroxide and ammonia are weakly alkaline with pH 8/9/10/11 and
turns red litmus paper blue.
Calcium burns in air with faint orange/red flame to form a mixture of both Calcium
oxide and calcium nitride.

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2Ca (s) + O2 (g) -> 2CaO(s)

3Ca (s) + N2 (g) -> Ca3N2 (s)
Calcium oxide dissolves in water to form calcium hydroxide.
CaO(s) + H2O (l) -> Ca (OH)2(aq)
Calcium nitride dissolves in water to form calcium hydroxide and produce
ammonia gas.
Ca3N2 (s) + 6H2O (l) -> 3Ca (OH)2(aq) + 2NH3 (g)
Calcium hydroxide is also weakly alkaline solution with pH 8/9/10/11 and turns
red litmus paper blue.
(ii) Reaction with water
Experiment
Measure 50 cm3 of distilled water into a beaker.
Scrub/polish with sand paper 1cm length of Magnesium ribbon
Place it in the water. Test the product-mixture with blue and red litmus papers.
Repeat with Calcium metal.
Observations
-Surface of magnesium covered by bubbles of colourless gas.
-Colourless solution formed.
-Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing takes place in Calcium.
-Red litmus paper turns blue.
-Blue litmus paper remains blue.
Explanations
Magnesium slowly reacts with cold water to form Magnesium hydroxide and
bubbles of Hydrogen gas that stick on the surface of the ribbon.
Mg(s) + 2H2O (l) -> Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2 (g)
Calcium moderately reacts with cold water to form Calcium hydroxide and
produce a steady stream of Hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + 2H2O (l) -> Ca (OH)2(aq) + H2 (g)
(iii) Reaction with water vapour/steam
Experiment
Put some cotton wool soaked in water/wet sand in a long boiling tube.
Coil a well polished magnesium ribbon into the boiling tube.
Ensure the coil touches the side of the boiling tube. Heat the cotton wool/sand
slightly then strongly heat the Magnesium ribbon.
Set up of apparatus

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Observations
-Magnesium glows red hot then burns with a blindening flame.
-Magnesium continues to glow/burning even without more heating.
-White solid/residue.
-colourless gas collected over water.
Explanation
On heating wet sand, steam is generated which drives out the air that would
otherwise react with /oxidize the ribbon.
Magnesium burns in steam/water vapour generating enough heat that ensures
the reaction goes to completion even without further heating. White Magnesium
oxide is formed and hydrogen gas is evolved.
To prevent suck back, the delivery tube should be removed from the water before
heating is stopped at the end of the experiment.
Mg(s) + H2O (l) -> MgO(s) + H2 (g)
(iv) Reaction with chlorine gas.
Experiment
Lower slowly burning magnesium ribbon/shavings into a gas jar containing
Chlorine gas. Repeat with a hot piece of calcium metal.
Observation
-Magnesium continues to burn in chlorine with a bright blindening flame.
-Calcium continues to burn for a short time.

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-White solid formed.

-Pale green colour of chlorine fades.
Explanation
Magnesium continues to burn in chlorine gas forming white magnesium oxide
solid.
Mg(s) + Cl2 (g) -> MgCl2 (s)
Calcium burns slightly in chlorine gas to form white calcium oxide solid. Calcium
oxide formed coat unreacted Calcium stopping further reaction
Ca(s) + Cl2 (g) -> CaCl2 (s)
(v) Reaction with dilute acids.
Experiment
Place about 4.0cm3 of 0.1M dilute sulphuric (VI) acid into a test tube. Add about
1.0cm length of magnesium ribbon into the test tube. Cover the mouth of the test
tube using a thumb. Release the gas and test the gas using a burning splint.
Repeat with about 4.0cm3 of 0.1M dilute hydrochloric/nitric (V) acid.
Repeat with 0.1g of Calcium in a beaker with all the above acid
Caution: Keep distance when using calcium
Observation
-Effervescence/fizzing/bubbles with dilute sulphuric (VI) and nitric (V) acids
-Little Effervescence/fizzing/bubbles with calcium and dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.
-Colourless gas produced that extinguishes a burning splint with an explosion/
“pop” sound.
-No gas is produced with Nitric (V) acid.
-Colourless solution is formed.
Explanation
Dilute acids react with alkaline earth metals to form a salt and produce hydrogen
gas.
Nitric (V) acid is a strong oxidizing agent. It quickly oxidizes the hydrogen produced
to water.
Calcium is very reactive with dilute acids and thus a very small piece of very dilute
acid should be used.
Chemical equations
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) -> Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> MgCl2(aq) + H2 (g)

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Ca(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> CaSO4(s) + H2 (g)

(insoluble CaSO4(s) coat/cover Ca(s))
Ca(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) -> Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g)
Ca(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + H2 (g)

Ba(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4(s) + H2 (g)

(insoluble BaSO4(s) coat/cover Ba(s))
Ba(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) -> Ba(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g)
Ba(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> BaCl2(aq) + H2 (g)
The table below shows some compounds of some alkaline earth metals

Beryllium Magnesium Calcium Barium

Hydroxide Be(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 Ba(OH)2 Some
Oxide BeO MgO CaO BaO uses
Sulphide - MgS CaS BaS of
Chloride BeCl2 MgCl2 CaCl2 BaCl2 alkali
Carbonate BeCO3 MgCO3 CaCO3 BaCO3 ne
Nitrate(V) Be(NO3)2 Mg(NO3)2 Ca(NO3)2 Ba(NO3)2 earth
Sulphate(VI) BeSO4 MgSO4 CaSO4 BaSO4 metal
Sulphate(IV) - - CaSO3 BaSO3 s
Hydrogen carbonate - Mg(HCO3)2 Ca(HCO3)2 - includ
Hydrogen sulphate(VI) - Mg(HSO4)2 Ca(HSO4)2 - e:

(i)Magnesium hydroxide is a non-toxic/poisonous mild base used as an anti acid

medicine to relieve stomach acidity.
(ii) Making duralumin. Duralumin is an alloy of Magnesium and aluminium used
for making aeroplane bodies because it is light.
(iii) Making plaster of Paris-Calcium sulphate (VI) is used in hospitals to set a
fractures bone.
(iii)Making cement-Calcium carbonate is mixed with clay and sand then heated to
form cement for construction/building.
(iv)Raise soil pH-Quicklime/calcium oxide is added to acidic soils to neutralize and
raise the soil pH in agricultural farms.

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(v) As nitrogenous fertilizer-Calcium nitrate (V) is used as an agricultural fertilizer

because plants require calcium for proper growth.
(vi)In the blast furnace-Limestone is added to the blast furnace to produce more
reducing agent and remove slag in the blast furnace for extraction of Iron.
(c)Group VII elements: Halogens
Group VII elements are called Halogens. They are all non metals. They include:
Element Symbol Atomic Electronicc Charge Valency State at Room
number configuration of ion Temperature
-
Fluorine F 9 2:7 F 1 Pale yellow gas
-
Chlorine Cl 17 2:8:7 Cl 1 Pale green gas
Bromine Br 35 2:8:18:7 Br- 1 Red liquid
-
Iodine I 53 2:8:18:18:7 I 1 Grey Solid
Astatine At 85 2:8:18:32:18:7 At- 1 Radioactive
All halogen atoms have seven electrons in the outer energy level. They
acquire/gain one electron in the outer energy level to be stable. They therefore
are therefore monovalent .They exist in oxidation state X-
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Fluorine to Astatine.
The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic size. e.g.
The atomic size/radius of Chlorine is bigger/larger than that of Fluorine because
Chlorine has more/3 energy levels than Fluorine (2 energy levels).
Atomic radius and ionic radius of Halogens increase down the group as the
number of energy levels increases.
The atomic radius of Halogens is smaller than the ionic radius. This is because they
react by gaining/acquiring extra one electron in the outer energy level. The
effective nuclear attraction on the more/extra electrons decreases. The incoming
extra electron is also repelled causing the outer energy level to expand to reduce
the repulsion and accommodate more electrons.
Table showing the atomic and ionic radius of four Halogens
Element Symbol Atomic Atomic Ionic radius(nM)
number radius(nM)
Fluorine F 9 0.064 0.136
Chlorine Cl 17 0.099 0.181
Bromine Br 35 0.114 0.195
Iodine I 53 0.133 0.216

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The atomic radius of Chlorine is 0.099nM .The ionic radius of Cl- is 0.181nM. This is
because Chlorine atom/molecule reacts by gaining/acquiring extra one electron.
The more/extra electrons/energy level experience less effective nuclear attraction
/pull towards the nucleus. The outer energy level expand/increase to reduce the
repulsion of the existing and incoming gained /acquired electrons.

Electronegativity
The ease of gaining/acquiring extra electrons is called electronegativity. All
halogens are electronegative. Electronegativity decreases as atomic radius
increase. This is because the effective nuclear attraction on outer electrons
decreases with increase in atomic radius.
The outer electrons experience less nuclear attraction and thus ease of
gaining/acquiring extra electrons decrease.
It is measured using Pauling’s scale.
Where Fluorine with Pauling scale 4.0 is the most electronegative element and
thus the highest tendency to acquire/gain extra electron.
Table showing the electronegativity of the halogens
Halogen F Cl Br I At
Electronegativity (Pauling scale) 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5 2.2
The electronegativity of the halogens decrease down the group from fluorine to
Astatine. This is because atomic radius increases down the group and thus
decrease electron – attracting power down the group from fluorine to astatine.
Fluorine is the most electronegative element in the periodic table because it has
the small atomic radius.
Electron affinity
The minimum amount of energy required to gain/acquire an extra electron by an
atom of element in its gaseous state is called 1st electron affinity. The SI unit of
electron affinity is kilojoules per mole/kJmole-1. Electron affinity depends on
atomic radius. The higher the atomic radius, the less effective the nuclear
attraction on outer energy level electrons and thus the lower the electron affinity.
For halogens the 1st electron affinity decrease down the group as the atomic
radius increase and the effective nuclear attraction on outer energy level
electrons decrease. Due to its small size/atomic radius Fluorine shows
exceptionally low electron affinity. This is because a lot of energy is required to
overcome the high repulsion of the existing and incoming electrons.

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Table showing the election affinity of halogens for the process

X + e -> X-
Halogen F Cl Br I
Electron affinity kJmole-1 -333 -364 -342 -295

The higher the electron affinity the more stable theion.i.e

Cl- is a more stable ion than Br- because it has a more negative / exothermic
electron affinity than Br-
Electron affinity is different from:
(i) Ionization energy.
Ionization energy is the energy required to lose/donate an electron in an atom of
an element in its gaseous state while electron affinity is the energy required to
gain/acquire extra electron by an atom of an element in its gaseous state.
(ii) Electronegativity.
-Electron affinity is the energy required to gain an electron in an atom of an
element in gaseous state. It involves the process:
X(g) + e -> X-(g)
Electronegativity is the ease/tendency of gaining/ acquiring electrons by an
element during chemical reactions.
It does not involve use of energy but theoretical arbitrary Pauling’ scale of
measurements.
Physical properties
State at room temperature
Fluorine and Chlorine are gases, Bromine is a liquid and Iodine is a solid. Astatine
is radioactive.
All halogens exist as diatomic molecules bonded by strong covalent bond. Each
molecule is joined to the other by weak intermolecular forces/ Van-der-waals
forces.
Melting/Boiling point
The strength of intermolecular/Van-der-waals forces of attraction increase with
increase in molecular size/atomic radius.
Iodine has therefore the largest atomic radius and thus strongest intermolecular
forces to make it a solid.
Iodine sublimes when heated to form (caution: highly toxic/poisonous) purple
vapour.

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This is because Iodine molecules are held together by weak van-der-

waals/intermolecular forces which require little heat energy to break.
Electrical conductivity
All Halogens are poor conductors of electricity because they have no free
delocalized electrons.
Solubility in polar and non-polar solvents
All halogens are soluble in water (polar solvent).
When a boiling tube containing either chlorine gas or bromine vapour is
separately inverted in a beaker containing distilled water and tetrachloromethane
(non-polar solvent), the level of solution in boiling tube rises in both water and
tetrachloromethane.
This is because halogen are soluble in both polar and non-polar solvents.
Solubility of halogens in water/polar solvents decrease down the group. Solubility
of halogens in non-polar solvent increases down the group.
The level of water in chlorine is higher than in bromine and the level of
tetrachloromethane in chlorine is lower than in bromine.
Caution: Tetrachloromethane , Bromine vapour and Chlorine gas are all highly
toxic/poisonous.
Table showing the physical properties of Halogens
Haloge Formula Electrical Solubility Melting Boiling
n of conductivit in water point(oC point(oC
molecul y ) )
e
Fluorine F2 Poor Insoluble/soluble in -238 -188
tetrachloromethan
e
Chlorine Cl2 Poor Insoluble/soluble in -101 -35
tetrachloromethan
e
Bromin Br2 Poor Insoluble/soluble in 7 59
e tetrachloromethan
e
Iodine I2 Poor Insoluble/soluble in 114 sublimes
tetrachloromethan
e

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Chemical properties
(i)Displacement
Experiment
Place separately in test tubes about 5cm3 of sodium chloride, Sodium bromide and
Sodium iodide solutions.
Add 5 drops of chlorine water to each test tube:
Repeat with 5 drops of bromine water instead of chlorine water
Observation
Using Chlorine water
-Yellow colour of chlorine water fades in all test tubes except with sodium
chloride.
-Coloured Solution formed.
Using Bromine water
-Yellow colour of bromine water fades in test tubes containing sodium iodide.
-Coloured Solution formed.
Explanation
The halogens displace each other from their solution. The more electronegative
displace the less electronegative from their solution.
Chlorine is more electronegative than bromine and iodine.
On adding chlorine water, bromine and Iodine are displaced from their solutions
by chlorine.
Bromine is more electronegative than iodide but less 6than chlorine.
On adding Bromine water, iodine is displaced from its solution but not chlorine.
Table showing the displacement of the halogens
(V) means there is displacement (x ) means there is no displacement
F- Cl- Br- I-
Halogen ion in

solution
Halogen
F2 X
Cl2 X X
Br2 X X X
I2 X X X X

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Chemical /ionic equations

With Fluorine
F2(g) + 2NaCl-(aq) -> 2NaF(aq) + Cl2(aq)
- -
F2(g) + 2Cl (aq) -> 2F (aq) + Cl2(aq)
-
F2(g) + 2NaBr (aq) -> 2NaF(aq) + Br2(aq)
F2(g) + 2Br-(aq) -> 2F-(aq) + Br2(aq)
-
F2(g) + 2NaI (aq) -> 2NaF(aq) + I2(aq)
F2(g) + 2I-(aq) -> 2F-(aq) + I2(aq)
With chlorine
Cl2(g) + 2NaCl-(aq) -> 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
- -
Cl2(g) + 2Br (aq) -> 2Cl (aq) + Br2(aq)
-
Cl2(g) + 2NaI (aq) -> 2NaCl(aq) + I2(aq)
Cl2(g) + 2I-(aq) -> 2Cl-(aq) + I2(aq)
With Bromine
Br2(g) + 2NaI-(aq) -> 2NaBr(aq) + I2(aq)
- -
Br2(g) + 2I (aq) -> 2Br (aq) + I2(aq)
Uses of halogens
(i) Florine – manufacture of P.T.F.E (Poly tetra fluoroethene) synthetic fiber.
- Reduce tooth decay when added in small amounts/quantities in tooth
paste.
NB –large small quantities of fluorine /fluoride ions in water cause browning
of teeth/flourosis.
- Hydrogen fluoride is used to engrave words /pictures in glass.
(ii) Bromine - Silver bromide is used to make light sensitive photographic
paper/films.

(iii) Iodide – Iodine dissolved in alcohol is used as medicine to kill bacteria in

skin cuts. It is called tincture of iodine.
The table below to show some compounds of halogens

H Na Mg Al Si C P
Element
Halogen
F HF NaF MgH2 AlF3 SiF4 CF4 PF3
Cl HCl NaCl MgCl AlCl3 SiCl3 CCl4 PCl3

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Br HBr NaBr MgBr2 AlBr3 SiBr4 CBr4 PBr3

I Hl Nal Mgl2 All3 SiI4 Cl2 PBr3

(i) Below is the table showing the bond energy of four halogens.
Bond Bond energy k J mole-1
Cl-Cl 242
Br-Br 193
I-I 151
I. What do you understand by the term “bond energy”
Bond energy is the energy required to break/ form one mole of chemical
bond
II. Explain the trend in bond Energy of the halogens above:
-Decrease down the group from chlorine to Iodine
-Atomic radius increase down the group decreasing the energy required to
break the covalent bonds between the larger atom with reduced effective
nuclear @ charge an outer energy level that take part in bonding.
(c)Group VIII elements: Noble gases
Group VIII elements are called Noble gases. They are all non metals. Noble gases
occupy about 1.0% of the atmosphere as colourless gaseous mixture. Argon is the
most abundant with 0.9%.
They exist as monatomic molecules with very weak van-der-waals /intermolecular
forces holding the molecules.
They include:
Element Symbol Atomic Electron structure State at room
number temperature
Helium He 2 2: Colourless gas
Neon Ne 10 2:8 Colourless gas
Argon Ar 18 2:8:8 Colourless gas
Krypton Kr 36 2:8:18:8 Colourless gas
Xenon Xe 54 2:8:18:18:8 Colourless gas
Radon Rn 86 2:8:18:32:18:8 Radioctive

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All noble gas atoms have a stable duplet(two electrons in the 1st energy level) or
octet(eight electrons in other outer energy level)in the outer energy level. They
therefore do not acquire/gain extra electron in the outer energy level or
donate/lose. They therefore are therefore zerovalent .
The number of energy levels increases down the group from Helium to Randon.
The more the number of energy levels the bigger/larger the atomic size/radius.
e.g.
The atomic size/radius of Argon is bigger/larger than that of Neon because Argon
has more/3 energy levels than Neon (2 energy levels).
Atomic radius noble gases increase down the group as the number of energy
levels increases.
The effective nuclear attraction on the outer electrons thus decrease down the
group.
The noble gases are generally unreactive because the outer energy level has the
stable octet/duplet. The stable octet/duplet in noble gas atoms lead to
comparatively very high 1st ionization energy. This is because losing /donating an
electron from the stable atom require a lot of energy to lose/donate and make it
unstable.
As atomic radius increase down the group and the 1st ionization energy decrease,
very electronegative elements like Oxygen and Fluorine are able to react and bond
with lower members of the noble gases.e.g
Xenon reacts with Fluorine to form a covalent compound XeF6.This is because the
outer electrons/energy level if Xenon is far from the nucleus and thus experience
less effective nuclear attraction.
Noble gases have low melting and boiling points. This is because they exist as
monatomic molecules joined by very weak intermolecular/van-der-waals forces
that require very little energy to weaken and form liquid and break to form a gas.
The intermolecular/van-der-waals forces increase down the group as the atomic
radius/size increase from Helium to Radon. The melting and boiling points thus
increase also down the group.
Noble gases are insoluble in water and are poor conductors of electricity.
Element Formula Electrical Solubility Atomic 1st Melting Boiling
of conductivity in water radius(nM) ionization point(0C) point(0C)
molecule energy
Helium He Poor Insoluble 0.128 2372 -270 -269

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Neon Ne Poor Insoluble 0.160 2080 -249 -246

Argon Ar Poor Insoluble 0.192 1520 -189 -186
Krypton Kr Poor Insoluble 0.197 1350 -157 -152
Xenon Xe Poor Insoluble 0.217 1170 -112 -108
Radon Rn Poor Insoluble 0.221 1134 -104 -93
Uses of noble gases
Argon is used in light bulbs to provide an inert environment to prevent oxidation
of the bulb filament
Argon is used in arch welding as an insulator.
Neon is used in street and advertisement light
Helium is mixed with Oxygen during deep sea diving and mountaineering.
Helium is used in weather balloon for meteorological research instead of
Hydrogen because it is unreactive/inert.Hydrogen when impure can ignite with an
explosion.
Helium is used in making thermometers for measuring very low temperatures.

CHEMISTRY OF CARBON
A: CARBON
Carbon is an element in Group IV(Group 4)of the Periodic table .It has atomic
number 6 and electronic configuration 2:4 and thus has four valence
electrons(tetravalent).It does not easily ionize but forms strong covalent bonds with
other elements including itself.
(a)Occurrence
Carbon mainly naturally occurs as:
(i)allotropes of carbon i.e graphite, diamond and fullerenes.
(ii)amorphous carbon in coal, peat ,charcoal and coke.
(iii)carbon(IV)oxide gas accounting 0.03% by volume of normal air in the
atmosphere.
(b)Allotropes of Carbon
Carbon naturally occur in two main crystalline allotropic forms, carbon-graphite
and carbon-diamond
Carbon-diamond Carbon-graphite
Shiny crystalline solid Black/dull crystalline solid
Has a very high melting/boiling point Has a high melting/boiling point
because it has a very closely packed because it has a very closely packed
giant tetrahedral structure joined by giant hexagonal planar structure

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strong covalent bonds joined by strong covalent bonds

Has very high density(Hardest known Soft
natural substance)
Abrassive Slippery
Poor electrical conductor because it Good electrical conductor because it
has no free delocalized electrons has free 4th valency delocalized
electrons
Is used in making Jewels, drilling and Used in making Lead-
cutting metals pencils,electrodes in batteries and as
a lubricant
Has giant tetrahedral structure Has giant hexagonal planar structure
c) Properties of Carbon
(i)Physical properties of carbon
Carbon occur widely and naturally as a black solid
It is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulphide and organic solvents.
It is a poor electrical and thermal conductor.
(ii)Chemical properties of carbon
I. Burning
Experiment
Introduce a small piece of charcoal on a Bunsen flame then lower it into a gas jar
containing Oxygen gas. Put three drops of water. Swirl. Test the solution with blue
and red litmus papers.
Observation
-Carbon chars then burns with a blue flame
-Colourless and odourless gas produced
-Solution formed turn blue litmus paper faint red. Red litmus paper remains
red.
Explanation
Carbon burns in air and faster in Oxygen with a blue non-sooty/non-smoky flame
forming Carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon burns in limited supply of air with a blue
non-sooty/non-smoky flame forming Carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon (IV) oxide gas
dissolve in water to form weak acidic solution of Carbonic (IV)acid.
Chemical Equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) (in excess air)
2C(s) + O2(g) -> 2CO(g) (in limited air)
CO2(g) + H2O (l) -> H2CO3 (aq) (very weak acid)
II. Reducing agent

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Experiment
Mix thoroughly equal amounts of powdered charcoal and copper (II)oxide into a
crucible. Heat strongly.
Observation
Colour change from black to brown
Explanation
Carbon is a reducing agent. For ages it has been used to reducing metal oxide ores
to metal, itself oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon reduces black copper (II)
oxide to brown copper metal

Chemical Equation
2CuO(s) + C(s) -> 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)
2PbO(s) + C(s) -> 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
(brown when hot/ (grey)
yellow when cool)
2ZnO(s) + C(s) -> 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)
(yellow when hot/ (grey)
white when cool)
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) -> 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
(brown when hot/cool (grey)
Fe3O4 (s) + 4C(s) -> 3Fe(s) + 4CO2(g)
(brown when hot/cool (grey)
B: COMPOUNDS OF CARBON
The following are the main compounds of Carbon
(i)Carbon(IV)Oxide(CO2)
(ii)Carbon(II)Oxide(CO)
(iii)Carbonate(IV) (CO32-)and hydrogen carbonate(IV(HCO3-)
(iv)Sodium carbonate(Na2CO3)
(i) Carbon(IV)Oxide (CO2)
(a)Occurrence
Carbon(IV)oxide is found:
-in the air /atmosphere as 0.03% by volume.
-a solid carbon(IV)oxide mineral in Esageri near Eldame Ravine and Kerita near
Limuru in Kenya.
(b)School Laboratory preparation

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In the school laboratory carbon(IV)oxide can be prepared in the school laboratory

from the reaction of marble chips(CaCO3)or sodium hydrogen carbonate(NaHCO3)
with dilute hydrochloric acid.

(c)Properties of carbon(IV)oxide gas(Questions)

1.Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation of
carbon (IV)oxide gas.
Any carbonate reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid should be able to generate
carbon (IV)oxide gas.
Chemical equations
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
KHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> K2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
2.What method of gas collection is used in preparation of Carbon(IV)oxide
gas. Explain.
Downward delivery /upward displacement of air/over mercury
Carbon(IV)oxide gas is about 1½ times denser than air.
3.What is the purpose of :
(a)water?
To absorb the more volatile hydrogen chloride fumes produced during the vigorous
reaction.

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(b)sodium hydrogen carbonate?

To absorb the more volatile hydrogen chloride fumes produced during the vigorous
reaction and by reacting with the acid to produce more carbon (IV)oxide gas .
Chemical equation
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

(c)concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid?
To dry the gas/as a drying agent
4.Describe the smell of carbon(IV)oxide gas
Colourless and odourless
5. Effect on lime water.
Experiment
Bubbled carbon(IV)oxide gas into a test tube containing lime water for about three
minutes
Observation
White precipitate is formed.
White precipitate dissolved when excess carbon(IV)oxide gas is bubbled .
Explanation
Carbon(IV)oxide gas reacts with lime water(Ca(OH)2) to form an insoluble white
precipitate of calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate reacts with more Carbon(IV)
oxide gas to form soluble Calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
6. Effects on burning Magnesium ribbon
Experiment
Lower a piece of burning magnesium ribbon into a gas jar containing carbon
(IV)oxide gas.
Observation
The ribbon continues to burn with difficulty
White ash/solid is formed.
Black speck/solid/particles formed on the side of gas jar.
Explanation

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Carbon (IV) oxide gas does not support combustion/burning.Magnesium burn to

produce/release enough heat energy to decompose Carbon (IV) oxide gas to carbon
and oxygen.Magnesium continues to burn in Oxygen forming white Magnesium
Oxide solid/ash.Black speck/particle of carbon/charcoal residue forms on the sides
of reaction flask. During the reaction Carbon (IV) oxide is reduced (Oxidizing
agent)to carbon while Magnesium is Oxidized to Magnesium Oxide.
Chemical equation
2Mg(s) + CO2 (g) -> C (s) + 2MgO(l)
7. Dry and wet litmus papers were separately put in a gas jar containing dry
carbon (IV) oxide gas. State and explain the observations made.
Observation
Blue dry litmus paper remain blue
Red dry litmus paper remain Red
Blue wet/damp/moist litmus paper turns red
Red wet/damp/moist litmus paper remain red
Explanation
Dry Carbon (IV) oxide gas is a molecular compound that does not dissociate/ionize
to release H+ and thus has no effect on litmus papers.
Wet/damp/moist litmus paper contains water that dissolves/react with dry carbon
(IV) oxide gas to form the weak solution of carbonic (IV) acid (H2CO3).
Carbonic (IV) acid dissociate/ionizes to a few /little free H+ and CO32-.
The few H+ (aq) ions are responsible for turning blue litmus paper to faint red
showing the gas is very weakly acidic.
Chemical equation
H2CO3(aq) -> 2H+ (aq) + CO32-(aq)
8. Explain why Carbon (IV) oxide cannot be prepared from the reaction of:
(i) Marble chips with dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.
Explanation
Reaction forms insoluble calcium sulphate (VI) that cover/coat unreacted marble
chips stopping further reaction
Chemical equation
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> CaSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
PbCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
BaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(ii) Lead (II) carbonate with dilute Hydrochloric acid.

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Reaction forms insoluble Lead (II)Chloride that cover/coat unreacted Lead(II)

carbonate stopping further reaction unless the reaction mixture is heated. Lead (II)
Chloride is soluble in hot water.
Chemical equation
PbCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> PbCl2 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
9. Describe the test for the presence of Carbon (IV) oxide.
Using burning splint
Lower a burning splint into a gas jar suspected to contain Carbon (IV) oxide gas.
The burning splint is extinguished.
Using Lime water.
Bubble the gas suspected to be Carbon (IV) oxide gas. A white precipitate that
dissolves in excess bubbling is formed.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
10.State three main uses of Carbon (IV)oxide gas
(i)In the Solvay process for the manufacture of soda ash/sodium carbonate
(ii)In preservation of aerated drinks
(iii)As fire extinguisher because it does not support combustion and is denser than
air.
(iv)In manufacture of Baking powder.
(ii) Carbon (II) Oxide (CO)
(a)Occurrence
Carbon (II) oxide is found is found from incomplete combustion of fuels like petrol
charcoal, liquefied Petroleum Gas/LPG.
(b)School Laboratory preparation
In the school laboratory carbon(II)oxide can be prepared from dehydration of
methanoic acid/Formic acid(HCOOH) or Ethan-1,2-dioic acid/Oxalic
acid(HOOCCOOH) using concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid. Heating is necessary.
METHOD 1:Preparation of Carbon (IV)Oxide from dehydration of Oxalic/ethan-1,2-dioic acid

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METHOD 2:Preparation of Carbon (IV)Oxide from dehydration of Formic/Methanoic acid

(c)Properties of Carbon (II) Oxide(Questions)

1. Write the equation for the reaction for the preparation of carbon(II)oxide
using;

(i)Method 1;
Chemical equation
HOOCCOOH(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
H2C2O4(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
(ii)Method 2;

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Chemical equation
HCOOH(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + H2O(l)
H2CO2(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + H2O(l)
2. What method of gas collection is used during the preparation of carbon (II)
oxide
Over water because the gas is insoluble in water.
Downward delivery because the gas is 1 ½ times denser than air .
3. What is the purpose of :
(i) Potassium hydroxide/sodium hydroxide in Method 1
To absorb/ remove carbon (II) oxide produced during the reaction.
2KOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> K2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(ii) Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid in Method 1 and 2.
Dehydrating agent –removes the element of water (Hydrogen and Oxygen in
ratio 2:1) present in both methanoic and ethan-1,2-dioic acid.
4. Describe the smell of carbon (II) oxide.
Colourless and odourless.
5. State and explain the observation made when carbon(IV)oxide is bubbled in
lime water for a long time.
No white precipitate is formed.
6. Dry and wet/moist/damp litmus papers were separately put in a gas jar
containing dry carbon (IV) oxide gas. State and explain the observations
made.
Observation
-blue dry litmus paper remains blue
-red dry litmus paper remains red
- wet/moist/damp blue litmus paper remains blue
- wet/moist/damp red litmus paper remains red
Explanation
Carbon(II)oxide gas is a molecular compound that does not dissociate /ionize to
release H+ ions and thus has no effect on litmus papers. Carbon(II)oxide gas is
therefore a neutral gas.
7. Carbon (II) oxide gas was ignited at the end of a generator as below.

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Flame K

Dry carbon(II)oxide
(i)State the observations made in flame K.
Gas burns with a blue flame
(ii)Write the equation for the reaction taking place at flame K.
2CO(g) + O2 (g) -> 2CO2 (g)
8. Carbon (II) oxide is a reducing agent. Explain
Experiment
Pass carbon (II) oxide through glass tube containing copper (II) oxide. Ignite any
excess poisonous carbon (II) oxide.
Observation
Colour change from black to brown. Excess carbon (II) oxide burn with a blue
flame.
Explanation
Carbon is a reducing agent. It is used to reduce metal oxide ores to metal, itself
oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon (II) Oxide reduces black copper (II)
oxide to brown copper metal
Chemical Equation
CuO(s) + CO(g) -> Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)
PbO(s) + CO(g) -> Pb(s) + CO2(g)
(brown when hot/ (grey)
yellow when cool)
ZnO(s) + CO(g) -> Zn(s) + CO2(g)
(yellow when hot/ (grey)
white when cool)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(s) -> 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
(brown when hot/cool (grey)
Fe3O4 (s) + 4CO(g) -> 3Fe(s) + 4CO2(g)
(brown when hot/cool (grey)
These reactions are used during the extraction of many metals from their ore.
9. Carbon (II) oxide is a pollutant. Explain.

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Carbon (II) oxide is highly poisonous/toxic.It preferentially combine with

haemoglobin to form stable carboxyhaemoglobin in the blood instead of
oxyhaemoglobin.This reduces the free haemoglobin in the blood causing nausea ,
coma then death.

10. The diagram below show a burning charcoal stove/burner/jiko. Use it to

answer the questions that follow.

Explain the changes that take place in the burner

Explanation
Charcoal stove has air holes through which air enters. Air oxidizes carbon to
carbon (IV) oxide gas at region I. This reaction is exothermic (-∆H) producing
more heat.
Chemical equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2(g)
Carbon (IV) oxide gas formed rises up to meet more charcoal which reduces it to
Carbon (II) oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2CO2 (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO (g)
At the top of burner in region II, Carbon (II)oxide gas is further oxidized to
Carbon(IV)oxide gas if there is plenty of air but escape if the air is limited
poisoning the living things around.
Chemical equation
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2 (g)
(excess air)
11. Describe the test for the presence of carbon(II)oxide gas.

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Experiment
Burn/Ignite the pure sample of the gas. Pass/Bubble the products into lime
water/Calcium hydroxide.
Observation
Colourless gas burns with a blue flame. A white precipitate is formed that dissolve
on further bubbling of the products.
Chemical equation
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2 (g) (gas burns with blue flame)
Chemical equation
Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation
CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
12. State the main uses of carbon (II)oxide gas.
(i) As a fuel /water gas
(ii)As a reducing agent in the blast furnace for extracting iron from iron
ore(Magnetite/Haematite)
(iii)As a reducing agent in extraction of Zinc from Zinc ore/Zinc blende
(iv) As a reducing agent in extraction of Lead from Lead ore/Galena
(v) As a reducing agent in extraction of Copper from Copper iron sulphide/Copper
pyrites.
(iii)Carbonate(IV) (CO32-)and hydrogen carbonate(IV(HCO3-)
1.Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) are normal salts derived from carbonic(IV)acid (H2CO3)
and hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) are acid salts derived from carbonic(IV)acid.
Carbonic(IV)acid(H2CO3) is formed when carbon(IV)oxide gas is bubbled in water.
It is a dibasic acid with two ionizable hydrogens.
H2CO3(aq) ->2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
H2CO3(aq) -> H+(aq) + HCO3 - (aq)
2.Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) are insoluble in water except Na2CO3 , K2CO3 and
(NH4)2CO3
3.Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) are soluble in water. Only five hydrogen
carbonates exist. Na HCO3 , KHCO3 ,NH4HCO3 Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2
Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2 exist only in aqueous solutions.
3.The following experiments show the effect of heat on Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) and
Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) salts:
Experiment
In a clean dry test tube place separately about 1.0 of the following:

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Zinc(II)carbonate(IV), sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV), sodium carbonate(IV),

Potassium carbonate(IV) ammonium carbonate(IV), potassium hydrogen
carbonate(IV), Lead(II)carbonate(IV), Iron(II)carbonate(IV), and
copper(II)carbonate(IV). Heat each portion gently the strongly. Test any gases
produced with lime water.
Observation
(i)Colorless droplets form on the cooler parts of test tube in case of sodium
carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV).
(ii)White residue/solid left in case of sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV), sodium
carbonate(IV), Potassium carbonate(IV) and potassium hydrogen carbonate(IV).
(iii)Colour changes from blue/green to black in case of copper(II)carbonate(IV).
(iv) Colour changes from green to brown/yellow in case of Iron (II)carbonate(IV).
(v) Colour changes from white when cool to yellow when hot in case of Zinc (II)
carbonate(IV).
(vi) Colour changes from yellow when cool to brown when hot in case of Lead
(II) carbonate(IV).
(vii)Colourless gas produced that forms a white precipitate with lime water in all
cases.
Explanation
1. Sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV) exist as hydrated salts with
10 molecules of water of crystallization that condenses and collects on cooler parts
of test tube as a colourless liquid.
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 .10H2O(s) -> Na2CO3 (s) + 10H2O(l)
K2CO3 .10H2O(s) -> K2CO3 (s) + 10H2O(l)
2. Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) and Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) salts decompose
on heating except Sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV).
(a) Sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Potassium hydrogen carbonate(IV)
decompose on heating to form sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium
carbonate(IV).Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are also produced.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)
2KHCO3 (s) -> K2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)

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(b) Calcium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Magnesium hydrogen carbonate(IV)

decompose on heating to form insoluble Calcium carbonate(IV) and Magnesium
carbonate(IV).Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are also produced.
Chemical equation
Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(Colourless solution) (white)
Mg(HCO3)2 (aq) -> MgCO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(Colourless solution) (white)
(c) Ammonium hydrogen carbonate(IV) decompose on heating to form ammonium
carbonate(IV) .Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are also produced.
Chemical equation
2NH4HCO3 (s) -> (NH4)2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)
(d)All other carbonates decompose on heating to form the metal oxide and produce
carbon(IV)oxide gas e.g.
Chemical equation
MgCO3 (s) -> MgO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
BaCO3 (s) -> BaO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
CuCO3 (s) -> CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
(blue/green solid) (black solid)
Chemical equation
ZnCO3 (s) -> ZnO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid when cool/
Yellow solid when hot)
Chemical equation
PbCO3 (s) -> PbO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (yellow solid when cool/
brown solid when hot)
4.The following experiments show the presence of Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) and
Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) ions in sample of a salt:

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(a)Using Lead(II) nitrate(V)

I. Using a portion of salt solution in a test tube .add four drops of
Lead(II)nitrate(V)solution.Preserve.
Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt CO32- ,SO32- ,SO42- ,Cl-
-

II. To the preserved solution, add six drops of dilutte nitric(V)acid. Preserve.
Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- ,Cl-

White precipitate/ppt dissolves CO32- ,SO32-

II. To the preserved sample( that forms a precipitate ),heat to boil.
Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42-

White precipitate/ppt dissolves Cl-

II. To the preserved sample( that do not form a precipitate ),add three drops of
acidified potassium manganate(VII)/lime water
Observation inference
Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing SO32-
colourless gas produced
Acidified KMnO4 decolorized/no
white precipitate on lime water

Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing CO32-
colourless gas produced
Acidified KMnO4 not decolorized/
white precipitate on lime water

Experiments/Observations:
(b)Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)chloride
I. To about 5cm3 of a salt solution in a test tube add four drops of Barium(II)
nitrate (V) / Barium(II)chloride. Preserve.
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt SO42- , SO32- , CO32- ions

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II. To the preserved sample in (I) above, add six drops of 2M nitric(V) acid .
Preserve.
Observation 1
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- , ions
Observation 2
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt dissolves SO32- , CO32- , ions
III.To the preserved sample observation 2 in (II) above, add 4 drops of acidified
potassium manganate(VII) /dichromate(VI).
Observation 1
Observation Inference
(i)acidified potassium SO32- ions
manganate(VII)decolorized
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) turns to green
Observation 2
Observation Inference
(i)acidified potassium manganate(VII) not CO32- ions
decolorized
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) does not turns to green

Explanations
Using Lead(II)nitrate(V)
(i)Lead(II)nitrate(V) solution reacts with chlorides(Cl-), Sulphate (VI) salts (SO42- ),
Sulphate (IV)salts (SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the insoluble white
precipitate of Lead(II)chloride, Lead(II)sulphate(VI), Lead(II) sulphate (IV) and
Lead(II)carbonate(IV).
Chemical/ionic equation:
Pb2+(aq) + Cl- (aq) -> PbCl2(s)
2+
Pb (aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> PbSO4 (s)
Pb2+(aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> PbSO3 (s)
Pb2+(aq) + CO32+ (aq) -> PbCO3 (s)
(ii)When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,
- Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and
thus their white precipitates remain/ persists.

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- Lead(II) sulphate (IV) and Lead(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the acid to

form soluble Lead(II) nitrate (V) and produce/effervesces/fizzes/bubbles out
sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases respectively.
. Chemical/ionic equation:
PbSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Pb2+(aq) + SO2 (g)
PbCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Pb2+(aq) + CO2 (g)
(iii)When Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) are heated/warmed;
- Lead(II)chloride dissolves in hot water/on boiling(recrystallizes on cooling)
- Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not dissolve in hot water thus its white precipitate
persists/remains on heating/boiling.
(iv)When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;
- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII) and
/ or Orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to green.
Carbon(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)
3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(Orange) (green)
- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium carbonate
if three drops of lime water are added into the reaction test tube when effervescence
is taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases
produced react with the oxidizing agents/lime water.
Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)Chloride
(i)Barium(II)nitrate(V) and/ or Barium(II)chloride solution reacts with Sulphate
(VI) salts (SO42- ), Sulphate (IV)salts (SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the
insoluble white precipitate of Barium(II)sulphate(VI), Barium(II) sulphate (IV) and
Barium(II)carbonate(IV).
Chemical/ionic equation:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> BaSO4 (s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> BaSO3 (s)
Ba2+(aq) + CO32+ (aq) -> BaCO3 (s)
(ii)When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,

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- Barium (II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and thus its white precipitates
remain/ persists.
- Barium(II) sulphate (IV) and Barium(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the acid to form
soluble Barium(II) nitrate (V) and produce /effervesces /fizzes/ bubbles out
sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases respectively.
. Chemical/ionic equation:
BaSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba2+(aq) + SO2 (g)
+ 2+
BaCO3 (s) + 2H (aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba (aq) + CO2 (g)
(iii) When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;
- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII) and
/ or Orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to green.
Carbon(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)
3SO3 (aq) + Cr2O7 (aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO4 (aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
2- 2- 2-

(Orange) (green)
- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium carbonate if
three drops of lime water are added into the reaction test tube when effervescence is
taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases
produced react with the oxidizing agents/lime water.
(iii) Sodium carbonate(IV) (Na2CO3)
(a)Extraction of sodium carbonate from soda ash
Sodium carbonate naturally occurs in Lake Magadi in Kenya as Trona.trona is the
double salt ; sodium sesquicarbonate. NaHCO3 .Na2CO3 .H2O.It is formed from the
volcanic activity that takes place in Lake Naivasha, Nakuru ,Bogoria and
Elementeita .All these lakes drain into Lake Magadi through underground rivers.
Lake Magadi has no outlet.
Solubility of Trona decrease with increase in temperature.High temperature during
the day causes trona to naturally crystallize .It is mechanically
scooped/dredged/dug and put in a furnace.
Inside the furnace, trona decompose into soda ash/sodium carbonate.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 .Na2CO3 .H2O (s) -> 3Na2CO3 (s) + 5H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

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(trona) (soda ash)

Soda ash is then bagged and sold as Magadi soda.It is mainly used:
(i)in making glass to lower the melting point of raw materials (sand/SiO2
from 1650oC and CaO from 2500oC to around 1500oC)
(ii)in softening hard water
(iii)in the manufacture of soapless detergents.
(iv)Swimming pool “pH increaser”
Sodium chloride is also found dissolved in the lake. Solubility of sodium chloride
decrease with decreases in temperature/ sodium chloride has lower solubility at
lower temperatures. When temperatures decrease at night it crystallize out .The
crystals are then mechanically dug/dredged /scooped then packed for sale as
animal/cattle feeds and seasoning food.
Summary flow diagram showing the extraction of Soda ash from Trona
Sodium chloride and Trona
dissolved in the sea

Carbon(IV) oxide

Natural fractional crystallization

Crystals of Trona Dredging Crushing Furnace

(Day time) /scooping/ (Heating)
digging

Crystals of sodium
Soda ash
chloride(At night)

Baggingcarbonate(IV)
b)The Solvay process for industrial manufacture of sodium Bagging
(i)Raw materials. Na2CO3 (s)
NaCl(s)
-Brine /Concentrated Sodium chloride from salty seas/lakes.
-Ammonia gas from Haber.
-Limestone /Calcium carbonate from chalk /limestone rich rocks.
-Water from rivers/lakes.
(ii)Chemical processes
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 222

Ammonia gas is passed up to meet a downward flow of sodium chloride solution /

brine to form ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture in the ammoniated
brine chamber
The ammoniated brine mixture is then pumped up, atop the carbonator/ solvay
tower.
In the carbonator/ solvay tower, ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture
slowly trickle down to meet an upward flow of carbon(IV)oxide gas.
The carbonator is shelved /packed with quartz/broken glass to
(i) reduce the rate of flow of ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture.
(ii)increase surface area of the liquid mixture to ensure a lot of ammoniated
brine/ammoniacal brine mixture react with carbon(IV)oxide gas.
Insoluble sodium hydrogen carbonate and soluble ammonium chloride are formed
from the reaction.
Chemical equation
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl (aq) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
The products are then filtered. Insoluble sodium hydrogen carbonate forms the
residue while soluble ammonium chloride forms the filtrate.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate itself can be used:
(i) as baking powder and preservation of some soft drinks.
(ii) as a buffer agent and antacid in animal feeds to improve fibre digestion.
(iii) making dry chemical fire extinguishers.
In the Solvay process Sodium hydrogen carbonate is then heated to form Sodium
carbonate/soda ash, water and carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Sodium carbonate is stored ready for use in:
(i) during making glass/lowering the melting point of mixture of sand/SiO2
from 1650oC and CaO from 2500oC to around 1500oC
(ii) in softening hard water
(iii) in the manufacture of soapless detergents.
(iv) swimming pool “pH increaser”.
Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are recycled back to the ammoniated
brine/ammoniacal brine chamber.
More carbon(IV)oxide is produced in the kiln/furnace. Limestone is heated to
decompose into Calcium oxide and carbon(IV)oxide.
Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)

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 223

Carbon(IV)oxide is recycled to the carbonator/solvay tower. Carbon

(IV)oxide is added water in the slaker to form Calcium hydroxide. This process is
called slaking.
Chemical equation
CaO(s) + H2O (l) -> Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Calcium hydroxide is mixed with ammonium chloride from the carbonator/solvay
tower in the ammonia regeneration chamber to form Calcium chloride, water and
more ammonia gas.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)
NH3(g) and H2O(l) are recycled.
Calcium chloride may be used:
(i)as drying agent in the school laboratory during gas preparation (except ammonia
gas)
(ii)to lower the melting point of solid sodium chloride / rock salt salts during the
Downs process for industrial extraction of sodium metal.
Detailed Summary flow diagram of Solvay Process

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 224

Brine Brine saturated with ammonia Coke & Limestone

Ammoniated Ammonia
Solvay Tower/
brine regeneration Kiln/
Carbonator
chamber Furnace
Ammonium
chloride Carbon(IV)
Oxide
Slaker Sodium
Haber hydrogen
process Calcium hydroxide Water
Carbonate
Roaster
Calcium
Calcium chloride Sodium oxide
carbonate

Practice
1. The diagram below shows part of the Solvay process used in manufacturing
sodium carbonate. Use it to answer the questions that follow.

Carbon (IV)oxide Ammonium chloride

Ammonia Saturated
Process I Sodium hydrogen carbonate
sodium chloride
solution

Process II
Sodium carbonate

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(a)Explain how Sodium Chloride required for this process is obtained from
the sea.
Sea water is pumped /scooped into shallow pods. Evaporation of most of the water
takes place leaving a very concentrated solution.
(b)(i) Name process:
I. Filtration
II. Decomposition
(ii) Write the equation for the reaction in process:
Process I
Chemical equation
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl (aq) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
Process II
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(c)(i) Name two substances recycled in the solvay process
Ammonia gas , Carbon(IV)Oxide and Water.
(ii)Which is the by-product of this process?
Calcium(II)Chloride /CaCl2
(iii)State two uses that the by-product can be used for:
1. As a drying agent in the school laboratory preparation of gases.
2. In the Downs cell/process for extraction of Sodium to lower the
melting point of rock salt.
(iv)Write the chemical equation for the formation of the by-products in the
Solvay process.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)
(d)In an experiment to determine the % purity of Sodium carbonate produced
in the Solvay process, 2.15g of the sample reacted with exactly 40.0cm3 of
0.5M Sulphuric (VI)acid.
(i)Calculate the number of moles of sodium carbonate that reacted.
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) +H2SO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq)+ CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Mole ratio Na2CO3 :H2SO4 => 1:1
Moles H2SO4 = Molarity x Volume => 0.5 x 40.0 = 0.02 Moles
1000 1000
Moles of Na2CO3 = 0.02 Moles
(ii)Determine the % of sodium carbonate in the sample.

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Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 106g

Mass of Na2CO3 = moles x Molar mass => 0.02 x 106 = 2.12 g
% of Na2CO3 = ( 2.12 g x 100) = 98.6047%
2.15
(e) State two uses of soda ash.
(i) during making glass/lowering the melting point of mixture of sand/SiO2 from
1650oC and CaO from 2500oC to around 1500oC
(ii) in softening hard water
(iii) in the manufacture of soapless detergents.
(iv) swimming pool “pH increaser”.
(f)The diagram below shows a simple ammonia soda tower used in
manufacturing sodium carbonate .Use it to answer the questions that follow:
Raw
Excess Carbon(IV)oxide
material

Metal plates

Substance

Sodium hydrogen carbonate

(i)Name the raw materials needed in the above process

-Ammonia
-Water
-Carbon(IV)oxide
-Limestone
-Brine/ Concentrated sodium chloride
(ii)Identify substance A
Ammonium chloride /NH4Cl
(iii) Write the equation for the reaction taking place in:
I.Tower.

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 227

Chemical equation
CO2(g) + NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
II. Production of excess carbon (IV)oxide.
Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
III. The regeneration of ammonia
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)
(iv)Give a reason for having the circular metal plates in the tower.
-To slow the downward flow of brine.
-To increase the rate of dissolving of ammonia.
-To increase the surface area for dissolution
(v)Name the gases recycled in the process illustrated above.
Ammonia gas , Carbon(IV)Oxide and Water.
2. Describe how you would differentiate between carbon (IV)oxide and
carbon(II)oxide using chemical method.
Method I
-Bubble both gases in lime water/Ca(OH)2
-white precipitate is formed if the gas is carbon (IV) oxide
- No white precipitate is formed if the gas is carbon (II) oxide
Method II
-ignite both gases
- Carbon (IV) oxide does not burn/ignite
- Carbon (II) oxide burn with a blue non-sooty flame.
Method III
-Lower a burning splint into a gas containing each gas separately.
-burning splint is extinguished if the gas is carbon (IV) oxide
-burning splint is not extinguished if the gas is carbon (II) oxide.
3.Using Magnesium sulphate(VI)solution ,describe how you can differentiate
between a solution of sodium carbonate from a solution of sodium hydrogen
carbonate
-Add Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution to separate portions of a solution of sodium
carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate in separate test tubes
-White precipitate is formed in test tube containing sodium carbonate
-No white precipitate is formed in test tube containing sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) +MgSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + MgCO3(s)

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(white ppt)
Ionic equation
CO32- (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) -> MgCO3(s)
(white ppt)
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (aq) +MgSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + Mg(HCO3)2 (aq)
(colourless solution)
4. The diagram below shows a common charcoal burner .Assume the burning
take place in a room with sufficient supply of air.

(a)Explain what happens around:

(i)Layer A
Sufficient/excess air /oxygen enter through the air holes into the burner .It reacts
with/oxidizes Carbon to carbon(IV)oxide
Chemical equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2 (g)
(ii)Layer B
Hot carbon(IV)oxide rises up and is reduced by more carbon/charcoal to carbon
(II)oxide.
Chemical equation
C(s) + CO2(g) -> 2CO (g)
(ii)Layer C
Hot carbon(II)oxide rises up and burns with a blue flame to be oxidized by the
excess air to form carbon(IV)oxide.
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2(g)

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 229

(b)State and explain what would happen if the burner is put in an enclosed
room.
The hot poisonous /toxic carbon(II)oxide rising up will not be oxidized to
Carbon(IV)oxide.
(c)Using a chemical test, describe how you would differentiate two unlabelled
black solids suspected to be charcoal and copper(II)oxide.
Method I
-Burn/Ignite the two substances separately.
-Charcoal burns with a blue flame
- Copper(II)oxide does not burn
Method II
-Add dilute sulphuric(VI)acid/Nitric(V)acid/Hydrochloric acid separately.
-Charcoal does not dissolve.
- Copper(II)oxide dissolves to form a colourless solution.
5. Excess Carbon(II)oxide was passed over heated copper(II)oxide as in the set
up shown below for five minutes.

Copper(II)oxide
Blue flame A

Dry
carbon
(IV)oxide

HEAT

(a)State and explain the observations made in the combustion tube.

Observation
Colour change from black to brown
Explanation
Carbon (II)oxide reduces black copper(II)oxide to brown copper metal itself
oxidized to Carbon(IV)oxide.

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 230

Chemical equation
CO(g) + CuO (s) -> Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)
(b) (i)Name the gas producing flame A
Carbon(II)oxide
(ii)Why should the gas be burnt?
It is toxic/poisonous
(iii)Write the chemical equation for the production of flame A
2CO(g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2(g)
(c)State and explain what happens when carbon(IV)oxide is prepared using
Barium carbonate and dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.
Reaction starts then stops after sometime producing small/little quantity of
carbon(IV)oxide gas.
Barium carbonate react with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid to form insoluble Barium
sulphate(VI) that cover/coat unreacted Barium carbonate stopping further reaction
to produce more Carbon(IV)oxide.

(d) Using dot () and cross(x) to represent electrons show the bonding in a
molecule of :
(i) Carbon(II)oxide
lone pairs of electrons in carbon and oxygen
atoms

●●
C x●
x●
xx
O xx

6 bonded pairs of
electrons
2covalent bonds
1 dative bond
56 [email protected]

(ii) Carbon(IV)Oxide.

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 231

lone pairs of electrons in oxygen atom

●●
●●
O ●x
●x C ●x
●x O
●● ●●

4 bonded pairs of
electrons

CO2 (triatomic molecule)

30 [email protected]

(e) Carbon (IV)oxide is an environmental pollutant of global concern. Explain.

-It is a green house gas thus causes global warming.
-It dissolves in water to form acidic carbonic acid which causes “acid rain”
(f)Explain using chemical equation why lime water is used to test for the
presence of Carbon (IV) oxide instead of sodium hydroxide.
Using lime water/calcium hydroxide:
- a visible white precipitate of calcium carbonate is formed that dissolves on
bubbling excess Carbon (IV) oxide gas
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(white precipitate)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
Using sodium hydroxide:
- No precipitate of sodium carbonate is formed Both sodium carbonate and sodium
hydrogen carbonate are soluble salts/dissolves.
Chemical equation
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(No white precipitate)
Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> 2NaHCO3 (s)
(g)Ethan-1,2-dioic acid and methanoic acid may be used to prepare small
amount of carbon(II)oxide in a school laboratory.
(i) Explain the modification in the set up when using one over the other.
Before carbon(II)oxide is collected:

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 232

-when using methanoic acid, no concentrated sodium/potassium

hydroxide is needed to absorb Carbon(IV)oxide.
-when using ethan-1,2-dioic acid, concentrated sodium/potassium
hydroxide is needed to absorb Carbon(IV)oxide.
(ii)Write the equation for the reaction for the formation of
carbon(II)oxide from:
I.Methanoic acid.
Chemical equation HCOOH(aq) -> CO(g) + H2O(l)

II. Ethan-1,2-dioic acid

Chemical equation HOOCCOOH(aq) -> CO2(g)+CO(g)+H2O(l)
(h)Both carbon(II)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide affect the environment. Explain
why carbon(II)oxide is more toxic/poisonous.
-Both gases are colourless,denser than water and odourless.
-Carbon(II)oxide is preferentially absorbed by human/mammalian haemoglobin
when inhaled forming stable carboxyhaemoglobin instead of oxyhaemoglobin.This
reduces the free haemoglobin in the blood leading to suffocation and quick death. --
Carbon(IV)oxide is a green house gas that increases global warming.
-Carbon(II)oxide is readily oxidized to carbon(IV)oxide
6.Study the flow chart below and use it to answer the questions that follow.

(a)Name:
(i)the white precipitate A

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 233

Calcium carbonate
(ii) solution B
Calcium hydrogen carbonate
(iii) gas C
Carbon(IV)oxide
(iv) white residue B
Calcium oxide
(v) solution D
Calcium hydroxide/lime water
(b)Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction for the formation of:
(i) the white precipitate A from solution D
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(ii) the white precipitate A from solution B
Chemical equation
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) -> CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(iii) solution B from the white precipitate A
Chemical equation
CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
(iv) white residue B from the white precipitate A
Chemical equation
CaCO3(s) -> CO2 (g) + CaO (s)
(iv) reaction of white residue B with water
Chemical equation
CaO (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq)
INTRODUCTION TO SALTS
1.(a) A salt is an ionic compound formed when the cation from a base combine
with the anion derived from an acid.
A salt is therefore formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced
wholly/fully or partially/partly, directly or indirectly by a metal or ammonium
radical.
(b) The number of ionizable/replaceable hydrogen in an acid is called basicity
of an acid.
Some acids are therefore:
(i)monobasic acids generally denoted HX e.g.
HCl, HNO3,HCOOH,CH3COOH.
(ii)dibasic acids ; generally denoted H2X e.g.

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 234

H2SO4, H2SO3, H2CO3,HOOCOOH.

(iii)tribasic acids ; generally denoted H3X e.g.
H3PO4.
(c) Some salts are normal salts while others are acid salts.
(i)A normal salt is formed when all the ionizable /replaceable hydrogen in an acid
is replaced by a metal or metallic /ammonium radical.
(ii)An acid salt is formed when part/portion the ionizable /replaceable hydrogen in
an acid is replaced by a metal or metallic /ammonium radical.
Table showing normal and acid salts derived from common acids
Acid name Chemic Basicity Normal salt Acid salt
al
formula
Hydrochloric HCl Monobas Chloride(Cl-) None
acid ic
Nitric(V)acid HNO3 Monobas Nitrate(V)(NO3-) None
ic
Nitric(III)acid HNO2 Monobas Nitrate(III)(NO2-) None
ic
Sulphuric(VI) H2SO4 Dibasic Sulphate(VI) Hydrogen
2-
acid (SO4 ) sulphate(VI)
(HSO4-)

Sulphuric(IV) H2SO3 Dibasic Sulphate(IV) Hydrogen

acid (SO32-) sulphate(IV)
(HSO3-)

Carbonic(IV)a H2CO3 Dibasic Carbonate(IV)(C Hydrogen

cid O32-) carbonate(IV)
(HCO3-)

Phosphoric(V) H3PO4 Tribasic Phosphate(V)(P Dihydrogen

acid O43-) phosphate(V)
(H2PO42-)

Hydrogen
diphosphate(V)
(HP2O42-)

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 235

The table below show shows some examples of salts.

Base/alkali Cation Acid Anion Salt Chemical name of salts

+ -
NaOH Na HCl Cl NaCl Sodium(I)chloride
2+
Mg(OH)2 Mg H2SO4 SO 2- MgSO4 Magnesium sulphate(VI)
4
Mg(HSO4)2 Magnesium hydrogen
sulphate(VI)

2+
Pb(OH)2 Pb HNO3 NO - Pb(NO3)2 Lead(II)nitrate(V)
3
2+
Ba(OH)2 Ba HNO3 NO - Ba(NO3)2 Barium(II)nitrate(V)
3
2+
Ca(OH)2 Ba H2SO4 SO 2- MgSO4 Calcium sulphate(VI)
4
+
NH4OH NH4 H3PO4 PO 3- (NH4 )3PO4 Ammonium phosphate(V)
4 Diammonium phosphate(V)
(NH4
Ammonium diphosphate(V)
)2HPO4
NH4 H2PO4
+
KOH K H3PO4 PO 3- K3PO4 Potassium phosphate(V)
4
3+
Al(OH)3 Al H2SO4 SO 2- Al2(SO4)2 Aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)
4
2+
Fe(OH)2 Fe H2SO4 SO 2- FeSO4 Iron(II)sulphate(VI)
4
3+
Fe(OH)3 Fe H2SO4 SO 2- Fe2(SO4)2 Iron(III)sulphate(VI)
4

(d) Some salts undergo hygroscopy, deliquescence and efflorescence.

(i) Hygroscopic salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the atmosphere
but do not form a solution.
Some salts which are hygroscopic include anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI),
anhydrous cobalt(II)chloride, potassium nitrate(V) common table salt.
(ii)Deliquescent salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the atmosphere
and form a solution.

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Some salts which are deliquescent include: Sodium nitrate(V),Calcium chloride,

Sodium hydroxide, Iron(II)chloride, Magnesium chloride.
(iii)Efflorescent salts/compounds are those that lose their water of crystallization to
the atmosphere.
Some salts which effloresces include: sodium carbonate decahydrate,
Iron(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate, sodium sulphate (VI)decahydrate.
(e)Some salts contain water of crystallization.They are hydrated.Others do not
contain water of crystallization. They are anhydrous.
Table showing some hydrated salts.
Name of hydrated salt Chemical formula
Copper(II)sulphate(VI)pentahydrate CuSO4.5H2O
Aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)hexahydrate Al2 (SO4) 3.6H2O
Zinc(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate ZnSO4.7H2O
Iron(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate FeSO4.7H2O
Calcium(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate CaSO4.7H2O
Magnesium(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate MgSO4.7H2O
Sodium sulphate(VI)decahydrate Na2SO4.10H2O
Sodium carbonate(IV)decahydrate Na2CO3.10H2O
Potassium carbonate(IV)decahydrate K2CO3.10H2O
Potassium sulphate(VI)decahydrate K2SO4.10H2O
(f)Some salts exist as a simple salt while some as complex salts. Below are some
complex salts.
Table of some complex salts
Name of complex salt Chemical Colour of the
formula complex salt
Tetraamminecopper(II)sulphate( Cu(NH3) 4 SO4 Royal/deep blue
VI) H2O solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)nitrate(V) Zn(NH3) 4 (NO3 Colourless solution
)2
Tetraamminecopper(II) nitrate(V) Cu(NH3) 4 (NO3 Royal/deep blue
)2 solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)sulphate(VI) Zn(NH3) 4 SO4 Colourless solution

(g)Some salts exist as two salts in one. They are called double salts.

Table of some double salts

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 237

Name of double salts Chemical formula

Trona(sodium sesquicarbonate) Na2CO3 NaHCO3.2H2O
Ammonium iron(II)sulphate(VI) FeSO4(NH4) 2SO4.2H2O
Ammonium Al2(SO4) 3(NH4) 2SO4.H2O
aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)
(h)Some salts dissolve in water to form a solution. They are said to be soluble.
Others do not dissolve in water. They form a suspension/precipitate in water.
Table of solubility of salts
Soluble salts Insoluble salts
All nitrate(V)salts
All sulphate(VI)/SO42- salts Barium(II) sulphate(VI)/BaSO4
except Calcium(II) sulphate(VI)/CaSO4
Lead(II) sulphate(VI)/PbSO4
2-
All sulphate(IV)/SO3 salts Barium(II) sulphate(IV)/BaSO3
except Calcium(II) sulphate(IV)/CaSO3
Lead(II) sulphate(IV)/PbSO3
-
All chlorides/Cl Silver chloride/AgCl
except Lead(II)chloride/PbCl2(dissolves in
hot water)
All phosphate(V)/PO43-
All sodium,potassium and
ammonium salts
All hydrogen carbonates/HCO3-
All hydrogen sulphate(VI)/ HSO4-
Sodium carbonate/Na2CO3, except All carbonates
potassium carbonate/ K2CO3,
ammonium carbonate (NH4) 2CO3
All alkalis(KOH,NaOH, NH4OH) except All bases

13 Salts can be prepared in a school laboratory by a method that uses its solubility
in water.
(a) Soluble salts may be prepared by using any of the following methods:
(i)Direct displacement/reaction of a metal with an acid.
By reacting a metal higher in the reactivity series than hydrogen with a dilute acid,a
salt is formed and hydrogen gas is evolved.
Excess of the metal must be used to ensure all the acid has reacted.
When effervescence/bubbling /fizzing has stopped ,excess metal is filtered.

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The filtrate is heated to concentrate then allowed to crystallize.

Washing with distilled water then drying between filter papers produces a sample
crystal of the salt. i.e.
M(s) + H2X -> MX(aq) + H2(g)
Examples
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Pb(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2(g)
(ii)Reaction of an insoluble base with an acid
By adding an insoluble base (oxide/hydroxide) to a dilute acid until no more
dissolves, in the acid, a salt and water are formed. Excess of the base is filtered off.
The filtrate is heated to concentrate, allowed to crystallize then washed with
distilled water before drying between filter papers e.g.
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)
CaO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + 2HNO3(aq)-> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
ZnO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)
CuO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
CuO (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l)
Ag2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
Na2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
(iii) Reaction of insoluble /soluble carbonate /hydrogen carbonate with an acid.
By adding an excess of a soluble /insoluble carbonate or hydrogen carbonate to a
dilute acid, effervescence /fizzing/bubbling out of carbon (IV) oxide gas shows the
reaction is taking place. When effervescence /fizzing/bubbling out of the gas is
over, excess of the insoluble carbonate is filtered off. The filtrate is heated to
concentrate, allowed to crystallize then washed with distilled water before drying
between filter paper papers e.g.
PbCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)

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CaCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)

MgCO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
Cu CO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Ag2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Na2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
K2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2KCl(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
NaHCO3 (s) + HNO3(aq) -> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
KHCO3 (s) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l) +
CO2(g)
(iv) neutralization/reaction of soluble base/alkali with dilute acid
By adding an acid to a burette into a known volume of an alkali with 2-3 drops of
an indicator, the colour of the indicator changes when the acid has completely
reacted with an alkali at the end point. The procedure is then repeated without the
indicator .The solution mixture is then heated to concentrate, allowed to crystallize
,washed with distilled water before drying with filter papers. e.g.
NaOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
KOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> KNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
KOH (aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l)
2KOH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
2 NH4OH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
NH4OH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NH4NO3(aq) + H2O (l)
(iv) Direct synthesis/combination.
When a metal burn in a gas jar containing a non metal , the two directly combine
to form a salt. e.g.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)
2K(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2KCl(s)
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) -> Mg Cl2 (s)
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) -> Ca Cl2 (s)
Some salts once formed undergo sublimation and hydrolysis. Care should be
taken to avoid water/moisture into the reaction flask during their preparation. Such
salts include aluminum (III) chloride (AlCl3) and iron (III) chloride (FeCl3)
1. Heated aluminium foil reacts with chlorine to form aluminium(III)chloride that
sublimes away from the source of heating then deposited as solid again
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2AlCl3 (s/g)
Once formed aluminium(III)chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour /
moisture present to form aluminium hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of
hydrogen chloride gas.

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AlCl3(s)+ 3H2 O(g) -> Al(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)

2. Heated iron filings reacts with chlorine to form iron(III)chloride that sublimes
away from the source of heating then deposited as solid again
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2FeCl3 (s/g)
Once formed , aluminium(III)chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour /
moisture present to form aluminium hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of
hydrogen chloride gas.
FeCl3(s)+ 3H2 O(g) -> Fe(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)

(b)Insoluble salts can be prepared by reacting two suitable soluble salts to form
one soluble and one insoluble. This is called double decomposition or
precipitation. The mixture is filtered and the residue is washed with distilled
water then dried.
CuSO4(aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) -> CuCO3 (s) + Na2 SO4(aq)
BaCl2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + 2KCl (aq)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
2AgNO3(aq) + MgCl2 (aq) -> 2AgCl(s) + Mg(NO3)2
(aq)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + (NH4) 2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2NH4NO 3(aq)
BaCl2(aq) + K2SO3 (aq) -> BaSO3 (s) + 2KCl (aq)
14. Salts may lose their water of crystallization, decompose, melt or sublime on
heating on a Bunsen burner flame.
The following shows the behavior of some salts on heating gently /or strongly in a
laboratory school burner:
(a)effect of heat on chlorides
All chlorides have very high melting and boiling points and therefore are not
affected by laboratory heating except ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride
sublimes on gentle heating. It dissociate into the constituent ammonia and
hydrogen chloride gases on strong heating.
NH4Cl(s) NH4Cl(g) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
(sublimation) (dissociation)
(b)effect of heat on nitrate(V)
(i) Potassium nitrate(V)/KNO3 and sodium nitrate(V)/NaNO3 decompose on
heating to form Potassium nitrate(III)/KNO2 and sodium nitrate(III)/NaNO2 and
producing Oxygen gas in each case.
2KNO3 (s) -> 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
2NaNO3 (s) -> 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

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(ii)Heavy metal nitrates(V) salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and a
mixture of brown acidic nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gases. e.g.
2Ca(NO3)2 (s) -> 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Mg(NO3)2(s) -> 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Zn(NO3)2(s) -> 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) -> 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Cu(NO3)2(s) -> 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Fe(NO3)2(s) -> 2FeO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(iii)Silver(I)nitrate(V) and mercury(II) nitrate(V) are lowest in the reactivity series.
They decompose on heating to form the metal(silver and mercury)and the
Nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gas. i.e.
2AgNO3(s) -> 2Ag (s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Hg(NO3)2 (s) -> 2Hg (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

(iv)Ammonium nitrate(V) and Ammonium nitrate(III) decompose on heating to

Nitrogen(I)oxide(relights/rekindles glowing splint) and nitrogen gas
respectively.Water is also formed.i.e.
NH4NO3(s) -> N2O (g) + H2O(l)
NH4NO2(s) -> N2 (g) + H2O(l)
(c) effect of heat on nitrate(V)
Only Iron(II)sulphate(VI), Iron(III)sulphate(VI) and copper(II)sulphate(VI)
decompose on heating. They form the oxide, and produce highly acidic fumes of
acidic sulphur(IV)oxide gas.
2FeSO4 (s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g)
Fe2(SO4) 3(s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g)
CuSO4 (s) -> CuO(s) + SO3(g)
(d) effect of heat on carbonates(IV) and hydrogen carbonate(IV).
(i)Sodium carbonate(IV)and potassium carbonate(IV)do not decompose on
heating.
(ii)Heavy metal nitrate(IV)salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and
produce carbon(IV)oxide gas. Carbon (IV)oxide gas forms a white precipitate
when bubbled in lime water. The white precipitate dissolves if the gas is in excess.
e.g. CuCO3 (s) -> CuO(s) + CO2(g)
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
PbCO3 (s) -> PbO(s) + CO2(g)
FeCO3 (s) -> FeO(s) + CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) -> ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

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(iii)Sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Potassium hydrogen

carbonate(IV)decompose on heating to give the corresponding carbonate (IV) and
form water and carbon(IV)oxide gas. i.e.
2NaHCO 3(s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2KHCO 3(s) -> K2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(iii) Calcium hydrogen carbonate (IV) and Magnesium hydrogen carbonate(IV)
decompose on heating to give the corresponding carbonate (IV) and form water and
carbon(IV)oxide gas. i. e.
Ca(HCO3) 2(aq) -> CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Mg(HCO3) 2(aq) -

Name…………………………………………….Class…………….Adm No….…..
CHEMISTRY Practice balancing Chemical equations
Date done………………..Date marked……………….Date revised……..…..

Balance the following chemical equations in the spaces provided on the question
paper.

Ca (OH)2(aq) + Cl2(g) → CaCl2(aq) + CaOCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

(Cold/dilute) (Calcium Chlorate(I))

Ca (OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) → CaCl2(aq) +Ca(ClO3)2(aq) +H2O(l)

(Hot/Concentrated) (Calcium Chlorate(V))
NaOH + Cl2(g) → NaClO3 (aq) + NaCl(aq) + 3H2O(l) (Sodium
Chlorate (V)
KOH + Cl2(g) → KClO3 (aq)+ KCl(aq) + H2O(l) (Potassium
Chlorate (V)
Ca (OH)2(aq)+ Cl2(g) → CaCl2(aq)+CaOCl2(aq)+ H2O(l)
(Cold/dilute) (Calcium Chlorate(I))
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
KCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> KHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
CaO(s) + 2H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + Cl2 (g) -> CaOCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
HCl(s) + NH3(g) -> NH4Cl(s)
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> FeCl2(aq + H2 (g)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2(aq + H2 (g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl2(aq + H2 (g)

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 243

2Li(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2LiCl(aq + H2 (g)

Ca (OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) → CaCl2(aq) +Ca(ClO3)2(aq) +H2O(l)

(Hot/Concentrated) (Calcium Chlorate(V))
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(Colourless solution)
1.Chemical equation:
Ionic equation:
CaCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2.Chemical equation:
Ag2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2AgCl(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(Coats/Cover Ag2CO3)
3.Chemical equation:
NaHCO3 (s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) +H2O(l) +CO2(g)
(colourless solution)
Ionic equation:
NaHCO3 (s) + H+(aq) → Na+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
4.Chemical equation:
CuCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq)+ H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(Blue Solution)
Ionic equation:
CuCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) →Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
5.Chemical equation:
FeCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) →FeCl2(aq)+ H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(green solution)
Ionic equation:
FeCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + H2O(l)+ CO2(g)
6.Chemical equation:
(NH4) 2CO3 (s)+2HCl(aq) →2NH4 Cl(aq)+H2O(l)+ CO2(g)
Ionic equation:
(NH4) 2CO3 (s)+2H+ (aq) →2NH4 + (aq)+H2O(l)+ CO2(g)
Chemical equation:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation:
OH-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)
Chemical equation:
KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + H2O(l)

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 244

Ionic equation:
OH-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)
Chemical equation:
NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation:
OH-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)
CuO(s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation:
CuO (s) + 2H+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation:
CaO(s) + HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Ionic equation:
CuO (s) + 2H+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation:
PbO(s) + 2HCl (aq) → PbCl2 (s) + H2O (l)
No ionic equation
Chemical equation:
ZnO(s) + HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Ionic equation:
ZnO (s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2O(l)
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
HCl(g) + (aq) → HCl(aq)
NH4Cl(s) -> HCl(g) + NH3 (g)

Name ……………………………………..Class………………..Adm. No…….....

Date done………..….Date marked……..……….Date revised………………
CHEMISTRY Form 2: Practice 1: Time 2 hours 80 marks
1. Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow
(The letters do not represent the actual symbols of the elements)
Ionization Energy_kJ/Mole
Elemen Electronic 1st ionization 2nd ionization
t configuration energy energy
A 2.2 900 1800

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B 2.8.2 736 1450

C 2.8.8.2 590 1150
(i) What chemical family do the elements A, B and C belong? (1mk)
(ii)Write the formula and electronic structure of an ion of B(2mks)
Formula
Electronic structure
(iii)What type of bonding exist in(2mks)
I. atoms of C
II. chloride of B
(iv)What is ionization energy(1mk)
(v)Explain the following:
1.The 1st ionization energy is lower that the second ionization energy.(2mk)
2.The 1st ionization energy of B is lower that of C.(2mk)
(vi)Write a chemical equation for the reaction of element B with:
1.Air
2.Chlorine gas
3.Steam(water vapour)
2.Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow (
the letters do not represent the actual symbol of the substances)
Substance Melting Boiling Solubility Density at
Point (0C) Point (0C) in water room
temperature
g/cm3
H -117 78.5 Very soluble 0.8
J -78 -33 Very soluble 0.77 x 10-3
K -23 77 Insoluble 1.6
L -219 -183 Slightly 1.33 x 10-3
soluble
(i) Which substance would dissolve in water and could be separated from the
solution by fractional distillation? Give a reason (2mk)

(ii) Which substances is a liquid at room temperature and when mixed with water
two layers would be formed? Explain (2mk)
(iii) Which letter represents a substance that is gas at room temperature and which
can be collected:
I. Over water? Explain (2mk)

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 246

II. By downward displacement of air? (Density of air is 1.29 x 10-3g/cm3 at

room temperature).
Explain (2mk)
3. The grid below represents part of the periodic table. The letters do not represent
the actual symbols.
A
B X G P Z E V
J I L R T
D G M
a) Select the most reactive
(i)non-metal. (1mk)
(ii)metal. (1mk)

b) Write the formula of the compound consisting of (10mk)

1.D and Z only.
2 . X and Z only
3. Oxide of B
4. Carbonate of J
5. sulphate of D
6. Nitrate of B
7. Chloride of X
8. Sodium compound of E
9. Aluminium compound of Z
10. Hydrogen compound of G
c) Select an element that can form an ion of charge (10mk)
(i) +1
(ii) -1
(iii) +2
(iv) +3
(v) -3
d) Which element has the least ionization energy? Explain (2mks)

f) To which chemical family do the following elements belong? (3mk)

J

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 247

B
(g)When a piece of element G is placed in cold water, it sinks to the bottom and
effervescence of a colourless gas that burns explosively is produced. Use a simple
diagram to illustrate how this gas can be collected during this experiment. (3mks)

h) An element K has relative atomic mass of 40.2.It has two isotopes of masses 39
and 42. Calculate the relative abundance of each isotope. (3mks)
4. Balance the following chemical equation (6mk)
1.Ca (OH)2(aq) + Cl2(g) → CaCl2(aq) + CaOCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
2.NaOH + Cl2(g) → NaClO3 (aq) + NaCl(aq) + 3H2O(l)
3.NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
4.CaO(s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2O(l)
5.Fe(s) + HCl(aq) -> FeCl3(aq) + H2 (g)
6.Zn(s) + HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2(aq + H2 (g)
5.The diagram below shows a set up of apparatus for the school laboratory
collection of dry chlorine gas.

A) Name (2mk)
(i) Substance Q
(ii) Suitable drying agent L
b) State a missing condition for the reaction to take place faster. (1mk)
c) Moist red and blue litmus papers were dipped into the chlorine gas from the
above set up .State and explain the observations made. (2mk)
d) Write the equation for the reaction taking place in the conical flask (1mk)
e) Name two other substances that can be used in place of MnO2 (2mk)
(f)State three uses of chlorine (3mk)
6. Study the set up below.

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 248

a) Name salt K (1mk)

(b)Write the equation for the reaction for the formation of salt K (1mk)
(c)What property of salt A is exhibited as shown in the experiment.(1mk)
(d)What is the purpose of anhydrous calcium chloride? Explain (2mk)
(e)Name another metal that can be used to produce similar results (1mk)
7. In an experiment, dry hydrogen chloride gas was passed through heated zinc
turnings as in the set up below. The gas produced was the passed through copper
(II) oxide

Write the equation for the reaction :

(i) for the preparation of hydrogen chloride gas. (1mk)
(ii)in tube S(1mk)
b)State and explain the observation made in tube V. (2mk)
(c)How would the total mass of tube S and tube V and their contents compare
before and after the experiment.
Tube S(2mk)

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 249

Tube V(2mk)
(d)Gas K was condensed to liquid K.
(i)Identify liquid K(1mk)
(ii)Describe a simple chemical test to identify Liquid K(3mk)

(iii)A small piece of sodium metal was placed into a beaker containing liquid
K.
I. State three observations made( 3mk)
II.Write an equation for the reaction that take place(1mk)
III.What is the pH of the resulting solution. Explain(2mk)
8.Using dot(.) and cross(x) to represent electrons, show the bonding in.
(a)hydroxonium ion(H3O+)(2mk)
(b)Carbon(IV)oxide(CO2)(2mk)
(c)Carbon(II)oxide(CO)(2mk)
(d)Ammonia(NH3)(2mk)
(e)Ammonium ion(NH4+)(2mk)
(f)Magnesium chloride(MgCl2)(2mk)
(g)Ethane(C2H6)(2mk)
9.Study the set- up below and answer the questions that follow

(a) Write an equation for the reaction, which take place in the combustion tube.
(b) What property of gas Z allows it to be collected as shown in the diagram
(c) State two uses of gas Z

CHEMISTRY FORM THREE NOTES

CHEMISTRY OF CARBON
CHEMISTRY OF CARBON
A: CARBON

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Carbon is an element in Group IV(Group 4)of the Periodic table .It has atomic
number 6 and electronic configuration 2:4 and thus has four valence
electrons(tetravalent).It does not easily ionize but forms strong covalent bonds with
other elements including itself.
(a)Occurrence
Carbon mainly naturally occurs as:
(i)allotropes of carbon i.e graphite, diamond and fullerenes.
(ii)amorphous carbon in coal, peat ,charcoal and coke.
(iii)carbon(IV)oxide gas accounting 0.03% by volume of normal air in the
atmosphere.
(b)Allotropes of Carbon
Carbon naturally occur in two main crystalline allotropic forms, carbon-graphite
and carbon-diamond
Carbon-diamond Carbon-graphite
Shiny crystalline solid Black/dull crystalline solid
Has a very high melting/boiling point Has a high melting/boiling point
because it has a very closely packed because it has a very closely packed
giant tetrahedral structure joined by giant hexagonal planar structure
strong covalent bonds joined by strong covalent bonds
Has very high density(Hardest known Soft
natural substance)
Abrassive Slippery
Poor electrical conductor because it Good electrical conductor because it
has no free delocalized electrons has free 4th valency delocalized
electrons
Is used in making Jewels, drilling and Used in making Lead-
cutting metals pencils,electrodes in batteries and as
a lubricant
Has giant tetrahedral structure Has giant hexagonal planar structure
c) Properties of Carbon
(i)Physical properties of carbon
Carbon occur widely and naturally as a black solid
It is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulphide and organic solvents.
It is a poor electrical and thermal conductor.
(ii)Chemical properties of carbon
I. Burning
Experiment

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Introduce a small piece of charcoal on a Bunsen flame then lower it into a gas jar
containing Oxygen gas. Put three drops of water. Swirl. Test the solution with blue
and red litmus papers.
Observation
-Carbon chars then burns with a blue flame
-Colourless and odourless gas produced
-Solution formed turn blue litmus paper faint red. Red litmus paper remains
red.
Explanation
Carbon burns in air and faster in Oxygen with a blue non-sooty/non-smoky flame
forming Carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon burns in limited supply of air with a blue
non-sooty/non-smoky flame forming Carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon (IV) oxide gas
dissolve in water to form weak acidic solution of Carbonic (IV)acid.
Chemical Equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) (in excess air)
2C(s) + O2(g) -> 2CO(g) (in limited air)
CO2(g) + H2O (l) -> H2CO3 (aq) (very weak acid)
II. Reducing agent
Experiment
Mix thoroughly equal amounts of powdered charcoal and copper (II)oxide into a
crucible. Heat strongly.
Observation
Colour change from black to brown
Explanation
Carbon is a reducing agent. For ages it has been used to reducing metal oxide ores
to metal, itself oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon reduces black copper (II)
oxide to brown copper metal
Chemical Equation
2CuO(s) + C(s) -> 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)
2PbO(s) + C(s) -> 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
(brown when hot/ (grey)
yellow when cool)
2ZnO(s) + C(s) -> 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)
(yellow when hot/ (grey)
white when cool)
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) -> 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

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(brown when hot/cool (grey)

Fe3O4 (s) + 4C(s) -> 3Fe(s) + 4CO2(g)
(brown when hot/cool (grey)
B: COMPOUNDS OF CARBON
The following are the main compounds of Carbon
(i)Carbon(IV)Oxide(CO2)
(ii)Carbon(II)Oxide(CO)
(iii)Carbonate(IV) (CO32-)and hydrogen carbonate(IV(HCO3-)
(iv)Sodium carbonate(Na2CO3)
(i) Carbon(IV)Oxide (CO2)
(a)Occurrence
Carbon(IV)oxide is found:
-in the air /atmosphere as 0.03% by volume.
-a solid carbon(IV)oxide mineral in Esageri near Eldame Ravine and Kerita near
Limuru in Kenya.
(b)School Laboratory preparation
In the school laboratory carbon(IV)oxide can be prepared in the school laboratory
from the reaction of marble chips(CaCO3)or sodium hydrogen carbonate(NaHCO3)
with dilute hydrochloric acid.

(c)Properties of carbon(IV)oxide gas(Questions)

1.Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation of
carbon (IV)oxide gas.

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Any carbonate reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid should be able to generate
carbon (IV)oxide gas.
Chemical equations
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
KHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> K2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
2.What method of gas collection is used in preparation of Carbon(IV)oxide
gas. Explain.
Downward delivery /upward displacement of air/over mercury
Carbon(IV)oxide gas is about 1½ times denser than air.
3.What is the purpose of :
(a)water?
To absorb the more volatile hydrogen chloride fumes produced during the vigorous
reaction.
(b)sodium hydrogen carbonate?
To absorb the more volatile hydrogen chloride fumes produced during the vigorous
reaction and by reacting with the acid to produce more carbon (IV)oxide gas .
Chemical equation
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(c)concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid?
To dry the gas/as a drying agent
4.Describe the smell of carbon(IV)oxide gas
Colourless and odourless
5. Effect on lime water.
Experiment
Bubbled carbon(IV)oxide gas into a test tube containing lime water for about three
minutes
Observation
White precipitate is formed.
White precipitate dissolved when excess carbon(IV)oxide gas is bubbled .
Explanation
Carbon(IV)oxide gas reacts with lime water(Ca(OH)2) to form an insoluble white
precipitate of calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate reacts with more Carbon(IV)
oxide gas to form soluble Calcium hydrogen carbonate.

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Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
6. Effects on burning Magnesium ribbon
Experiment
Lower a piece of burning magnesium ribbon into a gas jar containing carbon
(IV)oxide gas.
Observation
The ribbon continues to burn with difficulty
White ash/solid is formed.
Black speck/solid/particles formed on the side of gas jar.
Explanation
Carbon (IV) oxide gas does not support combustion/burning.Magnesium burn to
produce/release enough heat energy to decompose Carbon (IV) oxide gas to carbon
and oxygen.Magnesium continues to burn in Oxygen forming white Magnesium
Oxide solid/ash.Black speck/particle of carbon/charcoal residue forms on the sides
of reaction flask. During the reaction Carbon (IV) oxide is reduced (Oxidizing
agent)to carbon while Magnesium is Oxidized to Magnesium Oxide.
Chemical equation
2Mg(s) + CO2 (g) -> C (s) + 2MgO(l)
7. Dry and wet litmus papers were separately put in a gas jar containing dry
carbon (IV) oxide gas. State and explain the observations made.
Observation
Blue dry litmus paper remain blue
Red dry litmus paper remain Red
Blue wet/damp/moist litmus paper turns red
Red wet/damp/moist litmus paper remain red
Explanation
Dry Carbon (IV) oxide gas is a molecular compound that does not dissociate/ionize
to release H+ and thus has no effect on litmus papers.
Wet/damp/moist litmus paper contains water that dissolves/react with dry carbon
(IV) oxide gas to form the weak solution of carbonic (IV) acid (H2CO3).
Carbonic (IV) acid dissociate/ionizes to a few /little free H+ and CO32-.
The few H+ (aq) ions are responsible for turning blue litmus paper to faint red
showing the gas is very weakly acidic.
Chemical equation
H2CO3(aq) -> 2H+ (aq) + CO32-(aq)

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8. Explain why Carbon (IV) oxide cannot be prepared from the reaction of:
(i) Marble chips with dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.
Explanation
Reaction forms insoluble calcium sulphate (VI) that cover/coat unreacted marble
chips stopping further reaction
Chemical equation
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> CaSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
PbCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
BaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(ii) Lead (II) carbonate with dilute Hydrochloric acid.
Reaction forms insoluble Lead (II)Chloride that cover/coat unreacted Lead(II)
carbonate stopping further reaction unless the reaction mixture is heated. Lead (II)
Chloride is soluble in hot water.
Chemical equation
PbCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> PbCl2 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
9. Describe the test for the presence of Carbon (IV) oxide.
Using burning splint
Lower a burning splint into a gas jar suspected to contain Carbon (IV) oxide gas.
The burning splint is extinguished.
Using Lime water.
Bubble the gas suspected to be Carbon (IV) oxide gas. A white precipitate that
dissolves in excess bubbling is formed.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
10.State three main uses of Carbon (IV)oxide gas
(i)In the Solvay process for the manufacture of soda ash/sodium carbonate
(ii)In preservation of aerated drinks
(iii)As fire extinguisher because it does not support combustion and is denser than
air.
(iv)In manufacture of Baking powder.
(ii) Carbon (II) Oxide (CO)
(a)Occurrence
Carbon (II) oxide is found is found from incomplete combustion of fuels like petrol
charcoal, liquefied Petroleum Gas/LPG.
(b)School Laboratory preparation

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In the school laboratory carbon(II)oxide can be prepared from dehydration of

methanoic acid/Formic acid(HCOOH) or Ethan-1,2-dioic acid/Oxalic
acid(HOOCCOOH) using concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid. Heating is necessary.
METHOD 1:Preparation of Carbon (IV)Oxide from dehydration of Oxalic/ethan-1,2-dioic acid

METHOD 2:Preparation of Carbon (IV)Oxide from dehydration of Formic/Methanoic acid

(c)Properties of Carbon (II) Oxide(Questions)

1. Write the equation for the reaction for the preparation of carbon(II)oxide
using;

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(i)Method 1;
Chemical equation
HOOCCOOH(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
H2C2O4(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
(ii)Method 2;
Chemical equation
HCOOH(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + H2O(l)
H2CO2(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + H2O(l)
2. What method of gas collection is used during the preparation of carbon (II)
oxide
Over water because the gas is insoluble in water.
Downward delivery because the gas is 1 ½ times denser than air .
3. What is the purpose of :
(i) Potassium hydroxide/sodium hydroxide in Method 1
To absorb/ remove carbon (II) oxide produced during the reaction.
2KOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> K2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(ii) Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid in Method 1 and 2.
Dehydrating agent –removes the element of water (Hydrogen and Oxygen in
ratio 2:1) present in both methanoic and ethan-1,2-dioic acid.
4. Describe the smell of carbon (II) oxide.
Colourless and odourless.
5. State and explain the observation made when carbon(IV)oxide is bubbled in
lime water for a long time.
No white precipitate is formed.
6. Dry and wet/moist/damp litmus papers were separately put in a gas jar
containing dry carbon (IV) oxide gas. State and explain the observations
made.
Observation
-blue dry litmus paper remains blue
-red dry litmus paper remains red
- wet/moist/damp blue litmus paper remains blue
- wet/moist/damp red litmus paper remains red
Explanation
Carbon(II)oxide gas is a molecular compound that does not dissociate /ionize to
release H+ ions and thus has no effect on litmus papers. Carbon(II)oxide gas is
therefore a neutral gas.

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7. Carbon (II) oxide gas was ignited at the end of a generator as below.

Flame K

Dry carbon(II)oxide
(i)State the observations made in flame K.
Gas burns with a blue flame
(ii)Write the equation for the reaction taking place at flame K.
2CO(g) + O2 (g) -> 2CO2 (g)
8. Carbon (II) oxide is a reducing agent. Explain
Experiment
Pass carbon (II) oxide through glass tube containing copper (II) oxide. Ignite any
excess poisonous carbon (II) oxide.
Observation
Colour change from black to brown. Excess carbon (II) oxide burn with a blue
flame.
Explanation
Carbon is a reducing agent. It is used to reduce metal oxide ores to metal, itself
oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon (II) Oxide reduces black copper (II)
oxide to brown copper metal
Chemical Equation
CuO(s) + CO(g) -> Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)
PbO(s) + CO(g) -> Pb(s) + CO2(g)
(brown when hot/ (grey)
yellow when cool)
ZnO(s) + CO(g) -> Zn(s) + CO2(g)
(yellow when hot/ (grey)
white when cool)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(s) -> 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
(brown when hot/cool (grey)
Fe3O4 (s) + 4CO(g) -> 3Fe(s) + 4CO2(g)
(brown when hot/cool (grey)
These reactions are used during the extraction of many metals from their ore.
9. Carbon (II) oxide is a pollutant. Explain.

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Carbon (II) oxide is highly poisonous/toxic.It preferentially combine with

haemoglobin to form stable carboxyhaemoglobin in the blood instead of
oxyhaemoglobin.This reduces the free haemoglobin in the blood causing nausea,
coma then death.
10. The diagram below show a burning charcoal stove/burner/jiko. Use it to
answer the questions that follow.

Explain the changes that take place in the burner

Explanation
Charcoal stove has air holes through which air enters. Air oxidizes carbon to
carbon (IV) oxide gas at region I. This reaction is exothermic (-∆H) producing
more heat.
Chemical equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2(g)
Carbon (IV) oxide gas formed rises up to meet more charcoal which reduces it to
Carbon (II) oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2CO2 (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO (g)
At the top of burner in region II, Carbon (II)oxide gas is further oxidized to
Carbon(IV)oxide gas if there is plenty of air but escape if the air is limited
poisoning the living things around.
Chemical equation
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2 (g)
(excess air)
11. Describe the test for the presence of carbon(II)oxide gas.
Experiment
Burn/Ignite the pure sample of the gas. Pass/Bubble the products into lime
water/Calcium hydroxide.

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Observation
Colourless gas burns with a blue flame. A white precipitate is formed that dissolve
on further bubbling of the products.
Chemical equation
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2 (g) (gas burns with blue flame)
Chemical equation
Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation
CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
12. State the main uses of carbon (II)oxide gas.
(i) As a fuel /water gas
(ii)As a reducing agent in the blast furnace for extracting iron from iron
ore(Magnetite/Haematite)
(iii)As a reducing agent in extraction of Zinc from Zinc ore/Zinc blende
(iv) As a reducing agent in extraction of Lead from Lead ore/Galena
(v) As a reducing agent in extraction of Copper from Copper iron sulphide/Copper
pyrites.
(iii)Carbonate(IV) (CO32-)and hydrogen carbonate(IV(HCO3-)
1.Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) are normal salts derived from carbonic(IV)acid (H2CO3)
and hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) are acid salts derived from carbonic(IV)acid.
Carbonic(IV)acid(H2CO3) is formed when carbon(IV)oxide gas is bubbled in water.
It is a dibasic acid with two ionizable hydrogens.
H2CO3(aq) ->2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
H2CO3(aq) -> H+(aq) + HCO3 - (aq)
2.Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) are insoluble in water except Na2CO3 , K2CO3 and
(NH4)2CO3
3.Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) are soluble in water. Only five hydrogen
carbonates exist. Na HCO3 , KHCO3 ,NH4HCO3 Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2
Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2 exist only in aqueous solutions.
3.The following experiments show the effect of heat on Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) and
Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) salts:
Experiment
In a clean dry test tube place separately about 1.0 of the following:

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Zinc(II)carbonate(IV), sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV), sodium carbonate(IV),

Potassium carbonate(IV) ammonium carbonate(IV), potassium hydrogen
carbonate(IV), Lead(II)carbonate(IV), Iron(II)carbonate(IV), and
copper(II)carbonate(IV). Heat each portion gently the strongly. Test any gases
produced with lime water.
Observation
(i)Colorless droplets form on the cooler parts of test tube in case of sodium
carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV).
(ii)White residue/solid left in case of sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV), sodium
carbonate(IV), Potassium carbonate(IV) and potassium hydrogen carbonate(IV).
(iii)Colour changes from blue/green to black in case of copper(II)carbonate(IV).
(iv) Colour changes from green to brown/yellow in case of Iron (II)carbonate(IV).
(v) Colour changes from white when cool to yellow when hot in case of Zinc (II)
carbonate(IV).
(vi) Colour changes from yellow when cool to brown when hot in case of Lead
(II) carbonate(IV).
(vii)Colourless gas produced that forms a white precipitate with lime water in all
cases.
Explanation
1. Sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV) exist as hydrated salts with
10 molecules of water of crystallization that condenses and collects on cooler parts
of test tube as a colourless liquid.
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 .10H2O(s) -> Na2CO3 (s) + 10H2O(l)
K2CO3 .10H2O(s) -> K2CO3 (s) + 10H2O(l)
2. Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) and Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) salts decompose
on heating except Sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV).
(a) Sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Potassium hydrogen carbonate(IV)
decompose on heating to form sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium
carbonate(IV).Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are also produced.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)
2KHCO3 (s) -> K2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)

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(b) Calcium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Magnesium hydrogen carbonate(IV)

decompose on heating to form insoluble Calcium carbonate(IV) and Magnesium
carbonate(IV).Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are also produced.
Chemical equation
Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(Colourless solution) (white)
Mg(HCO3)2 (aq) -> MgCO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(Colourless solution) (white)
(c) Ammonium hydrogen carbonate(IV) decompose on heating to form ammonium
carbonate(IV) .Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are also produced.
Chemical equation
2NH4HCO3 (s) -> (NH4)2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)
(d)All other carbonates decompose on heating to form the metal oxide and produce
carbon(IV)oxide gas e.g.
Chemical equation
MgCO3 (s) -> MgO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
BaCO3 (s) -> BaO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
CuCO3 (s) -> CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
(blue/green solid) (black solid)
Chemical equation
ZnCO3 (s) -> ZnO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid when cool/
Yellow solid when hot)
Chemical equation
PbCO3 (s) -> PbO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (yellow solid when cool/
brown solid when hot)
4.The following experiments show the presence of Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) and
Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) ions in sample of a salt:

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(a)Using Lead(II) nitrate(V)

I. Using a portion of salt solution in a test tube .add four drops of
Lead(II)nitrate(V)solution.Preserve.
Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt CO32- ,SO32- ,SO42- ,Cl-
-

II. To the preserved solution, add six drops of dilutte nitric(V)acid. Preserve.
Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- ,Cl-

White precipitate/ppt dissolves CO32- ,SO32-

II. To the preserved sample( that forms a precipitate ),heat to boil.
Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42-

White precipitate/ppt dissolves Cl-

II. To the preserved sample( that do not form a precipitate ),add three drops of
acidified potassium manganate(VII)/lime water
Observation inference
Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing SO32-
colourless gas produced
Acidified KMnO4 decolorized/no
white precipitate on lime water

Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing CO32-
colourless gas produced
Acidified KMnO4 not decolorized/
white precipitate on lime water

Experiments/Observations:
(b)Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)chloride
I. To about 5cm3 of a salt solution in a test tube add four drops of Barium(II)
nitrate (V) / Barium(II)chloride. Preserve.
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt SO42- , SO32- , CO32- ions

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II. To the preserved sample in (I) above, add six drops of 2M nitric(V) acid .
Preserve.
Observation 1
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- , ions
Observation 2
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt dissolves SO32- , CO32- , ions
III.To the preserved sample observation 2 in (II) above, add 4 drops of acidified
potassium manganate(VII) /dichromate(VI).
Observation 1
Observation Inference
(i)acidified potassium SO32- ions
manganate(VII)decolorized
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) turns to green
Observation 2
Observation Inference
(i)acidified potassium manganate(VII) not CO32- ions
decolorized
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) does not turns to green

Explanations
Using Lead(II)nitrate(V)
(i)Lead(II)nitrate(V) solution reacts with chlorides(Cl-), Sulphate (VI) salts (SO42- ),
Sulphate (IV)salts (SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the insoluble white
precipitate of Lead(II)chloride, Lead(II)sulphate(VI), Lead(II) sulphate (IV) and
Lead(II)carbonate(IV).
Chemical/ionic equation:
Pb2+(aq) + Cl- (aq) -> PbCl2(s)
2+
Pb (aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> PbSO4 (s)
Pb2+(aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> PbSO3 (s)
Pb2+(aq) + CO32+ (aq) -> PbCO3 (s)
(ii)When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,
- Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and
thus their white precipitates remain/ persists.

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- Lead(II) sulphate (IV) and Lead(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the acid to

form soluble Lead(II) nitrate (V) and produce/effervesces/fizzes/bubbles out
sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases respectively.
. Chemical/ionic equation:
PbSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Pb2+(aq) + SO2 (g)
PbCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Pb2+(aq) + CO2 (g)
(iii)When Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) are heated/warmed;
- Lead(II)chloride dissolves in hot water/on boiling(recrystallizes on cooling)
- Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not dissolve in hot water thus its white precipitate
persists/remains on heating/boiling.
(iv)When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;
- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII) and
/ or Orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to green.
Carbon(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)
3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(Orange) (green)
- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium carbonate
if three drops of lime water are added into the reaction test tube when effervescence
is taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases
produced react with the oxidizing agents/lime water.
Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)Chloride
(i)Barium(II)nitrate(V) and/ or Barium(II)chloride solution reacts with Sulphate
(VI) salts (SO42- ), Sulphate (IV)salts (SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the
insoluble white precipitate of Barium(II)sulphate(VI), Barium(II) sulphate (IV) and
Barium(II)carbonate(IV).
Chemical/ionic equation:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> BaSO4 (s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> BaSO3 (s)
Ba2+(aq) + CO32+ (aq) -> BaCO3 (s)
(ii)When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,

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- Barium (II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and thus its white precipitates
remain/ persists.
- Barium(II) sulphate (IV) and Barium(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the acid to form
soluble Barium(II) nitrate (V) and produce /effervesces /fizzes/ bubbles out
sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases respectively.
. Chemical/ionic equation:
BaSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba2+(aq) + SO2 (g)
+ 2+
BaCO3 (s) + 2H (aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba (aq) + CO2 (g)
(iii) When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;
- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII) and
/ or Orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to green.
Carbon(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)
3SO3 (aq) + Cr2O7 (aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO4 (aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
2- 2- 2-

(Orange) (green)
- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium carbonate if
three drops of lime water are added into the reaction test tube when effervescence is
taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases
produced react with the oxidizing agents/lime water.
(iii) Sodium carbonate(IV) (Na2CO3)
(a)Extraction of sodium carbonate from soda ash
Sodium carbonate naturally occurs in Lake Magadi in Kenya as Trona.trona is the
double salt ; sodium sesquicarbonate. NaHCO3 .Na2CO3 .H2O.It is formed from the
volcanic activity that takes place in Lake Naivasha, Nakuru ,Bogoria and
Elementeita .All these lakes drain into Lake Magadi through underground rivers.
Lake Magadi has no outlet.
Solubility of Trona decrease with increase in temperature.High temperature during
the day causes trona to naturally crystallize .It is mechanically
scooped/dredged/dug and put in a furnace.
Inside the furnace, trona decompose into soda ash/sodium carbonate.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 .Na2CO3 .H2O (s) -> 3Na2CO3 (s) + 5H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

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(trona) (soda ash)

Soda ash is then bagged and sold as Magadi soda.It is mainly used:
(i)in making glass to lower the melting point of raw materials (sand/SiO2
from 1650oC and CaO from 2500oC to around 1500oC)
(ii)in softening hard water
(iii)in the manufacture of soapless detergents.
(iv)Swimming pool “pH increaser”
Sodium chloride is also found dissolved in the lake. Solubility of sodium chloride
decrease with decreases in temperature/ sodium chloride has lower solubility at
lower temperatures. When temperatures decrease at night it crystallize out .The
crystals are then mechanically dug/dredged /scooped then packed for sale as
animal/cattle feeds and seasoning food.
Summary flow diagram showing the extraction of Soda ash from Trona
Sodium chloride and Trona
dissolved in the sea

Carbon(IV) oxide

Natural fractional crystallization

Crystals of Trona Dredging Crushing Furnace

(Day time) /scooping/ (Heating)
digging

Crystals of sodium
Soda ash
chloride(At night)

Baggingcarbonate(IV)
b)The Solvay process for industrial manufacture of sodium Bagging
(i)Raw materials. Na2CO3 (s)
NaCl(s)
-Brine /Concentrated Sodium chloride from salty seas/lakes.
-Ammonia gas from Haber.
-Limestone /Calcium carbonate from chalk /limestone rich rocks.
-Water from rivers/lakes.
(ii)Chemical processes
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 268

Ammonia gas is passed up to meet a downward flow of sodium chloride solution /

brine to form ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture in the ammoniated
brine chamber
The ammoniated brine mixture is then pumped up, atop the carbonator/ solvay
tower.
In the carbonator/ solvay tower, ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture
slowly trickle down to meet an upward flow of carbon(IV)oxide gas.
The carbonator is shelved /packed with quartz/broken glass to
(i) reduce the rate of flow of ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture.
(ii)increase surface area of the liquid mixture to ensure a lot of ammoniated
brine/ammoniacal brine mixture react with carbon(IV)oxide gas.
Insoluble sodium hydrogen carbonate and soluble ammonium chloride are formed
from the reaction.
Chemical equation
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl (aq) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
The products are then filtered. Insoluble sodium hydrogen carbonate forms the
residue while soluble ammonium chloride forms the filtrate.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate itself can be used:
(i) as baking powder and preservation of some soft drinks.
(ii) as a buffer agent and antacid in animal feeds to improve fibre digestion.
(iii) making dry chemical fire extinguishers.
In the Solvay process Sodium hydrogen carbonate is then heated to form Sodium
carbonate/soda ash, water and carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Sodium carbonate is stored ready for use in:
(i) during making glass/lowering the melting point of mixture of sand/SiO2
from 1650oC and CaO from 2500oC to around 1500oC
(ii) in softening hard water
(iii) in the manufacture of soapless detergents.
(iv) swimming pool “pH increaser”.
Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are recycled back to the ammoniated
brine/ammoniacal brine chamber.
More carbon(IV)oxide is produced in the kiln/furnace. Limestone is heated to
decompose into Calcium oxide and carbon(IV)oxide.
Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)

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 269

Carbon(IV)oxide is recycled to the carbonator/solvay tower. Carbon

(IV)oxide is added water in the slaker to form Calcium hydroxide. This process is
called slaking.
Chemical equation
CaO(s) + H2O (l) -> Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Calcium hydroxide is mixed with ammonium chloride from the carbonator/solvay
tower in the ammonia regeneration chamber to form Calcium chloride, water and
more ammonia gas.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)
NH3(g) and H2O(l) are recycled.
Calcium chloride may be used:
(i)as drying agent in the school laboratory during gas preparation (except ammonia
gas)
(ii)to lower the melting point of solid sodium chloride / rock salt salts during the
Downs process for industrial extraction of sodium metal.
Detailed Summary flow diagram of Solvay Process

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Brine Brine saturated with ammonia Coke & Limestone

Ammoniated Ammonia
Solvay Tower/
brine regeneration Kiln/
Carbonator
chamber Furnace
Ammonium
chloride Carbon(IV)
Oxide
Slaker Sodium
Haber hydrogen
process Calcium hydroxide Water
Carbonate
Roaster
Calcium
Calcium chloride Sodium oxide
carbonate

Practice
1. The diagram below shows part of the Solvay process used in manufacturing
sodium carbonate. Use it to answer the questions that follow.

Carbon (IV)oxide

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Ammonium chloride

Ammonia Saturated
Process I Sodium hydrogen carbonate
sodium chloride
solution

Process II
Sodium carbonate
(a)Explain how Sodium Chloride required for this process is obtained from
the sea.
Sea water is pumped /scooped into shallow pods. Evaporation of most of the water
takes place leaving a very concentrated solution.
(b)(i) Name process:
I. Filtration
II. Decomposition
(ii) Write the equation for the reaction in process:
Process I
Chemical equation
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl (aq) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
Process II
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(c)(i) Name two substances recycled in the solvay process
Ammonia gas , Carbon(IV)Oxide and Water.
(ii)Which is the by-product of this process?
Calcium(II)Chloride /CaCl2
(iii)State two uses that the by-product can be used for:
1. As a drying agent in the school laboratory preparation of gases.
2. In the Downs cell/process for extraction of Sodium to lower the
melting point of rock salt.
(iv)Write the chemical equation for the formation of the by-products in the
Solvay process.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)

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(d)In an experiment to determine the % purity of Sodium carbonate produced

in the Solvay process, 2.15g of the sample reacted with exactly 40.0cm3 of
0.5M Sulphuric (VI)acid.
(i)Calculate the number of moles of sodium carbonate that reacted.
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) +H2SO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq)+ CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Mole ratio Na2CO3 :H2SO4 => 1:1
Moles H2SO4 = Molarity x Volume => 0.5 x 40.0 = 0.02 Moles
1000 1000
Moles of Na2CO3 = 0.02 Moles
(ii)Determine the % of sodium carbonate in the sample.
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 106g
Mass of Na2CO3 = moles x Molar mass => 0.02 x 106 = 2.12 g
% of Na2CO3 = ( 2.12 g x 100) = 98.6047%
2.15
(e) State two uses of soda ash.
(i) during making glass/lowering the melting point of mixture of sand/SiO2 from
1650oC and CaO from 2500oC to around 1500oC
(ii) in softening hard water
(iii) in the manufacture of soapless detergents.
(iv) swimming pool “pH increaser”.
(f)The diagram below shows a simple ammonia soda tower used in
manufacturing sodium carbonate .Use it to answer the questions that follow:

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Raw
Excess Carbon(IV)oxide
material

Metal plates

Substance

Sodium hydrogen carbonate

(i)Name the raw materials needed in the above process

-Ammonia
-Water
-Carbon(IV)oxide
-Limestone
-Brine/ Concentrated sodium chloride
(ii)Identify substance A
Ammonium chloride /NH4Cl
(iii) Write the equation for the reaction taking place in:
I.Tower.
Chemical equation
CO2(g) + NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
II. Production of excess carbon (IV)oxide.
Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
III. The regeneration of ammonia
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)
(iv)Give a reason for having the circular metal plates in the tower.
-To slow the downward flow of brine.
-To increase the rate of dissolving of ammonia.
-To increase the surface area for dissolution

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 274

(v)Name the gases recycled in the process illustrated above.

Ammonia gas , Carbon(IV)Oxide and Water.
2. Describe how you would differentiate between carbon (IV)oxide and
carbon(II)oxide using chemical method.
Method I
-Bubble both gases in lime water/Ca(OH)2
-white precipitate is formed if the gas is carbon (IV) oxide
- No white precipitate is formed if the gas is carbon (II) oxide
Method II
-ignite both gases
- Carbon (IV) oxide does not burn/ignite
- Carbon (II) oxide burn with a blue non-sooty flame.
Method III
-Lower a burning splint into a gas containing each gas separately.
-burning splint is extinguished if the gas is carbon (IV) oxide
-burning splint is not extinguished if the gas is carbon (II) oxide.
3.Using Magnesium sulphate(VI)solution ,describe how you can differentiate
between a solution of sodium carbonate from a solution of sodium hydrogen
carbonate
-Add Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution to separate portions of a solution of sodium
carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate in separate test tubes
-White precipitate is formed in test tube containing sodium carbonate
-No white precipitate is formed in test tube containing sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) +MgSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + MgCO3(s)
(white ppt)
Ionic equation
CO32- (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) -> MgCO3(s)
(white ppt)
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (aq) +MgSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + Mg(HCO3)2 (aq)
(colourless solution)
4. The diagram below shows a common charcoal burner .Assume the burning
take place in a room with sufficient supply of air.

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(a)Explain what happens around:

(i)Layer A
Sufficient/excess air /oxygen enter through the air holes into the burner .It reacts
with/oxidizes Carbon to carbon(IV)oxide
Chemical equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2 (g)
(ii)Layer B
Hot carbon(IV)oxide rises up and is reduced by more carbon/charcoal to carbon
(II)oxide.
Chemical equation
C(s) + CO2(g) -> 2CO (g)
(ii)Layer C
Hot carbon(II)oxide rises up and burns with a blue flame to be oxidized by the
excess air to form carbon(IV)oxide.
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2(g)
(b)State and explain what would happen if the burner is put in an enclosed
room.
The hot poisonous /toxic carbon(II)oxide rising up will not be oxidized to
Carbon(IV)oxide.
(c)Using a chemical test, describe how you would differentiate two unlabelled
black solids suspected to be charcoal and copper(II)oxide.
Method I
-Burn/Ignite the two substances separately.
-Charcoal burns with a blue flame
- Copper(II)oxide does not burn

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Method II
-Add dilute sulphuric(VI)acid/Nitric(V)acid/Hydrochloric acid separately.
-Charcoal does not dissolve.
- Copper(II)oxide dissolves to form a colourless solution.
5. Excess Carbon(II)oxide was passed over heated copper(II)oxide as in the set
up shown below for five minutes.

Copper(II)oxide
Blue flame A

Dry
carbon
(IV)oxide

HEAT

(a)State and explain the observations made in the combustion tube.

Observation
Colour change from black to brown
Explanation
Carbon (II)oxide reduces black copper(II)oxide to brown copper metal itself
oxidized to Carbon(IV)oxide.
Chemical equation
CO(g) + CuO (s) -> Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)
(b) (i)Name the gas producing flame A
Carbon(II)oxide
(ii)Why should the gas be burnt?
It is toxic/poisonous
(iii)Write the chemical equation for the production of flame A
2CO(g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2(g)

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(c)State and explain what happens when carbon(IV)oxide is prepared using

Barium carbonate and dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.
Reaction starts then stops after sometime producing small/little quantity of
carbon(IV)oxide gas.
Barium carbonate react with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid to form insoluble Barium
sulphate(VI) that cover/coat unreacted Barium carbonate stopping further reaction
to produce more Carbon(IV)oxide.
(d) Using dot () and cross(x) to represent electrons show the bonding in a
molecule of :
(i) Carbon(II)oxide
lone pairs of electrons in carbon and oxygen
atoms

●●
C x●
x●
xx
O xx

6 bonded pairs of
electrons
2covalent bonds
1 dative bond
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(ii) Carbon(IV)Oxide.

lone pairs of electrons in oxygen atom

●●
●●
O ●x
●x C ●x
●x O
●● ●●

4 bonded pairs of
electrons

CO2 (triatomic molecule)

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(e) Carbon (IV)oxide is an environmental pollutant of global concern. Explain.

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 278

-It is a green house gas thus causes global warming.

-It dissolves in water to form acidic carbonic acid which causes “acid rain”
(f)Explain using chemical equation why lime water is used to test for the
presence of Carbon (IV) oxide instead of sodium hydroxide.
Using lime water/calcium hydroxide:
- a visible white precipitate of calcium carbonate is formed that dissolves on
bubbling excess Carbon (IV) oxide gas
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(white precipitate)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
Using sodium hydroxide:
- No precipitate of sodium carbonate is formed Both sodium carbonate and sodium
hydrogen carbonate are soluble salts/dissolves.
Chemical equation
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(No white precipitate)
Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> 2NaHCO3 (s)
(g)Ethan-1,2-dioic acid and methanoic acid may be used to prepare small
amount of carbon(II)oxide in a school laboratory.
(i) Explain the modification in the set up when using one over the other.
Before carbon(II)oxide is collected:
-when using methanoic acid, no concentrated sodium/potassium
hydroxide is needed to absorb Carbon(IV)oxide.
-when using ethan-1,2-dioic acid, concentrated sodium/potassium
hydroxide is needed to absorb Carbon(IV)oxide.
(ii)Write the equation for the reaction for the formation of
carbon(II)oxide from:
I.Methanoic acid.
Chemical equation HCOOH(aq) -> CO(g) + H2O(l)

II. Ethan-1,2-dioic acid

Chemical equation HOOCCOOH(aq) -> CO2(g)+CO(g)+H2O(l)
(h)Both carbon(II)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide affect the environment. Explain
why carbon(II)oxide is more toxic/poisonous.
-Both gases are colourless,denser than water and odourless.

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 279

-Carbon(II)oxide is preferentially absorbed by human/mammalian haemoglobin

when inhaled forming stable carboxyhaemoglobin instead of oxyhaemoglobin.This
reduces the free haemoglobin in the blood leading to suffocation and quick death. --
Carbon(IV)oxide is a green house gas that increases global warming.
-Carbon(II)oxide is readily oxidized to carbon(IV)oxide
6.Study the flow chart below and use it to answer the questions that follow.

(a)Name:
(i)the white precipitate A
Calcium carbonate
(ii) solution B
Calcium hydrogen carbonate
(iii) gas C
Carbon(IV)oxide
(iv) white residue B
Calcium oxide
(v) solution D
Calcium hydroxide/lime water
(b)Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction for the formation of:
(i) the white precipitate A from solution D
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(ii) the white precipitate A from solution B
Chemical equation

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 280

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) -> CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)

(iii) solution B from the white precipitate A
Chemical equation
CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
(iv) white residue B from the white precipitate A
Chemical equation
CaCO3(s) -> CO2 (g) + CaO (s)
(iv) reaction of white residue B with water
Chemical equation
CaO (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq)

CHEMISTRY OF CHLORINE
A.CHLORINE
Chlorine is a non-metallic element in group VII (Group 17) of the periodic table. It
has electronic configuration 2:8:7. It gains one valence election to form stable Cl-
ion, it belongs to the chemical family of halogens.
Occurrence
-As Brine-concentration sodium chloride solution dissolved in salty seas water,
oceans and lakes e.g. Lake Magadi in Kenya is very salty.
-As rock-salt solid sodium chloride crystals in the earths crust all over the world.
B) Preparation
Chlorine gas may be prepared in the school laboratory from the following:
a)Heating solid Manganese (iv) Oxide and Concentrated Hydrochloric acid.
b) Heating Lead (IV) Oxide and concentrated hydrochloric acid.
c)Reacting Potassium Manganate (VII) with concentrated Hydrochloric acid
d)Reacting Potassium /sodium Dichromate (VI) Acid with Concentrated
Hydrochloric acid.
Set up of school laboratory preparation of chlorine.

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 281

c) Properties of chlorine. (Questions)

1. What is the colour of chlorine?
Pale green.
2. Describe the smell of chlorine.
Pungent irritating smell.
3. What method is used in collection of chlorine gas explain.
-Downward delivery.
-Chlorine is 11/2 denser than air.
4.(i) What is the purpose of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
-To dry the gas.
(ii) Name two other substances that can be used in place of concentrated sulphuric
(VI) acid.
-Calcium chloride
-Silica gel
(iii) Name a substance that cannot be used in place of concentrated sulphuric (VI)
acid explain.
-Calcium oxide reacts with chlorine.
5.(a)Write three possible reactions between concentrated hydrochloric acid and the
oxidizing agents.

1. 2KMnO4(s) +16HCl(aq) → 2KCl(aq)+2MnCl2(aq) + 8H2O(l) +

5Cl2(g)

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 282

2.K2Cr2O7(s) +14HCl(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + 2CrCl3(aq) + 7H2O(l) +

3Cl2(g)
3.Na2Cr2O7(s) + 14HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CrCl3(aq) + 7H2O(l) + 3Cl2(g)
4.PbO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) → PbCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l)
5.MnO2(s)+ 4HCl(aq) → MnCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(b) Why is Hydrochloric acid used in all the above cases?
Oxidizing agents KMnO4/PbO2/MnO2/K2Cr2O/Na2Cr2O7 readily oxidize
hydrochloric acid to chlorine themselves reduced to their chlorides.
Generally:
2HCl (aq) + [O] → Cl2 (g) + H2O (l)
(From oxidizing agent)
6. State and explain the observation made when chlorine is bubbled in water.
Observation
-Pale yellow colour of chlorine fades.
-yellow solution formed.
Explanation
Chlorine dissolves then reacts with water to form yellow chlorine water.
Chlorine water is chemically a mixture of hydrochloric acid and chloric(I)acid
(hypochlorous acid).
A mixture of hydrochloric acid and chloric(I)acid (hypochlorous acid) is
commonly called Chlorine water
Chemical equation:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)

7. Chlorine water in a boiling tube inverted into a trough was exposed to sunlight
for two hours. Using a well labeled diagram show and explain the observations
made.

Chlorine (I) acid is an unstable compound.

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After two hours the chloric (I) acid in chlorine water decomposes to
hydrochloric acid and releases oxygen gas. This reaction takes place in
sunlight.
Chemical equation
2HOCl(aq) → 2HCl(aq) + O2 (g)
8. State and explain the observation made when chlorine gas is bubbled in gas jar
containing damp/wet/moist litmus papers.
Observation
The blue litmus turns red then both the red/blue litmus papers are
bleached/decolourized.
Explanation
Chlorine reacts with water in the litmus papers to form acidic hydrochloric
acid and chloric (l) acid that turns blue litmus papers red.
Chemical Equation
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
Explanation
Unstable chloric (I) acid oxidizes the dye/colured litmus paper to colourless
material
Chemical Equation
HClO(aq) + dye → HCl(aq) + (dye + O)
(coloured) (colourless)
Or:
HClO(aq) + dye-O → HCl(aq) + dye
(coloured) (colourless)
NB Chlorine does not therefore bleach/decolourize dry litmus paper/dye
because chloric(I) acid cannot be formed in absence of water.
9. Blue litmus papers were put in a flask containing cold dilute sodium hydroxide.
Chlorine gas was bubbled into the solution. State and explain the observations
made.
Observation
blue litmus papers were bleached /decolorized.
Pale green colour of chlorine fades.
Explanation
-Sodium hydroxide reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride and sodium
hypochlorite. Sodium hypochlorite bleaches dyes by oxidation.
Chemical Equation
Cl2 + 2NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NaClO(aq) + H2O

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 284

NaClO(aq) + dye → NaCl(aq) + (dye + O)

(coloured) (Colourless)
NaClO(aq) + (dye-O) → NaCl(aq) + dye
(Coloured) (Colourless)
10.Blue litmus papers were put in flask containing hot concentrated sodium
hydroxide. Chlorine gas was bubbled into the solution. State and explain the
observations made.
Observation.
blue litmus papers were bleached.
Pale green colour of chlorine fades.
Explanation
Hot concentrated sodium hydroxide reacts with chlorine to form sodium
chloride and sodium chloride (V).Sodium chlorate (V) bleaches by oxidation.
Chemical equation
2Cl2(g) + 4NaOH(aq) → 3NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + H2O(l)

NaClO3(aq) + 3(dyes) → NaCl(aq) + 3(dye + O)

NaClO3(aq) + 3(dyes-O) → NaCl(aq) + 3 dyes
NaClO3 is also a weed killer
11. State three main use of chlorine gas.
-Manufacture of polyvinyl chloride (P.V.C) // polychloroethene pipes.
-Manufacture of hydrochloric acid used in “Pickling” of metals.
-Manufacture of bleaching agents
-Chlorination of water to kill germs.
12. The diagram below shows the effect of chlorine on heated iron wool.

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 285

Method I

Method II
Iron/Aluminium Aluminium(III)oxide
/iron(III)oxide

Chlorine Suction
gas pump

HEAT

Concentrated
sodium/potassium
hydroxide.

a) Identify a suitable drying agent to dry chlorine gas.

-Conc. H2SO4 / Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
-Anhydrous Calcium (II) Chloride.
-Silica gel

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b) State and explain the observations made in combustion tube in method I and II
Observation
Iron glows red hot
Brown crystals are formed
Explanation
Iron reacts with chlorine to form dark brown crystals of iron (III)
Chloride.
This reaction is exothermic and requires no farther heating once started.
Iron (III) Chloride sublimes away ensuring the unreacted Iron completely
reacts with chlorine gas.
Chemical equation
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2FeCl3(g)
c) (i) Why is the brown solid collected at the point as shown in method I and II.
-Heated iron (III) Chloride crystals sublime to gas and solidify on the cooler
parts.
(ii) Name another metal that can be used in place of iron to react with chlorine and
collected at similar point on heating explain.
Metal Aluminum
Explanation
Aluminum reacts with chlorine to form a while sublimate of aluminum (III)
chloride at the cooler parts
Chemical equation
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s/g)
d) What is the purpose of suction pump?
To pull the gaseous products into the set up.
e) What is the function of:
(i) Sodium hydroxide in method II. Explain.
To absorb poisonous/toxic excess unreacted chlorine gas.
Sodium hydroxide reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride, Sodium
hypochlorite and water.
Chemical equation:
2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) → NaCl(aq) + NaClO(aq) + H2O(l)
2KOH(aq) + Cl2(g) → KCl(aq) + KClO(aq) + H2O(l)
(ii) Anhydrous calcium chloride/calcium oxide in method I. Explain.
To absorb moisture/water in the set up to prevent it from hydrolyzing iron
(III) chloride/aluminium oxide.
Explanation

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Iron (III) chloride and Aluminium chloride fumes and reacts with small traces
of water to form a solution of iron (III) hydroxide/aluminium hydroxide and
hydrogen chloride gas.
Chemical equation
FeCl3(s) + 3HCl(aq) → Fe(OH)3(aq) + 3HCl(g)
AlCl3(s) + 3HCl(aq) → Al(OH)3(aq) + 3HCl(g)
f) Based on e (i) and (ii) above what precaution should be made in:
(i) method II to ensure correct results.
-Tube B should be completely dry to prevent hydrolysis of iron (III)
Chloride to iron (III) hydroxide.
(ii) Carrying out method I
-Should be done in a fume chamber or in the open because chlorine gas
is poisonous/toxic.
(g) Name another substance that can be used place of Sodium hydroxide in method
I
Potassium hydroxide
(h) Calcium oxide cannot be used in place of calcium chloride during
preparation of chlorine. Explain.
Calcium oxide is a base. It reacts /absorbs water to form calcium
hydroxide solution.
Calcium hydroxide reacts with chlorine to form a mixture of calcium
chloride and calcium hypochlorite.
Chemical equation
2Ca (OH)2(aq) + 2Cl2(g) → CaCl2(aq) + CaOCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
13. (a)State and explain the observation made when a piece of burning magnesium
ribbon is lowered in a gas jar containing chlorine gas.
-Magnesium ribbon continues burning with a bright flame.
-White solid formed.
-Pale yellow colour of chlorine fades
Explanation:
Magnesium reacts with chlorine forming a white solid of magnesium chloride.
Chemical equation
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) → MgCl2(s)
(b) Write the equation for the reaction that takes place if zinc is used.
Zn(s) + Cl2(g) → ZnCl2(s)
14. Burning phosphorus was lowered in a gas jar containing chlorine gas.
a) State the observations made.

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-Phosphorus continues to burn.

-Dense white fumes formed.
-Pale green colour of chlorine fades.
b) Write two possible equations that take place.
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) → 4 PCl3(s)
P4(s) + 10Cl2(g) → 4 PCl3(s)
(c) State two reasons why the deflagrating spoon with rid/cover should be
used.
-Chlorine in the gas jar is poisonous/toxic.
-Burning phosphorus produces poisonous/toxic phosphorus (III) chloride
// phosphorus (V) chloride.
-Ensure the reaction is not affected by air/oxygen from the atmosphere.
(d) After the reaction is complete, 2cm3 of distilled water were added. The solution
formed was tested with both blue and red litmus papers.
(i) State the observations made.
-Blue litmus paper turns red
-Red litmus paper remain red
(ii) Explain the observation made in d(i) above
-Phosphoric (V) Chloride hydrolyze in water to phosphoric (V) acid and
produce hydrogen chloride gas. Both hydrogen chloride and phosphoric
(V) acid are acidic.
Chemical equation
PCl5 (l) + 4H2O(l) → H3PO4 (aq) + 5HCl(g)
15. State and explain the observations made when gas jar containing chlorine is
inverted over another containing hydrogen sulphide gas.
Observation
Yellow solid formed.
Pale colour of chlorine fades
Explanation
Chlorine oxidizes hydrogen sulphide to sulphur itself reduced to
hydrogen chloride gas. A little water catalyzes the reaction.
Chemical equation
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → S(s) + HCl(g)
(yellow solid) (White Fume)
16. Chlorine was bubbled in aqueous ammonia solution in a beaker state and
explain the observation made.
Observation:

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White fumes evolved.

Pale green colour of chlorine fades.
Explanation
Chlorine reacts with ammonia gas to form a dense white fume of ammonia
chloride and Nitrogen gas is produced.
Chemical equation
8NH3(g) + 3Cl2(g) → 6NH4Cl(s) + N2(g)
17. (a) Dry gas was bubbled in cold dilute sodium hydroxide solution. Explain the
observations made:
Observation
Pale green colour of chlorine fades.
Pale yellow solution is formed.
Explanation
Chlorine reacts withhot concentrated sodiumsodium hydroxide /
Potassium hydroxide solution to form pale yellow solution of metal
chlorate (V) and chlorides of the metal
Chemical equation
Cl2(g) + 2NaOH → NaClO(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
(sodium hydroxide) (Sodium Chlorate (I))
Cl2(g) + 2KOH → KClO(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
(Potassium hydroxide) (Potassium Chlorate (I))
(b)The experiment in 17(a) was repeated with hot concentrated sodium
hydroxide solution. Explain the observation made.
Observation
Pale green colour of chlorine fades.
Pale yellow solution is formed.
Explanation
Chlorine reacts with hot concentrated Sodium hydroxide/Potassium
hydroxide solution to form pale yellow solution of metal chlorate (v)
and chlorides of metals.
Chemical equation
3Cl2(g) + 6NaOH(aq) → NaClO3 (aq) + 5NaCl(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(Sodium hydroxide) (Sodium Chlorate (V))
3Cl2(g) + 6KOH(aq) → KClO3 (aq) + 5KCl(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(Potassium hydroxide) (Potassium Chlorate (V))
The products formed when chlorine reacts with alkalis depend thus on
temperature and the concentration of alkalis.

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(c) (i) Write the equation for the formation of calcium chlorite (I) and calcium
chlorate (V).
2Ca (OH)2(aq) + 2Cl2(g) → CaCl2(aq) + CaOCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
(Calcium hydroxide) (Calcium Chlorate(I))
(Cold/dilute)
Ca (OH)2(aq) + Cl2(g) → CaCl2(aq) + Ca(ClO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
(Calcium Chlorate(V))

B: THE HALOGENS
a) What are halogens?
These are elements in group VII of the periodic table. They include:
Element Symbol Atomic Electric Charge Valency State at
number configuration of ion Room
Temperature
Fluorine F 9 2:7 F- 1 Pale yellow
gas
Chlorine Cl 17 2:8:7 Cl- 1 Pale green
gas
Bromine Br 35 2:8:18:7 Br- 1 Red liquid

Iodine I 53 2:8:18:18:7 I- 1 Grey Solid

Astatine At 85 2:8:18:32:18:7 At- 1 Radioactive

b) Compare the atomic radius and ionic radius of chloride ion and chlorine.
Explain.
The radius of chlorine is smaller than the ionic radius o the chloride ion.
Effective nucleus attraction on outer energy level in chloride ion is less than
chlorine atom because of extra gained electron gained electron that repelled
thus causes the outer energy level to expand/increase.
c) Compare the atomic radius of chlorine and fluorine Explain.
Atomic radius of Fluorine is smaller than that of chlorine.
Chlorine has more energy levels than fluorine occupied by more electrons.
d) Chlorine is a gas, Bromine is a liquid, Iodine is a solid. Explain the above
observations.
-Bromine, Chlorine and iodine exists as diatomic molecules bonded by strong
covalent bond. Each molecule is joined to the other by weak intermolecular
forces/ Van-der-waals forces.

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-The strength of intermolecular/Van-der-waals forces of attraction increase

with increase in molecular size/atomic radius.Iodine has therefore the largest
atomic radius and thus strongest intermolecular forces to make it a solid.
e) (i) What is electronegativity?
Electronegativity is the tendency/ease of acquiring /gaining electrons by an
element during chemical reaction.
It is measured using Pauling’s scale.
Fluorine with Pauling scale 4.0 is the most electronegative element in the
periodic table and thus the highest tendency to acquire/gain extra electron.
(ii) The table below shows the electronegativity of the halogens.
Halogen F Cl Br I At
Electronegativity (Pauling’s 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5 2.2
scale)
Explain the trend in electronegativity of the halogens.
Decrease down the group from fluorine to Astatine
Atomic radius increase down the group decreasing electron – attracting power
down the group from fluorine to astatine.
(f) (i)What is electron affinity
Electron affinity is the energy required to gain an electron in an atom of an
element in its gaseous state.

(ii) Study the table below showing the election affinity of halogens for the process
x + e → x-

Halogen F Cl Br I
Electron affinity kJmole-1 -333 -364 -342 -295

(iii) Explain the trend in electron affinity of the halogens.

-Decrease down the group
-Atomic radius of halogens increase down the group thus incoming/gained
electron is attracted less strongly by the progressively larger atoms with a
decreasing effective nuclear charge on outer energy level
(iv) Which is a move stable ion Cl- or Br - explain?
-Cl- ion.
-Has a more negative/exothermic electron affinity than Br-
(v) Differentiate between electron affinity and:
I. Ionization energy.

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Ionization energy is the energy required to lose /donate an electron in an atom

of an element in its gaseous state while electron affinity is the energy required
to gain/acquire extra electron by an atom of an element in its gaseous state.
Both are measured in kilojoules per mole.
II. Electronegativity.
-Electron affinity is the energy required to gain an electron in an atom of an
element in gaseous state. It involves the process:
X(g) + e → X-(g)
Electronegativity is the ease/tendency of gaining/ acquiring electrons by an
element during chemical reactions.
It does not involve use of energy but theoretical arbitrary Pauling’s scale of
measurements.

(g) (i) 5cm3 of sodium chloride, Sodium bromide and Sodium iodide solutions were
put separately in test tubes. 5 drops of chlorine water was added to each test
tube: state and explain the observation made.
Observation
Yellow colour of chlorine water fades in all test tubes expect with sodium
chloride.
-Coloured Solution formed.
Explanation
Chlorine is more electronegative than bromine and iodine. On adding chlorine
water, bromine and Iodine are displaced from their solutions by chlorine.
(ii) The experiment in g (i) was repeated with 5 drops of bromine water instead
of chlorine water .explain the observation made.
Observation
Yellow colour of bromine water fades in test tube containing sodium iodide.
Brown solution formed in test tube containing sodium iodide
Explanation
Bromine is more electronegative than iodide but less 6than chlorine.
On adding Bromine water, iodide displaced from its solution but not chlorine.
(iii) Using the knowledge in g(i) and (ii) above,
I. Complete the table below using (X) to show no reaction and (√) to show a
reaction.

Halide ion F- Cl- Br- I-

Halogen

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ion in
solution
Halogen
F2 X √ √ √

Cl2 X X √ √

Br2 X X X √

I2 X X X √

Write an ionic equation for the reaction where there is (V)

F2 (g)+ 2Cl- (aq) -> 2F-(aq) + Cl2(g)
- -
F2 (g)+ 2Br (aq) -> 2F (aq) + Br2(aq)
F2 (g)+ 2I- (aq) -> 2F-(aq) + I2(aq)
- -
Cl2 (g) + 2Br (aq) -> 2Cl (aq) + Br2(aq)
Cl2 (g)+ 2I- (aq) ->2Cl-(aq) + I2(aq)
Br2 (aq)+ 2I- (aq)- -> 2Br-(aq) + I2(aq)
(h) State one uses of:
(iv) Fluorine
Manufacture of P.T.F.E (Poly tetra fluoroethene) synthetic fiber.
Reduce tooth decay when added in small amounts/equations in tooth paste.
Note: large small quantities of fluorine /fluoride ions in water cause browning
of teeth/flourosis.
Hydrogen fluoride is used to engrave word pictures in glass.
(v) Bromine
Silver bromide is used to make light sensitive photographic paper/films.
(vi) Iodide
Iodine dissolved in alcohol is used as medicine to kill bacteria in skin cuts. It is
called tincture of iodine.
(ii) The table below to show some compounds of halogens.

H Na Mg Al Si C P
Element
Halogen
F HF NaF MgH2 AlF3 SiF4 CF4 PF3

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Cl HCl NaCl MgCl AlCl3 SiCl3 CCl4 PCl3

Br HBr NaBr MgBr2 AlBo3 SiBr4 CBr4 PBr3

I Hl Nal Mgl2 All3 SiL4 Cl2 Pb3

(j) (i) Using dot (.) and Cross (x) to represent electrons, show the bonding in
chlorine molecule.

(iii)Name the type of bond formed.

Covalent.
(iv) Below is the table showing the bond energy of four halogens.
Bond Bond energy k J mole-1
Cl-Cl 242
Br-Br 193
I-I 151
III. What do you understand by the term “bond energy”
Bond energy is the energy required to break/ form one mole of chemical
bond
IV. Explain the trend in bond Energy of the halogens above:
-Decrease down the group from chlorine to Iodine
-Atomic radius increase down the group decreasing the energy required to
break the covalent bonds between the larger atom with reduced effective
nuclear charge an outer energy level that take part in bonding.
(k) Some compounds of chlorine are in the table below the oxidation state of
chlorine in each compound.
Compound Oxidation state Name of compound

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NaClO3 +5 Sodium chlorate (V)

ClO2 +4 Chloric (IV) oxide
KClO2 +3 Potassium chlorate (III)
NaClO +1 Sodium Chlorite (I)
Cl2 0 Chlorine Molecule
NaCl -1 Sodium Chloride (I)
MgCl2 -1 Magnesium Chloride (I)

C. HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
a) Occurrence
Hydrogen Chloride does not occur free in the atmosphere or in nature
b) Preparation
Hydrogen chloride may be prepared in the school laboratory by reacting solid
sodium/potassium chloride crystals with concentrated sulphuric (Vi) acid as in the
set up below.

c) Properties of hydrogen chloride gas(questions)

1. What precautions should be taken when handling concentrated sulphuric acid?
Explain.
-Wear protective clothing/gloves to avoid accidental contact with skin.
-Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is highly corrosive-it causes painful wounds
when in contact with skin.
2. What method of gas collection is used? Explain.

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-Downward delivery// upward displacement of water

-Hydrogen chloride is denser than air.
3. a) Write the equation for the reaction that takes place.
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
KCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> KHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
NaCl is commonly used because it is cheaper than KCl

b) What property of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is used during the above
reaction
-is the least volatile mineral acid, thus displace the more volatile hydrogen
chloride from its salt (KCl/NaCl)
d) i)What is the purpose of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
-Drying agent / to dry the gas.
ii) What property of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is used during the above
use.
-Is hygroscopic – absorbs water but do not form solution.
iii) Name another substance which can be used to dry chlorine gas.
-anhydrous Calcium chloride
- silica gel
iv)Using a chemical equation, explain why anhydrous calcium oxide cannot be
used in flask B
-Calcium oxide reacts with water /moisture to form calcium hydroxide. The
calcium hydroxide formed reacts with chlorine to form calcium hypochlorite.
Chemical equations:
CaO(s) + 2H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + Cl2 (g) -> CaOCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
This reduces the amount of Chlorine produced.
d)Blue and red litmus papers were dipped in the hydrogen chloride prepared above.
The Procedure was repeated with damp/wet/moist litmus papers. Explain the
differences in observations made.
-Dry blue litmus papers remain blue
-Dry red litmus papers remain red
-Damp/moist/wet blue litmus papers turn red
-Damp/moist/wet red litmus paper turns red.
-Dry hydrogen chloride is a molecular compound that is joined by covalent
bonds between the atoms. The gas is polar thus dissolves in water and ionize
completely to free H+ that are responsible to turning blue litmus paper red.

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e) Dry hydrogen chloride gas was bubbled in two separately beakers containing
water and in methylbenzene.
(i) Classify the two solvents as either “polar” or “non-polar”
Water – polar
Methylbenzene – non-polar
(ii) State and explain the observations made in the beaker containing:
(i)Methylbenzene
Colour of litmus solution remain.
Hydrogen chloride is a molecular substance. When dissolved in non-polar
solvent, it does not dissociate / ionize to release H+ ions that changes the colour
of litmus solution.

(ii)Water
Colour of litmus solution change to red.
Hydrogen chloride is a molecular substance. When dissolved in polar solvent
like water, it dissociate/ionize to release H+ ions that changes litmus solution to
red.
(iii)Why should an inverted filter funnel be used to dissolve hydrogen chloride.
- The filter funnel is dipped just below the water surface to increase the
surface area of dissolving the gas and prevent suck back.
(iv)Name the solution formed when hydrogen chloride dissolves in water.
Hydrochloric acid
(f) Describe the test for presence of hydrogen chloride gas.
-Dip a glass rod in ammonia. Bring it to the mouth of a gas jar
containing a gas suspected to be hydrogen chloride
-White fumes of ammonia chloride are formed.
(g) Place 5cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into a four separate test tubes. To
separate test tube add zinc, magnesium iron and copper metals. State and explain
the observations made.
Observation
– Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing in all cases except copper
- Colourless solution formed with zinc and magnesium.
- Green solution formed with ion.
- Gas produced that extinguishes splint with explosion.
Explanation
Metals above hydrogen in reactivity series react with hydrochloric and
liberating hydrogen gas.

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Chemical Equation:
Concentrated hydrochloric acid is a weak oxidizing agent than other
concentrated acids i.eSulphuric (VI) acid and nitric (V) acid that react
with all metals even those lower in the reactivity series.
(h) Place 5cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into five separate test tubes. To
separate test tubes, add calcium carbonate, silver carbonate, copper carbonate, iron
(II) carbonate and Sodium hydrogen carbonate. Explain the observations made.
Observation
Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing vigorously except in silver carbonate and
lead (II) carbonate that stop later.
- Colourless solution formed except with iron (II) carbonate and copper
(II) carbonate
- Green solution formed with iron (II) carbonate
- Blue solution formed with copper (II) carbonate
Explanation.
Carbonates and hydrogen carbonate react with dilute hydrochloric acid
to produce carbon (IV) oxide, water and form chlorides.
All chlorides formed are soluble Except Lead (II) Chloride (soluble on
heating/warming) and silver chloride.
Chemical equation:
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(Colourless solution)
Chemical equation:
Ag2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(Coats/Cover Ag2CO3)
Chemical equation:
CuCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(Blue Solution)
Chemical equation:
FeCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → FeCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Chemical equation:
NaHCO3 (s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Place 5cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide and aqueous
ammonia solution into three separate test tubes. Add one drop of phenolphthalein
indicator drop wise, add dilute hydrochloric acid. Explain the observations made.
Observation
Colour of Phenophthalein indicator change from pink to colourless.

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Explanation
Hydrochloric acid neutralizes alkalis to salt and water
When all the alkali has reacted with the acid, An extra slight excess acid
turns the indicator used to colourless.
Chemical equation:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation:
KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation:
NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NHaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
(j) Place 5cm3 of hydrochloric acid into four separate test tube tubes
Separately add about 1g of each of copper (II) Oxide, Zinc (II) Oxide, Lead (II)
Oxide< Calcium (II) Oxide. What happens to each test tube? Explain.
Observation:
All Solid dissolves except Lead (II) Oxide
Colourless solution formed with zinc Oxide and calcium (II) Oxide blue
solution formed with copper (II) Oxide.
Explanation:
Metal oxides dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid to form water and chloride
salt Insoluble Lead (II) chloride and silver chloride once formed cover/coat
unreacted oxides stopping further reaction.
Chemical equation: CuO(s) + HCl (aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation: CaO(s) + HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Chemical equation: PbO(s) + 2HCl (aq) → PbCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Chemical equation: ZnO(s) + HCl (aq) → ZCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
(k) Manufacture of Hydrochloric acid.
(i) Raw Materials
1. Hydrogen
(i) During electrolysis of Brine from the flowing mercury-cathode cell during the
manufacture of sodium hydroxide solution.
(ii)From water gas by passing steam in heated charcoal.
C(s) + H2O → CO(g) + H2(g)
(iii)From partial oxidation of natural gas/methane
CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO(g) + 3H2(g)
2.Chlorine
(i)From electrolysis of fused/solid sodium chloride in the downs process during
extraction of sodium

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(ii)From electrolysis of brine/concentrated sodium chloride solution in the flowing

mercury-cathode during the manufacture of sodium hydroxide solution.
(ii)Chemical processes.
Hydrogen and chlorine gases are separately passed through concentrated
sulphuric(VI) acid to act as a drying agent.
Small amount of pure hydrogen is continuously ignited in a chamber with
continous supply of pure dry chlorine.
Large amount of hydrogen explodes.
Hydrogen burns in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride gas.
Chemical Equation
H2(g) + Cl(g) → 2HCl(g)
The hydrogen chloride produced is then passed up to meet a downward flow of
water in the absorbtion chambers. Hydrogen chloride is very soluble in water and
dissolves to form 35% concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Chemical Equation
HCl(g) + (aq) → HCl(aq)
The absorption chamber is shelved and packed with broken glass beads to
(i)Slow down the downward flow of water.
(ii)Increase surface area over which the water dissolves
The hydrochloric acid is then transported in steel tanks lined with rubber for market
(iii)Uses of Hydrochloric Acid
- To standardize the pH of (alcohol and wines)
- Regenerating ion-exchange resin during removal of hardness of water.
- Pickling of metals to remove oside layers on their surfaces.
- In the manufacture of dyes and drugs.
- Making zinc chloride for making dry cells.
(iv)Diagram Showing Industrial manufacture.
Cold water

Absorbtion
Burning Hydrogen gas chamber

35% Conc.
HCl

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Dry
chlorine
gas

Dry Hydrogen gas

(ii)Environmental effects of manufacturing HCl
- Hydrochloric acid is acidic. Any leakage from a manufacturing plant to
nearby rivers/lake causes exess acidity that lowers pH of water killing marine
life.
- Hydrogen chloride leakage into atmosphere dissolves to form “acidic rain”
that accelerate corrosion in buildings, Breathing problems to human beings
and kill fauna and flora around the paint.
- Chlorine leakage causes breathing and sight problems to human being. It
accelerates bleaching of dyed metals.
- Hydrogen leakage can cause an explosion because impure hydrogen explodes
on ignition.
(ii) Factors considered in setting hydrochloric acid manufacturing plant.
1. Nearness to the manufacturing of sodium hydroxide because the
byproducts of electrolysis of brine are the raw materials for hydrochloric
acid plant.
2. Availability of natural gas for extraction of hydrogen.
3. Nearness/Availability of water to dissolve the hydrogen chloride gas.
4. Availability of labour, market, capital and good means of transport.

D: CHLORIDE (Cl-) SALTS

(a) Occurrence.
1. Chlorides are salts derived from hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is a
monobasic (HX) salt with only one ionazable/replaceable “H” in its
molecule. All chlorides are therefore normal salts.
2. All metals exist as chloride salt except platinum and gold as below

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Metal K Na Li Mg Ca Al Zn Fe Pb H. Cu Ag Hg
Formula KCl NaCl LiCl MgCl2 CaCl2 AlCl3 ZnCl2 FeCl2 PbCl HCl CuCl AgCl Hg2Cl2
of FeCl3 PbCl4 CuCl2 HgCl2
chloride
(i)Both FeCl2 and FeCl3 exists but FeCl2 is readily oxidized to FeCl3
because it is more stable.
(ii)PbCl2 and PbCl4 exist but PbCl4 is only oxidized to form PbCl2 by
using excess chlorine. It is less stable.
(iii)CuCl and CuCl2 exists but CuCl2 is (thermodynamically) more
stable than CuCl. CuCl disproportionate to Cu and CuCl2..
(iv)HgCl and HgCl2exists as molecular compounds.
3. All chlorides are soluble/dissolves in water except silver chloride(AgCl),
Copper (I) chloride CuCl, Mercury (I) Chloride Hg2Cl2 and Lead (II)
Chloride PbCl2 that dissolves in warm water.
4. Most chlorides are very stable compounds. They do not decompose on
gentle or strong bunsen burner heating in a school laboratory except
Ammonium Chloride.
5. Heating ammonium chloride
Place about 2g of solid ammonium chloride crystals in a clean dry boiling
tube.Heat gently then strongly.
Observation
-red litmus paper turn blue
-blue litmus paper remains blue
Then later:
-both blue litmus papers turn red
Explanation:
Ammonium chloride on heating decomposes through chemical sublimation to
ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas. Ammonia gas is less dense than hydrogen
chloride. It is a basic gas and diffuses out faster to turn red litmus paper to blue.
Hydrogen chloride is an acidic gas .It is denser than ammonia gas and thus diffuses
slower than ammonia gas to turn the already both blue litmus paper to red.
Chemical equation
NH4Cl(s) -> HCl(g) + NH3 (g)
(acidic gas) (basic/alkaline gas)
(b) Test for Cl- ions
1. The following experiment shows the test for the presence of Cl- ions in solids
chloride salts.

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(a) Procedure:
Place about 1g of sodium chloride, Zinc chloride and copper (II) chloride in
separate boiling tubes. Place moist blue and red litmus papers on the mouth of
the test tube. Carefully, add three drops of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
Dip a glass rod in aqueous ammonia solution then bring it to the mouth of the
boiling tube.
observation inference
-red litmus paper remain red H+ ions
-blue litmus paper turn red

-vigorous effervescence/fizzing Cl- ions

/bubbling

-white fumes produced on HCl gas suspected

(b)Explanation:
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is the less volatile mineral acid.
It vigorously displaces chlorine in metal chlorides to evolve acidic hydrogen
chloride gas fumes.
Chemical equation
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
KCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> KHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
CuCl2(s) + H2SO4(l) -> CuSO4(aq) + 2HCl(g)
ZnCl2(s) + H2SO4(l) -> ZnSO4(aq) + 2HCl(g)
Hydrogen chloride and ammonia gases react and form white fumes of ammonium
chloride that confirms presence of Cl- ions in the solid substance.
Chemical equation
NH3(g) + HCl(g) -> NH4Cl(s)
2. The following experiment shows the test for the presence of Cl- ions in
solution /aqueous chloride salts.
(i)Using aqueous Lead (II) nitrate(V)
(a)Procedure:
I.Place about 5cm3 of sodium chloride, Iron (III) chloride and copper (II) chloride
in separate boiling tubes. Add four drops of Lead (II) nitrate(V) solution to each.
Preserve.
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt SO4 , SO32-, Cl-,CO32-
2-

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II.To the preserved sample, add six drops of nitric (V) acid. Preserve.
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt persist SO42-, Cl-

III. To the preserved sample, heat the mixture to boil

Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt dissolves on Cl-
boiling/warming
Explanation:
I.When Lead(II) nitrate(V) solution is added to an unknown salt , a white
precipitate/ppt of Lead(II) sulphate(VI) Lead(II) carbonate(IV) Lead(II)
sulphate(IV) Lead(II) chloride(I) are formed.
Ionic equation:
Pb2+ (aq) + SO42-(aq) -> PbSO4(s)
2+ 2-
Pb (aq) + SO3 (aq) -> PbSO3(s)
Pb2+ (aq) + CO32-(aq) -> PbCO3(s)
2+ -
Pb (aq) + Cl (aq) -> PbCl2(s)

II.When the white precipitate/ppt formed is acidified with dilute nitric(V) acid,
the white precipitate of Lead(II) sulphate(VI) and Lead(II) chloride(I)
persist/remain while that of Lead(II) carbonate(IV) and Lead(II) sulphate(IV)
dissolves.
III.On heating /warming Lead (II) chloride (I) dissolves but on cooling it
recrystallizes.This shows the presence of Cl- ions in aqueous solutions
. (ii)Using aqueous silver (I) nitrate(V)
Procedure
I. Place about 5cm3 of sodium chloride, Iron (III) chloride and copper (II) chloride
in separate boiling tubes. Add four drops of silver(I) nitrate(V) solution to each.
Preserve.
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt Cl-, CO32-

II. To the preserved sample, add six drops of nitric (V) acid. Preserve.
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt persist Cl-

Explanation:

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I.When silver(I) nitrate(V) solution is added to an unknown salt , a white

precipitate /ppt of silver(I) carbonate(IV) and silver(I) chloride(I) are formed.
Ionic equation:
2Ag+ (aq) + CO32-(aq) -> Ag2CO3(s)
+ -
Ag (aq) + Cl (aq) -> AgCl(s)

II. When the white precipitate/ppt formed is acidified with dilute nitric (V) acid,
the white precipitate of silver (I) chloride (I) persist/remain. This shows the
presence of Cl-ions in aqueous solutions.
Silver (I) carbonate (IV) dissolves when reacted with nitric (V) acid.

COMPREHENSIVE REVISION QUESTIONS

1. In an experiment, dry hydrogen chloride gas was passed through heated zinc
turnings as in the set up below. The gas produced was the passed through
copper(II) oxide

a) Write the equation for the reaction :

(i)For the school laboratory preparation of hydrogen chloride gas.
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
(ii)in tube S
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
b)State and explain the observation made in tube V.
Observations-colour of solid changes from black to brown
-colourless liquid forms on the cooler parts of tube V

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Explanation-Hydrogen produced in tube S reduces black copper(II) oxide

to brown copper metal and the gas oxidized to water vapour that condense on
cooler parts..
Chemical equation.
CuO(s) +H2(g) ->Cu(s) + H2O(l)
(c)How would the total mass of tube S and tube V and their contents compare
before and after the experiment.
Tube S- Mass increase/rise because Zinc combine with chlorine to form
heavier Zinc Chloride.
Tube V- Mass decrease/falls/lowers because copper (II) oxide is reduced to
lighter copper and oxygen combine with hydrogen to form water vapour that
escape.
2. Chlorine is prepared by using solid sodium chloride, concentrated sulphuric(VI)
acid and potassium manganate(VII)
a)What is the role of the following in the reaction;
(i) concentrated sulphuric(VI)
To produce hydrogen chloride gas by reacting with the solid sodium
chloride.
(ii) Potassium manganate(VII)
To oxidize hydrogen chloride gas to chlorine
3.Use the flow chart below to answer the questions that follow.

a)(i) Name:
gas X Hydrogen chloride
solution W hydrochloric acid
gas Q chlorine
bleaching agent Z sodium chlorate(V)
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b)Write the chemical equation for the formation of :

(i) gas X
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
(ii)solution W
HCl(g) + (aq) -> HCl(aq)
(iii)gas Q
2KMnO4 + 16HCl(aq) -> 2KCl(aq) + 2MnCl2(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5Cl2(g)
(iv)bleaching agent Z
6NaOH(aq) + 3Cl2(g) ->NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
c)State and explain the following observations;
(i) a glass rod dipped in aqueous ammonia is brought near gas X
Observation: Dense white fumes
Explanation:Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form
dense white fumes of ammonium chloride.
Chemical equation: NH3(g) +HCl(g) -> NH4Cl(s)
(ii)Wet blue and red litmus papers were dipped into gas Q
Observations: Blue litmus paper turned red the both are bleached
/decolorized.
Explanations: chlorine reacts with water to form both acidic hydrochloric
and chloric (I) acids that turn blue litmus paper red. Unstable chloric (I)
acid oxidizes the dye in the papers to colourless.
Chemical equations
Cl2(g) + HCl(aq) ->HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
Coloured dye +HClO(aq) ->HCl(aq) + (Colourless dye +O)//
(Coloured dye-O) + HClO(aq) ->HCl(aq) + Colourless dye
4.Use the flow chart below to answer the questions that follow

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a) Name
Liquid A Concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid
Process Z Neutralization
White solid X Ammonium chloride
b)Write the equation for the formation of:
(i) Hydrogen chloride
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
(ii) B
HCl(g) + (aq) -> HCl(aq)
(iii)process Z (using ionic equation)
H+ (aq) + OH-(aq) -> H2O(l)
(iv)C (using ionic equation)
Ag+ (aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s)
c)Describe how solution B is obtained.
Bubbling hydrogen chloride gas through inverted funnel into distilled water
until no more dissolve.
5 The results obtained when halogens are bubbled into test tubes containing
solutions of halide A,B and C is as in the table below. Tick(v) means a reaction
took place. Cross(x) means no reaction took place.
Halide ions in solution
Halogens A B C
I2 x - x

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Br2 x v -
Cl2 - v v
a)Identify the halide ions represented by letter
A Cl-
B I-
C Br-
b)Write the ionic equation for the reaction that take place with halide:
(i) C
Cl2(g) + 2Br-(aq) -> 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
(ii) B
Cl2(g) + 2Br-(aq) -> 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
- -
Cl2(g) + 2I (aq) -> 2Cl (aq) + I2(aq)
6.The diagram below shows a set up of apparatus for the school laboratory
collection of dry chlorine gas.

a)Name:
(i) Substance Q
Concentrated hydrochloric acid
(ii) Suitable drying agent L
-Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid
-anhydrous calcium chloride
-silica gel
b) State a missing condition for the reaction to take place faster.
-Heat/Heating

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c) Red and blue litmus papers were dipped into the chlorine gas from the above set
up .State and explain the observations made.
Observation: Blue litmus paper remains blue. Red litmus paper remain red.
Explanation: Dry chlorine has no effect on dry litmus papers.
d) Write the equation for the reaction taking place in the conical flask
MnO4 (s) + 4HCl(aq) -> MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
e) Name two other substances that can be used in place of MnO2
Lead(IV) oxide (PbO2)
Potassium manganate(VI)(KMnO4)
Potassium dichromate(K2Cr2O4)
Bleaching powder(CaOCl2)
7. The set up below shows the apparatus used to prepare and collect anhydrous
iron(III) chloride.

a)Name salt K
Iron(III)cchloride
b) Write the equation for the reaction for the formation of salt K
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2 (g) -> 2FeCl3 (s/g)
State and explain the following
(i)Small amount of water is added to iron (II) chloride in a test tube then shaken
Solid dissolves to form a green solution. Iron(II) chloride is soluble in water
(ii)I.Three drops of aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to aqueous iron(II) chloride
and then added excess of the alkali.
Observation:
Green precipitate is formed that persist/remain /insoluble in excess akali.

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Explanation:
Iron(II) chloride reacts with aqueous sodium hydroxide to form a green
precipitate of iron(II) hydroxide.
Ionic equation:
Fe2+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH)2(s)
II.Six drops of hydrogen peroxide is added to the mixture in d(ii) above.
Observation:
Effervescence/bubbling/fizzing take place and the green precipitate dissolve to
form a yellow/brown solution.
Explanation:
hydrogen peroxide oxidizes green Fe2+to yellow/ brown Fe3+solution.
9.Use the flow chart below to answer the questions that follow.

a) Write the chemical equation for the formation of gas A

NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
b) Identify:
(i) four possible ions that can produce white precipitate B
SO42-,SO32-, CO32-, Cl-
(ii)two possible ions that can produce;
I.White precipitate C
SO42-,Cl-

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II.colourless solution D
SO32-, CO32-
(iii)possible ions present in
I.White precipitate E
SO42-
II.colourless solution F
Cl-
11. Below is a set up in the preparation of a particular salt. Study it and answer the
questions that follow.

State
the observation made when aluminium wool is heated.
Glows red hot.
b)(i) Identify salt A
aluminium(III) chloride// AlCl3
(ii)Write the equation for the formation of salt A
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2AlCl3(s/g)
(iii)What property of salt A is exhibited as shown in the experiment.
It sublimes//sublimation.

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(iv)Calculate the minimum volume of chlorine required to form 700kg of

iron(III) chloride at room temperature.(Fe= 56.0, Cl=35.5, 1 mole of a gas
=24000cm3, 1000g = 1kg)
Mole ratio Fe : Cl2 = 2: 3 molar mass FeCl3 = 162.5g
Method 1
2 x 162.5 g FeCl3 -> 3x 22400 cm3 Cl2
700 x1000 gFeCl3 -> (700 x1000 x3 x22400)/(2 x 162.5)
=1.4474 x 10-8 cm3
Method 2
Moles of FeCl3= mass/ molar mass
=> (700 x 1000) / 162.5 = 4307.6923 moles
Moles of Cl2= 3/2 moles of FeCl3
=>3/2 x 4307.6923 = 6461.5385 moles
Volume of chlorine= moles x molar gas volume
=>6461.5385 x 24000 = 1.5508 x 10-8 cm3
c) Name another metal that can produce similar results as salt K.
Iron
d)(i) What is the purpose of anhydrous calcium chloride.
-ensure the apparatus are water free.
-prevent water from the atmosphere from entering and
altering//hydrolysing salt A
(ii) Write the equation for the reaction that take place if anhydrous calcium
chloride is not used in the above set up.
AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) -> Al(OH)3(aq) + 3HCl(g)
(iii) Write the equation for the reaction that take place when Iron metal is reacted
with dry hydrogen chloride gas.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(g) -> FeCl2(s) + H2(g)
(iv)Calculate the mass of Iron(II)chloride formed when 60cm3 of hydrogen
chloride at r.t.p is completely reacted. (1 mole of a gas =24dm3 at r.t.p, Fe = 56.O,
Cl= 35.5)
Chemical equation Fe(s) + 2HCl(g) -> FeCl2(s) + Cl2(g)
Mole ratio HCl: FeCl2 = 1:1
Molar mass FeCl2 = 127g
Moles of HCl used = 60cm3 /24000cm3 = 2.5 x 10 -3 moles
Moles of FeCl2 = Moles of HCl => 2.5 x 10 -3 moles
Mass of FeCl2 = moles x molar mass => 2.5 x 10 -3 x 127 =0.3175g
12.Study the flow chart below and use it to answer the questions that follow

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a)Identify substance:
P Iron(II) chloride//FeCl2
Q Chlorine // Cl2
R Iron(III) chloride//FeCl3
b)Write the equation for the reaction for the formation of:
(i) gas Q
2KMnO4 (s) + 16HCl(aq) -> 2KCl(aq) + 2MnCl2(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5Cl2(g)
(ii) the green precipitate (using ionic equation)
Ionic equation:
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH)2(s)
(ii) the brown precipitate (using ionic equation)
Ionic equation:
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH)3(s)
c)A glass rod was dipped in aqueous ammonia. The rod was then brought near
hydrogen chloride. State and explain the observation made.
Observation:
White fumes
Explanation:
Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form white fumes of
ammonium chloride.
Chemical equation:
NH3(g) + HCl(g) -> NH4Cl(s)
13. Using dot(.)and cross(x)to represent electrons,show the bonding in
aluminium chloride in vapour phase.

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(b)How many electrons in :

(i)aluminium atoms are used in bonding.
Six electrons(three valence electrons in each aluminium atom)
(ii)chlorine atoms atoms are used in dativebonding.
four electrons(two lone pairs of valence electrons in two chlorine atoms)
(iii)the molecule are used in bonding.
Sixteen electrons
-six valence electrons from aluminium atom through covalent
bond
-six valence electrons from chlorine atoms through covalent
bond.
- four valence electrons from chlorine atoms through dative bond
(c)How many lone pair of electrons do not take part in bonding within the
molecule.
Sixteen(16) lone pairs from six chlorine atoms(32 electrons)
(d)Aluminium chloride does not conduct electricity in molten state but
Magnesium chloride conduct.
Aluminium chloride is a molecular compound that has no free mobile Al3+ and Cl-
ions which are responsible for conducting electricity. Magnesium chloride has free
mobile Mg2+ and Cl- ions because it is an ionic compound.

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8. Use the flow chart below to answer the questions that follow:

a)Write an equation for the school laboratory formation of hydrogen chloride gas
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
KCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> KHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
b)Name:
I. solid Y Iron (II) chloride (FeCl2)
II green precipitateIron (II) hydroxide (Fe (OH)2
III Gas Y Chlorine (Cl2)
IV. Bleaching agent A Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)
c)Blue and red litmus papers were dipped into bleaching agent A. Write the
equation for the reaction that takes place.
Coloured dye +NaOCl(aq) ->NaCl(aq) + (Colourless dye + O)//
(Coloured dye-O) + NaOCl(aq) ->NaCl(aq) + Colourless dye

d)State four uses of gas Z

1. Bleaching agent
2. Manufacture of hydrochloric acid
3. Chlorination of water to kill germs
4. Manufacture of PVC pipes

CHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN
A.NITROGEN
a) Occurrence:
Nitrogen is found in the atmosphere occupying about 78% by volume of air.
Proteins, amino acids, polypeptides in living things contain nitrogen.

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b) Isolation of nitrogen from the air.

Nitrogen can be isolated from other gases present in air like oxygen, water
(vapour), carbon (IV) oxide and noble gases as in the school laboratory as in the
flow chart below:

Water is added slowly into an “empty flask” which forces the air out into another
flask containing concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid. Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid
is hygroscopic. It therefore absorb/remove water present in the air sample.
More water forces the air into the flask containing either concentrated sodium
hydroxide or potassium hydroxide solution. These alkalis react with carbon IV)
oxide to form the carbonates and thus absorbs/remove carbon IV) oxide present in
the air sample.

Chemical equation 2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (aq) +

H2O(l)
Chemical equation 2KOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> K2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l)
More water forces the air through a glass tube packed with copper turnings. Heated
brown copper turnings react with oxygen to form black copper (II) oxide.
Chemical equation 2Cu (s) + O2 (g) -> CuO (s)
(brown) (black)

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The remaining gas mixture is collected by upward delivery/downward

displacement of water/over water. It contains about 99% nitrogen and 1% noble
gases.
On a large scale for industrial purposes, nitrogen is got from fractional distillation
of air.
c) Nitrogen from fractional distillation of air.
For commercial purposes nitrogen is got from the fractional of air.
Air is first passed through a dust precipitator/filter to remove dust particles.
The air is then bubbled through either concentrated sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide solution to remove/absorb Carbon(IV) oxide gas.
Chemical equation 2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (aq) +
H2O(l)
Chemical equation 2KOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> K2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l)
Air mixture is the cooled to -25oC.At this temperature, water (vapour ) liquidifies
and then solidify to ice and thus removed.
The air is further cooled to -200oC during which it forms a blue liquid.
The liquid is then heated. Nitrogen with a boiling point of -196oC distils first then
Argon at-186oC and then finally Oxygen at -183oC boils last.

c) School laboratory preparation of Nitrogen.

The diagram below shows the set up of the school laboratory preparation of
nitrogen gas.

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d.Properties of Nitrogen gas(Questions)

1.Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation of
nitrogen gas.
Chemical equation NH4Cl (s) + NaNO2(s)->NaCl (g)+ NH4NO2 (s)
Chemical equation NH4NO2 (s) -> N2 (g) + H2O
(l)
2. State three physical properties of nitrogen gas.
- colourless, odourless, less dense than air ,neutral and slightly soluble in water
3. State and explain the observation made when a burning magnesium ribbon
is lowered in a gas jar containing nitrogen gas.
Observation; It continues burning with a blight blindening flame forming white
ash.
Explanation
Magnesium burns to produce enough heat /energy to reacts with nitrogen to form
white magnesium nitride.
Chemical equation3Mg (s) + N2 (g) -> Mg3N2 (s)
(white ash/solid)
4. State two main uses of nitrogen gas
-manufacture of ammonia from Haber process
- As a refrigerant in storage of semen for Artificial insemination.
B. OXIDES OF NITROGEN
Nitrogen forms three main oxides:
i)Nitrogen(I) oxide(N2O)
ii) Nitrogen(II) oxide (NO)
iii) Nitrogen (IV) oxide( NO2)

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i) Nitrogen (I) oxide(N2O)

a) Occurrence
Nitrogen (I) oxide does not occur naturally but prepared in a laboratory.
b)Preparation
The set up below shows the set up of apparatus that can be used to prepare
Nitrogen (I) oxide in a school laboratory.

c) Properties of nitrogen (I) oxide (Questions)

1. Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation of
Nitrogen (I) oxide.
Chemical equation NH4NO2(s) -> H2O (l) + N2O (g)
2.a) State and explain three errors made in the above set up
-Oxygen is being generated instead of Nitrogen (I) oxide.
Ammonium Nitrate(V) should be used instead of potassium manganate(VI)
and manganese(IV)oxide.
b) State three physical properties of Nitrogen (I) oxide.
-slightly soluble in water.
-colourless
-odourless
-less dense than air
-slightly sweet smell

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3. State and explain the observation made when a burning magnesium ribbon
is lowered in a gas jar containing Nitrogen (I) oxide.
Observation - Continues to burn with a bright flame
-White solid/residue is formed
Explanation-Magnesium burns in air to produce enough heat/energy split/break
Nitrogen (I) oxide gas into free Nitrogen and oxygen then continues to burn in
oxygen to form white solid/ash of Magnesium oxide.
Chemical equation
Mg(s) + N2O (g)-> MgO (s) + N2(g)

4. State and explain the observation made when the following non metals are
burnt then lowered in a gas jar containing Nitrogen (I) oxide.
a) Carbon/charcoal
Observation - Continues to burn with an orange glow
-colorless gas is formed that forms white precipitate with lime water.
Explanation-Carbon/charcoal burns in air to produce enough heat/energy
split/break Nitrogen (I) oxide gas into free Nitrogen and oxygen then continues to
burn in oxygen to form carbon (IV) oxide gas. Carbon (IV) oxide gas reacts to form
a white precipitate with lime water.
Chemical equation C(s) + 2N2O (g)-> CO2 (g) + 2N2(g)
b) Sulphur powder
Observation - Continues to burn with a blue flame
-colorless gas is formed that turn orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) to
green.
Explanation-Sulphur burns in air to produce enough heat/energy split/break
Nitrogen (I) oxide gas into free Nitrogen and oxygen then continues to burn in
oxygen to form sulphur (IV) oxide gas. Sulphur (IV) oxide gas turns orange
acidified potassium dichromate (VI) to green.
Chemical equation S(s) + 2N2O (g)-> SO2 (g) + 2N2(g)
5. State two uses of nitrogen (I) oxide
-As laughing gas because as anesthesia the patient regain consciousness
laughing hysterically after surgery.
-improves engine efficiency.
6. State three differences between nitrogen (I) oxide and oxygen
-Oxygen is odourless while nitrogen (I) oxide has faint sweet smell
-Both relight/rekindle a glowing wooden splint but Oxygen can relight a
feeble glowing splint while nitrogen (I) oxide relights well lit splint.

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-Both are slightly soluble in water but nitrogen (I) oxide is more soluble.
ii) Nitrogen (II) oxide (NO)
a) Occurrence
Nitrogen (II) oxide does not occur naturally but prepared in a laboratory.
b)Preparation
The set up below shows the set up of apparatus that can be used to prepare
Nitrogen (II) oxide in a school laboratory.

c) Properties of nitrogen (II) oxide (Questions)

1. Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation
of Nitrogen (II) oxide.
Chemical equation 3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) -> 4H2O (l)+2NO (g) +2Cu(NO3)2(aq)
Chemical equation 3Zn(s) + 8HNO3(aq) -> 4H2O (l)+2NO (g) +2Zn(NO3)2(aq)
Chemical equation 3Mg(s) + 8HNO3(aq) -> 4H2O (l)+2NO (g)+2Mg(NO3)2(aq)
2. State three physical properties of Nitrogen (II) oxide.
-insoluble in water.
-colourless
-odourless
-denser dense than air
-has no effect on both blue and red litmus papers
2. State and explain the observation made when a burning magnesium
ribbon is lowered in a gas jar containing Nitrogen (II) oxide.
Observation - Continues to burn with a bright flame
-White solid/residue is formed

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Explanation-Magnesium burns in air to produce enough heat/energy split/break

Nitrogen (II) oxide gas into free Nitrogen and oxygen then continues to burn in
oxygen to form white solid/ash of Magnesium oxide.
Chemical equation 2Mg(s) + 2NO (g)-> 2MgO (s) + N2(g)
3. State and explain the observation made when the following non metals
are burnt then lowered in a gas jar containing Nitrogen (II) oxide.
a) Carbon/charcoal
Observation - Continues to burn with an orange glow
-colorless gas is formed that forms white precipitate with lime water.
Explanation-Carbon/charcoal burns in air to produce enough heat/energy
split/break Nitrogen (II) oxide gas into free Nitrogen and oxygen then continues to
burn in oxygen to form carbon (IV) oxide gas.Carbon (IV) oxide gas reacts to form
a white precipitate with lime water.
Chemical equation C(s) + 2NO (g)-> CO2 (g) + N2(g)
b) Sulphur powder
Observation - Continues to burn with a blue flame
-colorless gas is formed that turn orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) to
green.
Explanation-Sulphur burns in air to produce enough heat/energy split/break
Nitrogen (II) oxide gas into free Nitrogen and oxygen then continues to burn in
oxygen to form sulphur (IV) oxide gas.Sulphur (IV) oxide gas turns orange
acidified potassium dichromate (VI) to green.
Chemical equation S(s) + N2O (g)-> SO2 (g) + N2(g)
c) Phosphorus
Observation - Continues to produce dense white fumes
Explanation-Phosphorus burns in air to produce enough heat/energy split/break
Nitrogen (II) oxide gas into free Nitrogen and oxygen then continues to burn in
oxygen to form dense white fumes of phosphorus (V) oxide gas.
Chemical equation 4P(s) + 10NO (g)-> 2P2O5(g) + 5N2(g)
5. State one use of nitrogen (II) oxide
As an intermediate gas in the Ostwalds process for manufacture of nitric(V) gas.
6. State and explain the observation made when nitrogen (II) oxide is exposed
to the atmosphere.
Observation–brown fumes produced/evolved that turn blue litmus paper red.
Explanation- Nitrogen (II) oxide gas on exposure to air is quickly oxidized by the
air/ oxygen to brown nitrogen (IV) oxide gas. Nitrogen (IV) oxide gas is an acidic
gas.

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Chemical equation 2NO (g)+ O2(g)-> 2NO2 (g)

(colorless) (brown)
ii) Nitrogen (IV) oxide (NO2)
a) Occurrence
Nitrogen (IV) oxide occurs -naturally from active volcanic areas.
-formed from incomplete combustion of the internal combustion engine of
motor vehicle exhaust fumes.
-from lightening
b)Preparation
The set up below shows the set up of apparatus that can be used to prepare
Nitrogen (IV) oxide in a school laboratory.

c) Properties of nitrogen (IV)oxide (Questions)

1. Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation of
Nitrogen (II) oxide.
Chemical equation Cu(s) + 4HNO3(aq) -> 2H2O (l)+2NO 2(g) +Cu(NO3)2(aq)
Chemical equation Zn(s) + 4HNO3(aq) -> 2H2O (l)+2NO 2(g) +Zn(NO3)2(aq)
Chemical equation Fe(s) + 4HNO3(aq) -> 2H2O (l)+2NO 2(g) +Fe(NO3)2(aq)
2. State three physical properties of Nitrogen (IV) oxide.
-soluble/dissolves in water.
-brown in colour
-has pungent irritating poisonous odour/smell
-denser dense than air
-turns blue litmus papers to red

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3. State and explain the observation made when Nitrogen (IV) oxidegas is
bubbled in water.
Observation–The gas dissolves and thus brown colour of the gas fades
-A colourless solution is formed
-solution formed turns blue litmus papers to red
-solution formed has no effect on red
Explanation-Magnesium burns in air to produce enough heat/energy split/break
Nitrogen (IV) oxide gas dissolves then react with water to form an acidic mixture
of nitric(V) acid andnitric(III) acid.
Chemical equationH2O (l) + 2NO 2(g)->HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
(nitric(V) acid) (nitric(III) acid)
4. State and explain the observation made when a test tube containing
Nitrogen (IV) oxide is cooled then heated gently then strongly.
Observation on cooling
-Brown colour fades
-Yellow liquid formed
Observation on gentle heating
-Brown colour reappears
-Yellow liquid formed changes to brown fumes/gas
Observation on gentle heating
-Brown colour fades
-brown fumes/gas changes to a colourless gas
Explanation-Brown nitrogen (IV) oxide gas easily liquefies to yellow dinitrogen
tetraoxide liquid.When the yellow dinitrogen tetraoxide liquid is gently heated it
changes back to the brown nitrogen (IV) oxidegas.When the brown nitrogen (IV)
oxide gas is strongly heated it decomposes to colourless mixture of Nitrogen (II)
oxide gas and Oxygen.
Chemical equation O2(s) + 2NO (g) ===== 2NO2 (g) ===== N2O4(l)
(colourless gases) (brown gas) (yellow
liquid)
5. State and explain the observation made when a burning magnesium ribbon
is lowered in a gas jar containing Nitrogen (IV) oxide.
Observation - Continues to burn with a bright flame
-White solid/residue is formed
-Brown fumes/colour fades

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Explanation-Magnesium burns in air to produce enough heat/energy split/break

brown Nitrogen (IV) oxide gas into free colourless Nitrogen and oxygen then
continues to burn in oxygen to form white solid/ash of Magnesium oxide.
Chemical equation 4Mg(s) + 2NO 2(g)-> 4MgO (s) + N2(g)
4. State and explain the observation made when the following non metals are
burnt then lowered in a gas jar containing Nitrogen (IV) oxide.
a) Carbon/charcoal
Observation - Continues to burn with an orange glow
-Brown fumes/colour fades
-colorless gas is formed that forms white precipitate with lime water.
Explanation-Carbon/charcoal burns in air to produce enough heat/energy
split/break brown Nitrogen (IV) oxide gas into free colourless Nitrogen and
oxygen then continues to burn in oxygen to form carbon (IV) oxide gas.Carbon
(IV) oxide gas reacts to form a white precipitate with lime water.
Chemical equation2C(s) + 2NO 2(g)-> 2CO2 (g) + N2(g)
b) sulphur powder
Observation - Continues to burn with a blue flame
-Brown fumes/colour fades
-colorless gas is formed that turn orange acidified potassium
dichromate (VI) to green.
Explanation-Sulphur burns in air to produce enough heat/energy split/break brown
Nitrogen (IV) oxide gas into free colourless Nitrogen and oxygen then continues to
burn in oxygen to form sulphur (IV) oxide gas.Sulphur (IV) oxide gas turns orange
acidified potassium dichromate (VI) to green.
Chemical equation2S(s) + 2NO2 (g)-> 2SO2 (g) + N2(g)
c) Phosphorus
Observation- Continues to produce dense white fumes
-Brown fumes/colour fades
Explanation-Phosphorus burns in air to produce enough heat/energy split/break
brown Nitrogen (IV) oxide gas into free colourless Nitrogen and oxygen then
continues to burn in oxygen to form dense white fumes of phosphorus (V) oxide
gas.
Chemical equation 8P(s) + 10NO2 (g)-> 4P2O5(g) + 5N2(g)
5. State two uses of nitrogen (IV) oxide
-In theOstwald process for industrial manufacture of nitric (V) gas.
-In the manufacture of T.N.T explosives

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6. State and explain the observation made when nitrogen (II) oxide is exposed
to the atmosphere.
Observation–brown fumes produced/evolved that turn blue litmus paper red.
Explanation- Nitrogen (II) oxide gas on exposure to air is quickly oxidized by the
air/ oxygen to brown nitrogen (IV) oxide gas. Nitrogen (IV) oxide gas is an acidic
gas.
Chemical equation 2NO (g) + O2(g) -> 2NO2 (g)
(colourless) (brown)

C. AMMONIA (NH3)
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen only. It is therefore a hydride
of nitrogen.
a) Occurrence
Ammonia gas occurs -naturally from urine of mammals and excretion of birds
-formed in the kidney of human beings
b)Preparation
The set up below shows the set up of apparatus that can be used to prepare dry
Ammonia gas in a school laboratory.
Set up method 1

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1. Write the equation for the reaction taking place in:

a) Method 1
Chemical equation
Ca (OH)2(s) + NH4 Cl(s)->CaCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
b)Method 2
Chemical equation
NaOH (aq) + NH4 Cl(aq) -> NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
2. State three physical properties of ammonia.
-has a pungent choking smell of urine
-Colourless
-Less dense than air hence collected by upward delivery
-Turns blue litmus paper blue thus is the only naturally occurring basic gas
(at this level)

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3. Calcium oxide is used as the drying agent. Explain why calcium chloride
and concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid cannot be used to dry the gas.
-Calcium chloride reacts with ammonia forming the complex compound
CaCl2.8H2O.
Chemical equation CaCl2 (s) + 8NH3(g) -> CaCl2 .8NH3(g)
-Concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid reacts with ammonia forming
ammonium sulphate(VI) salt compound
Chemical equation 2NH3(g) +H2SO4(l) ->(NH4)2SO4(aq)
4. Describe the test for the presence of ammonia gas.
Using litmus paper:
Dip moist/damp/wet blue and red litmus papers in a gas jar containing a gas
suspected to be ammonia.The blue litmus paper remain blue and the red litmus
paper turns blue.Ammonia is the only basic gas.(At this level)
Using hydrogen chloride gas
Dip a glass rod in concentrated hydrochloric acid. Bring the glass rod near the
mouth of a gas jar suspected to be ammonia. White fumes (of ammonium
chloride)are produced/evolved.
5. Describe the fountain experiment to show the solubility of ammonia.
Ammonia is very soluble in water.
When a drop of water is introduced into flask containing ammonia, it dissolves all
the ammonia in the flask. If water is subsequently allowed into the flask through a
small inlet, atmospheric pressure forces it very fast to occupy the vacuum forming
a fountain. If the water contains three/few drops of litmus solution, the litmus
solution turns blue because ammonia is an alkaline/basic gas. If the water contains
three/few drops of phenolphthalein indicator, the indicator turns pink because
ammonia is an alkaline/basic gas. Sulphur(IV)oxide and hydrogen chloride gas are
also capable of the fountain experiment . If the water contains three/few drops of
phenolphthalein indicator, the indicator turns colourless because both Sulphur(IV)
oxide and hydrogen chloride gas are acidic gases.

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6. State and explain the observation made when hot platinum /nichrome wire
is placed over concentrated ammonia solution with Oxygen gas bubbled into
the mixture.
Observations
Hot platinum /nichrome wire continues to glow red hot.
Brown fumes of a gas are produced.
Explanation
Ammonia reacts with Oxygen on the surface of the wire .This reaction is
exothermic producing a lot of heat/energy that enables platinum wire to glow red
hot. Ammonia is oxidized to Nitrogen(II)oxide gas and water. Hot platinum
/nichrome wire acts as catalyst to speed up the reaction. Nitrogen(II)oxide gas is
further oxidized to brown Nitrogen(IV)oxide gas on exposure to air.
Chemical equation
(i)4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) -Pt-> 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
(ii)2NO(g) + O2(g) -> 2NO2(g)
7. Ammonia gas was ignited in air enriched with Oxygen gas. State and
explain the observations made
Observations
- Ammonia gas burns with a green flame
-Colourless gas produced
Explanation
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Ammonia gas burns with a green flame in air enriched with Oxygen to from
Nitrogen gas and water.
Chemical equation
2NH3(g) + O2(g) -> N2(g) + 3H2O(l)
8. Dry ammonia was passed through heated copper(II)Oxide as in the set up
below.

(a)State the observations made in tube K

-Colour changes from black to brown
-Colourless liquid droplet form on the cooler parts of tube K
(b)(i)Identify liquid L.
-Water/ H2O(l)
(ii)Explain a chemical and physical test that can be used to identify liquid
L.
Chemical test
(i) Add three/few drops of liquid L into anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI).
Colour changes from white to blue.
Explanation-Water changes white anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI) to
blue hydrated copper(II)sulphate(VI)
(ii) Add three/few drops of liquid L into anhydrous cobalt(II)Chloride.
Colour changes from blue to pink.
Explanation-Water changes blue anhydrous cobalt(II)Chloride to pink
hydrated cobalt(II)Chloride.
Physical test

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(i)Heat the liquid. It boils at 100oC at sea level (1atmosphere

pressure/760mmHg pressure, 101300Pa,101300Nm-2).
(ii)Cool the liquid. It freezes at 0.0oC .
(iii)Determine the density. It is 1.0gcm-3
(c)Write the equation for the reaction that take place.
2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s) -> N2(g) + 3H2O(l) + 3Cu(s)
(black) (brown)
2NH3(g) + 3PbO(s) -> N2(g) + 3H2O(l) + 3Pb(s)
(brown when hot) (grey)
8.(a)What is aqueous ammonia
Aqueous ammonia is formed when ammonia gas is dissolved in water.
NH3(g) + (aq) -> NH3(aq)
A little NH3(aq) reacts with ammonia water to form ammonia solution(NH4OH)

NH3 (aq) + H2O(l) OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq)

This makes a solution of aqueous ammonia is a weak base /alkali unlike other
two alkalis.
9.Using dot and cross to represent outer electrons show the bonding in:
(a) NH3

(b) NH4+

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(c)NH4Cl

10.Name four uses of ammonia

(i)In the manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers.
(ii) In the manufacture of nitric(V)acid from Ostwalds process.
(iii)As a refrigerant in ships and warehouses.
(iv)In softening hard water.
(v)In the solvay process for the manufacture of sodium carbonate.
(vi)In the removal of grease and stains.
11.(a)Calculate the percentage of Nitrogen in the following fertilizers:
(i) (NH4)2SO4
Molar mass of (NH4)2SO4 = 132g
Mass of N in (NH4)2SO4= 28g
% of N => 28 x 100 = 21.2121%
132
(ii) (NH4)3PO4
Molar mass of (NH4)3PO4 = 149g

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Mass of N in (NH4)3PO4= 42g

% of N => 42 x 100 = 28.1879%
149
(b)State two advantages of fertilizer a (i) over a (ii) above.
(i)Has higher % of Nitrogen
(ii)Has phosphorus which is necessary for plant growth.
(c) Calculate the mass of Nitrogen in a 50kg bag of:
(i) (NH4)2SO4
% of N in (NH4)2SO4 = 21.2121%
Mass of N in 50 kg (NH4)2SO4= 21.2121 x 50 = 10.6 kg
100
(ii) NH4NO3
Molar mass of NH4NO3 = 80g
Mass of N in (NH4)3PO4= 28g
% of N => 28 x 100 = 35%
80
% of N in NH4NO3 = 35%
Mass of N in 50 kg (NH4)2SO4= 35 x 50 = 17.5 kg
100
NH4NO3 therefore has a higher mass of Nitrogen than (NH4)2SO4
d).Manufacture of Ammonia /Haber process
Most of the Ammonia produced for industrial purposes uses the Haber process
developed by the German Scientist Fitz Haber.
(i)Raw materials
The raw materials include:
(i)Nitrogen from Fractional distillation of air from the atmosphere.
(ii)Hydrogen from:
I. Water gas-passing steam through heated charcoal
C(s) + H2O(l) -> CO(g) + H2 (g)
II .Passing natural gas /methane through steam.
CH4(g)+ H2O(l) -> CO(g) + 3H2 (g)

(ii)Chemical process
Hydrogen and Nitrogen are passed through a purifier to remove unwanted gases
like Carbon(IV)oxide,Oxygen,sulphur(IV)oxide, dust, smoke which would poison
the catalyst.

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Hydrogen and Nitrogen are then mixed in the ratio of 3:1 respectively. The
mixture is compressed to 200-250atmoshere pressure to liquidify. The liquid
mixture is then heated to 400- 450oC.The hot compressed gases are then passed
over finely divided Iron catalyst promoted/impregnated with Al2O3 /K2O
.Promoters increase the efficiency of the catalyst.

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Optimum conditions in Haber processs

Chemical equation
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ===Fe/Pt=== 2NH3 (g) ∆H = -92kJ
Equilibrium/Reaction rate considerations
(i)Removing ammonia gas once formed shift the equilibrium forward to the right
to replace the ammonia. More/higher yield of ammonia is attained.
(ii)Increase in pressure shift the equilibrium forward to the right where there is
less volume/molecules. More/higher yield of ammonia is attained. Very high
pressures raise the cost of production because they are expensive to produce and
maintain. An optimum pressure of about 200atmospheres is normally used.

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(iii)Increase in temperature shift the equilibrium backward to the left because the
reaction is exothermic (∆H = -92kJ) . Ammonia formed decomposes back to
Nitrogen and Hydrogen to remove excess heat therefore a less yield of ammonia is
attained. Very low temperature decreases the collision frequency of Nitrogen and
Hydrogen and thus the rate of reaction too slow and uneconomical.
An optimum temperature of about 450oC is normally used.
(iv)Iron and platinum can be used as catalyst. Platinum is a better catalyst but
more expensive and easily poisoned by impurities than Iron. Iron is promoted
/impregnated with AluminiumOxide(Al2O3) to increase its surface area/area of
contact with reactants and thus efficiency. The catalyst does not increase the yield
of ammonia but it speed up its rate of formation.
e) Nitric(V)acid (HNO3)
a)Introduction.
Nitric(V)acid is one of the mineral acids .There are three mineral acids;
Nitric(V)acid, sulphuric(VI)acid and hydrochloric acid. Mineral acids do not occur
naturally but are prepared in a school laboratory and manufactured at industrial
level.
b) School laboratory preparation
Nitric(V)acid is prepared in a school laboratory from the reaction of Concentrated
sulphuric(VI)acid and potassium nitrate(V) below.

(c)Properties of Concentrated Nitric (V)acid(Questions)

1.Write an equation for the school laboratory preparation of nitric(V)acid.
KNO3(s) + H2SO4(l) -> KHSO4(s) + HNO3(l)

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2.Sodium nitrate(V)can also be used to prepare nitric(V)acid. State two

reasons why potassium nitrate(V) is preferred over Sodium nitrate(V).
(i) Potassium nitrate(V) is more volatile than sodium nitrate(V) and therefore
readily displaced from the less volatile concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid
(ii) Sodium nitrate(V) is hygroscopic and thus absorb water . Concentrated
sulphuric(VI)acid dissolves in water. The dissolution is a highly exothermic
process.
3. An all glass apparatus /retort is used during the preparation of nitric(V)
acid. Explain.
Hot concentrated nitric(V) acid vapour is highly corrosive and attacks rubber cork
apparatus if used.
4. Concentrated nitric(V) acid is colourless . Explain why the prepared sample
in the school laboratory appears yellow.

Hot concentrated nitric(V) acid decomposes to brown nitrogen(IV)oxide and

Oxygen gases.
4HNO3(l/g) -> 4NO2(g) + H2O (l) +O2(g)
Once formed the brown nitrogen(IV)oxide dissolves in the acid forming a yellow
solution .
5. State and explain the observation made when concentrated nitric (V) acid is
heated.
Observation
Brown fumes are produced.
Colourless gas that relights/rekindles glowing splint
Explanation
Hot concentrated nitric(V) acid decomposes to water, brown nitrogen(IV)oxide
and Oxygen gases. Oxygen gas is not visible in the brown fumes of nitrogen (IV)
oxide.
4HNO3(g) -> 4NO2(g) + H2O (l) +O2(g)
6. Explain the observations made when:
(a) About 2cm3 of Iron(II)sulphate(VI) solution is added about 5 drops of
concentrated nitric(V) acid and the mixture then heated/warmed in a test
tube.
Observation
(i)Colour changes from green to brown.
(ii)brown fumes /gas produced on the upper parts of the test tube.
Explanation

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Concentrated nitric(V) acid is a powerful/strong oxidizing agent. It

oxidizes green Fe2+ ions in FeSO4 to brown/yellow Fe3+ .The acid is reduced to
colourless Nitrogen(II)oxide.
Chemical equation:
6FeSO4(aq) + 3H2SO4 (aq) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 3Fe2(SO4) 3 (aq)+ 4H2O + 2NO(g)
Colourless Nitrogen(II)oxide is rapidly further oxidized to brown
Nitrogen(IV)oxide by atmospheric oxygen.
Chemical equation:
2NO(g) + O(g) -> 2NO2 (g)
(colourless) (brown)
(b) A spatula full of sulphur powder in a clean dry beaker was added to
10cm3 concentrated nitric (V) acid and then heated gently/warmed.
Observation
(i)Yellow colour of sulphur fades.
(ii) Brown fumes /gas produced.
Explanation
Concentrated nitric(V) acid is a powerful/strong oxidizing agent. It
oxidizes yellow sulphur to colourless concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid. The acid is
reduced to brown Nitrogen(IV)oxide gas.
Chemical equation:
S(s) + 6HNO3(l) -> 4NO2(g) + H2O (l) +H2SO4(l)
(c) A few/about 1.0g pieces of copper turnings/Zinc granules/ Magnesium
ribbon are added 10cm3 of concentrated nitric(V) acid in a beaker.
Observation
(i) Brown fumes /gas produced.
(ii) Blue solution formed with copper turnings
(iii) Colourless solution formed with Zinc granules/Magnesium ribbon
Explanation
Concentrated nitric (V) acid is a powerful/strong oxidizing agent. It oxidizes
metals to their metal nitrate (VI) salts. The acid is reduced to brown Nitrogen (IV)
oxide gas.
Chemical equation:
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(l) -> 2NO2(g) + H2O (l) + Cu(NO3) 2 (aq)
Zn(s) + 4HNO3(l) -> 2NO2(g) + H2O (l) + Zn(NO3) 2 (aq)
Mg(s) + 4HNO3(l) -> 2NO2(g) + H2O (l) + Mg(NO3) 2 (aq)
Pb(s) + 4HNO3(l) -> 2NO2(g) + H2O (l) + Pb(NO3) 2 (aq)
Ag(s) + 2HNO3(l) -> NO2(g) + H2O (l) + AgNO3 (aq)

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(d)Properties of Dilute Nitric (V)acid(Questions)

(i)What is dilute nitric(v)acid
When concentrated nitric(v)acid is added to over half portion of water ,it is
relatively said to be dilute. A dilute solution is one which has more solvent/water
than solute/acid. The number of moles of the acid are present in a large
amount/volume of the solvent.This makes the molarity /number of moles present in
one cubic decimeter of the solution to be low e.g. 0.02M.
If more water is added to the acid until the acid is too dilute to be diluted further
then an infinite dilute solution if formed.
(ii))1cm length of polished Magnesium ribbon was put is a test tube
containing 0.2M dilute nitric(v)acid. State and explain the observation made.
Observation
-Effervescence/bubbling/fizzing
-Colourless gas produced that extinguish burning splint with an explosion/pop
sound
-Colourless solution formed
-Magnesium ribbon dissolves/decrease in size
Explanation
Dilute dilute nitric(v)acid reacts with Magnesium to form hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> H2 (g) + Mg(NO3) 2 (aq)
With other reactive heavy metals, the hydrogen gas produced is rapidly oxidized to
water.
Chemical equation 3Pb(s) + 8HNO3(aq) -> 4H2O (l)+2NO (g) +2Pb(NO3)2(aq)
Chemical equation 3Zn(s) + 8HNO3(aq) -> 4H2O (l)+2NO (g) +2Zn(NO3)2(aq)
Chemical equation 3Fe(s) + 8HNO3(aq) -> 4H2O (l)+2NO (g) +2Fe(NO3)2(aq)
Hydrogen gas therefore is usually not prepared in a school laboratory using
dilute nitric (v)acid.
(iii)A half spatula full of sodium hydrogen carbonate and Copper(II)
carbonate were separately to separate test tubes containing 10cm3 of 0.2M
dilute nitric (V) acid.
Observation
-Effervescence/bubbling/fizzing
-Colourless gas produced that forms a white precipitate with lime water.
-Colourless solution formed with sodium hydrogen carbonate.
- Blue solution formed with Copper(II) carbonate.
Explanation

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Dilute dilute nitric (v)acid reacts with Carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form
Carbon(IV)oxide, water and nitrate(V)salt
CuCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> H2O (l) + Cu(NO3) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g)
ZnCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> H2O (l) + Zn(NO3) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g)
CaCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> H2O (l) + Ca(NO3) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g)
PbCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> H2O (l) + Pb(NO3) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g)
FeCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> H2O (l) + Fe(NO3) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g)
NaHCO3 (s) + HNO3(aq) -> H2O (l) + NaNO3 (aq) + CO2 (g)
KHCO3 (s) + HNO3(aq) -> H2O (l) + KNO3 (aq) + CO2 (g)
NH4HCO3 (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> H2O (l) + NH4NO3 (aq) + CO2 (g)
Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2H2O (l) + Ca(NO3) 2 (aq) + 2CO2 (g)
Mg(HCO3) 2 (aq) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2H2O (l) + Mg(NO3) 2 (aq) + 2CO2 (g)
(iii) 25.0cm3 of 0.1M Nitric(V) acid was titrated with excess 0.2M sodium
hydroxide solution using phenolphthalein indicator.
I. State the colour change at the end point
Colourless
II. What was the pH of the solution at the end point. Explain.
pH 1/2/3
A little of the acid when added to the base changes the colour of the
indicator to show the end point. The end point therefore is acidic with low pH of
Nitric(V) acid. Nitric(V) acid is a strong acid with pH 1/2/3.
III. Calculate the number of moles of acid used.
Number of moles = molarity x volume => 0.1 x 25 = 2.5 x 10-3moles
1000 1000
IV. Calculate the volume of sodium hydroxide used
Volume of sodium hydroxide in cm3
= 1000 x Number of moles => 1000x 2.5 x 10-3 = 12.5cm3
Molarity 0.2
(e)Industrial large scale manufacture of Nitric (V) acid
(i)Raw materials
1. Air/Oxygen
Oxygen is got from fractional distillation of air
Ammonia from Haber process.
2. Chemical processes

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Air from the atmosphere is passes through electrostatic precipitators/filters to

remove unwanted gases like Nitrogen, Carbon (IV) oxide, dust, smoke which may
poison the catalyst. The ammonia -air mixture is compressed to 9 atmospheres to
reduce the distance between reacting gases.
The mixture is passed through the heat exchangers where a temperature of 850oC-
900oC is maintained.
The first reaction takes place in the catalytic chamber where Ammonia reacts with
the air to form Nitrogen (II) Oxide and water.
Optimum condition in Ostwald’s process
Chemical equation
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) === Pt/Rh === 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g) ∆H = -950kJ
The reaction is reversible and exists in dynamic equilibrium where the products
reform back the reactants. The following factors are used to increase the
yield/amount of Nitrogen (II) oxide:
(i)Removing Nitrogen (II) oxide gas once formed shift the equilibrium forward to
the right to replace the Nitrogen (II) oxide.
More/higher yield of Nitrogen (II) oxide is attained as reactants try to return the
equilibrium balance.
(ii)Increase in pressure shift the equilibrium backward to the left where there are
less volume/molecules.
Less/lower yield of Nitrogen (II) oxide is attained.
Very low pressures increases the distance between reacting NH3 and O2 molecules.
An optimum pressure of about 9 atmospheres is normally used.
Cooling the mixture condenses the water vapour to liquid water
(iii)Increase in temperature shift the equilibrium backward to the left because the
reaction is exothermic (∆H = -950kJ).
Nitrogen (II) oxide and water vapour formed decomposes back to Ammonia and
Oxygen to remove excess heat therefore a less yield of Nitrogen (II) oxide is
attained.
Very low temperature decreases the collision frequency of Ammonia and Oxygen
and thus the rate of reaction too slow and uneconomical.
An optimum temperature of about 900oC is normally used.
(iv)Platinum can be used as catalyst.
Platinum is very expensive. It is:
-promoted with Rhodium to increase the surface area/area of contact.
-added/coated on the surface of asbestos to form Platonized –asbestos to reduce the
amount/quantity used.

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The catalyst does not increase the yield of Nitrogen (II) Oxide but it speed up its
rate of formation.
Nitrogen (II) oxide formed is passed through an oxidation reaction chamber where
more air oxidizes the Nitrogen (II) Oxide to Nitrogen (IV) Oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2NO (g) + O2 (g) -> 2NO2 (g)
Nitrogen (IV) Oxide gas is passed up to meet a downward flow of water in the
absorption chamber. The gas reacts with water to form a mixture of Nitric (V) and
Nitric (III) acids
Chemical equation.
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) -> HNO2 (as) + HNO3 (as)
Excess air is bubbled through the mixture to oxidize Nitric (III)/ HNO2 (as) to
Nitric (V)/HNO3 (as)
Chemical equation.
O2 (g) + 2HNO2 (as) -> 2HNO3 (as)
Overall chemical equation in the absorption chamber.
O2 (g) + 4NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) -> 4HNO3 (as)
The acid is 65% concentrated. It is made 100% concentrated by either:
(i) fractional distillation or
(ii) added to concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid to remove the 35% of water.

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 344

A factory uses 63.0 kg of 68% pure nitric (V) acid per day to produce an
ammonium fertilizer for an agricultural county. If the density of the acid is
1.42 gcm-3, calculate:
(i) the concentration of the acid used in moles per litre.
Molar mass HNO3 = 63
Method 1
Moles of HNO3 in 1cm3 = Mass in 1cm3 1.42 => 1.42 = 0.0225 moles
Molar mass HNO3 63
Molarity = Moles x 1000=>0.0225 moles x10000 = 22.5molesdm-3/M
1 cm3
100% = 22.5molesdm-3/M
68% = 68 x 22.5 = 15.3M/ molesdm-3
100
Method 2
Moles of HNO3 in 1000cm3 = Mass in 1000cm3 =>1.42 x1000

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Molar mass HNO3 63

=22.5397 molesdm-3/M

100% = 22.5397 molesdm-3/M

68% = 68 x 22.5397 = 15.327 molesdm-3
100
(ii) the volume of ammonia gas at r.t.p used. (H=1.0, N=14.0, O=16.0, one mole
of gas = 24 dm-3 at r.t.p)
Chemical equation
HNO3 (as) + NH3 (g) -> NH4NO3 (as)
Mole ratio HNO3 (as): NH3 (g) = 1: 1
1 mole HNO3 (as) -> 24dm3 NH3 (g)
15.327 mole HNO3 (as) ->15.327 mole x 24 dm3 = 367.848dm3
1dm3
(iii) the number of crops which can be applied the fertilizer if each crop
requires 4.0g.
HNO3 (aq) + NH3 (g) -> NH4NO3 (aq)
Molar mass NH4NO3 =80 g
Mole ratio HNO3: NH4NO3 = 1: 1
Mass of HNO3 in 63.0 kg = 68% x 63 =42.84kg
1 mole HNO3 (aq) =63g -> 80g NH4NO3
(42.84x1000) g HNO3 (aq) -> (42.84x1000) g x 80
63
= 54400g
Mass of fertilizer = 54400g = 13600 crops
Mass per crop 4.0
E. NITRATE (V) NO3- and NITRATE (III) NO2- Salts
Nitrate (V) /NO3- and Nitrate (III) /NO2- are salts derived from Nitric (V)/HNO3
and Nitric (III)/HNO2 acids. Both HNO3 and HNO2 are monobasic acids with only
one ignitable hydrogen in a molecule.
Only KNO2, NaNO2 and NH4NO2 exist. All metallic nitrate (V) salts exist.
All Nitrate (V) /NO3- and Nitrate (III) /NO2- are soluble/dissolve in water.
(a)Effect of heat on Nitrate (V) /NO3- and Nitrate (III) /NO2- salts (Test for
presence of Nitrate (V) /NO3- ions in solid state)
1. All Nitrate (III) /NO2- salts are not affected by gentle or strong heating except
ammonium nitrate (III) NH4NO2.

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Ammonium nitrate (III) NH4NO2 is a colourless solid that decompose to form

Nitrogen gas and water.
Chemical equation
NH4NO2 (s) -> H2O (l) + N2 (g)
This reaction is used to prepare small amounts of Nitrogen in a school
laboratory.
2. All Nitrate (V) /NO3- salts decompose on strong heating:
Experiment
Put ½ spatula full of sodium nitrate (V) into a test tube. Place moist blue/red
litmus papers on the mouth of the test tube. Heat strongly when test tube is slanted.
Test the gases produced using glowing splint
Caution (i) Wear safety gas mask and hand gloves
(ii)Lead (II) nitrate (V) decomposes to Lead (II) oxide that reacts and
fuses with the test tube permanently.
Repeat with potassium nitrate(V), copper(II) nitrate(V), Lead(II)nitrate(V), silver
nitrate(V), Zinc nitrate(V), Magnesium nitrate(V) and Ammonium nitrate(V).
Observations
Cracking sound
Brown fumes/gas produced except in potassium nitrate (V) and Sodium nitrate (V)
Glowing splint relights/rekindles but feebly in Ammonium nitrate(V).
Black solid residue with copper(II) nitrate(V)
White residue/solid with sodium nitrate(V), potassium nitrate(V),silver nitrate(V),
Magnesium nitrate(V)
Yellow residue/solid when hot but white on cooling with Zinc nitrate(V)
Brown residue/solid when hot but yellow on cooling with Lead(II)nitrate(V)
Explanation
1. Potassium nitrate(V) and Sodium nitrate(V) decomposes on strong heating to
form potassium nitrate(III) and Sodium nitrate(III) producing Oxygen gas. Oxygen
gas relights/rekindles a glowing splint.
Chemical equation.
2KNO3(s) -> 2KNO2(s) + O2 (g)
2NaNO3(s) -> 2NaNO2(s) + O2 (g)
2.Heavy metal nitrate(V)salts decomposes to form the oxide, brown nitrogen (IV)
oxide and Oxygen gas.
Copper(II)oxide is black.Zinc oxide is yellow when hot and white when cool/cold.
Lead(II)oxide is yellow when cold/cool and brown when hot/heated.

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Hydrated copper(II)nitrate is blue. On heating it melts and dissolves in its water of

crystallization to form a green solution. When all the water of crystallization has
evaporated,the nitrate(V)salt decomposes to black Copper(II)oxide and a mixture of
brown nitrogen(IV)oxide gas and colourless Oxygen gas.
Chemical equation
2Cu(NO3)2(s) -> 2CuO (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(s)
2Ca(NO3)2(s) -> 2CaO (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(s)
2Zn(NO3)2(s) -> 2ZnO (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(s)
2Mg(NO3)2(s) -> 2MgO (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(s)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) -> 2PbO (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(s)
2Fe(NO3)2(s) -> 2FeO (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(s)

Silver nitrate(V)and Mercury(II)nitrate decomposes to the corresponding metal and

a mixture of brown nitrogen(IV)oxide gas and colourless Oxygen gas.
Chemical equation
2AgNO3 (s) -> 2Ag (s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(s)
Hg(NO3)2(s) -> Hg(l) + 2NO2(g) + O2(s)
The production/evolution of brown fumes of Nitrogen(IV)oxide gas on
heating a salt is a confirmatory test for presence of NO3- ions of heavy metals
(b)Brown ring test (Test for presence of Nitrate(V) /NO3- ions in aqueous/
solution state)
Experiment
Place 5cm3 of Potassium nitrate(V)solution onto a clean test tube. Add 8 drops of
freshly prepared Iron(II)sulphate(VI)solution. Swirl/ shake.
Using a test tube holder to firmly slant and hold the test tube, carefully add 5cm3
of Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid down along the side of test tube.Do not shake
the test tube contents.
Caution: Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is highly corrosive.
Observation.
Both Potassium nitrate(V)and freshly prepared Iron(II)sulphate (VI)do not form
layers
On adding Concentrated Sulphuric(VI)acid,two layers are formed.
A brown ring is formed between the layers.

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Explanation
All nitrate(V)salts are soluble. They form a miscible mixture when added freshly
prepared Iron(II)sulphate(VI)solution. Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid is denser
than the miscible mixture thus settle at the bottom.
At the junction of the layers, the acid reacts with nitrate(V)salts to form
Nitric(V)acid/HNO3. Nitric(V)acid/HNO3 is reduced to Nitrogen (II)oxide by the
Iron(II)sulphate(VI) salt to form the complex compound Nitroso-
iron(II)sulphate(VI)/FeSO4.NO . Nitroso-iron(II)sulphate(VI) is brown in colour.It
forms a thin layer at the junction between concentrated sulphuric (VI)acid and the
miscible mixture of freshly prepared Iron(II) sulphate(VI) and the nitrate(V)salts as
a brown ring.
Chemical equation
FeSO4(aq) + NO(g) -> FeSO4.NO(aq)
(Nitroso-iron(II)sulphate(VI)complex)
The brown ring disappear if shaken because concentrated sulphuric (VI)acid mixes
with the aqueous solution generating a lot of heat which decomposes Nitroso-
iron(II)sulphate(VI)/FeSO4.NO to iron(II)sulphate(VI) and Nitrogen(II)oxide.
Chemical equation
FeSO4.NO(aq) ->FeSO4(aq) + NO(g) ->
Iron(II)sulphate(VI) solution is easily/readily oxidized to iron(III)sulphate(VI) on
exposure to air/oxygen. The brown ring test thus require freshly prepared Iron(II)
sulphate(VI) solution
(c)Devardas alloy test (Test for presence of Nitrate(V) /NO3- ions in aqueous/
solution state)
Experiment
Place 5cm3 of Potassium nitrate(V)solution onto a clean test tube. Add 5 drops of
sodium hydroxide solution. Swirl/ shake. Add a piece of aluminium foil to the
mixture.Heat.Test any gases produced using both blue and red litmus papers.
Observation. Inference
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Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing
colourless gas that has a pungent smell of urine NO3-
Blue limus paper remain blue
Red litmus paper turn red.

Explanation
The Devardas alloy test for NO3- ions in solution was developed by the Italian
scientist Artulo Devarda(1859-1944)
When a NO3-salt is added sodium hydroxide and aluminium foil, effervescence of
ammonia gas is a confirmatory test for NO3- ions.

CHEMISTRY OF SULPHUR
A.SULPHUR (S)
Sulphur is an element in Group VI Group 16)of the Periodic table . It has atomic
number 16 and electronic configuration 16 and valency 2 /divalent and thus forms
the ion S2-
A. Occurrence.
Sulphur mainly occurs:
(i) as free element in Texas and Louisiana in USA and Sicily in Italy.
(ii)Hydrogen sulphide gas in active volcanic areas e.g. Olkaria near
Naivasha in Kenya
(iii)as copper pyrites(CuFeS2) ,Galena (PbS,Zinc blende(ZnS))and iron
pyrites(FeS2) in other parts of the world.
B. Extraction of Sulphur from Fraschs process
Suphur occurs about 200 metres underground. The soil structure in these areas is
usually weak and can easily cave in.
Digging of tunnels is thus discouraged in trying to extract the mineral.
Sulphur is extracted by drilling three concentric /round pipes of diameter of ratios
2:8: 18 centimeters.
Superheated water at 170oC and 10atmosphere pressure is forced through the
outermost pipe.
The high pressures ensure the water remains as liquid at high temperatures instead
of vapour of vapour /gas.
The superheated water melts the sulphur because the melting point of sulphur is
lower at about at about 115oC.
A compressed air at 15 atmospheres is forced /pumped through the innermost pipe.

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The hot air forces the molten sulphur up the middle pipe where it is collected and
solidifies in a large tank.
It is about 99% pure.
Diagram showing extraction of Sulphur from Fraschs Process

C. Allotropes of Sulphur.
1. Sulphur exists as two crystalline allotropic forms:
(i)Rhombic sulphur
(ii)Monoclinic sulphur
Rhombic sulphur Monoclinic sulphur
Bright yellow crystalline solid Pale yellow crystalline solid
Has a melting point of 113oC Has a melting point of 119oC
-3
Has a density of 2.06gcm Has a density of 1.96gcm-3
o
Stable below 96 C Stable above 96oC

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Has octahedral structure Has a needle-like structure

Rhombic sulphur and Monoclinic sulphur have a transition temperature of
96oC.This is the temperature at which one allotrope changes to the other.

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2. Sulphur exists in non-crystalline forms as:

(i)Plastic sulphur-
Plastic sulphur is prepared from heating powdered sulphur to boil then pouring a
thin continuous stream in a beaker with cold water. A long thin elastic yellow
thread of plastic sulphur is formed .If left for long it turn to bright yellow
crystalline rhombic sulphur.
(ii)Colloidal sulphur-
Colloidal sulphur is formed when sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) is added
hydrochloric acid to form a yellow precipitate.
D. Heating Sulphur.
A molecule of sulphur exists as puckered ring of eight atoms joined by covalent
bonds as S8.

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On heating the yellow sulphur powder melts at 113oC to clear amber liquid with
low viscosity and thus flows easily.
On further heating to 160oC the molten liquid darkens to a brown very viscous
liquid that does not flow easily.
This is because the S8 rings break into S8 chain that join together to form very long
chains made of over 100000 atoms of Sulphur.
The long chains entangle each other reducing their mobility /flow and hence
increases their viscosity.
On continued further heating to above 160oC, the viscous liquid darkens but
becomes more mobile/flows easily and thus less viscous.
This is because the long chains break to smaller/shorter chains.
At 444oC, the liquid boils and forms brown vapour of a mixture of S8 ,S6 ,S2
molecules that solidifies to S8 ring of “flowers of sulphur” on the cooler parts.
Summary of changes on heating sulphur
Observation on heating Explanation/structure of Sulphur
Solid sulphur Puckered S8 ring

Heat to 113oC Puckered S8 ring in liquid form (low

Amber yellow liquid viscosity/flow easily)

Puckered S8 ring break/opens then

Heat to 160oC join to form long chains that
Liquid darkens entangle (very high viscosity/very
low rate of flow)

Heat to 444oC Mixture of S8 ,S6 ,S2 vapour

Liquid boils to brown

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vapour
Puckered S8 ring

Cool to room temperature

Yellow sublimate
(Flowers of Sulphur)

E. Physical and Chemical properties of Sulphur.(Questions)

1. State three physical properties unique to Sulphur
Sulphur is a yellow solid, insoluble in water, soluble in carbon
disulphide/tetrachloromethane/benzene, poor conductor of heat and electricity. It
has a melting point of 115oC and a boiling point of 444oC.
2. Moist/damp/wet blue and red litmus papers were put in a gas jar
containing air/oxygen. Burning sulphur was then lowered into the gas jar.
State and explain the observation made.
Observations
-Sulphur melts then burns with a blue flame
Colourless gas produced that has a pungent smell
Red litmus paper remains red. Blue litmus paper turns red.
Explanation
Sulphur burns in air and faster in Oxygen to form Sulphur(IV)Oxide gas and
traces/small amount of Sulphur(VI)Oxide gas. Both oxides react with water to form
the corresponding acidic solution i.e
(i) Sulphur(IV)Oxide gas reacts with water to form sulphuric(IV)acid
(ii) Sulphur(VI)Oxide gas reacts with water to form sulphuric(VI)acid
Chemical equation
S(s) + O2(g) -> SO2(g) (Sulphur(IV)Oxide gas)
2S(s) + 3O2(g) -> 2SO3(g) (Sulphur(VI)Oxide gas traces)
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq) ( sulphuric(IV)acid)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO4 (aq) ( sulphuric(VI)acid).
3. Iron filings were put in a test tube containing powdered sulphur then heated
on a Bunsen flame. Stop heating when reaction starts. State and explain the
observations made. Test the effects of a magnet on the mixture before and
after heating. Explain.
Observations
Before heating, the magnet attracts iron filings leaving sulphur
After heating, the magnet does not attract the mixture.

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After heating, a red glow is observed that continues even when heating is stopped..
Black solid is formed.
Explanation Iron
is attracted to a magnet because it is ferromagnetic.
When a mixture of iron and sulphur is heated, the reaction is exothermic giving out
heat energy that makes the mixture to continue glowing even after stopping
heating.
Black Iron(II)sulphide is formed which is a compound and thus not ferromagnetic.
Chemical equation Fe(s) + S(s)
-> FeS(s) (Exothermic reaction/ -∆H)
Heated powdered heavy metals combine with sulphur to form black sulphides.
Cu(s) + S(s) -> CuS(s)
Zn(s) + S(s) -> ZnS(s)
Pb(s) + S(s) -> PbS(s)
4.The set up below show the reaction of sulphur on heated concentrated
sulphuric(VI)acid.

(i)State and explain the observation made.

Observation
Yellow colour of sulphur fades
Orange colour of potassium dichromate(VI)paper turns to green.
Explanation
Hot concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid oxidizes sulphur to sulphur (IV)oxide gas. The
oxide is also reduced to water. Traces of sulphur (VI)oxide is formed.
Chemical equation
S(s) + 3H2 SO4 (l) -> 3SO2(g) + 3H2O(l) +SO3(g)
Sulphur (IV)oxide gas turns Orange potassium dichromate(VI)paper to green.
(ii)State and explain the observation made if concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid
is replaced with concentrated Nitric (V) acid in the above set up.
Observation
Yellow colour of sulphur fades

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Colurless solution formed

Brown fumes/gas produced.
Explanation
Hot concentrated Nitric(V)acid oxidizes sulphur to sulphuric (VI)acid. The Nitric
(V) acid is reduced to brown nitrogen(IV)oxide gas.
Chemical equation
S(s) + 6HNO3 (l) -> 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) +H2SO4 (l)
NB:
Hydrochloric acid is a weaker oxidizing agent and thus cannot oxidize sulphur like
the other mineral acids.
5. State three main uses of sulphur .
Sulphur is mainly used in:
(i)Contact process for the manufacture/industrial/large scale production of
concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid.
(ii)Vulcanization of rubber to make it harder, tougher, stronger, and more
durable.
(iii)Making gun powder and match stick heads
(iv) As ointments to treat fungal infections
6. Revision Practice
The diagram below represents the extraction of sulphur by Fraschs process.
Use it to answer the questions that follow.
M
L N

(a)Name the substances that passes through:

M Superheated water at 170oC and 10 atmosphere pressure
L Hot compressed air
N Molten sulphur
(b)What is the purpose of the substance that passes through L and M?
M- Superheated water at 170oC and 10 atmosphere pressure is used to melt
the sulphur
L- Hot compressed air is used to force up the molten sulphur.

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(c) The properties of the two main allotropes of sulphur represented by letters
A and B are given in the table below. Use it to answer the questions that
follow.
A B
Appearance Bright yellow Pale yellow
Density(gcm-3) 1.93 2.08
o
Melting point( C) 119 113
Stability Above 96oC Below 96oC
I.What are allotropes?
Different forms of the same element existing at the same temperature and
pressure without change of state.
II. Identify allotrope:
A. Monoclinic sulphur
B . Rhombic sulphur
III. State two main uses of sulphur.
-Manufacture of sulphuric(VI)acid
-as fungicide
-in vulcanization of rubber to make it harder/tougher/ stronger
-manufacture of dyes /fibres

(d)Calculate the volume of sulphur (IV)oxide produced when 0.4 g of sulphur

is completely burnt in excess air.(S = 32.0 ,I mole of a gas occupies 24 dm3 at
room temperature)
Chemical equation
S(s) + O2(g) -> SO2(g)
Mole ratio S: SO2 = 1:1

Method 1
32.0 g of sulphur -> 24 dm3 of SO2(g)
0.4 g of sulphur -> 0.4 g x 24 dm3 = 0.3 dm3
32.0 g
Method 2
Moles of sulphur used = Mass of sulphur => 0.4 = 0.0125 moles
Molar mass of sulphur 32
Moles of sulphur used = Moles of sulphur(IV)oxide used=>0.0125 moles
Volume of sulphur(IV)oxide used = Moles of sulphur(IV)oxide x volume of one
mole of gas =>0.0125 moles x 24 dm3 = 0.3 dm3

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B.COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR
The following are the main compounds of sulphur:
(i) Sulphur(IV)oxide
(ii) Sulphur(VI)oxide .
(iii) Sulphuric(VI)acid
(iv) Hydrogen Sulphide
(v) Sulphate(IV)/SO32- and Sulphate(VI)/ SO42- salts
(i) Sulphur(IV)oxide(SO2)
(a) Occurrence
Sulphur (IV)oxide is found in volcanic areas as a gas or dissolved in water from
geysersand hot springs in active volcanic areas of the world e.g. Olkaria and Hells
gate near Naivasha in Kenya.
(b) School laboratory preparation
In a Chemistry school laboratory Sulphur (IV)oxide is prepared from the reaction
of
Method 1:Using Copper and Sulphuric(VI)acid.

Method 2:Using Sodium Sulphate(IV) and hydrochloric acid.

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(c)Properties of Sulphur(IV)oxide(Questions)
1. Write the equations for the reaction for the formation of sulphur (IV)oxide
using:
(i)Method 1
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l) -> CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(s) + 2H2SO4(l) -> ZnSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Mg(s) + 2H2SO4(l) -> MgSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Fe(s) + 2H2SO4(l) -> FeSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Calcium ,Lead and Barium will form insoluble sulphate(VI)salts that will cover
unreacted metals stopping further reaction thus producing very small
amount/quantity of sulphur (IV)oxide gas.
(ii)Method 2
Na2SO3(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaCl(aq ) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
K2SO3(aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq ) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
BaSO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> BaCl2(aq ) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
CaSO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq ) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
PbSO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> PbCl2(s ) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
Lead(II)chloride is soluble on heating thus reactants should be heated to prevent it
coating/covering unreacted PbSO3(s)

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2.State the physical properties unique to sulphur (IV)oxide gas.

Sulphur (IV)oxide gas is a colourless gas with a pungent irritating and choking
smell which liquidifies easily. It is about two times denser than air.
3. The diagram below show the solubility of sulphur (IV)oxide gas. Explain.

Sulphur(IV) oxide is very soluble in water.

One drop of water dissolves all the Sulphur (IV) oxide in the flask leaving a
vacuum.
If the clip is removed, atmospheric pressure forces the water up through the narrow
tube to form a fountain to occupy the vacuum.
An acidic solution of sulphuric (IV)acid is formed which turns litmus solution red.
Chemical equation
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq) ( sulphuric(IV)acid turn litmus red)
4.Dry litmus papers and wet/damp/moist litmus papers were put in a gas jar
containing sulphur(IV) oxide gas. State and explain the observations made.
Observations
(i)Dry Blue litmus paper remains blue.
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 361

Dry red litmus paper remains red.

(ii) Wet/damp/moist blue litmus paper turns red.
Moist/damp/wet red litmus paper remains red.
Both litmus papers are then bleached /decolorized.
Explanation
Dry sulphur(IV) oxide gas is a molecular compound that does not dissociate/ionize
to release H+(aq)ions and thus has no effect on dry blue/red litmus papers.
Wet/damp/moist litmus papers contain water that dissolves /react with dry
sulphur(IV) oxide gas to form a solution of weak sulphuric(IV)acid (H2 SO3 (aq)).
Weak sulphuric(IV)acid(H2 SO3 (aq)) dissociates /ionizes into free H+(aq)ions:
H2 SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32- (aq)
The free H+(aq)ions are responsible for turning blue litmus paper turns red showing
the gas is acidic.
The SO32- (aq) ions in wet/damp/moist sulphur(IV) oxide gas is responsible for
many reactions of the gas.
It is easily/readily oxidized to sulphate(VI) SO42- (aq) ions making sulphur(IV)
oxide gas act as a reducing agent as in the following examples:
(a)Bleaching agent
Wet/damp/moist coloured flowers/litmus papers are bleached/decolorized when put
in sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
This is because sulphur(IV) oxide removes atomic oxygen from the coloured dye/
material to form sulphuric(VI)acid.
Chemical equations
(i)Formation of sulphuric(IV)acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq)
(ii)Decolorization/bleaching of the dye/removal of atomic oxygen.
Method I. H2 SO3 (aq) + (dye + O) -> H2 SO4 (aq) + dye
(coloured) (colourless)
Method II. H2 SO3 (aq) + (dye) -> H2 SO4 (aq) + (dye - O)
(coloured) (colourless)
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas therefore bleaches by reduction /removing oxygen from a
dye unlike chlorine that bleaches by oxidation /adding oxygen.
The bleaching by removing oxygen from Sulphur(IV) oxide gas is temporary.
This is because the bleached dye regains the atomic oxygen from the
atmosphere/air in presence of sunlight as catalyst thus regaining/restoring its
original colour. e.g.
Old newspapers turn brown on exposure to air on regaining the atomic oxygen.

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 362

The bleaching through adding oxygen by chlorine gas is permanent.

(b)Turns Orange acidified potassium dichromate(VI) to green
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas in a test tube containing acidified
potassium dichromate(VI) solution. or;
(ii)Dip a filter paper soaked in acidified potassium dichromate(VI) into a gas jar
containing Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
Observation:
Orange acidified potassium dichromate(VI) turns to green.
Explanation:
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces acidified potassium dichromate(VI) from orange
Cr2O72- ions to green Cr3+ ions without leaving a residue itself oxidized from SO32-
ions in sulphuric(IV) acid to SO42- ions in sulphuric(VI) acid.
Chemical/ionic equation:
(i)Reaction of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas with water
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq)
(ii)Dissociation /ionization of Sulphuric(IV)acid.
H2 SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32- (aq)
(iii)Oxidation of SO32- (aq)and reduction of Cr2O72-(aq)
3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
This is a confirmatory test for the presence of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
Hydrogen sulphide also reduces acidified potassium dichromate(VI) from orange
Cr2O72- ions to green Cr3+ ions leaving a yellow residue.
(c)Decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII)
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas in a test tube containing acidified
potassium manganate(VII) solution. or;
(ii)Dip a filter paper soaked in acidified potassium manganate(VII) into a gas jar
containing Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
Observation:
Purple acidified potassium manganate(VII) turns to colourless/ acidified potassium
manganate(VII) is decolorized.

Explanation:
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces acidified potassium manganate(VII) from purple
MnO4- ions to green Mn2+ ions without leaving a residue itself oxidized from SO32-
ions in sulphuric(IV) acid to SO42- ions in sulphuric(VI) acid.

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Chemical/ionic equation:
(i)Reaction of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas with water
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq)
(ii)Dissociation /ionization of Sulphuric(IV)acid.
H2 SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32- (aq)
(iii)Oxidation of SO32- (aq)and reduction of MnO4- (aq)
5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)
This is another test for the presence of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
Hydrogen sulphide also decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII) from
purple MnO4- ions to colourless Mn2+ ions leaving a yellow residue.
(d)Decolorizes bromine water
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas in a test tube containing bromine water .
or;
(ii)Put three drops of bromine water into a gas jar containing Sulphur(IV) oxide
gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Yellow bromine water turns to colourless/ bromine water is decolorized.
Explanation:
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces yellow bromine water to colourless hydrobromic
acid (HBr) without leaving a residue itself oxidized from SO32- ions in sulphuric
(IV) acid to SO42- ions in sulphuric(VI) acid.
Chemical/ionic equation:
(i)Reaction of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas with water
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq)
(ii)Dissociation /ionization of Sulphuric(IV)acid.
H2 SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32- (aq)
(iii)Oxidation of SO32- (aq)and reduction of MnO4- (aq)
SO32-(aq) + Br2 (aq) + H2O(l) -> SO42-(aq) + 2HBr(aq)
(yellow) (colourless)
This can also be used as another test for the presence of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
Hydrogen sulphide also decolorizes yellow bromine water to colourless leaving a
yellow residue.
(e)Reduces Iron(III) Fe3+ salts to Iron(II) salts Fe2+
Experiment:

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 364

(i)Pass a stream of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas in a test tube containing about 3 cm3 of
Iron (III)chloride solution. or;

(ii)Place about 3cm3 of Iron (III)chloride solution into a gas jar containing
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.Swirl.
Observation:
Yellow/brown Iron (III)chloride solution turns to green
Explanation:
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces Iron (III)chloride solution from yellow/brown Fe3+
ions to green Fe2+ ions without leaving a residue itself oxidized from SO32- ions in
sulphuric(IV) acid to SO42- ions in sulphuric(VI) acid.
Chemical/ionic equation:
(i)Reaction of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas with water
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq)
(ii)Dissociation /ionization of Sulphuric(IV)acid.
H2 SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32- (aq)
(iii)Oxidation of SO32- (aq)and reduction of Fe3+ (aq)
SO32-(aq) + 2Fe3+ (aq) +3H2O(l) -> SO42-(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H+(aq)
(yellow) (green)
(f)Reduces Nitric(V)acid to Nitrogen(IV)oxide gas
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas in a test tube containing about 3 cm3 of
concentrated nitric(V)acid. or;
(ii)Place about 3cm3 of concentrated nitric(V)acid into a gas jar containing
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Brown fumes of a gas evolved/produced.
Explanation:
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces concentrated nitric(V)acid to brown
nitrogen(IV)oxide gas itself oxidized from SO32- ions in sulphuric(IV) acid to SO42-
ions in sulphuric(VI) acid.
Chemical/ionic equation:
SO2(g) + 2HNO3 (l) -> H2 SO4 (l) + NO2 (g)
(brown fumes/gas)

(g)Reduces Hydrogen peroxide to water

Experiment:

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 365

(i)Pass a stream of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas in a test tube containing about 3 cm3 of
20 volume hydrogen peroxide. Add four drops of Barium nitrate(V)or Barium
chloride followed by five drops of 2M hydrochloric acid/ 2M nitric(V) acid.
Observation:
A white precipitate is formed that persist /remains on adding 2M hydrochloric acid/
2M nitric(V) acid.

Explanation:
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces 20 volume hydrogen peroxide and itself oxidized
from SO32- ions in sulphuric(IV) acid to SO42- ions in sulphuric(VI) acid.
When Ba2+ ions in Barium Nitrate(V) or Barium chloride solution is added, a white
precipitate of insoluble Barium salts is formed showing the presence of of either
SO32- ,SO42- ,CO32- ions. i.e.
Chemical/ionic equation:
SO32-(aq) + Ba2+ (aq) -> BaSO3(s)
white precipitate
SO42-(aq) + Ba2+ (aq) -> BaSO4(s)
white precipitate
2- 2+
CO3 (aq) + Ba (aq) -> BaCO3(s)
white precipitate
If nitric(V)/hydrochloric acid is added to the three suspected insoluble white
precipitates above, the white precipitate:
(i) persist/remains if SO42-(aq)ions (BaSO4(s)) is present.
(ii)dissolves if SO32-(aq)ions (BaSO3(s)) and CO32-(aq)ions (BaCO3(s))is
present. This is because:
I. BaSO3(s) reacts with Nitric(V)/hydrochloric acid to produce acidic SO2 gas that
turns Orange moist filter paper dipped in acidified Potassium dichromate to green.
Chemical equation
BaSO3(s) +2H+(aq) -> Ba2+ (aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
I. BaCO3(s) reacts with Nitric(V)/hydrochloric acid to produce acidic CO2 gas that
forms a white precipitate when bubbled in lime water.
Chemical equation
BaCO3(s) +2H+(aq) -> Ba2+ (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

5.Sulphur(IV)oxide also act as an oxidizing agent as in the following examples.

(a)Reduction by burning Magnesium
Experiment

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 366

Lower a burning Magnesium ribbon into agas jar containing Sulphur(IV)oxide gas
Observation
Magnesium ribbon continues to burn with difficulty.
White ash and yellow powder/speck
Explanation
Sulphur(IV)oxide does not support burning/combustion. Magnesium burns to
produce enough heat energy to decompose Sulphur(IV)oxide to sulphur and
oxygen.
The metal continues to burn on Oxygen forming white Magnesium oxide solid/ash.
Yellow specks of sulphur residue form on the sides of reaction flask/gas jar.
During the reaction, Sulphur(IV)oxide is reduced(oxidizing agent)while the metal
is oxidized (reducing agent)
Chemical equation
SO2(g) + 2Mg(s) -> 2MgO(s) + S(s)
(white ash/solid) (yellow speck/powder)
(b)Reduction by Hydrogen sulphide gas
Experiment
Put two drops of water into a gas jar containing dry Sulphur(IV)oxide gas
Bubble hydrogen sulphide gas into the gas jar containing Sulphur(IV)oxide gas.
Or
Put two drops of water into a gas jar containing dry Sulphur(IV)oxide gas
Invert a gas jar full of hydrogen sulphide gas over the gas jar containing
Sulphur(IV)oxide gas. Swirl
Observation
Yellow powder/speck
Explanation
Sulphur(IV)oxide oxidizes hydrogen sulphide to yellow specks of sulphur residue
and itself reduced to also sulphur that form on the sides of reaction flask/gas jar.
A little moisture/water act as catalyst /speeds up the reaction.
Chemical equation
SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) -> 2H2O(l) + 3S(s)
(yellow speck/powder)
6.Sulphur(IV)oxide has many industrial uses. State three.
(i)In the contact process for the manufacture of Sulphuric(VI)acid
(ii)As a bleaching agent of pulp and paper.
(iii)As a fungicide to kill microbes’
(iv)As a preservative of jam, juices to prevent fermentation

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 367

(ii) Sulphur(VI)oxide(SO3)
(a) Occurrence
Sulphur (VI)oxide is does not occur free in nature/atmosphere
(b) Preparation
In a Chemistry school laboratory Sulphur (VI)oxide may prepared from:
Method 1;Catalytic oxidation of sulphur(IV)oxide gas.
Sulphur(IV)oxide gas and oxygen mixture are first dried by being passed through
Concentrated Sulphuric(VI)acid .
The dry mixture is then passed through platinised asbestos to catalyse/speed up the
combination to form Sulphur (VI)oxide gas.
Sulphur (VI)oxide gas readily solidify as silky white needles if passed through a
freezing mixture /ice cold water.
The solid fumes out on heating to a highly acidic poisonous gas.
Chemical equation
2SO2(g) + O2(g) --platinised asbestos--> 2SO3 (g)

Method 2; Heating Iron(II)sulphate(VI) heptahydrate

When green hydrated Iron(II)sulphate(VI) heptahydrate crystals are heated in a
boiling tube ,it loses the water of crystallization and colour changes from green to
white.
Chemical equation
FeSO4.7H2O(s) -> FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
(green solid) (white solid)
On further heating ,the white anhydrous Iron(II)sulphate(VI) solid decomposes to a
mixture of Sulphur (VI)oxide and Sulphur (IV)oxide gas.
Sulphur (VI) oxide readily / easily solidify as white silky needles when the mixture
is passed through a freezing mixture/ice cold water.
Iron(III)oxide is left as a brown residue/solid.
Chemical equation
2FeSO4 (s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO2 (g) + SO3(g)
(green solid) (brown solid)
Caution
On exposure to air Sulphur (VI)oxide gas produces highly corrosive poisonous
fumes of concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid and thus its preparation in a school
laboratory is very risky.
(c) Uses of sulphur(VI)oxide

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 368

One of the main uses of sulphur(VI)oxide gas is as an intermediate product in the

contact process for industrial/manufacture/large scale/production of
sulphuric(VI)acid.
(iii) Sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4)
(a) Occurrence
Sulphuric (VI)acid(H2SO4) is one of the three mineral acids. There are three
mineral acids;
Nitric(V)acid
Sulphuric(VI)acid
Hydrochloric acid.
Mineral acids do not occur naturally but are prepared in a school laboratory and
manufactured at industrial level.
(b)The Contact process for industrial manufacture of H2SO4 .
I. Raw materials
The main raw materials for industrial preparation of Sulphuric(VI)acid include:
(i)Sulphur from Fraschs process or from heating metal sulphide ore like
Galena(PbS),Zinc blende(ZnS)
(ii)Oxygen from fractional distillation of air
(iii)Water from rivers/lakes
II. Chemical processes
The contact process involves four main chemical processes:
(i)Production of Sulphur (IV)oxide

As one of the raw materials, Sulphur (IV)oxide gas is got from the following
sources;
I. Burning/roasting sulphur in air.
Sulphur from Fraschs process is roasted/burnt in air to form Sulphur (IV)oxide gas
in the burners
Chemical equation
S(s) + O2(g) --> SO2 (g)
II. Burning/roasting sulphide ores in air.
Sulphur (IV)oxide gas is produced as a by product in extraction of some metals
like:
- Lead from Lead(II)sulphide/Galena,(PbS)
- Zinc from zinc(II)sulphide/Zinc blende, (ZnS)
- Copper from Copper iron sulphide/Copper pyrites, (CuFeS2)

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 369

On roasting/burning, large amount /quantity of sulphur(IV)oxide is

generated/produced.
Chemical equation
(i)2PbS (s) + 3O2 (g) -> 2PbO(s) + 2SO2 (g)
(ii)2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) -> 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2 (g)
(ii)2CuFeS2 (s) + 4O2 (g) -> 2FeO(s) + 3SO2 (g) + Cu2O(s)
Sulphur(IV)oxide easily/readily liquefies and thus can be transported to a far
distance safely.
(ii)Purification of Sulphur(IV)oxide
Sulphur(IV)oxide gas contain dust particles and Arsenic(IV)oxide as impurities.
These impurities “poison”/impair the catalyst by adhering on/covering its surface.
The impurities are removed by electrostatic precipitation method .
In the contact process Platinum or Vanadium(V)oxide may be used.
Vanadium(V)oxide is preferred because it is :
(i) cheaper/less expensive
(ii) less easily poisoned by impurities
(iii)Catalytic conversion of Sulphur(IV)oxide to Sulphur(VI)oxide
Pure and dry mixture of Sulphur (IV)oxide gas and Oxygen is heated to 450oC in a
heat exchanger.
The heated mixture is passed through long pipes coated with pellets of Vanadium
(V)oxide catalyst.
The close “contact” between the reacting gases and catalyst give the process its
name.
Vanadium (V)oxide catalyse the conversion/oxidation of Sulphur(IV)oxide to
Sulphur(VI)oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2SO2 (g) + O2(g) -- V2O5 --> 2SO2 (g)
This reaction is exothermic (-∆H) and the temperatures need to be maintained at
around 450oC to ensure that:
(i)reaction rate/time taken for the formation of Sulphur(VI)oxide is not too
slow/long at lower temperatures below 450oC
(ii) Sulphur(VI)oxide gas does not decompose back to Sulphur(IV)oxide gas
and Oxygen gas at higher temperatures than 450oC.
(iv)Conversion of Sulphur(VI)oxide of Sulphuric(VI)acid

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 370

Sulphur(VI)oxide is the acid anhydride of concentrated Sulphuric(VI)acid.

Sulphur(VI)oxide reacts with water to form thick mist of fine droplets of
very/highly corrosive concentrated Sulphuric(VI)acid because the reaction is highly
exothermic.
To prevent this, Sulphur (VI)oxide is a passed up to meet downward flow of 98%
Sulphuric(VI)acid in the absorption chamber/tower.
The reaction forms a very viscous oily liquid called Oleum/fuming Sulphuric
(VI) acid/ pyrosulphuric (VI) acid.
Chemical equation
H2SO4 (aq) + SO3 (g) -> H2S2O7 (l)
Oleum/fuming Sulphuric (VI) acid/ pyrosulphuric (VI) acid is diluted carefully
with distilled water to give concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid .
Chemical equation
H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) -> 2H2SO4 (l)
The acid is stored ready for market/sale.
III. Environmental effects of contact process
Sulphur(VI)oxide and Sulphur(IV)oxide gases are atmospheric pollutants that form
acid rain if they escape to the atmosphere.
In the Contact process, about 2% of these gases do not form sulphuric (VI) acid.
The following precautions prevent/minimize pollution from Contact process:
(i)recycling back any unreacted Sulphur(IV)oxide gas back to the heat
exchangers.
(ii)dissolving Sulphur(VI)oxide gas in concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid
instead of water.
This prevents the formation of fine droplets of the corrosive/ toxic/poisonous fumes
of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
(iii)scrubbing-This involves passing the exhaust gases through very
tall chimneys lined with quicklime/calcium hydroxide solid.
This reacts with Sulphur (VI)oxide gas forming harmless calcium(II)sulphate (IV)
/CaSO3
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + SO2(g) --> CaSO3 (aq) + H2O (g)
IV. Uses of Sulphuric(VI)acid
Sulphuric (VI) acid is used:
(i) in making dyes and paint
(ii)as acid in Lead-acid accumulator/battery
(iii) for making soapless detergents

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(iv) for making sulphate agricultural fertilizers

VI. Sketch chart diagram showing the Contact process

(c) Properties of Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid (i) Concentrated sulphuric

(VI) acid is a colourless oily liquid with a density of 1.84gcm-3.It has a boiling
point of 338oC.
(ii) Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is very soluble in water.
The solubility /dissolution of the acid very highly exothermic.
The concentrated acid should thus be diluted slowly in excess water.
Water should never be added to the acid because the hot acid scatters highly
corrosive fumes out of the container.
(iii) Concentrated sulphuric (VI)acid is a covalent compound. It has no free H+
ions.
Free H+ ions are responsible for turning the blue litmus paper red. Concentrated
sulphuric (VI) acid thus do not change the blue litmus paper red.
(iv) Concentrated sulphuric (VI)acid is hygroscopic. It absorbs water from the
atmosphere and do not form a solution.
This makes concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid very suitable as drying agent during
preparation of gases.
(v)The following are some chemical properties of concentrated sulphuric (VI)
acid:
I. As a dehydrating agent
Experiment I;
Put about four spatula end full of brown sugar and glucose in separate 10cm3
beaker.

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 372

Carefully add about 10cm3 of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid .Allow to stand for
about 10 minutes.
Observation;
Colour( in brown sugar )change from brown to black.
Colour (in glucose) change from white to black.
10cm3 beaker becomes very hot.
Explanation
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong dehydrating agent.
It removes chemically and physically combined elements of water(Hydrogen and
Oxygen in ratio 2:1)from compounds.
When added to sugar /glucose a vigorous reaction that is highly exothermic take
place.
The sugar/glucose is charred to black mass of carbon because the acid dehydrates
the sugar/glucose leaving carbon.
Caution
This reaction is highly exothermic that start slowly but produce fine particles of
carbon that if inhaled cause quick suffocation by blocking the lung villi.
Chemical equation
Glucose: C6H12O6(s) --conc.H2SO4--> 6C (s) + 6H2O(l)
(white) (black)
Sugar: C12H22O11(s) --conc.H2SO4--> 12C (s) +11H2O(l)
(brown) (black)
Experiment II;
Put about two spatula end full of hydrated copper(II)sulphate(VI)crystals in a
boiling tube .Carefully add about 10cm3 of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid .Warm
.
Observation;
Colour change from blue to white.
Explanation
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong dehydrating agent.It removes physically
combined elements of water(Hydrogen and Oxygen in ratio 2:1)from hydrated
compounds.
The acid dehydrates blue copper(II)sulphate to white anhydrous copper(II)sulphate
.
Chemical equation
CuSO4.5H2O(s) --conc.H2SO4--> CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O(l)
(blue) (white)

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 373

Experiment III;
Put about 4cm3 of absolute ethanol in a boiling tube .Carefully add about 10cm3 of
concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
Place moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified potassium
dichromate(VI)solution on the mouth of the boiling tube. Heat strongly.
Caution:
Absolute ethanol is highly flammable.
Observation;
Colourless gas produced.
Orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) paper turns to green.
Explanation
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong dehydrating agent.
It removes chemically combined elements of water(Hydrogen and Oxygen in ratio
2:1)from compounds.
The acid dehydrates ethanol to ethene gas at about 170oC.
Ethene with =C=C= double bond turns orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI)
paper turns to green.
Chemical equation
C2H5OH(l) --conc.H2SO4/170oC --> C2H4 (g) + H2O(l)
NB: This reaction is used for the school laboratory preparation of ethene gas
Experiment IV;
Put about 4cm3 of methanoic acid in a boiling tube .Carefully add about 6 cm3 of
concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid. Heat gently
Caution:
This should be done in a fume chamber/open
Observation;
Colourless gas produced.
Explanation
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong dehydrating agent. It removes
chemically combined elements of water (Hydrogen and Oxygen in ratio 2:1)from
compounds.
The acid dehydrates methanoic acid to poisonous/toxic carbon(II)oxide gas.
Chemical equation
HCOOH(l) --conc.H2SO4 --> CO(g) + H2O(l)
NB: This reaction is used for the school laboratory preparation of small amount
carbon (II)oxide gas
Experiment V;

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 374

Put about 4cm3 of ethan-1,2-dioic/oxalic acid in a boiling tube .Carefully add

about 6 cm3 of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid. Pass any gaseous product through
lime water. Heat gently
Caution:
This should be done in a fume chamber/open
Observation;
Colourless gas produced.
Gas produced forms a white precipitate with lime water.
Explanation
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong dehydrating agent.
It removes chemically combined elements of water (Hydrogen and Oxygen in ratio
2:1)from compounds.
The acid dehydrates ethan-1,2-dioic/oxalic acid to a mixture of poisonous/toxic
carbon(II)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases.
Chemical equation
HOOCCOOH(l) --conc.H2SO4 --> CO(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
NB: This reaction is also used for the school laboratory preparation of small
amount carbon (II) oxide gas.
Carbon (IV) oxide gas is removed by passing the mixture through concentrated
sodium/potassium hydroxide solution.

II. As an Oxidizing agent

Experiment I
Put about 2cm3 of Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid into three separate boiling
tubes. Place a thin moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified potassium
dichromate (VI)solution on the mouth of the boiling tube. Put about 0.5g of Copper
turnings, Zinc granule and Iron filings to each boiling tube separately.
Observation;
Effervescence/fizzing/bubbles
Blue solution formed with copper,
Green solution formed with Iron
Colourless solution formed with Zinc
Colourless gas produced that has a pungent irritating choking smell.
Gas produced turn orange moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified
potassium dichromate (VI)solution to green.
Explanation

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 375

Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong oxidizing agent.

It oxidizes metals to metallic sulphate(VI) salts and itself reduced to
sulphur(IV)oxide gas.
Sulphur (IV) oxide gas turn orange moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified
potassium dichromate (VI)solution to green.
CuSO4(aq) is a blue solution. ZnSO4(aq) is a colourless solution. FeSO4(aq) is a
green solution.
Chemical equation
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) --> CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) --> ZnSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Fe(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) --> FeSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Experiment II
Put about 2cm3 of Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid into two separate boiling tubes.
Place a thin moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified potassium dichromate
(VI)solution on the mouth of the boiling tube.
Put about 0.5g of powdered charcoal and sulphur powder to each boiling tube
separately.
Warm.
Observation;
Black solid charcoal dissolves/decrease
Yellow solid sulphur dissolves/decrease
Colourless gas produced that has a pungent irritating choking smell.
Gas produced turn orange moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified
potassium dichromate (VI)solution to green.

Explanation
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong oxidizing agent. It oxidizes non-metals
to non metallic oxides and itself reduced to sulphur(IV)oxide gas. Sulphur (IV)
oxide gas turn orange moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified potassium
dichromate (VI)solution to green.
Charcoal is oxidized to carbon(IV)oxide. Sulphur is oxidized to Sulphur(IV)oxide .
Chemical equation
C(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) --> CO2(aq) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
S(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) --> 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
III. As the least volatile acid

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 376

Study the table below showing a comparison in boiling points of the three mineral
acids
Mineral acid Relative molecula mass Boiling point(oC)
Hydrochloric acid(HCl) 36.5 35.0
Nitric(V)acid(HNO3) 63.0 83.0
Sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) 98.0 333
1.Which is the least volatile acid? Explain
Sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) because it has the largest molecule and joined by
Hydrogen bonds making it to have the highest boiling point/least volatile.
2. Using chemical equations, explain how sulphuric(VI)acid displaces the less
volatile mineral acids.
(i)Chemical equation
KNO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> KHSO4(l) + HNO3(g)
NaNO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> NaHSO4(l) + HNO3(g)
This reaction is used in the school laboratory preparation of Nitric(V) acid (HNO3).
(ii)Chemical equation
KCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> KHSO4(s) + HCl(g)
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> NaHSO4(s) + HCl(g)
This reaction is used in the school laboratory preparation of Hydrochloric acid
(HCl).
(d) Properties of dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.
Dilute sulphuric(VI)acid is made when about 10cm3 of concentrated sulphuric
(VI) acid is carefully added to about 90cm3 of distilled water.
Diluting concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid should be done carefully because the
reaction is highly exothermic.
Diluting concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid decreases the number of moles present in
a given volume of solution which makes the acid less corrosive.
On diluting concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid, water ionizes /dissociates the acid
fully/wholly into two(dibasic)free H+(aq) and SO42-(aq)ions:
H2SO4 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
The presence of free H+(aq)ions is responsible for ;
(i)turn litmus red because of the presence of free H+(aq)ions
(ii)have pH 1/2/3 because of the presence of many free H+(aq)ions hence a
strongly acidic solution.
(iii)Reaction with metals
Experiment:

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 377

Place 5cm3 of 0.2M dilute sulphuric(VI)acid into four separate clean test
tubes. Add about 0.1g of Magnesium ribbon to one test tube. Cover the mixture
with a finger as stopper. Introduce a burning splint on top of the finger and release
the finger “stopper”. Repeat by adding Zinc, Copper and Iron instead of the
Magnesium ribbon.
Observation:
No effervescence/ bubbles/ fizzing with copper
Effervescence/ bubbles/ fizzing with Iron ,Zinc and Magnesium
Colourless gas produced that extinguishes burning splint with a “pop” sound.
Colourless solution formed with Zinc and Magnesium.
Green solution formed with Iron
Explanation:
When a metal higher than hydrogen in the reactivity/electrochemical series is
put in a test tube containing dilute sulphuric(VI)acid, effervescence/
bubbling/ fizzing takes place with evolution of Hydrogen gas.
Impure hydrogen gas extinguishes burning splint with a “pop” sound.
A sulphate (VI) salts is formed. Iron, Zinc and Magnesium are higher than
hydrogen in the reactivity/electrochemical series.
They form Iron (II)sulphate(VI), Magnesium sulphate(VI) and Zinc
sulphate(VI).
. When a metal lower than hydrogen in the reactivity/electrochemical series is
put in a test tube containing dilute sulphuric(VI)acid, there is no
effervescence/ bubbling/ fizzing that take place.
Copper thus do not react with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.
Chemical/ionic equation
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Mg2+ (aq) + H2(g)

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Zn2+ (aq) + H2(g)

Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Fe(s) + H+(aq) --> Fe2+ (aq) + H2(g)

NB:(i) Calcium,Lead and Barium forms insoluble sulphate(VI)salts that

cover/coat the unreacted metals.
(ii)Sodium and Potassium react explosively with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid

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 378

(iv)Reaction with metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

Experiment:
Place 5cm3 of 0.2M dilute sulphuric(VI)acid into four separate clean boiling
tubes. Add about 0.1g of sodium carbonate to one boiling tube. Introduce a burning
splint on top of the boiling tube. Repeat by adding Zinc carbonate, Copper
(II)carbonate and Iron(II)Carbonate in place of the sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Observation:
Effervescence/ bubbles/ fizzing.
Colourless gas produced that extinguishes burning splint.
Colourless solution formed with Zinc carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate
and sodium carbonate.
Green solution formed with Iron(II)Carbonate
Blue solution formed with Copper(II)Carbonate
Explanation:
When a metal carbonate or a hydrogen carbonates is put in a test tube containing
dilute sulphuric(VI)acid, effervescence/ bubbling/ fizzing takes place with
evolution of carbon(IV)oxide gas. carbon(IV)oxide gas extinguishes a burning
splint and forms a white precipitate when bubbled in lime water.
A sulphate (VI) salts is formed.
Chemical/ionic equation
ZnCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
ZnCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Zn2+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CuCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Cu2+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
FeCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> FeSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
FeCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Fe2+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
NaHCO3(s) + H+(aq) --> Na+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Na2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
NaHCO3(s) + H+(aq) --> Na+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(NH4)2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> (NH4)2SO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(NH4)2CO3 (s) + H+(aq) --> NH4+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2NH4HCO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) --> (NH4)2SO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
NH4HCO3(aq) + H+(aq) --> NH4+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
NB:

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 379

Calcium, Lead and Barium carbonates forms insoluble sulphate(VI)salts that

cover/coat the unreacted metals.
(v)Neutralization-reaction of metal oxides and alkalis/bases
Experiment I:
Place 5cm3 of 0.2M dilute sulphuric(VI)acid into four separate clean boiling
tubes. Add about 0.1g of copper(II)oxide to one boiling tube. Stir.
Repeat by adding Zinc oxide, calcium carbonate and Sodium (II)Oxide in place of
the Copper(II)Oxide.
Observation:
Blue solution formed with Copper(II)Oxide
Colourless solution formed with other oxides
Explanation:
When a metal oxide is put in a test tube containing dilute sulphuric(VI)acid, the
oxide dissolves forming a sulphate (VI) salt.
Chemical/ionic equation
ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
ZnO(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Zn2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
CuO(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Cu2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
MgO(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Mg2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
Na2O(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Na2O(s) + 2H+(aq) --> 2Na+ (aq) + H2O(l)
K2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
K2O(s) + H+(aq) --> 2K+ (aq) + H2O(l)
NB:
Calcium, Lead and Barium oxides forms insoluble sulphate(VI)salts that cover/coat
the unreacted metals oxides.
Experiment II:
Fill a burette with 0.1M dilute sulphuric(VI)acid. Pipette 20.0cm3 of 0.1Msodium
hydroxide solution into a 250cm3 conical flask. Add three drops of phenolphthalein
indicator. Titrate the acid to get a permanent colour change. Repeat with0.1M
potassium hydroxide solution inplace of 0.1Msodium hydroxide solution
Observation:
Colour of phenolphthalein changes from pink to colourless at the end point.
Explanation

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 380

Like other (mineral) acids dilute sulphuric(VI)acid neutralizes bases/alkalis to a

sulphate salt and water only.
Colour of the indicator used changes when a slight excess of acid is added to the
base at the end point
Chemical equation:
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) --> Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
OH-(s) + H+(aq) --> H2O(l)
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) --> K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
OH-(s) + H+(aq) --> H2O(l)

2NH4OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) --> (NH4)2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

OH-(s) + H+(aq) --> H2O(l)
(iv) Hydrogen sulphide(H2S)
(a) Occurrence
Hydrogen sulphide is found in volcanic areas as a gas or dissolved in water from
geysers and hot springs in active volcanic areas of the world e.g. Olkaria and Hells
gate near Naivasha in Kenya.
It is present in rotten eggs and human excreta.
(b) Preparation
Hydrogen sulphide is prepared in a school laboratory by heating Iron (II) sulphide
with dilute hydrochloric acid.

(c) Properties of Hydrogen sulphide(Questions)

1. Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation of
Hydrogen sulphide.
Chemical equation: FeS (s) + 2HCl (aq) -> H2S (g) FeCl2 (aq)
2. State three physical properties unique to Hydrogen sulphide.

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 381

Hydrogen sulphide is a colourless gas with characteristic pungent poisonous smell

of rotten eggs. It is soluble in cold water but insoluble in warm water. It is denser
than water and turns blue litmus paper red.
3. Hydrogen sulphide exist as a dibasic acid when dissolved in water. Using a
chemical equation show how it ionizes in aqueous state.
H2S(aq) -> H+(aq) + HS-(aq)
H2S(aq) -> 2H+(aq) + S2- (aq)
Hydrogen sulphide therefore can form both normal and acid salts e.g
Sodium hydrogen sulphide and sodium sulphide both exist
4. State and explain one gaseous impurity likely to be present in the gas jar
containing hydrogen sulphide above.
Hydrogen/ H2
Iron(II)sulphide contains Iron as impurity .The iron will react with dilute
hydrochloric acid to form iron(II)chloride and produce hydrogen gas that mixes
with hydrogen sulphide gas.
5. State and explain the observations made when a filter paper dipped in
Lead(II) ethanoate /Lead (II) nitrate(V) solution is put in a gas jar containing
hydrogen sulphide gas.
Observations
Moist Lead(II) ethanoate /Lead (II) nitrate(V) paper turns black.
Explanation
When hydrogen sulphide is bubbled in a metallic salt solution, a metallic sulphide
is formed.
All sulphides are insoluble black salts except sodium sulphide, potassium sulphide
and ammonium sulphides.
Hydrogen sulphide gas blackens moist Lead (II) ethanoate /Lead (II) nitrate(V)
paper .
The gas reacts with Pb2+ in the paper to form black Lead(II)sulphide.
This is the chemical test for the presence of H2S other than the physical smell of
rotten eggs.
Chemical equations
Pb2+(aq) + H2S -> PbS + 2H+(aq)
(black)
Fe2+(aq) + H2S -> FeS + 2H+(aq)
(black)
Zn2+(aq) + H2S -> ZnS + 2H+(aq)
(black)

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 382

Cu2+(aq) + H2S
-> CuS + 2H+(aq)
(black)
2Cu+(aq) + H2S -> Cu2S + 2H+(aq)
(black)
6. Dry hydrogen sulphide was ignited as below.

Flame A

Dry Hydrogen sulphide gas

(i) State the observations made in flame A

Hydrogen sulphide burns in excess air with a blue flame to form sulphur(IV)oxide
gas and water.
Chemical equation: 2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2H2O(l) + 2SO2(g)
Hydrogen sulphide burns in limited air with a blue flame to form sulphur solid and
water.
Chemical equation: 2H2S(g) + O2(g) -> 2H2O(l) + 2S(s)

7. Hydrogen sulphide is a strong reducing agent that is oxidized to yellow solid

sulphur as precipitate. The following experiments illustrate the reducing
properties of Hydrogen sulphide.
(a)Turns Orange acidified potassium dichromate(VI) to green
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Hydrogen sulphide gas in a test tube containing acidified
potassium dichromate (VI) solution. or;
(ii)Dip a filter paper soaked in acidified potassium dichromate (VI) into a gas jar
containing Hydrogen sulphide gas.
Observation:
Orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) turns to green.
Yellow solid residue.
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces acidified potassium dichromate(VI) from orange
Cr2O72- ions to green Cr3+ ions leaving a yellow solid residue as itself is oxidized to
sulphur.
Chemical/ionic equation:

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 383

4H2S(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +6H+(aq) -> 4S(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)

This test is used for differentiating Hydrogen sulphide and sulphur (IV)oxide gas.
Sulphur(IV)oxide also reduces acidified potassium dichromate(VI) from orange
Cr2O72- ions to green Cr3+ ions without leaving a yellow residue.
(b)Decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII)
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas in a test tube containing acidified
potassium manganate(VII) solution. or;
(ii)Dip a filter paper soaked in acidified potassium manganate(VII) into a gas jar
containing Hydrogen Sulphide gas.
Observation:
Purple acidified potassium manganate(VII) turns to colourless/ acidified potassium
manganate(VII) is decolorized.
Yellow solid residue.
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces acidified potassium manganate(VII) from purple
MnO4- ions to green Mn2+ ions leaving a residue as the gas itself is oxidized to
sulphur.
Chemical/ionic equation:
5H2S(g) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5S (s) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)
This is another test for differentiating Hydrogen sulphide and Sulphur(IV) oxide
gas.
Sulphur(IV) oxide also decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII) from
purple MnO4- ions to colourless Mn2+ ions leaving no yellow residue.
(c)Decolorizes bromine water

Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Hydrogen sulphide gas in a test tube containing bromine water .
or;
(ii)Put three drops of bromine water into a gas jar containing Hydrogen sulphide
gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Yellow bromine water turns to colourless/ bromine water is decolorized.
Yellow solid residue
Explanation:

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 384

Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces yellow bromine water to colourless hydrobromic

acid (HBr) leaving a yellow residue as the gas itself is oxidized to sulphur.
Chemical/ionic equation:
H2 S(g) + Br2 (aq) -> S (s) + 2HBr(aq)
(yellow solution) (yellow solid) (colourless)
This is another test for differentiating Hydrogen sulphide and Sulphur(IV) oxide
gas.
Sulphur(IV) oxide also decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII) from
purple MnO4- ions to colourless Mn2+ ions leaving no yellow residue.
(d)Reduces Iron(III) Fe3+ salts to Iron(II) salts Fe2+
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Hydrogen sulphide gas in a test tube containing about 3 cm3 of
Iron (III)chloride solution. or;
(ii)Place about 3cm3 of Iron (III)chloride solution into a gas jar containing
Hydrogen sulphide gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Yellow/brown Iron (III)chloride solution turns to green.
Yellow solid
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces Iron (III)chloride solution from yellow/brown Fe3+
ions to green Fe2+ ions leaving a yellow residue.The gas is itself oxidized to
sulphur.
Chemical/ionic equation:
H2S(aq) + 2Fe3+ (aq) -> S (s) + Fe2+(aq) + 2H+(aq)
(yellow solution) (yellow residue) (green)
(e)Reduces Nitric(V)acid to Nitrogen(IV)oxide gas
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Hydrogen sulphide gas in a test tube containing about 3 cm3 of
concentrated nitric(V)acid. or;
(ii)Place about 3cm3 of concentrated nitric(V)acid into a gas jar containing
Hydrogen sulphide gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Brown fumes of a gas evolved/produced.
Yellow solid residue

Explanation:

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 385

Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces concentrated nitric(V)acid to brown

nitrogen(IV)oxide gas itself oxidized to yellow sulphur.
Chemical/ionic equation:
H2S(g) + 2HNO3 (l) -> 2H2O(l) + S (s) + 2NO2 (g)
(yellow residue) (brown fumes)
(f)Reduces sulphuric(VI)acid to Sulphur
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Hydrogen sulphide gas in a test tube containing about 3 cm3 of
concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid. or;
(ii)Place about 3cm3 of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid into a gas jar containing
Hydrogen sulphide gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Yellow solid residue
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid to yellow sulphur.
Chemical/ionic equation:
3H2S(g) + H2SO4 (l) -> 4H2O(l) + 4S (s)
(yellow residue)
(g)Reduces Hydrogen peroxide to water
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Hydrogen sulphide gas in a test tube containing about 3 cm3 of
20 volume hydrogen peroxide.
Observation:
Yellow solid residue
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces 20 volume hydrogen peroxide to water and itself
oxidized to yellow sulphur
Chemical/ionic equation:
H2S(g) + H2O2 (l) -> 2H2O(l) + S (s)
(yellow residue)
8.Name the salt formed when:
(i)equal volumes of equimolar hydrogen sulphide neutralizes sodium
hydroxide solution:
Sodium hydrogen sulphide
Chemical/ionic equation:
H2S(g) + NaOH (l) -> H2O(l) + NaHS (aq)

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 386

(ii) hydrogen sulphide neutralizes excess concentrated sodium hydroxide

solution:
Sodium sulphide
Chemical/ionic equation:
H2S(g) + 2NaOH (l) -> 2H2O(l) + Na2S (aq)
Practice
Hydrogen sulphide gas was bubbled into a solution of metallic nitrate(V)salts
as in the flow chart below
Hydrogen sulphide

Brown solution
Blue solution

Green solution
(a)Name Black
thesolid
black solid Copper(II)sulphide
(b)Identify the cation responsible for the formation of:
I. Blue solution Cu2+(aq)
II. Green solution Fe2+(aq)
3+
III. Brown solution Fe (aq)
(c)Using acidified potassium dichromate(VI) describe how you would
differentiate between sulphur(IV)Oxide and hydrogen sulphide
-Bubble the gases in separate test tubes containing acidified Potassium
dichromate(VI) solution.
-Both changes the Orange colour of acidified Potassium dichromate(VI)
solution to green.
-Yellow solid residue/deposit is formed with Hydrogen sulphide
Chemical/ionic equation:
4H2S(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +6H+(aq) -> 4S(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(d)State and explain the observations made if a burning splint is introduced at
the mouth of a hydrogen sulphide generator.
Observation
Gas continues burning with a blue flame
Explanation: Hydrogen sulphide burns in excess air with a blue flame to form
sulphur(IV)oxide gas and water.

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 387

Chemical equation: 2H2S(g)+ 3O2(g) -> 2H2O(l) + 2SO2 (g)

(v)Sulphate (VI) (SO42-)and Sulphate(IV) (SO32-) salts
1. Sulphate (VI) (SO42-) salts are normal and acid salts derived from Sulphuric
(VI)acid H2SO4.
2. Sulphate(IV) (SO32-) salts are normal and acid salts derived from Sulphuric
(IV)acid H2SO3.
3. Sulphuric (VI)acid H2SO4 is formed when sulphur(VI)oxide gas is bubbled in
water.
The acid exist as a dibasic acid with two ionisable hydrogen. It forms therefore the
Sulphate (VI) (SO42-) and hydrogen sulphate (VI) (HSO4-) salts.
i.e.
H2SO4 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
H2SO4 (aq) -> H+(aq) + HSO4 -(aq)
All Sulphate (VI) (SO42-) salts dissolve in water/are soluble except Calcium (II)
sulphate (VI) (CaSO4), Barium (II) sulphate (VI) (BaSO4) and Lead (II) sulphate
(VI) (PbSO4)
All Hydrogen sulphate (VI) (HSO3-) salts exist in solution/dissolved in water.
Sodium (I) hydrogen sulphate (VI) (NaHSO4), Potassium (I) hydrogen sulphate
(VI) (KHSO4) and Ammonium hydrogen sulphate (VI) (NH4HSO4) exist also as
solids.
Other Hydrogen sulphate (VI) (HSO4-) salts do not exist except those of Calcium
(II) hydrogen sulphate (VI) (Ca (HSO4)2) and Magnesium (II) hydrogen sulphate
(VI) (Mg (HSO4)2).
4. Sulphuric (IV)acid H2SO3 is formed when sulphur(IV)oxide gas is bubbled in
water.
The acid exist as a dibasic acid with two ionisable hydrogen. It forms therefore the
Sulphate (IV) (SO32-) and hydrogen sulphate (VI) (HSO4-) salts.
i.e.
H2SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32-(aq)
H2SO3 (aq) -> H+(aq) + HSO3 -(aq)

All Sulphate (IV) (SO32-) salts dissolve in water/are soluble except Calcium (II)
sulphate (IV) (CaSO3), Barium (II) sulphate (IV) (BaSO3) and Lead (II) sulphate
(IV) (PbSO3)

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 388

All Hydrogen sulphate (IV) (HSO3-) salts exist in solution/dissolved in water.

Sodium (I) hydrogen sulphate (IV) (NaHSO3), Potassium (I) hydrogen sulphate
(IV) (KHSO3) and Ammonium hydrogen sulphate (IV) (NH4HSO3) exist also as
solids.
Other Hydrogen sulphate (IV) (HSO3-) salts do not exist except those of Calcium
(II) hydrogen sulphate (IV) (Ca (HSO3)2) and Magnesium (II) hydrogen sulphate
(IV) (Mg (HSO3)2).
5.The following experiments show the effect of heat on sulphate(VI) (SO42-)and
sulphate(IV) (SO32-) salts:
Experiment:
In a clean dry test tube place separately about 1.0g of :
Zinc(II)sulphate (VI), Iron(II)sulphate(VI), Copper(II)sulphate(VI),Sodium (I)
sulphate (VI), Sodium (I) sulphate (IV).Heat gently then strongly. Test any gases
produced using litmus papers.
Observations:
-Colourless droplets of liquid forms on the cooler parts of the test tube in all cases.
-White solid residue is left in case of Zinc (II)sulphate(VI),Sodium (I) sulphate (VI)
and Sodium (I) sulphate (IV).
-Colour changes from green to brown /yellow in case of Iron (II)sulphate(VI)
-Colour changes from blue to white then black in case of Copper (II) sulphate (VI)
-Blue litmus paper remain and blue and red litmus paper remain red in case of
Zinc(II)sulphate(VI), Sodium (I) sulphate (VI) and Sodium (I) sulphate (IV)
-Blue litmus paper turns red and red litmus paper remain red in case of Iron
(II)sulphate(VI) and Copper (II) sulphate (VI).
Explanation
(i)All Sulphate (VI) (SO42-) salts exist as hydrated salts with water of
crystallization that condenses and collects on cooler parts of test tube as a
colourless liquid on gentle heating. e.g.
K2SO4.10H2O(s) -> K2SO4(s) + 10H2O(l)
Na2SO4.10H2O(s) -> Na2SO4(s) + 10H2O(l)
MgSO4.7H2O(s) -> MgSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
CaSO4.7H2O(s) -> CaSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
ZnSO4.7H2O(s) -> ZnSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
FeSO4.7H2O(s) -> FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
Al2(SO4)3.6H2O(s) -> Al2(SO4)3 (s) + 6H2O(l)
CuSO4.5H2O(s) -> CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)

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 389

All Sulphate (VI) (SO42-) salts do not decompose on heating except Iron (II)
sulphate (VI) and Copper (II) sulphate (VI).
(i)Iron (II) sulphate (VI) decomposes on strong heating to produce acidic sulphur
(IV)oxide and sulphur(VI)oxide gases. Iron(III)oxide is formed as a brown /yellow
residue.
Chemical equation
2FeSO4 (s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
This reaction is used for the school laboratory preparation of small amount of
sulphur(VI)oxide gas.
Sulphur (VI) oxide readily /easily solidifies as white silky needles when the
mixture is passed through freezing mixture/ice cold water.
Sulphur (IV) oxide does not.
(ii) Copper(II)sulphate(VI) decomposes on strong heating to black copper (II)
oxide and Sulphur (VI) oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2CuSO4 (s) -> CuO(s) + SO3(g)
This reaction is used for the school laboratory preparation of small amount of
sulphur(VI)oxide gas.
6. The following experiments show the test for the presence of sulphate (VI)
(SO42-)and sulphate(IV) (SO32-) ions in a sample of a salt/compound:
Experiments/Observations:
(a)Using Lead(II)nitrate(V)
I. To about 5cm3 of a salt solution in a test tube add four drops of
Lead(II)nitrate(V)solution. Preserve.

Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt SO42- , SO32- , CO32- , Cl- ions
II. To the preserved sample in (I) above, add six drops of 2M nitric(V) acid .
Preserve.
Observation 1
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- , Cl- ions
Observation 2
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt dissolves SO32- , CO32- , ions
III.(a)To the preserved sample observation 1 in (II) above, Heat to boil.
Observation 1

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Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt persists on boiling SO42- ions
Observation 2
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt dissolves on boiling Cl - ions
.(b)To the preserved sample observation 2 in (II) above, add 4 drops of acidified
potassium manganate(VII) /dichromate(VI).
Observation 1
Observation Inference
(i)acidified potassium SO32- ions
manganate(VII)decolorized
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) turns to green
Observation 2
Observation Inference
(i)acidified potassium manganate(VII) not CO32- ions
decolorized
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) does not turns to green

Experiments/Observations:
(b)Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)chloride
I. To about 5cm3 of a salt solution in a test tube add four drops of Barium(II)
nitrate (V) / Barium(II)chloride. Preserve.
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt SO42- , SO32- , CO32- ions
II. To the preserved sample in (I) above, add six drops of 2M nitric(V) acid .
Preserve.

Observation 1
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- , ions
Observation 2
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt dissolves SO32- , CO32- , ions

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 391

III.To the preserved sample observation 2 in (II) above, add 4 drops of acidified
potassium manganate(VII) /dichromate(VI).
Observation 1
Observation Inference
(i)acidified potassium SO32- ions
manganate(VII)decolorized
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) turns to green
Observation 2
Observation Inference
(i)acidified potassium manganate(VII) not CO32- ions
decolorized
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) does not turns to green

Explanations
Using Lead(II)nitrate(V)
(i)Lead(II)nitrate(V) solution reacts with chlorides(Cl-), Sulphate (VI) salts (SO42- ),
Sulphate (IV)salts (SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the insoluble white
precipitate of Lead(II)chloride, Lead(II)sulphate(VI), Lead(II) sulphate (IV) and
Lead(II)carbonate(IV).
Chemical/ionic equation:
Pb2+(aq) + Cl- (aq) -> PbCl2(s)
Pb2+(aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> PbSO4 (s)
Pb2+(aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> PbSO3 (s)
2+ 2+
Pb (aq) + CO3 (aq) -> PbCO3 (s)

(ii)When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,

- Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and thus their
white precipitates remain/ persists.
- Lead(II) sulphate (IV) and Lead(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the acid to form
soluble Lead(II) nitrate (V) and produce/effervesces/fizzes/bubbles out
sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases respectively.

. Chemical/ionic equation:
PbSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Pb2+(aq) + SO2 (g)
PbCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Pb2+(aq) + CO2 (g)

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(iii)When Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) are heated/warmed;

- Lead(II)chloride dissolves in hot water/on boiling(recrystallizes on cooling)
- Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not dissolve in hot water thus its white precipitate
persists/remains on heating/boiling.
(iv)When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;
- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII) and / or
Orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to green.
Carbon(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)
3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(Orange) (green)
- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium carbonate if
three drops of lime water are added into the reaction test tube when effervescence is
taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases
produced react with the oxidizing agents/lime water.
Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)Chloride
(i)Barium(II)nitrate(V) and/ or Barium(II)chloride solution reacts with Sulphate
(VI) salts (SO42- ), Sulphate (IV)salts (SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the
insoluble white precipitate of Barium(II)sulphate(VI), Barium(II) sulphate (IV) and
Barium(II)carbonate(IV).
Chemical/ionic equation:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> BaSO4 (s)

Ba2+(aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> BaSO3 (s)

Ba2+(aq) + CO32+ (aq) -> BaCO3 (s)

(ii)When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,
- Barium (II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and thus its white precipitates
remain/ persists.
- Barium(II) sulphate (IV) and Barium(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the acid to form
soluble Barium(II) nitrate (V) and produce /effervesces /fizzes/ bubbles out
sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases respectively.

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. Chemical/ionic equation:
BaSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba2+(aq) + SO2 (g)
BaCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba2+(aq) + CO2 (g)
(iii) When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;
- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII) and / or
Orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to green.
Carbon(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)
3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(Orange) (green)
- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium carbonate if
three drops of lime water are added into the reaction test tube when effervescence is
taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases
produced react with the oxidizing agents/lime water.

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Summary test for Sulphate (VI) (SO42-)and Sulphate(IV) (SO32-) salts

Unknown salt

Lead(II)nitrate(V)

White precipitates of Cl-, SO42- ,

SO32- and CO32-

Dilute nitric(V) acid

white ppt dissolves in white ppt persist /remains

SO32- and CO32- in SO32- and CO32-

Acidified KMnO4 Heat to boil

K2Cr2O7 / Lime water

White ppt with Acidified KMnO4 White ppt dissolves White ppt persist
lime water in CO32- decolorized in SO32- on heating in Cl- on heating in SO42-
in CO 2-
Practice revision question
1. Study the flow chart below and use it to answer the questions that follow
Sodium salt solution

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Barium nitrate(VI)
(VI)(aq)
White precipitate

Acidified K2Cr2O7
Dilute HCl

Gas G and colour of solution

Colourless solution B changes orange to green
(a)Identify the:
I: Sodium salt solution
Sodium sulphate(IV)/Na2SO3
II: White precipitate
Barium sulphate(IV)/BaSO3
III: Gas G
Sulphur (IV)Oxide /SO2
IV: Colourless solution H
Barium chloride /BaCl2
(b)Write an ionic equation for the formation of:
I.White precipitate
Ionic equation Ba2+(aq) + SO32-(aq) -> BaSO3(s)
II.Gas G
Ionic equation BaSO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> SO2 (g) + H2O (l) + Ba2+(aq)
III. Green solution from the orange solution
3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(Orange) (green)
2. Study the flow chart below and answer the questions that follow.

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(i)Write equation for the reaction taking place at:

I.The roasting furnace (1mk)
2FeS2 (s) + 5O2 (g) -> 2FeO(s) + 4SO2 (g)
II.The absorption tower (1mk)
H2SO4 (l) + SO3 (g) -> H2S2O7(l)
III.The diluter (1mk)
H2S2O7(l) + H2 O(l) -> 2H2SO4 (l)
(ii)The reaction taking place in chamber K is
SO2 (g) + 1/2O2 (g) SO3 (g)
I. Explain why it is necessary to use excess air in chamber K
To ensure all the SO2 reacts
II.Name another substance used in chamber K
Vanadium(V)oxide
3.(a)Describe a chemical test that can be used to differentiate between sodium
sulphate (IV) and sodium sulphate (VI).
Add acidified Barium nitrate(V)/chloride.
White precipitate formed with sodium sulphate (VI)
No white precipitate formed with sodium sulphate (IV)
(b)Calculate the volume of sulphur (IV) oxide formed when 120 kg of copper is
reacted with excess concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid.(Cu = 63.5 ,1 mole of a gas at
s.t.p =22.4dm3)
Chemical equation
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l) -> CuSO4(aq)+ H2O(l) + SO2 (g)
Mole ratio Cu(s: SO2 (g) = 1:1

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Method 1
1 Mole Cu =63.5 g -> 1 mole SO2 = 22.4dm3
(120 x 1000) g -> (120 x 1000) g x 22.4.dm3)
63.5 g
= 42330.7087
Method 2
Moles of Cu = ( 120 x 1000 ) g =1889.7639 moles
63.5
Moles SO2 = Moles of Cu = 1889.7639 moles
Volume of SO2 = Mole x molar gas volume = (1889.7639 moles x 22.4)
= 42330.7114
4.Use the reaction scheme below to answer the
questions that follow.
Barium nitrate(V)

Acidified Green White precipitate R

K2Cr2O7 solution T
Dilute nitric
(V) acid

Colourless gas
V

[email protected] 162

(a)Identify the:
(i)cation responsible for the green solution T
Cr3+
(ii)possible anions present in white precipitate R
CO32-, SO32-, SO42-
(b)Name gas V
Sulphur (IV)oxide
(c)Write a possible ionic equation for the formation of white precipitate R.
Ba2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) -> BaCO3(s)
Ba2+ (aq) + SO32- (aq) -> BaSO3(s)
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) -> BaSO4(s)

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 398

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1 & 2

Introduction to Organic chemistry
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that studies carbon compounds
present in living things, once living things or synthetic/man-made.
Compounds that makes up living things whether alive or dead mainly contain
carbon. Carbon is tetravalent.
It is able to form stable covalent bonds with itself and many non-metals like
hydrogen, nitrogen ,oxygen and halogens to form a variety of compounds. This is
because:
(i) carbon uses all the four valence electrons to form four strong covalent bond.
(ii)carbon can covalently bond to form a single, double or triple covalent bond
with itself.
(iii)carbon atoms can covalently bond to form a very long chain or ring.
When carbon covalently bond with Hydrogen, it forms a group of organic
compounds called Hydrocarbons
A.HYDROCARBONS (HCs)
Hydrocarbons are a group of organic compounds containing /made up of hydrogen
and carbon atoms only.
Depending on the type of bond that exist between the individual carbon atoms,
hydrocarbon are classified as:
(i) Alkanes
(ii) Alkenes
(iii) Alkynes
(i) Alkanes
(a)Nomenclature/Naming
These are hydrocarbons with a general formula CnH2n+2 where n is the number of
Carbon atoms in a molecule.
The carbon atoms are linked by single bond to each other and to hydrogen atoms.
They include:

n General/ Structural formula Name

Molecular
formula
1 CH4 H Methane

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H C H

2 C2H6 H H Ethane

H C C H

H H

3 C3H8 H H H Propane

H C C C H

H H H

4 C4H10 H H H H Butane

H C C C C H

H H H H

5 C5H12 H H H H H Pentane

H C C C C C H CH3 (CH2)
6CH3

H H H H H

6 C6H14 H H H H H H Hexane

H C C C C C C H CH3 (CH2)
6CH3

H H H H H H

7 C7H16 H H H H H H H Heptane

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H C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H

8 C8H18 H H H H H H H H Octane

H C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H

9 C9H20 H H H H H H H H H Nonane

H C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H H

10 C10H22 H H H H H H H H H H decane

H C C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H H H

Note
1.The general formula/molecular formular of a compound shows the number of
each atoms of elements making the compound e.g.
Decane has a general/molecular formula C10H22 ;this means there are 10 carbon
atoms and 22 hydrogen atoms in a molecule of decane.
2.The structural formula shows the arrangement/bonding of atoms of each
element making the compound e.g
Decane has the structural formula as in the table above ;this means the 1st carbon
from left to right is bonded to three hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom.
The 2nd carbon atom is joined/bonded to two other carbon atoms and two Hydrogen
atoms.
3.Since carbon is tetravalent ,each atom of carbon in the alkane MUST always be
bonded using four covalent bond /four shared pairs of electrons.

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4.Since Hydrogen is monovalent ,each atom of hydrogen in the alkane MUST

always be bonded using one covalent bond/one shared pair of electrons.
5.One member of the alkane differ from the next/previous by a CH2 group.
e.g
Propane differ from ethane by one carbon and two Hydrogen atoms form ethane.
Ethane differ from methane also by one carbon and two Hydrogen atoms
6.A group of compounds that differ by a CH2 group from the next /previous
consecutively is called a homologous series.
7.A homologous series:
(i) differ by a CH2 group from the next /previous consecutively
(ii)have similar chemical properties
(iii)have similar chemical formula that can be represented by a general
formula e.g alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2.
(iv)the physical properties (e.g.melting/boiling points)show steady gradual
change)
8.The 1st four alkanes have the prefix meth_,eth_,prop_ and but_ to
represent 1,2,3 and 4 carbons in the compound. All other use the numeral
prefix pent_,Hex_,hept_ , etc to show also the number of carbon atoms.
9.If one hydrogen atom in an alkane is removed, an alkyl group is formed.e.g

Alkane name molecular Alkyl name Molecula structure

structure CnH2n+1
CnH2n+2
methane CH4 methyl CH3
ethane CH3CH3 ethyl CH3 CH2
propane CH3 CH2 CH3 propyl CH3 CH2 CH2
butane CH3 CH2 CH2 butyl CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2
CH3

(b)Isomers of alkanes
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular general formula but different
molecular structural formula.
Isomerism is the existence of a compounds having the same general/molecular
formula but different structural formula.
The 1st three alkanes do not form isomers.Isomers are named by using the
IUPAC(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of
nomenclature/naming.

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The IUPAC system of nomenclature uses the following basic rules/guidelines:

1.Identify the longest continuous carbon chain to get/determine the parent alkane.
2.Number the longest chain form the end of the chain that is near the branches so
as the branch get the lowest number possible
3. Determine the position, number and type of branches. Name them as methyl,
ethyl, propyl e.tc. according to the number of carbon chains attached to the parent
alkane. Name them fluoro-,chloro-,bromo-,iodo- if they are halogens
4.Use prefix di-,tri-,tetra-,penta-,hexa- to show the number of branches attached to
the parent alkane.
Practice on IUPAC nomenclature of alkanes
(a)Draw the structure of:
(i)2-methylpentane
Procedure
1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain to get/determine the parent alkane.
Butane is the parent name CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
2. Number the longest chain form the end of the chain that is near the branches so
as the branch get the lowest number possible
The methyl group is attached to Carbon “2”
3. Determine the position, number and type of branches. Name them as methyl,
ethyl, propyl e.tc. according to the number of carbon chains attached to the parent
alkane i.e
Position of the branch at carbon “2”
Number of branches at carbon “1”
Type of the branch “methyl” hence
Molecular formula
CH3

CH3 CH CH2 CH3 // CH3 CH (CH3 ) CH2CH3

Structural formula
H H H H

H C C C C H

H H H

H C H

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 403

H
(ii)2,2-dimethylpentane
Procedure
1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain to get/determine the parent alkane.
Butane is the parent name CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
2. Number the longest chain form the end of the chain that is near the branches so
as the branch get the lowest number possible
The methyl group is attached to Carbon “2”
3. Determine the position, number and type of branches. Name them as methyl,
ethyl, propyl e.tc. according to the number of carbon chains attached to the parent
alkane i.e
Position of the branch at carbon “2”
Number of branches at carbon “2”
Type of the branch two“methyl” hence
Molecular formular

CH3

CH3 C CH2 CH3 // CH3 C (CH3 )2 CH2CH3

CH3
Structural formula
H

H C H

H H H

H C C C C H

H H H

H C H

H
(iii) 2,2,3-trimethylbutane

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 404

Procedure
1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain to get/determine the parent alkane.
Butane is the parent name CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
2. Number the longest chain form the end of the chain that is near the branches so
as the branch get the lowest number possible
The methyl group is attached to Carbon “2 and 3”
3. Determine the position, number and type of branches. Name them as methyl,
ethyl, propyl e.tc. according to the number of carbon chains attached to the parent
alkane i.e
Position of the branch at carbon “2 and 3”
Number of branches at carbon “3”
Type of the branch three “methyl” hence
Molecular formular

CH3

CH3 C CH CH3 // CH3 C (CH3 )3 CH2CH3

CH3 CH3
Structural formula
H

H C H

H H

H C C C H

H H
H

H C C H

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 405

H
H C H

H
(iv) 1,1,1,2,2,2-hexabromoethane
Molecular formula
CBr3 CBr3
Structural formula
Br Br

Br C C Br

Br Br
(v) 1,1,1-tetrachloro-2,2-dimethylbutane
CH3

CCl 3 C CH3 // C Cl 3 C (CH3 )2 CH3

CH3
Structural formula
Cl

Cl C Cl

H H

H C C C H

H H
H C H

(c)Occurrence and extraction

Crude oil ,natural gas and biogas are the main sources of alkanes:
(i)Natural gas is found on top of crude oil deposits and consists mainly of methane.

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 406

(ii)Biogas is formed from the decay of waste organic products like animal dung and
cellulose. When the decay takes place in absence of oxygen , 60-75% by volume of
the gaseous mixture of methane gas is produced.
(iii)Crude oil is a mixture of many flammable hydrocarbons/substances. Using
fractional distillation, each hydrocarbon fraction can be separated from the other.
The hydrocarbon with lower /smaller number of carbon atoms in the chain have
lower boiling point and thus collected first.
As the carbon chain increase, the boiling point, viscosity (ease of flow) and
colour intensity increase as flammability decrease. Hydrocarbons in crude oil are
not pure. They thus have no sharp fixed boiling point.
Uses of different crude oil fractions
Carbon atoms in a molecule Common name of Uses of fraction
fraction
1-4 Gas L.P.G gas for
domestic use
5-12 Petrol Fuel for petrol
engines
9-16 Kerosene/Paraffin Jet fuel and domestic
lighting/cooking
15-18 Light diesel Heavy diesel engine
fuel
18-25 Diesel oil Light diesel engine
fuel
20-70 Lubricating oil Lubricating oil to
reduce friction.
Over 70 Bitumen/Asphalt Tarmacking roads
(d)School laboratory preparation of alkanes
In a school laboratory, alkanes may be prepared from the reaction of a sodium
alkanoate with solid sodium hydroxide/soda lime.
Chemical equation:
Sodium alkanoate + soda lime -> alkane + Sodium carbonate
CnH2n+1COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> C n H2n+2 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CnH2n+1 in CnH2n+1COONa(s) to form
C n H2n+2.
Examples
1. Methane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium ethanoate and
soda lime and collecting over water

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Sodium ethanoate + soda lime -> methane + Sodium carbonate

CH3COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> C H4 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3 in CH3COONa(s) to form CH4.
2. Ethane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium propanoate and
soda lime and collecting over water
Sodium propanoate + soda lime -> ethane + Sodium carbonate
CH3 CH2COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> CH3 CH3 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3 CH2 in CH3 CH2COONa (s) to
form CH3 CH3
3. Propane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium butanoate and
soda lime and collecting over water
Sodium butanoate + soda lime -> propane + Sodium carbonate
CH3 CH2CH2COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> CH3 CH2CH3 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3 CH2 CH2 in CH3
CH2CH2COONa (s) to form CH3 CH2CH3
4. Butane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium pentanoate and
soda lime and collecting over water
Sodium pentanoate + soda lime -> butane + Sodium carbonate
CH3 CH2 CH2CH2COONa(s)+NaOH(s) -> CH3 CH2CH2CH3 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3CH2 CH2 CH2 in
CH3 CH2CH2 CH2COONa (s) to form CH3 CH2 CH2CH3
Laboratory set up for the preparation of alkanes

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(d)Properties of alkanes
I. Physical properties
Alkanes are colourless gases, solids and liquids that are not poisonous.
They are slightly soluble in water.
The solubility decrease as the carbon chain and thus the molar mass increase
The melting and boiling point increase as the carbon chain increase.
This is because of the increase in van-der-waals /intermolecular forces as the
carbon chain increase.
The 1st four straight chain alkanes (methane,ethane,propane and butane)are
therefore gases ,the nect six(pentane ,hexane, heptane,octane,nonane, and decane)
are liquids while the rest from unidecane(11 carbon atoms) are solids .
The density of straight chain alkanes increase with increasing carbon chain as the
intermolecular forces increases.
This reduces the volume occupied by a given mass of the compound.
Summary of physical properties of alkanes
Alkane General Melting Boiling Density State at room(298K)
formula point(K) point(K) gcm-3 temperature and pressure
atmosphere (101300Pa)
Methane CH4 90 112 0.424 gas
Ethane CH3CH3 91 184 0.546 gas
Propane CH3CH2CH3 105 231 0.501 gas
Butane CH3(CH2)2CH3 138 275 0.579 gas
Pentane CH3(CH2)3CH3 143 309 0.626 liquid

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Hexane CH3(CH2)4CH3 178 342 0.657 liquid

Heptane CH3(CH2)5CH3 182 372 0.684 liquid
Octane CH3(CH2)6CH3 216 399 0.703 liquid
Nonane CH3(CH2)7CH3 219 424 0.708 liquid
Octane CH3(CH2)8CH3 243 447 0.730 liquid
II.Chemical properties
(i)Burning.
Alkanes burn with a blue/non-luminous non-sooty/non-smoky flame in excess air
to form carbon(IV) oxide and water.
Alkane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess
air/oxygen)
Alkanes burn with a blue/non-luminous no-sooty/non-smoky flame in limited air
to form carbon(II) oxide and water.
Alkane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (limited air)
Examples
1.(a) Methane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in excess air to
form carbon(IV) oxide and water.
Methane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess
air/oxygen)
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) -> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l/g)
(b) Methane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in limited air to
form carbon(II) oxide and water.
Methane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2CO(g) + 4H2O(l/g)
2.(a) Ethane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in excess air to form
carbon(IV) oxide and water.
Ethane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess
air/oxygen)
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) -> 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l/g)
(b) Ethane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in limited air to form
carbon(II) oxide and water.
Ethane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2C2H6(g) + 5O2(g) -> 4CO(g) + 6H2O(l/g)
3.(a) Propane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in excess air to form
carbon(IV) oxide and water.
Propane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess
air/oxygen)

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C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) -> 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l/g)

(b) Ethane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in limited air to form
carbon(II) oxide and water.
Ethane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2C3H8(g) + 7O2(g) -> 6CO(g) + 8H2O(l/g)
ii)Substitution
Substitution reaction is one in which a hydrogen atom is replaced by a halogen in
presence of ultraviolet light.
Alkanes react with halogens in presence of ultraviolet light to form
halogenoalkanes.
During substitution:
(i)the halogen molecule is split into free atom/radicals.
(ii)one free halogen radical/atoms knock /remove one hydrogen from the
alkane leaving an alkyl radical.
(iii) the alkyl radical combine with the other free halogen atom/radical to
form halogenoalkane.
(iv)the chlorine atoms substitute repeatedly in the alkane. Each substitution
removes a hydrogen atom from the alkane and form hydrogen halide.
(v)substitution stops when all the hydrogen in alkanes are replaced with
halogens.
Substitution reaction is a highly explosive reaction in presence of sunlight /
ultraviolet light that act as catalyst.
Examples of substitution reactions
Methane has no effect on bromine or chlorine in diffused light/dark. In sunlight , a
mixture of chlorine and methane explode to form colourless mixture of
chloromethane and hydrogen chloride gas. The pale green colour of chlorine gas
fades.
Chemical equation
1.(a)Methane + chlorine -> Chloromethane + Hydrogen chloride

CH4(g) + Cl2(g) -> CH3Cl (g) + HCl (g)

H H

H C H + Cl Cl -> H C Cl + H Cl

H H

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(b) Chloromethane + chlorine -> dichloromethane + Hydrogen

chloride

CH3Cl (g) + Cl2(g) -> CH2Cl2 (g) + HCl

(g)
H H

H C Cl + Cl Cl -> H C Cl + H Cl

H Cl
(c) dichloromethane + chlorine -> trichloromethane + Hydrogen
chloride
CH2Cl2 (g) + Cl2(g) -> CHCl3 (g) + HCl (g)
Cl H

H C Cl + Cl Cl -> Cl C Cl + H Cl

H Cl
(c) trichloromethane + chlorine -> tetrachloromethane + Hydrogen chloride

CHCl3 (g) + Cl2(g) -> CCl4 (g) + HCl (g)

H Cl

Cl C Cl + Cl Cl -> Cl C Cl + H Cl

Cl Cl
Ethane has no effect on bromine or chlorine in diffused light/dark. In sunlight , a
mixture of bromine and ethane explode to form colourless mixture of
bromoethane and hydrogen chloride gas. The red/brown colour of bromine gas
fades.
Chemical equation
(a)Ethane + chlorine -> Chloroethane + Hydrogen chloride
CH3CH3(g) + Br2(g) -> CH3CH2Br (g) + HBr (g)
H H H H

H C C H + Br Br -> H C C H+H Br

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H H H Br
Bromoethane
H H H Br

H C C H + Br Br -> H C C H+H Br

H Br H Br
1,1-dibromoethane
H Br H Br

H C C H + Br Br -> H C C Br + H
Br

H Br H Br
1,1,1-tribromoethane
H Br H Br

H C C Br + Br Br -> H C C Br + H
Br

H Br Br Br
1,1,1,2-tetrabromoethane
H Br H Br

H C C Br + Br Br -> Br C C Br + H
Br

Br Br Br Br
1,1,1,2,2-pentabromoethane
H Br Br Br

Br C C Br + Br Br -> Br C C Br + H
Br

Br Br Br Br
1,1,1,2,2,2-hexabromoethane
Uses of alkanes

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1.Most alkanes are used as fuel e.g. Methane is used as biogas in homes. Butane is
used as the Laboratory gas.
2.On cracking ,alkanes are a major source of Hydrogen for the manufacture of
ammonia/Haber process.
3.In manufacture of Carbon black which is a component in printers ink.
4.In manufacture of useful industrial chemicals like methanol, methanol, and
chloromethane.
(ii) Alkenes
(a)Nomenclature/Naming
These are hydrocarbons with a general formula CnH2n and C C double
bond as the functional group . n is the number of Carbon atoms in the molecule.
The carbon atoms are linked by at least one double bond to each other and single
bonds to hydrogen atoms.
They include:
n General/ Structural formula Name
Molecular
formula
1 Does not exist

2 C2H6 H H Ethene

H C C H

CH2 CH2

3 C3H8 H H H Propen
e
H C C C H

CH2 CH CH3

4 C4H10 H H H H Butene

H C C C C H

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H H

CH2 CH CH2CH3

5 C5H12 H H H H H Pentene

H C C C C C H

H H H
CH2 CH (CH2)2CH3

6 C6H14 H H H H H H Hexene

H C C C C C C H

H H H H

CH2 CH (CH2)3CH3

7 C7H16 H H H H H H H Hepten
e
H C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H

CH2 CH (CH2)4CH3

8 C8H18 H H H H H H H H Octene

H C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H

CH2 CH (CH2)5CH3

9 C9H20 H H H H H H H H H Nonene

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H C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H

CH2 CH (CH2)6CH3

10 C10H22 H H H H H H H H H H decene

H C C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H

CH2 CH (CH2)7CH3
Note
1.Since carbon is tetravalent ,each atom of carbon in the alkene MUST always be
bonded using four covalent bond /four shared pairs of electrons including at the
double bond.
2.Since Hydrogen is monovalent ,each atom of hydrogen in the alkene MUST
always be bonded using one covalent bond/one shared pair of electrons.
3.One member of the alkene ,like alkanes,differ from the next/previous by a CH2
group.They also form a homologous series.
e.g
Propene differ from ethene by one carbon and two Hydrogen atoms from ethene.
4.A homologous series of alkenes like that of alkanes:
(i) differ by a CH2 group from the next /previous consecutively
(ii)have similar chemical properties
(iii)have similar chemical formula represented by the general formula CnH2n
(iv)the physical properties also show steady gradual change
5.The = C= C = double bond in alkene is the functional group. A functional group
is the reacting site of a molecule/compound.
6. The = C= C = double bond in alkene can easily be broken to accommodate
more two more monovalent atoms. The = C= C = double bond in alkenes make it
thus unsaturated.
7. An unsaturated hydrocarbon is one with a double =C=C= or triple – C C–
carbon bonds in their molecular structure. Unsaturated hydrocarbon easily reacts to
be saturated.

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8.A saturated hydrocarbon is one without a double =C=C= or triple – C C–

carbon bonds in their molecular structure.
Most of the reactions of alkenes take place at the = C = C =bond.

(b)Isomers of alkenes
Isomers are alkenes lie alkanes have the same molecular general formula but
different molecular structural formula.
Ethene and propene do not form isomers. Isomers of alkenes are also named by
using the IUPAC(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of
nomenclature/naming.
The IUPAC system of nomenclature of naming alkenes uses the following basic
rules/guidelines:
1.Identify the longest continuous/straight carbon chain which contains the =C =
C= double bond get/determine the parent alkene.
2.Number the longest chain form the end of the chain which contains the =C = C=
double bond so he =C = C= double bond lowest number possible.
3 Indicate the positions by splitting “alk-positions-ene” e.g. but-2-ene, pent-1,3-
diene.
4.The position indicated must be for the carbon atom at the lower position in the
=C = C= double bond.i.e
But-2-ene means the double =C = C= is between Carbon “2”and “3”
Pent-1,3-diene means there are two double bond one between carbon “1” and
“2”and another between carbon “3” and “4”
5. Determine the position, number and type of branches. Name them as methyl,
ethyl, propyl e.tc. according to the number of alkyl carbon chains attached to the
alkene. Name them fluoro-,chloro-,bromo-,iodo- if they are halogens
6.Use prefix di-,tri-,tetra-,penta-,hexa- to show the number of double C = C
bonds and branches attached to the alkene.
7.Position isomers can be formed when the=C = C= double bond is shifted
between carbon atoms e.g.
But-2-ene means the double =C = C= is between Carbon “2”and “3”
But-1-ene means the double =C = C= is between Carbon “1”and “2”
Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene are position isomers of Butene
8.Position isomers are molecules/compounds having the same general formular but
different position of the functional group.i.e.

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Butene has the molecular/general formular C4H8 position but can form both But-1-
ene and But-2-ene as position isomers.
9. Like alkanes ,an alkyl group can be attached to the alkene. Chain/branch isomers
are thus formed.
10.Chain/branch isomers are molecules/compounds having the same general
formula but different structural formula e.g
Butene and 2-methyl propene both have the same general formualr but different
branching chain.
Practice on IUPAC nomenclature of alkenes
Name the following isomers of alkene

H H H H

H C C C C H But-1-ene

H H
H H H H

H C C C C H But-2-ene

H H
H H H H H H

H C C C C C C H 4-methylhex-1-ene

H H H
H C H

H
H

H C H

H H H H H

H C C C C C C H 4,4-dimethylhex-1-ene

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H H H
H C H

H
3. H

H C H

H H H H

H C C C C C H 4,4-dimethylpent -1- ene

H H
H C H

4. H

H C H

H H H H

H C C C C C H 5,5-dimethylhex-2- ene

H C H H H
H C H
H
H
5. H

H C H

H H H

H C C C C H 2,2-dimethylbut -2- ene

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H H
H C H

8.H2C CHCH2 CH2 CH3 pent -1- ene

9.H2C C(CH3)CH2 CH2 CH3 2-methylpent -1- ene
10.H2C C(CH3)C(CH3)2 CH2 CH3 2,3,3-trimethylpent -1- ene
11.H2C C(CH3)C(CH3)2 C(CH3)2 CH3 2,3,3,4,4-pentamethylpent -1- ene
12.H3C C(CH3)C(CH3) C(CH3)2 CH3 2,3,4,4-tetramethylpent -2- ene
13. H2C C(CH3)C(CH3) C(CH3) CH3 2,3,4-trimethylpent -1,3- diene
14. H2C CBrCBr CBr CH3 2,3,4-tribromopent -1,3- diene
15. H2C CHCH CH2 But -1,3- diene
16. Br2C CBrCBr CBr2 1,1,2,3,4,4-hexabromobut -1,3- diene
17. I2C CICI CI2 1,1,2,3,4,4-hexaiodobut -1,3- diene
18. H2C C(CH3)C(CH3) CH2 2,3-dimethylbut -1,3- diene

(c)Occurrence and extraction

At indusrial level,alkenes are obtained from the cracking of alkanes.Cracking is the
process of breaking long chain alkanes to smaller/shorter alkanes, an alkene and
hydrogen gas at high temperatures.
Cracking is a major source of useful hydrogen gas for manufacture of
ammonia/nitric(V)acid/HCl i.e.

Long chain alkane -> smaller/shorter alkane + Alkene + Hydrogen gas

Examples
1.When irradiated with high energy radiation,Propane undergo cracking to form
methane gas, ethene and hydrogen gas.
Chemical equation
CH3CH2CH3 (g) -> CH4(g) + CH2=CH2(g) + H2(g)
2.Octane undergo cracking to form hydrogen gas, butene and butane gases
Chemical equation
CH3(CH2) 6 CH3 (g) -> CH3CH2CH2CH3(g) + CH3 CH2CH=CH2(g) + H2(g)
(d)School laboratory preparation of alkenes

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In a school laboratory, alkenes may be prepared from dehydration of alkanols

using:
(i) concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4).
(a) aluminium(III)oxide(Al2O3) i.e
Alkanol --Conc. H2SO4 --> Alkene + Water
Alkanol --Al2O3 --> Alkene + Water e.g.
1.(a)At about 180oC,concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid dehydrates/removes water
from ethanol to form ethene.
The gas produced contain traces of carbon(IV)oxide and sulphur(IV)oxide gas as
impurities.
It is thus passed through concentrated sodium/potassium hydroxide solution to
remove the impurities.
Chemical equation
CH3CH2OH (l) --conc H2SO4/180oC--> CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
(b)On heating strongly aluminium(III)oxide(Al2O3),it dehydrates/removes water
from ethanol to form ethene.
Ethanol vapour passes through the hot aluminium (III) oxide which catalyses the
dehydration.
Activated aluminium(III)oxide has a very high affinity for water
molecules/elements of water and thus dehydrates/ removes water from ethanol to
form ethene.
Chemical equation
CH3CH2OH (l) --(Al2O3/strong heat--> CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
2(a) Propan-1-ol and Propan-2-ol(position isomers of propanol) are dehydrated by
conc H2SO4 at about 180oC to propene(propene has no position isomers).
Chemical equation
CH3CH2 CH2OH (l) -- conc H2SO4/180oC --> CH3CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
Propan-1-ol Prop-1-ene
CH3CHOH CH3 (l) -- conc H2SO4/180oC --> CH3CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
Propan-2-ol Prop-1-ene
(b) Propan-1-ol and Propan-2-ol(position isomers of propanol) are dehydrated by
heating strongly aluminium(III)oxide(Al2O3) form propene
Chemical equation
CH3CH2 CH2OH (l) -- Heat/Al2O3 --> CH3CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
Propan-1-ol Prop-1-ene
CH3CHOH CH3 (l) -- Heat/Al2O3 --> CH3CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
Propan-2-ol Prop-1-ene

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3(a) Butan-1-ol and Butan-2-ol(position isomers of butanol) are dehydrated by

conc H2SO4 at about 180oC to But-1-ene and But-2-ene respectively
Chemical equation
CH3CH2 CH2 CH2OH (l) -- conc H2SO4/180oC -->CH3 CH2CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
Butan-1-ol But-1-ene
CH3CHOH CH2CH3 (l)-- conc H2SO4/180oC -->CH3CH=CH CH2(g) + H2O(l)
Butan-2-ol But-2-ene
(b) Butan-1-ol and Butan-2-ol are dehydrated by heating strongly aluminium
(III) oxide (Al2O3) form But-1-ene and But-2-ene respectively.
Chemical equation
CH3CH2 CH2 CH2OH (l) -- Heat/Al2O3 --> CH3 CH2CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
Butan-1-ol But-1-ene
CH3CHOH CH2CH3 (l) -- Heat/Al2O3 --> CH3CH=CH CH2(g) + H2O(l)
Butan-2-ol But-2-ene
Laboratory set up for the preparation of alkenes/ethene
Caution
(i)Ethanol is highly inflammable
(ii)Conc H2SO4 is highly corrosive on skin contact.
(iii)Common school thermometer has maximum calibration of 110oC and thus
cannot be used. It breaks/cracks.

(i)Using conentrated sulphuric(VI)acid

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Some broken porcelain or sand should be put in the flask when heating to:
(i)prevent bumping which may break the flask.
(ii)ensure uniform and smooth boiling of the mixture
The temperatures should be maintained at above160oC.
At lower temperatures another compound -ether is predominantly formed instead
of ethene gas.
(ii)Using aluminium(III)oxide

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(e)Properties of alkenes
I. Physical properties
Like alkanes, alkenes are colourles gases, solids and liquids that are not poisonous.
They are slightly soluble in water.
The solubility in water decrease as the carbon chain and as the molar mass increase
but very soluble in organic solvents like tetrachloromethane and methylbenzene.
The melting and boiling point increase as the carbon chain increase.
This is because of the increase in van-der-waals /intermolecular forces as the
carbon chain increase.
The 1st four straight chain alkenes (ethene,propane,but-1-ene and pent-1-ene)are
gases at room temperature and pressure.
The density of straight chain alkenes,like alkanes, increase with increasing carbon
chain as the intermolecular forces increases reducing the volume occupied by a
given mass of the alkene.
Summary of physical properties of the 1st five alkenes
Alkene General Melting Boiling State at room(298K)
formula point(oC) point(K) temperature and
pressure atmosphere
(101300Pa)
Ethene CH2CH2 -169 -104 gas
Propene CH3 CHCH2 -145 -47 gas
Butene CH3CH2 -141 -26 gas
CHCH2
Pent-1- CH3(CH2 -138 30 liquid
ene CHCH2
Hex-1- CH3(CH2) -98 64 liquid
ene CHCH2
II. Chemical properties
(a)Burning/combustion
Alkenes burn with a yellow/ luminous sooty/ smoky flame in excess air to form
carbon(IV) oxide and water.
Alkene + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess
air/oxygen)
Alkenes burn with a yellow/ luminous sooty/ smoky flame in limited air to form
carbon(II) oxide and water.
Alkene + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (limited air)

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Burning of alkenes with a yellow/ luminous sooty/ smoky flame is a confirmatory

test for the presence of the =C=C= double bond because they have higher C:H
ratio.
A homologous series with C = C double or C C triple bond is said to be
unsaturated.
A homologous series with C C single bond is said to be saturated.Most
of the reactions of the unsaturated compound involve trying to be saturated to form
a

C C single bond .
Examples of burning alkenes
1.(a) Ethene when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in excess air to form
carbon(IV) oxide and water.
Ethene + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess
air/oxygen)
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l/g)
(b) Ethene when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in limited air to form
carbon(II) oxide and water.
Ethene + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (limited air )
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l/g)
2.(a) Propene when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in excess air to form
carbon(IV) oxide and water.
Propene + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess
air/oxygen)
2C3H6(g) + 9O2(g) -> 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l/g)
(a) Propene when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in limited air to form
carbon(II) oxide and water.
Propene + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess
air/oxygen)
C3H6(g) + 3O2(g) -> 3CO(g) + 3H2O(l/g)
(b)Addition reactions
An addition reaction is one which an unsaturated compound reacts to form a
saturated compound.Addition reactions of alkenes are named from the reagent used
to cause the addtion/convert the double =C=C= to single C-C bond.
(i)Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is an addition reaction in which hydrogen in presence of
Palladium/Nickel catalyst at high temperatures react with alkenes to form alkanes.

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Examples
1.When Hydrogen gas is passed through liquid vegetable and animal oil at about
180oC in presence of Nickel catalyst,solid fat is formed.
Hydrogenation is thus used to harden oils to solid fat especially margarine.
During hydrogenation, one hydrogen atom in the hydrogen molecule attach itself to
one carbon and the other hydrogen to the second carbon breaking the double bond
to single bond.
Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 + H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C - CH3

H H H H

C = C + H – H - Ni/Pa -> H-C–C-H

H H H H
2.Propene undergo hydrogenation to form Propane
Chemical equation
H3C CH=CH2 + H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH - CH3

H H H H H H

H C C =C + H – H - Ni/Pa-> H - C – C - C- H

H H H H H
3.Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene undergo hydrogenation to form Butane
Chemical equation
But-1-ene + Hydrogen –Ni/Pa-> Butane
H3C CH2 CH=CH2 + H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH2CH - CH3
H H H H H H H H

H C C- C =C + H – H - Ni/Pa-> H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H H H H H
But-2-ene + Hydrogen –Ni/Pa-> Butane
H3C CH2 =CH CH2 + H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH2CH - CH3
H H H H H H H H

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H C C = C - C -H + H – H - Ni/Pa-> H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H H H H
4. But-1,3-diene should undergo hydrogenation to form Butane. The reaction uses
two moles of hydrogen molecules/four hydrogen atoms to break the two double
bonds.
But-1,3-diene + Hydrogen –Ni/Pa-> Butane
H2C CH CH=CH2 + 2H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH2CH - CH3
H H H H H H H H

H C C - C = C -H + 2(H – H) - Ni/Pa-> H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H H
(ii) Halogenation.
Halogenation is an addition reaction in which a halogen (Fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine) reacts with an alkene to form an alkane.
The double bond in the alkene break and form a single bond.
The colour of the halogen fades as the number of moles of the halogens remaining
unreacted decreases/reduces.
One bromine atom bond at the 1st carbon in the double bond while the other goes to
the 2nd carbon.
Examples
1Ethene reacts with bromine to form 1,2-dibromoethane.
Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 + Br2 H2 Br C - CH2 Br
H H H H

C = C + Br – Br Br - C – C - Br

H H H H
Ethene + Bromine 1,2-dibromoethane
2.Propene reacts with chlorine to form 1,2-dichloropropane.
Chemical equation
H3C CH=CH2 + Cl2 H3C CHCl - CH2Cl
Propene + Chlorine 1,2-dichloropropane
H H H H H H

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H C C =C + Cl – Cl H - C – C - C- Cl

H H H Cl H

H H H H H H H H

H C C- C =C + I–I H - C- C – C - C- I

H H H H H H H H
3.Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene undergo halogenation with iodine to form 1,2-
diiodobutane and 2,3-diiodobutane
Chemical equation
But-1-ene + iodine 1,2 diiodobutane
H3C CH2 CH=CH2 + I2 H3C CH2CH I - CH2I

But-2-ene + Iodine 2,3-diiodobutane

H3C CH= CH-CH2 + F2 H3C CHICHI - CH3
H H H H H H H H

H C C = C - C -H + I – I H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H I I H
4. But-1,3-diene should undergo halogenation to form Butane. The reaction uses
two moles of iodine molecules/four iodine atoms to break the two double bonds.
But-1,3-diene + iodine 1,2,3,4-tetraiodobutane
H2C= CH CH=CH2 + 2I2 H2CI CHICHI - CHI

H H H H H H H H

H C C - C = C -H + 2(I – I) H - C- C – C - C- H

I I I I
(iii) Reaction with hydrogen halides.
Hydrogen halides reacts with alkene to form a halogenoalkane. The double bond
in the alkene break and form a single bond.
The main compound is one which the hydrogen atom bond at the carbon with
more hydrogen .

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Examples
1. Ethene reacts with hydrogen bromide to form bromoethane.
Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 + HBr H3 C - CH2 Br

H H H H

C = C + H – Br H - C – C - Br

H H H H
Ethene + Bromine bromoethane
2. Propene reacts with hydrogen iodide to form 2-iodopropane.
Chemical equation
H3C CH=CH2 + HI H3C CHI - CH3
Propene + Chlorine 2-chloropropane
Carbon atom with
H H H H H H more Hydrogen atoms
gets extra hydrogen
H C C =C + H – Cl H - C – C - C- H

H H H Cl H
3. Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene reacts with hydrogen bromide to form 2-
bromobutane
Chemical equation
But-1-ene + hydrogen bromide 2-bromobutane
H3C CH2 CH=CH2 + HBr H3C CH2CHBr -CH3

H H H H H H H H

H C C- C =C + H – Br H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H H H Br H
But-2-ene + Hydrogen bromide 2-bromobutane
H3C CH= CH-CH2 + HBr H3C CHBrCH2 - CH3

H H H H H H H H

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H C C = C - C -H + Br – H H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H Br H H
4. But-1,3-diene react with hydrogen iodide to form 2,3- diiodobutane. The
reaction uses two moles of hydrogen iodide molecules/two iodine atoms and two
hydrogen atoms to break the two double bonds.
But-1,3-diene + iodine 2,3-diiodobutane
H2C= CH CH=CH2 + 2HI2 H3CCHICHI - CH3
H H H H H H H H

H C C - C = C -H + 2(H – I) H - C- C – C - C- H

H I I H
(iv) Reaction with bromine/chlorine water.
Chlorine and bromine water is formed when the halogen is dissolved in distilled
water.Chlorine water has the formular HOCl(hypochlorous/chloric(I)acid)
.Bromine water has the formular HOBr(hydrobromic(I)acid).
During the addition reaction .the halogen move to one carbon and the OH to the
other carbon in the alkene at the =C=C= double bond to form a halogenoalkanol.
Bromine water + Alkene -> bromoalkanol
Chlorine water + Alkene -> bromoalkanol
Examples
1Ethene reacts with bromine water to form bromoethanol.
Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 + HOBr H2 Br C - CH2 OH

H H H H

C = C + Br – OH Br - C – C - OH

H H H H
Ethene + Bromine water bromoethanol

2.Propene reacts with chlorine water to form chloropropan-2-ol / 2-chloropropan-

1-ol.
Chemical equation

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I.H3C CH=CH2 + HOCl H3C CHCl - CH2OH

Propene + Chlorine water 2-chloropropane
H H H H H H

H C C =C + HO – Cl H - C – C - C- OH

H H H Cl H
II.H3C CH=CH2 + HOCl H3C CHOH - CH2Cl
Propene + Chlorine chloropropan-2-ol
H H H H H H

H C C =C + HO – Cl H - C – C - C- Cl

H H H OH H
3.Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene react with bromine water to form 2-bromobutan-
1-ol /3-bromobutan-2-ol respectively

Chemical equation
I.But-1-ene + bromine water 2-bromobutan-1-ol

H3C CH2 CH=CH2 + HOBr H3C CH2CH Br - CH2OH

H H H H H H H H

H C C- C =C + HO– Br H - C- C – C - C- OH

H H H H H Br H

II.But-2-ene + bromine water 3-bromobutan-2-ol

H3C CH= CHCH3 + HOBr H3C CH2OHCH Br CH3

H H H H H H H H

H C C- C =C + HO– Br H - C- C – C - C- OH

H H H H H Br H
4. But-1,3-diene reacts with bromine water to form Butan-1,3-diol.

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The reaction uses two moles of bromine water molecules to break the two double
bonds.
But-1,3-diene + bromine water 2,4-dibromobutan-1,3-diol
H2C= CH CH=CH2 + 2HOBr H2COH CHBrCHOH CHBr
H H H H H H H H

H C C - C = C -H + 2(HO – Br) H - C- C – C - C- H

HO Br HO Br
(v) Oxidation.
Alkenes are oxidized to alkanols with duo/double functional groups by oxidizing
agents.
When an alkene is bubbled into orange acidified potassium/sodium dichromate
(VI) solution,the colour of the oxidizing agent changes to green.
When an alkene is bubbled into purple acidified potassium/sodium manganate(VII)
solution, the oxidizing agent is decolorized.
Examples
1Ethene is oxidized to ethan-1,2-diol by acidified potassium/sodium
manganate(VII) solution/ acidified potassium/sodium dichromate(VI) solution.
The purple acidified potassium/sodium manganate(VII) solution is decolorized.
The orange acidified potassium/sodium dichromate(VI) solution turns to green.
Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 [O] in H+/K2Cr2O7 HO CH2 - CH2 OH
H H H H

C = C+ [O] in H+/KMnO4 H-C–C-H

H H OH OH
Ethene + [O] in H+/KMnO4 ethan-1,2-diol
2. Propene is oxidized to propan-1,2-diol by acidified potassium/sodium
manganate(VII) solution/ acidified potassium/sodium dichromate(VI) solution.
The purple acidified potassium/sodium manganate(VII) solution is decolorized.
The orange acidified potassium/sodium dichromate(VI) solution turns to green.
Chemical equation
H3C CH=CH2 [O] in H+/KMnO4 H3C CHOH - CH2OH
Propene [O] in H+/KMnO4 propan-1,2-diol
H H H H H H

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H C C =C [O] in H+/KMnO4 H - C – C - C- OH

H H H OH H
3.Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene react with bromine water to form butan-1,2-diol
and butan-2,3-diol
Chemical equation
I.But-1-ene + [O] in H+/KMnO4 butan-1,2-diol
H3C CH2 CH=CH2 + [O] H3C CH2CHOH - CH2OH

H H H H H H H H

H C C- C =C + [O] H - C- C – C - C- OH

H H H H H OH H
(v) Hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis is the reaction of a compound with water/addition of H-OH to a
compound.
Alkenes undergo hydrolysis to form alkanols .
This takes place in two steps:
(i)Alkenes react with concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid at room temperature and
pressure to form alkylhydrogen sulphate(VI).
Alkenes + concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid -> alkylhydrogen sulphate(VI)
(ii)On adding water to alkylhydrogen sulphate(VI) then warming, an alkanol is
formed.
alkylhydrogen sulphate(VI) + water -warm-> Alkanol.
Examples
(i)Ethene reacts with cold concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid to form ethyl hydrogen
sulphate(VII)
Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 + H2SO4 CH3 - CH2OSO3H

H H H O-SO3H

C = C + H2SO4 H-C–C-H

H H H H

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Ethene + H2SO4 ethylhydrogen sulphate(VI)

(ii) Ethylhydrogen sulphate(VI) is hydrolysed by water to ethanol
Chemical equation
CH3 - CH2OSO3H + H2O CH3 - CH2OH + H2SO4
H OSO3H H OH

H- C - C-H + H2O H - C – C - H + H2SO4

H H H H
ethylhydrogen sulphate(VI) + H2O Ethanol
2. Propene reacts with cold concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid to form propyl
hydrogen sulphate(VII)
Chemical equation
CH3H2C=CH2 + H2SO4 CH3CH2 - CH2OSO3H

H H H H H O-SO3H

C = C- C-H + H2SO4 H- C-C–C-H

H H H H H H
Propene + H2SO4 propylhydrogen sulphate(VI)
(ii) Propylhydrogen sulphate(VI) is hydrolysed by water to propanol
Chemical equation
CH3 - CH2OSO3H + H2O CH3 - CH2OH + H2SO4

H H OSO3H H H OH

H-C- C - C-H + H2O H - C - C – C - H + H2SO4

H H H H H H
propylhydrogen sulphate(VI) + H2O propanol
(vi) Polymerization/self addition
Addition polymerization is the process where a small unsaturated monomer (alkene
) molecule join together to form a large saturated molecule.
Only alkenes undergo addition polymerization.
Addition polymers are named from the alkene/monomer making the polymer and
adding the prefix “poly” before the name of monomer to form a polyalkene

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During addition polymerization

(i)the double bond in alkenes break
(ii)free radicals are formed
(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger
molecule. The more collisions the larger the molecule.
Examples of addition polymerization
1.Formation of Polyethene
Polyethene is an addition polymer formed when ethene molecule/monomer join
together to form a large molecule/polymer at high temperatures and pressure.
During polymerization:
(i)many molecules are brought nearer to each other by the high pressure(which
reduces the volume occupied by reacting particles)

H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H H H H H H H H

Ethene + Ethene + Ethene + Ethene + …

(ii)the double bond joining the ethane molecule break to free readicals

H H H H H H H H

•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …

H H H H H H H H
Ethene radical + Ethene radical + Ethene radical + Ethene radical +
…
(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule
H H H H H H H H lone pair of electrons

•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …

H H H H H H H H
Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer
polyethene.

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Polyethene molecule can be represented as:

H H H H H H H H extension of
molecule/polymer
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C-

H H H H H H H H
Since the molecule is a repetition of one monomer, then the polymer is:
H H

( C – C )n

H H
Where n is the number of monomers in the polymer. The number of monomers in
the polymer can be determined from the molar mass of the polymer and monomer
from the relationship:
Number of monomers/repeating units in monomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer

Examples
Polythene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of ethene molecules
in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0 )
Number of monomers/repeating units in polyomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C2H4 )= 28 Molar mass polyethene = 4760
Substituting 4760 = 170 ethene molecules
28
The commercial name of polyethene is polythene.
It is an elastic, tough, transparent and durable plastic.
Polythene is used:
(i)in making plastic bag
(ii)bowls and plastic bags
(iii)packaging materials
2.Formation of Polychlorethene
Polychloroethene is an addition polymer formed when chloroethene
molecule/monomer join together to form a large molecule/polymer at high
temperatures and pressure.

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During polymerization:
(i)many molecules are brought nearer to each other by the high pressure(which
reduces the volume occupied by reacting particles)
H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
chloroethene + chloroethene + chloroethene + chloroethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the chloroethene molecule break to free radicals
H H H H H H H H

•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule
H H H H H H H H lone pair of electrons

•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer
polychloroethene.
Polychloroethene molecule can be represented as:
H H H H H H H H extension of
molecule/polymer
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C- + …

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
Since the molecule is a repetition of one monomer, then the polymer is:
H H

( C – C )n

H Cl
Examples

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Polychlorothene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of

chlorethene molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0,Cl=35.5 )

Number of monomers/repeating units in monomer = Molar mass polymer

Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C2H3Cl )= 62.5 Molar mass polyethene = 4760

Substituting 4760 = 77.16 => 77 polychloroethene molecules(whole

number)
62.5
The commercial name of polychloroethene is polyvinylchloride(PVC). It is a
tough, non-transparent and durable plastic. PVC is used:
(i)in making plastic rope
(ii)water pipes
(iii)crates and boxes
3.Formation of Polyphenylethene
Polyphenylethene is an addition polymer formed when phenylethene
molecule/monomer join together to form a large molecule/polymer at high
temperatures and pressure.
During polymerization:
(i)many molecules are brought nearer to each other by the high pressure(which
reduces the volume occupied by reacting particles)
H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

phenylethene + phenylethene + phenylethene + phenylethene + …

(ii)the double bond joining the phenylethene molecule break to free radicals
H H H H H H H H

•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule

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H H H H H H H H lone pair of electrons

•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C • + …

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer
polyphenylethene.
Polyphenylethene molecule can be represented as:
H H H H H H H H

-C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C -

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

Since the molecule is a repetition of one monomer, then the polymer is:
H H

( C – C )n

H C6H5
Examples
Polyphenylthene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of
phenylethene molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0, )
Number of monomers/repeating units in monomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C8H8 )= 104 Molar mass polyethene = 4760
Substituting 4760 = 45.7692 =>45 polyphenylethene molecules(whole
number)
104
The commercial name of polyphenylethene is polystyrene. It is a very light
durable plastic. Polystyrene is used:
(i)in making packaging material for carrying delicate items like computers,
radion,calculators.
(ii)ceiling tiles
(iii)clothe linings
4.Formation of Polypropene

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Polypropene is an addition polymer formed when propene molecule/monomer join

together to form a large molecule/polymer at high temperatures and pressure.
During polymerization:
(i)many molecules are brought nearer to each other by the high pressure(which
reduces the volume occupied by reacting particles)
H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

propene + propene + propene+ propene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the phenylethene molecule break to free radicals
H H H H H H H H

•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule
H H H H H H H H lone pair of electrons

•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C • + …

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer propene.
propene molecule can be represented as:
H H H H H H H H

-C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C -

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

Since the molecule is a repetition of one monomer, then the polymer is:
H H

( C – C )n

H CH3
Examples

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Polypropene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of propene

molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0, )
Number of monomers/repeating units in monomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass propene (C3H8 )= 44 Molar mass polyethene = 4760
Substituting 4760 = 108.1818 =>108 propene molecules(whole number)
44
The commercial name of polyphenylethene is polystyrene. It is a very light
durable plastic. Polystyrene is used:
(i)in making packaging material for carrying delicate items like computers,
radion,calculators.
(ii)ceiling tiles
(iii)clothe linings
5.Formation of Polytetrafluorothene
Polytetrafluorothene is an addition polymer formed when tetrafluoroethene
molecule/monomer join together to form a large molecule/polymer at high
temperatures and pressure.
During polymerization:
(i)many molecules are brought nearer to each other by the high pressure(which
reduces the volume occupied by reacting particles)
F F F F F F F F

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

F F F F F F F F
tetrafluoroethene + tetrafluoroethene+ tetrafluoroethene+ tetrafluoroethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the tetrafluoroethene molecule break to free radicals
F F F F F F F F

•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …

F F F F F F F F
(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule
F F F F F F F F lone pair of electrons

•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …

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F F F F F F F F
Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer
polytetrafluoroethene.
polytetrafluoroethene molecule can be represented as:

F F F F F F F F extension of
molecule/polymer
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C- + …

F F F F F F F F
Since the molecule is a repetition of one monomer, then the polymer is:
F F

( C – C )n

F F
Examples
Polytetrafluorothene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of
tetrafluoroethene molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, ,F=19 )
Number of monomers/repeating units in monomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C2F4 )= 62.5 Molar mass polyethene = 4760

Substituting 4760 = 77.16 => 77 polychloroethene molecules(whole

number)
62.5
The commercial name of polytetrafluorethene(P.T.F.E) is Teflon(P.T.F.E). It is a
tough, non-transparent and durable plastic. PVC is used:
(i)in making plastic rope
(ii)water pipes
(iii)crates and boxes
6.Formation of rubber from Latex
Natural rubber is obtained from rubber trees.
During harvesting an incision is made on the rubber tree to produce a milky white
substance called latex.
Latex is a mixture of rubber and lots of water.

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The latex is then added an acid to coagulate the rubber.

Natural rubber is a polymer of 2-methylbut-1,3-diene ;

During natural polymerization to rubber, one double C=C bond break to self add to
another molecule. The double bond remaining move to carbon “2” thus;

H CH3 H H H CH3 H H

- C - C = C - C - C - C = C - C -

H H H H
Generally the structure of rubber is thus;
H CH3 H H

-(- C - C = C - C -)n-

H H
Pure rubber is soft and sticky.It is used to make erasers, car tyres. Most of it is
vulcanized.Vulcanization is the process of heating rubber with sulphur to make it
harder/tougher.
During vulcanization the sulphur atoms form a cross link between chains of rubber
molecules/polymers. This decreases the number of C=C double bonds in the
polymer.
H CH3 H H H CH3 H H
Sulphur atoms make
- C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C -cross link between
polymers
H S H H S H

H CH3 S H H CH3 S H

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- C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C -

H H H H H H
Vulcanized rubber is used to make tyres, shoes and valves.
7.Formation of synthetic rubber
Synthetic rubber is able to resist action of oil,abrasion and organic solvents which
rubber cannot.
Common synthetic rubber is a polymer of 2-chlorobut-1,3-diene ;
H Cl H H

CH2=C (Cl CH = CH2 H - C = C – C = C - H

During polymerization to synthetic rubber, one double C=C bond is broken to self
add to another molecule. The double bond remaining move to carbon “2” thus;

H Cl H H H Cl H H

- C - C = C - C - C - C = C - C -

H H H H
Generally the structure of rubber is thus;

H Cl H H

-(- C - C = C - C -)n-

H H
Rubber is thus strengthened through vulcanization and manufacture of synthetic
rubber.
(c)Test for the presence of – C = C – double bond.
(i)Burning/combustion
All unsaturated hydrocarbons with a – C = C – or – C = C – bond burn with a
yellow sooty flame.
Experiment
Scoop a sample of the substance provided in a clean metallic spatula. Introduce it
on a Bunsen burner.

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Observation Inference
Solid melt then burns with a – C = C –,
yellow sooty flame
– C = C – bond
(ii)Oxidation by acidified KMnO4/K2Cr2O7
Bromine water ,Chlorine water and Oxidizing agents acidified KMnO4/K2Cr2O7
change to unique colour in presence of – C = C –
or – C = C – bond.
Experiment
Scoop a sample of the substance provided into a clean test tube. Add 10cm3 of
distilled water. Shake. Take a portion of the solution mixture. Add three drops of
acidified KMnO4/K2Cr2O7 .
Observation Inference
Acidified KMnO4 decolorized –C=C–

Orange colour of acidified K2Cr2O7 – C = C – bond

turns green

Bromine water is decolorized

Chlorine water is decolorized

(d)Some uses of Alkenes
1. In the manufacture of plastic
2. Hydrolysis of ethene is used in industrial manufacture of ethanol.
3. In ripening of fruits.
4. In the manufacture of detergents.
(iii) Alkynes
(a)Nomenclature/Naming
These are hydrocarbons with a general formula CnH2n-2 and C C double
bond as the functional group . n is the number of Carbon atoms in the molecule.
The carbon atoms are linked by at least one triple bond to each other and single
bonds to hydrogen atoms.
They include:
n General/ Structural formula Name
Molecular
formula
1 Does not exist -

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2 C2H2 Ethyne

H C C H
CH CH

3 C3H4 H Propyne

H C C C H

H
CH C CH3

4 C4H6 H H Butyne

H C C C C H

H H
CH C CH2CH3

5 C5H8 H H H Pentyne

H C C C C C H

H H H
CH C (CH2)2CH3

6 C6H10 H H H H Hexyne

H C C C C C C H

H H H H
CH C (CH2)3CH3

7 C7H12 H H H H H Heptyn

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e
H C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H
CH C (CH2)4CH3
8 C8H14 H H H H H H Octyne

H C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H
CH C (CH2)5CH3
9 C9H16 H H H H H H H Nonyne

H C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H
CH C (CH2)6CH3
10 C10H18 H H H H H H H H Decyne

H C C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H
CH C (CH2)7CH3
Note
1. Since carbon is tetravalent ,each atom of carbon in the alkyne MUST always be
bonded using four covalent bond /four shared pairs of electrons including at the
triple bond.
2. Since Hydrogen is monovalent ,each atom of hydrogen in the alkyne MUST
always be bonded using one covalent bond/one shared pair of electrons.
3. One member of the alkyne ,like alkenes and alkanes, differ from the
next/previous by a CH2 group(molar mass of 14 atomic mass units).They thus
form a homologous series.
e.g
Propyne differ from ethyne by (14 a.m.u) one carbon and two Hydrogen atoms
from ethyne.
4.A homologous series of alkenes like that of alkanes:
(i) differ by a CH2 group from the next /previous consecutively

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(ii) have similar chemical properties

(iii)have similar chemical formula with general formula CnH2n-2
(iv)the physical properties also show steady gradual change
5.The - C = C - triple bond in alkyne is the functional group. The functional group
is the reacting site of the alkynes.
6. The - C = C - triple bond in alkyne can easily be broken to accommodate more
/four more monovalent atoms. The - C = C - triple bond in alkynes make it thus
unsaturated like alkenes.
7. Most of the reactions of alkynes like alkenes take place at the - C = C- triple
bond.
(b)Isomers of alkynes
Isomers of alkynes have the same molecular general formula but different
molecular structural formula.
Isomers of alkynes are also named by using the IUPAC(International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of nomenclature/naming.
The IUPAC system of nomenclature of naming alkynes uses the following basic
rules/guidelines:
1.Identify the longest continuous/straight carbon chain which contains the - C =
C- triple bond to get/determine the parent alkene.
2. Number the longest chain form the end of the chain which contains the -C = C-
triple bond so as - C = C- triple bond get lowest number possible.
3 Indicate the positions by splitting “alk-positions-yne” e.g. but-2-yne, pent-1,3-
diyne.
4.The position indicated must be for the carbon atom at the lower position in the
-C = C- triple bond. i.e
But-2-yne means the triple -C = C- is between Carbon “2”and “3”
Pent-1,3-diyne means there are two triple bonds; one between carbon “1” and
“2”and another between carbon “3” and “4”
5. Determine the position, number and type of branches. Name them as methyl,
ethyl, propyl e.tc. according to the number of alkyl carbon chains attached to the
alkyne. Name them fluoro-,chloro-,bromo-,iodo- if they are halogens
6.Use prefix di-,tri-,tetra-,penta-,hexa- to show the number of triple - C = C-
bonds and branches attached to the alkyne.
7.Position isomers can be formed when the - C = C- triple bond is shifted between
carbon atoms e.g.
But-2-yne means the double - C = C- is between Carbon “2”and “3”
But-1-yne means the double - C = C- is between Carbon “1”and “2”

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Both But-1-yne and But-2-yne are position isomers of Butyne.

9. Like alkanes and alkynes , an alkyl group can be attached to the alkyne.
Chain/branch isomers are thus formed.
Butyne and 2-methyl propyne both have the same general formular but different
branching chain.
(c)Preparation of Alkynes.
Ethyne is prepared from the reaction of water on calcium carbide. The reaction is
highly exothermic and thus a layer of sand should be put above the calcium carbide
to absorb excess heat to prevent the reaction flask from breaking.
Copper(II)sulphate(VI) is used to catalyze the reaction

Chemical equation
CaC2(s) + 2 H2O(l) -> Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + C2H2 (g)
(d)Properties of alkynes
I. Physical properties
Like alkanes and alkenes, alkynes are colourles gases, solids and liquids that are
not poisonous.
They are slightly soluble in water. The solubility in water decrease as the carbon
chain and as the molar mass increase but very soluble in organic solvents like
tetrachloromethane and methylbenzene. Ethyne has a pleasant taste when pure.
The melting and boiling point increase as the carbon chain increase.
This is because of the increase in van-der-waals /intermolecular forces as the
carbon chain increase. The 1st three straight chain alkynes (ethyne,propyne and but-
1-yne)are gases at room temperature and pressure.
The density of straight chain alkynes increase with increasing carbon chain as the
intermolecular forces increases reducing the volume occupied by a given mass of
the alkyne.

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Summary of physical properties of the 1st five alkenes

Alkyne General Melting Boiling State at room(298K)
formula point(oC) point(oC) temperature and
pressure atmosphere
(101300Pa)
Ethyne CH CH -82 -84 gas
Propyne CH3 C CH -103 -23 gas
Butyne CH3CH2 CCH -122 8 gas
Pent-1-yne CH3(CH2) 2 -119 39 liquid
CCH
Hex-1-yne CH3(CH2) 3C -132 71 liquid
CH
II. Chemical properties
(a)Burning/combustion
Alkynes burn with a yellow/ luminous very sooty/ smoky flame in excess air to
form carbon(IV) oxide and water.
Alkyne + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess
air/oxygen)
Alkenes burn with a yellow/ luminous verysooty/ smoky flame in limited air to
form carbon(II) oxide/carbon and water.
Alkyne + Air -> carbon(II) oxide /carbon + water (limited
air)
Burning of alkynes with a yellow/ luminous sooty/ smoky flame is a confirmatory
test for the presence of the - C = C – triple bond because they have very high
C:H ratio.
Examples of burning alkynes
1.(a) Ethyne when ignited burns with a yellow very sooty flame in excess air to
form carbon(IV) oxide and water.
Ethyne + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess
air/oxygen)
2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) -> 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(l/g)
(b) Ethyne when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in limited air to form a
mixture of unburnt carbon and carbon(II) oxide and water.
Ethyne + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (limited air )
C2H2(g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2(g) + C + 2H2O(l/g)
2.(a) Propyne when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in excess air to form
carbon(IV) oxide and water.

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Propyne + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess

air/oxygen)
C3H4(g) + 4O2(g) -> 3CO2(g) + 2H2O(l/g)
(a) Propyne when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in limited air to form
carbon(II) oxide and water.
Propene + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess
air/oxygen)
2C3H4(g) + 5O2(g) -> 6CO(g) + 4H2O(l/g)

(b)Addition reactions
An addition reaction is one which an unsaturated compound reacts to form a
saturated compound. Addition reactions of alkynes are also named from the reagent
used to cause the addition/convert the triple - C = C- to single C- C bond.
(i)Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is an addition reaction in which hydrogen in presence of
Palladium/Nickel catalyst at 150oC temperatures react with alkynes to form
alkenes then alkanes.
Examples
1.During hydrogenation, two hydrogen atom in the hydrogen molecule attach itself
to one carbon and the other two hydrogen to the second carbon breaking the triple
bond to double the single.
Chemical equation
HC = CH + H2 -Ni/Pa -> H2C = CH2 + H2 -Ni/Pa -> H2C - CH2
H H H H H H

C = C + H – H - Ni/Pa -> H - C = C – H + H – H - Ni/Pa -> H - C - C – H

H H H H H H
2.Propyne undergo hydrogenation to form Propane
Chemical equation
H3C CH = CH2 + 2H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH - CH3
H H H H H H

H C C =C + 2H – H - Ni/Pa-> H - C – C - C- H

H H H H H

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3(a) But-1-yne undergo hydrogenation to form Butane

Chemical equation
But-1-yne + Hydrogen –Ni/Pa-> Butane
H3C CH2 C = CH + 2H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH2CH - CH3
H H H H H H H

H C C- C =C + 2H – H - Ni/Pa-> H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H H H H
(b) But-2-yne undergo hydrogenation to form Butane
Chemical equation
But-2-yne + Hydrogen –Ni/Pa-> Butane
H3C C = C CH2 + 2H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH2CH - CH3

H H H H H H

H C C = C - C H + 2H – H- Ni/Pa-> H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H H H H
(ii) Halogenation.
Halogenation is an addition reaction in which a halogen (Fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine) reacts with an alkyne to form an alkene then alkane.
The reaction of alkynes with halogens with alkynes is faster than with alkenes. The
triple bond in the alkyne break and form a double then single bond.
The colour of the halogen fades as the number of moles of the halogens remaining
unreacted decreases.
Two bromine atoms bond at the 1st carbon in the triple bond while the other two
goes to the 2nd carbon.
Examples
1Ethyne reacts with brown bromine vapour to form 1,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane.
Chemical equation
HC = CH + 2Br2 H Br2 C - CH Br2
H H H H

C = C + 2Br – Br Br - C – C - Br

Br Br

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Ethyne + Bromine 1,1,2,1-tetrabromoethane

2.Propyne reacts with chlorine to form 1,1,2,2-tetrachloropropane.
Chemical equation
H3C C = CH + 2Cl2 H3C CHCl2 - CHCl2
Propyne + Chlorine 1,1,2,2-tetrachloropropane
H H Cl H

H C C =C + 2Cl – Cl H - C – C - C- Cl

H H H Cl Cl
Propyne + Iodine 1,1,2,2-tetraiodopropane
H3C C = CH + 2I2 H3C CHI2 - CHI2
H H H H H I H

H C C- C =C + 2I – I H - C- C – C - C- I

H H H H I I

3(a)But-1-yne undergo halogenation to form 1,1,2,2-tetraiodobutane with iodine

Chemical equation
But-1-yne + iodine 1,1,2,2-tetrabromobutane
H3C CH2 C = CH + 2I2 H3C CH2C I2 - CHI2
H H H H I I

H C C - C = C -H + 2I – I H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H H H I I
(b) But-2-yne undergo halogenation to form 2,2,3,3-tetrafluorobutane with
fluorine But-2-yne + Fluorine 2,2,3,3-tetrafluorobutane
H3C C = C -CH2 + 2F2 H3C CF2CF2 - CH3
H H H H H H H H

H C C = C - C -H + F – F H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H H H H

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4. But-1,3-diyne should undergo halogenation to form 1,1,2,3,3,4,4

octaiodobutane. The reaction uses four moles of iodine molecules/eight iodine
atoms to break the two(2) triple double bonds at carbon “1” and “2”.
But-1,3-diene + iodine 1,2,3,4-tetraiodobutane
H C = C C = C H + 4I2 H C I2 C I2 C I2 C H I2
I I I I

H C C - C = C -H + 4(I – I) H - C- C – C - C- H

I I I I
(iii) Reaction with hydrogen halides.
Hydrogen halides reacts with alkyne to form a halogenoalkene then
halogenoalkane. The triple bond in the alkyne break and form a double then single
bond.
The main compound is one which the hydrogen atom bond at the carbon with
more hydrogen .
Examples
1. Ethyne reacts with hydrogen bromide to form bromoethane.
Chemical equation

HC=CH + 2HBr H3 C - CH Br2

H H H H

C = C + 2H – Br H - C – C - Br

H Br
Ethyne + Bromine 1,1-dibromoethane

2. Propyne reacts with hydrogen iodide to form 2,2-diiodopropane (as the main
product )
Chemical equation

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H3C C = CH + 2HI H3C CHI2 - CH3

Propene + Chlorine 2,2-dichloropropane
Carbon atom with
H H I H more Hydrogen atoms
gets extra hydrogen
H C C =C + 2H – I H - C – C - C- H

H H H I H
3. Both But-1-yne and But-2-yne reacts with hydrogen bromide to form 2,2-
dibromobutane
Chemical equation
But-1-ene + hydrogen bromide 2,2-dibromobutane
H3C CH2 C = CH + 2HBr H3C CH2CHBr -CH3

H H H H Br H

H C C - C = C + 2H – Br H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H H H Br H
But-2-yne + Hydrogen bromide 2,2-dibromobutane
H3C C = C -CH3 + 2HBr H3C CBr2CH2 - CH3
H H H Br H H

H C C = C - C -H + 2Br – H H - C- C – C - C- H

H H H Br H H
4. But-1,3-diene react with hydrogen iodide to form 2,3- diiodobutane. The
reaction uses four moles of hydrogen iodide molecules/four iodine atoms and two
hydrogen atoms to break the two double bonds.
But-1,3-diyne + iodine 2,2,3,3-tetraiodobutane
H C = C C = C H + 4HI H3C C I2 C I2 CH3
H H H I I H

H C C - C = C -H + 4(H – I) H - C- C – C - C- H

H I I H

B.ALKANOLS(Alcohols)

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(A) INTRODUCTION.
Alkanols belong to a homologous series of organic compounds with a general
formula CnH2n +1 OH and thus -OH as the functional group .The 1st ten alkanols
include
n General / Structural formula IUPAC
molecular name
formular
1 CH3OH
H – C –O - H Methanol
│
H

2 CH3 CH2OH H H Ethanol

C2H5 OH
H C – C –O - H
│
H H

3 CH3 (CH2)2OH H H H Propanol

C3H7 OH
H C – C - C –O - H
│
H H H

4 CH3 (CH2)3OH H H H H Butanol

C4H9 OH
H C – C - C - C –O - H
│
H H H H
5 CH3(CH2)4OH H H H H H Pentanol
C5H11 OH
H C – C - C- C- C –O - H
│
H H H H H

6 CH3(CH2)5OH H H H H H H Hexanol
C6H13 OH

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H C – C - C- C- C– C - O - H
│
H H H H H H

7 CH3(CH2)6OH H H H H H H H Heptanol
C7H15 OH
H C – C - C- C- C– C –C- O - H
│
H H H H H H H

8 CH3(CH2)7OH H H H H H H H H Octanol
C8H17 OH
H C – C - C- C- C– C –C- C -O - H
│
H H H H H H H H

9 CH3(CH2)8OH H H H H H H H H H Nonanol
C9H19 OH
H C – C - C- C- C– C –C- C –C- O - H
│
H H H H H H H H H

10 CH3(CH2)9OH H H H H H H H H H H Decanol
C10H21 OH
H C – C - C- C- C– C –C- C –C- C-O - H
│
H H H H H H H H H H

Alkanols like Hydrocarbons( alkanes/alkenes/alkynes) form a homologous series

where:
(i)general name is derived from the alkane name then ending with “-ol”
(ii)the members have –OH as the fuctional group
(iii)they have the same general formula represented by R-OH where R is an alkyl
group.
(iv) each member differ by –CH2 group from the next/previous.

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(v)they show a similar and gradual change in their physical properties e.g. boiling
and melting points.
(vi)they show similar and gradual change in their chemical properties.

B. ISOMERS OF ALKANOLS.
Alkanols exhibit both structural and position isomerism. The isomers are named by
using the following basic guidelines:
(i)Like alkanes , identify the longest carbon chain to be the parent name.
(ii)Identify the position of the -OH functional group to give it the smallest /lowest
position.
(iii) Identify the type and position of the side branches.
Practice examples of isomers of alkanols
(i)Isomers of propanol C3H7OH
CH3CH2CH2OH - Propan-1-ol
OH

CH3CHCH3 - Propan-2-ol
Propan-2-ol and Propan-1-ol are position isomers because only the position of the –
OH functional group changes.
(ii)Isomers of Butanol C4H9OH
CH3 CH2 CH3 CH2 OH Butan-1-ol
CH3 CH2 CH CH3

OH Butan-2-ol
CH3

CH3 CH3 CH3

OH 2-methylpropan-2-ol
Butan-2-ol and Butan-1-ol are position isomers because only the position of the
-OH functional group changes.
2-methylpropan-2-ol is both a structural and position isomers because both the
position of the functional group and the arrangement of the atoms in the molecule
changes.
(iii)Isomers of Pentanol C5H11OH
CH3 CH2 CH2CH2CH2 OH Pentan-1-ol (Position isomer)
CH3 CH2 CH CH3

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OH Pentan-2-ol (Position isomer)

CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH3

OH Pentan-3-ol (Position isomer)

CH3

CH3 CH2 CH2 C CH3

OH 2-methylbutan-2-ol (Position /structural isomer)

CH3

CH3 CH2 CH2 C CHOH

CH3 2,2-dimethylbutan-1-ol (Position /structural isomer)

CH3

CH3 CH2 CH C CH3

CH3 OH 2,3-dimethylbutan-1-ol (Position /structural isomer)

(iv)1,2-dichloropropan-2-ol

CClH2 CCl CH3

OH
(v)1,2-dichloropropan-1-ol
CClH2 CHCl CH2

OH
(vi) Ethan1,2-diol
H H

HOCH2CH2OH H-O - C - C – O-H

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H H

(vii) Propan1,2,3-triol H OH H

HOCH2CHOHCH2OH H-O - C- C – C – O-H

H H H
C. LABORATORY PREPARATION OF ALKANOLS.
For decades the world over, people have been fermenting grapes juice, sugar,
carbohydrates and starch to produce ethanol as a social drug for relaxation.
In large amount, drinking of ethanol by mammals /human beings causes mental and
physical lack of coordination.
Prolonged intake of ethanol causes permanent mental and physical lack of
coordination because it damages vital organs like the liver.
Fermentation is the reaction where sugar is converted to alcohol/alkanol using
biological catalyst/enzymes in yeast.
It involves three processes:
(i)Conversion of starch to maltose using the enzyme diastase.
(C6H10O5)n (s) + H2O(l) --diastase enzyme --> C12H22O11(aq)
(Starch) (Maltose)
(ii)Hydrolysis of Maltose to glucose using the enzyme maltase.
C12H22O11(aq)+ H2O(l) -- maltase enzyme -->2 C6H12O6(aq)
(Maltose) (glucose)
(iii)Conversion of glucose to ethanol and carbon(IV)oxide gas using the enzyme
zymase.
C6H12O6(aq) -- zymase enzyme --> 2 C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
(glucose) (Ethanol)
At concentration greater than 15% by volume, the ethanol produced kills the yeast
enzyme stopping the reaction.
To increases the concentration, fractional distillation is done to produce spirits (e.g.
Brandy=40% ethanol).
Methanol is much more poisonous /toxic than ethanol.
Taken large quantity in small quantity it causes instant blindness and liver, killing
the consumer victim within hours.
School laboratory preparation of ethanol from fermentation of glucose
Measure 100cm3 of pure water into a conical flask.
Add about five spatula end full of glucose.

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Stir the mixture to dissolve.

Add about one spatula end full of yeast.
Set up the apparatus as below.

Preserve the mixture for about three days.

D.PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANOLS
Use the prepared sample above for the following experiments that shows the
characteristic properties of alkanols
(a) Role of yeast
Yeast is a single cell fungus which contains the enzyme maltase and zymase that
catalyse the fermentation process.
(b) Observations in lime water.
A white precipitate is formed that dissolve to a colourless solution later. Lime
water/Calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon(IV)0xide produced during the
fermentation to form insoluble calcium carbonate and water.
More carbon (IV)0xide produced during fermentation react with the insoluble
calcium carbonate and water to form soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s)
H2O(l) + CO2 (g) + CaCO3(s) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
(c)Effects on litmus paper
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 461

Experiment
Take the prepared sample and test with both blue and red litmus papers.
Repeat the same with pure ethanol and methylated spirit.
Sample Observation table
Substance/alkanol Effect on litmus paper
Prepared sample Blue litmus paper remain blue
Red litmus paper remain red
Absolute ethanol Blue litmus paper remain blue
Red litmus paper remain red
Methylated spirit Blue litmus paper remain blue
Red litmus paper remain red
Explanation
Alkanols are neutral compounds/solution that have characteristic sweet smell and
taste.
They have no effect on both blue and red litmus papers.
(d)Solubility in water.
Experiment
Place about 5cm3 of prepared sample into a clean test tube Add equal amount of
distilled water.
Repeat the same with pure ethanol and methylated spirit.
Observation
No layers formed between the two liquids.
Explanation
Ethanol is miscible in water.Both ethanol and water are polar compounds .
The solubility of alkanols decrease with increase in the alkyl chain/molecular mass.
The alkyl group is insoluble in water while –OH functional group is soluble in
water.
As the molecular chain becomes longer ,the effect of the alkyl group increases as
the effect of the functional group decreases.
e)Melting/boiling point.
Experiment
Place pure ethanol in a long boiling tube .Determine its boiling point.
Observation
Pure ethanol has a boiling point of 78oC at sea level/one atmosphere pressure.
Explanation
The melting and boiling point of alkanols increase with increase in molecular
chain/mass .

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This is because the intermolecular/van-der-waals forces of attraction between the

molecules increase.
More heat energy is thus required to weaken the longer chain during melting and
break during boiling.
f)Density
Density of alkanols increase with increase in the intermolecular/van-der-waals
forces of attraction between the molecule, making it very close to each other.
This reduces the volume occupied by the molecule and thus increase the their mass
per unit volume (density).
Summary table showing the trend in physical properties of alkanols
Melting point Boiling point Density Solubility in water
Alkanol (oC) (oC) gcm-3
Methanol -98 65 0.791 soluble
Ethanol -117 78 0.789 soluble
Propanol -103 97 0.803 soluble
Butanol -89 117 0.810 Slightly soluble
Pentanol -78 138 0.814 Slightly soluble
Hexanol -52 157 0.815 Slightly soluble
Heptanol -34 176 0.822 Slightly soluble
Octanol -15 195 0.824 Slightly soluble
Nonanol -7 212 0.827 Slightly soluble
Decanol 6 228 0.827 Slightly soluble
g)Burning
Experiment
Place the prepared sample in a watch glass. Ignite. Repeat with pure ethanol and
methylated spirit.
Observation/Explanation
Fermentation produce ethanol with a lot of water(about a ratio of 1:3)which prevent
the alcohol from igniting.
Pure ethanol and methylated spirit easily catch fire / highly flammable.
They burn with an almost colourless non-sooty/non-smoky blue flame to form
carbon(IV) oxide (in excess air/oxygen)or carbon(II) oxide (limited air) and
water.
Ethanol is thus a saturated compound like alkanes.
Chemica equation
C2 H5OH(l) + 3O2 (g) -> 3H2O(l) + 2CO2 (g) ( excess air)
C2 H5OH(l) + 2O2 (g) -> 3H2O(l) + 2CO (g) ( limited air)

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2CH3OH(l) + 3O2 (g) -> 4H2O(l) + 2CO2 (g) ( excess air)

2 CH3OH(l) + 2O2 (g) -> 4H2O(l) + 2CO (g) ( limited air)

2C3 H7OH(l) + 9O2 (g) -> 8H2O(l) + 6CO2 (g) ( excess air)
C3 H7OH(l) + 3O2 (g) -> 4H2O(l) + 3CO (g) ( limited air)

2C4 H9OH(l) + 13O2 (g) -> 20H2O(l) + 8CO2 (g) ( excess air)
C4 H9OH(l) + 3O2 (g) -> 4H2O(l) + 3CO (g) ( limited air)
Due to its flammability, ethanol is used;
(i) as a fuel in spirit lamps
(ii) as gasohol when blended with gasoline
(h)Formation of alkoxides
Experiment
Cut a very small piece of sodium. Put it in a beaker containing about 20cm3 of the
prepared sample in a beaker.
Test the products with litmus papers. Repeat with absolute ethanol and methylated
spirit.
Sample observations
Substance/alkanol Effect of adding sodium
Fermentation prepared sample (i)effervescence/fizzing/bubbles
(ii)colourless gas produced that
extinguish burning splint with
explosion/ “Pop” sound
(iii)colourless solution formed
(iv)blue litmus papers remain blue
(v)red litmus papers turn blue
Pure/absolute ethanol/methylated (i)slow effervescence/fizzing/bubbles
spirit (ii)colourless gas slowly produced
that extinguish burning splint with
explosion/ “Pop” sound
(iii)colourless solution formed
(iv)blue litmus papers remain blue
(v)red litmus papers turn blue
Explanations
Sodium/potassium reacts slowly with alkanols to form basic solution called
alkoxides and producing hydrogen gas.

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If the alkanol has some water the metals react faster with the water to form
soluble hydroxides/alkalis i.e.
Sodium + Alkanol -> Sodium alkoxides + Hydrogen gas
Potassium + Alkanol -> Potassium alkoxides + Hydrogen gas

Sodium + Water -> Sodium hydroxides + Hydrogen gas

Potassium + Water -> Potassium hydroxides + Hydrogen gas
Examples
1.Sodium metal reacts with ethanol to form sodium ethoxide
Sodium metal reacts with water to form sodium Hydroxide
2CH3CH2OH(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2CH3CH2ONa (aq) + H2 (s)
2H2O(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (s)
2.Potassium metal reacts with ethanol to form Potassium ethoxide
Potassium metal reacts with water to form Potassium Hydroxide
2CH3CH2OH(l) + 2K(s) -> 2CH3CH2OK (aq) + H2 (s)
2H2O(l) + 2K(s) -> 2KOH (aq) + H2 (s)
3.Sodium metal reacts with propanol to form sodium propoxide
Sodium metal reacts with water to form sodium Hydroxide
2CH3CH2 CH2OH(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2CH3CH2 CH2ONa (aq) + H2 (s)
2H2O(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (s)
4.Potassium metal reacts with propanol to form Potassium propoxide
Potassium metal reacts with water to form Potassium Hydroxide
2CH3CH2 CH2OH(l) + 2K(s) -> 2CH3CH2 CH2OK (aq) + H2 (s)
2H2O(l) + 2K(s) -> 2KOH (aq) + H2 (s)
5.Sodium metal reacts with butanol to form sodium butoxide
Sodium metal reacts with water to form sodium Hydroxide
2CH3CH2 CH2 CH2OH(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2CH3CH2 CH2 CH2ONa (aq) + H2 (s)
2H2O(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (s)
6.Sodium metal reacts with pentanol to form sodium pentoxide
Sodium metal reacts with water to form sodium Hydroxide
2CH3CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2OH(l)+2Na(s) -> 2CH3CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2ONa (aq) + H2
(s)
2H2O(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (s)
(i)Formation of Esters/Esterification
Experiment
Place 2cm3 of ethanol in a boiling tube.

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Add equal amount of ethanoic acid.To the mixture add carefully 2drops of
concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid.
Warm/Heat gently.
Pour the mixture into a beaker containing about 50cm3 of cold water.
Smell the products.
Repeat with methanol
Sample observations
Substance/alkanol Effect on adding equal amount of
ethanol/concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid
Absolute ethanol Sweet fruity smell
Methanol Sweet fruity smell
Explanation
Alkanols react with alkanoic acids to form a group of homologous series of sweet
smelling compounds called esters and water. This reaction is catalyzed by
concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid in the laboratory.
Alkanol + Alkanoic acid –Conc. H2SO4-> Ester + water
Naturally esterification is catalyzed by sunlight. Each ester has a characteristic
smell derived from the many possible combinations of alkanols and alkanoic acids
that create a variety of known natural(mostly in fruits) and synthetic(mostly in
juices) esters .
Esters derive their names from the alkanol first then alkanoic acids. The alkanol
“becomes” an alkyl group and the alkanoic acid “becomes” alkanoate hence
alkylalkanoate. e.g.
Ethanol + Ethanoic acid -> Ethylethanoate + Water
Ethanol + Propanoic acid -> Ethylpropanoate + Water
Ethanol + Methanoic acid -> Ethylmethanoate + Water
Ethanol + butanoic acid -> Ethylbutanoate + Water
Propanol + Ethanoic acid -> Propylethanoate + Water
Methanol + Ethanoic acid -> Methyethanoate + Water
Methanol + Decanoic acid -> Methyldecanoate + Water
Decanol + Methanoic acid -> Decylmethanoate + Water
During the formation of the ester, the “O” joining the alkanol and alkanoic acid
comes from the alkanol.
R1 -COOH + R2 –OH -> R1 -COO –R2 + H2O
e.g.
1. Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid to form the ester ethyl ethanoate and water.
Ethanol + Ethanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water

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C2H5OH (l) + CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COO C2H5(aq) +H2O(l)

CH3CH2OH (l)+ CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COOCH2CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
2. Ethanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester ethylpropanoate and water.
Ethanol + Propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water
C2H5OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 -->CH3CH2COO C2H5(aq)
+H2O(l)
CH3CH2OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3 CH2COOCH2CH3(aq)
+H2O(l)
3. Methanol reacts with ethanoic acid to form the ester methyl ethanoate and water.
Methanol + Ethanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Methylethanoate + Water
CH3OH (l) + CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COO CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
4. Methanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester methyl propanoate and
water.
Methanol + propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Methylpropanoate + Water
CH3OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3 CH2COO CH3(aq)
+H2O(l)
5. Propanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester propylpropanoate and
water.
Propanol + Propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water
C3H7OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 -->CH3CH2COO C3H7(aq)
+H2O(l)
CH3CH2 CH2OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3 CH2COOCH2
CH2CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
(j)Oxidation
Experiment
Place 5cm3 of absolute ethanol in a test tube.Add three drops of acidified
potassium manganate(VII).Shake thoroughly for one minute/warm.Test the
solution mixture using pH paper. Repeat by adding acidified potassium
dichromate(VII).
Sample observation table
Substance/alkanol Adding acidified pH of resulting Nature of
KMnO4/K2Cr2O7 solution/mixture resulting
solution/mixture
Pure ethanol (i)Purple colour of pH= 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
KMnO4decolorized

(ii) Orange colour pH = 4/5/6 Weakly acidic

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of K2Cr2O7turns
green.
Explanation
Both acidified KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 are oxidizing agents(add oxygen to other
compounds. They oxidize alkanols to a group of homologous series called alkanals
then further oxidize them to alkanoic acids.The oxidizing agents are themselves
reduced hence changing their colour:
(i) Purple KMnO4 is reduced to colourless Mn2+
(ii)Orange K2Cr2O7is reduced to green Cr3+
The pH of alkanoic acids show they have few H+ because they are weak acids i.e
Alkanol + [O] -> Alkanal + [O] -> alkanoic acid
NB The [O] comes from the oxidizing agents acidified KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7
Examples
1.When ethanol is warmed with three drops of acidified KMnO4 there is
decolorization of KMnO4
Ethanol + [O] -> Ethanal + [O] -> Ethanoic acid
CH3CH2OH + [O] -> CH3CH2O + [O] -> CH3COOH
2.When methanol is warmed with three drops of acidified K2Cr2O7 ,the orange
colour of acidified K2Cr2O7 changes to green.
methanol + [O] -> methanal + [O] -> methanoic acid
CH3OH + [O] -> CH3O + [O] -> HCOOH
3.When propanol is warmed with three drops of acidified K2Cr2O7 ,the orange
colour of acidified K2Cr2O7 changes to green.
Propanol + [O] -> Propanal + [O] -> Propanoic acid
CH3CH2 CH2OH + [O] -> CH3CH2 CH2O + [O] -> CH3 CH2COOH
4.When butanol is warmed with three drops of acidified K2Cr2O7 ,the orange colour
of acidified K2Cr2O7 changes to green.
Butanol + [O] -> Butanal + [O] -> Butanoic acid
CH3CH2 CH2 CH2OH + [O] ->CH3CH2 CH2CH2O +[O] -> CH3 CH2COOH
Air slowly oxidizes ethanol to dilute ethanoic acid commonly called vinegar. If
beer is not tightly corked, a lot of carbon(IV)oxide escapes and there is slow
oxidation of the beer making it “flat”.
(k)Hydrolysis /Hydration and Dehydration
I. Hydrolysis/Hydration is the reaction of a compound/substance with water.
Alkenes react with water vapour/steam at high temperatures and high pressures in
presence of phosphoric acid catalyst to form alkanols.i.e.
Alkenes + Water - H3PO4 catalyst-> Alkanol

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Examples
(i)Ethene is mixed with steam over a phosphoric acid catalyst at 300oC temperature
and 60 atmosphere pressure to form ethanol
Ethene + water ---60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> Ethanol
H2C =CH2 (g) + H2O(l) --60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> CH3 CH2OH(l)
This is the main method of producing large quantities of ethanol instead of
fermentation
(ii) Propene + water ---60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> Propanol
CH3C =CH2 (g) + H2O(l) --60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> CH3 CH2 CH2OH(l)
(iii) Butene + water ---60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> Butanol
CH3 CH2 C=CH2 (g) + H2O(l) --60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> CH3 CH2 CH2
CH2OH(l)
II. Dehydration is the process which concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid (dehydrating
agent) removes water from a compound/substances.
Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid dehydrates alkanols to the corresponding alkenes at
about 180oC. i.e
Alkanol --Conc. H2 SO4/180oC--> Alkene + Water
Examples
1. At 180oC and in presence of Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid, ethanol undergoes
dehydration to form ethene.
Ethanol ---180oC/ H2SO4 --> Ethene + Water
o
CH3 CH2OH(l) --180 C/ H2SO4 --> H2C =CH2 (g) + H2O(l)
2. Propanol undergoes dehydration to form propene.
Propanol ---180oC/ H2SO4 --> Propene + Water
o
CH3 CH2 CH2OH(l) --180 C/ H2SO4 --> CH3CH =CH2 (g) +
H2O(l)
3. Butanol undergoes dehydration to form Butene.
Butanol ---180oC/ H2SO4 --> Butene + Water
CH3 CH2 CH2CH2OH(l) --180oC/ H2SO4 --> CH3 CH2C =CH2 (g)
+ H2O(l)
3. Pentanol undergoes dehydration to form Pentene.
Pentanol ---180oC/ H2SO4 --> Pentene + Water
o
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2OH(l)--180 C/ H2SO4-->CH3 CH2 CH2C =CH2 (g)+H2O(l)
(l)Similarities of alkanols with Hydrocarbons
I. Similarity with alkanes

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Both alkanols and alkanes burn with a blue non-sooty flame to form
carbon(IV)oxide(in excess air/oxygen)/carbon(II)oxide(in limited air) and water.
This shows they are saturated with high C:H ratio. e.g.
Both ethanol and ethane ignite and burns in air with a blue non-sooty flame to
form carbon(IV)oxide(in excess air/oxygen)/carbon(II)oxide(in limited air) and
water.
CH2 CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) -Excess air-> 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(l)
CH2 CH2OH(l) + 2O2(g) -Limited air-> 2CO (g) + 3H2 O(l)
CH3 CH3(g) + 3O2(g) -Excess air-> 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(l)
2CH3 CH3(g) + 5O2(g) -Limited air-> 4CO (g) + 6H2 O(l)
II. Similarity with alkenes/alkynes
Both alkanols(R-OH) and alkenes/alkynes(with = C = C = double and – C = C-
triple ) bond:
(i)decolorize acidified KMnO4
(ii)turns Orange acidified K2Cr2O7 to green.
Alkanols(R-OH) are oxidized to alkanals(R-O) ant then alkanoic acids(R-OOH).
Alkenes are oxidized to alkanols with duo/double functional groups.
Examples
1.When ethanol is warmed with three drops of acidified K2Cr2O7 the orange of
acidified K2Cr2O7 turns to green. Ethanol is oxidized to ethanol and then to
ethanoic acid.
Ethanol + [O] -> Ethanal + [O] -> Ethanoic acid
CH3CH2OH + [O] -> CH3CH2O + [O] -> CH3COOH
2.When ethene is bubbled in a test tube containing acidified K2Cr2O7 ,the orange of
acidified K2Cr2O7 turns to green. Ethene is oxidized to ethan-1,2-diol.
Ethene + [O] -> Ethan-1,2-diol.
H2C=CH2 + [O] -> HOCH2 -CH2OH
III. Differences with alkenes/alkynes
Alkanols do not decolorize bromine and chlorine water.
Alkenes decolorizes bromine and chlorine water to form halogenoalkanols
Example
When ethene is bubbled in a test tube containing bromine water,the bromine water
is decolorized. Ethene is oxidized to bromoethanol.
Ethene + Bromine water -> Bromoethanol.
H2C=CH2 + HOBr -> BrCH2 -CH2OH
IV. Differences in melting and boiling point with Hydrocarbons

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Alkanos have higher melting point than the corresponding hydrocarbon

(alkane/alkene/alkyne)
This is because most alkanols exist as dimer.A dimer is a molecule made up of two
other molecules joined usually by van-der-waals forces/hydrogen bond or dative
bonding.
Two alkanol molecules form a dimer joined by hydrogen bonding.
Example
In Ethanol the oxygen atom attracts/pulls the shared electrons in the covalent bond
more to itself than Hydrogen.
This creates a partial negative charge (δ-) on oxygen and partial positive charge(δ+)
on hydrogen.
Two ethanol molecules attract each other at the partial charges through Hydrogen
bonding forming a dimmer.

H H H Hydrogen bonds

Covalent bonds
H C C O H H

H H H O C C H

H H
Dimerization of alkanols means more energy is needed to break/weaken the
Hydrogen bonds before breaking/weakening the intermolecular forces joining the
molecules of all organic compounds during boiling/melting.
E.USES OF SOME ALKANOLS
(a)Methanol is used as industrial alcohol and making methylated spirit
(b)Ethanol is used:
1. as alcohol in alcoholic drinks e.g Beer, wines and spirits.
2.as antiseptic to wash woulds
3.in manufacture of vanishes, ink ,glue and paint because it is volatile and
thus easily evaporate
4.as a fuel when blended with petrol to make gasohol.
B.ALKANOIC ACIDS (Carboxylic acids)
(A) INTRODUCTION.

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Alkanoic acids belong to a homologous series of organic compounds with a general

formula CnH2n +1 COOH and thus -COOH as the functional group .The 1st ten
alkanoic acids include:

n General /molecular Structural formula IUPAC

formular name
0 HCOOH Methanoic
H – C –O - H acid
│
O
1 CH3 COOH H Ethanoic
acid
H–C –C–O-H
│
H O
2 CH3 CH2 COOH H H Propanoic
C2 H5 COOH acid
H-C – C – C – O –
H

H H O
3 CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH H H H Butanoic
C3 H7 COOH acid
H- C - C – C – C – O –
H

H H H O
4 CH3CH2CH2CH2 H H H H Pentanoic
COOH acid
C4 H9 COOH H- C–C- C–C –C–O–
H

H H H H O
5 CH3CH2 CH2CH2CH2 H H H H H Hexanoic
COOH Visit: www.kcse-online.info for thousands of educational Resources acid
C5 H11 COOH H C- C–C- C–C –C–O
–H
 472

H H H H H O

6 CH3CH2 CH2 H H H H H H Pentanoic

CH2CH2CH2 COOH acid
C6 H13 COOH H C C- C–C- C–C–C–O–
H

H H H H H H O

Alkanoic acids like alkanols /alkanes/alkenes/alkynes form a homologous series

where:
(i)the general name of an alkanoic acids is derived from the alkane name then
ending with “–oic” acid as the table above shows.
(ii) the members have R-COOH/R C-O-H as the functional group.

O
(iii)they have the same general formula represented by R-COOH where R is
an alkyl group.
(iv)each member differ by –CH2- group from the next/previous.
(v)they show a similar and gradual change in their physical properties e.g.
boiling and melting point.
(vi)they show similar and gradual change in their chemical properties.
(vii) since they are acids they show similar properties with mineral acids.
(B) ISOMERS OF ALKANOIC ACIDS.
lkanoic acids exhibit both structural and position isomerism. The isomers are
named by using the following basic guidelines
(i)Like alkanes. identify the longest carbon chain to be the parent name.
(ii)Identify the position of the -C-O-H functional group to give it the smallest

O
/lowest position.
(iii)Identify the type and position of the side group branches.
Practice examples on isomers of alkanoic acids
1.Isomers of butanoic acid C3H7COOH
CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH
Butan-1-oic acid
CH3

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 473

H2C C COOH 2-methylpropan-1-oic acid

2-methylpropan-1-oic acid and Butan-1-oic acid are structural isomers because the
position of the functional group does not change but the arrangement of the atoms
in the molecule does.
2.Isomers of pentanoic acid C4H9COOH
CH3CH2CH2CH2 COOH pentan-1-oic acid

CH3

CH3CH2CH COOH 2-methylbutan-1-oic acid

CH3

H3C C COOH 2,2-dimethylpropan-1-oic acid

CH3
3.Ethan-1,2-dioic acid
O O

HOOC- COOH // H-O–C-C–O–H

4.Propan-1,3-dioic acid
O H O

HOOC- CH2COOH // H-O–C–C-C–O–H

5.Butan-1,4-dioic acid
O H H O

HOOC CH2 CH2 COOH H- O – C – C - C – C –O – H

H H
6.2,2-dichloroethan-1,2-dioic acid
HOOCCHCl2 Cl

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 474

H – O - C – C – Cl

O H
(C) LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL PREPARATIONOF ALKANOIC
ACIDS.
In a school laboratory, alkanoic acids can be prepared by adding an oxidizing
agent (H+/KMnO4 or H+/K2Cr2O7)to the corresponding alkanol then warming.
The oxidation converts the alkanol first to an alkanal the alkanoic acid.
NB Acidified KMnO4 is a stronger oxidizing agent than acidified K2Cr2O7
General equation:
R- CH2 – OH + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> R- CH –O + H2O(l)
(alkanol) (alkanal)

R- CH – O + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> R- C –OOH

(alkanal) (alkanoic acid)
Examples
1.Ethanol on warming in acidified KMnO4 is oxidized to ethanal then ethanoic acid
.
CH3- CH2 – OH + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> CH3- CH –O + H2O(l)
(ethanol) (ethanal)
CH3- CH – O + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> CH3- C –OOH
(ethanal) (ethanoic acid)
2Propanol on warming in acidified KMnO4 is oxidized to propanal then propanoic
acid
CH3- CH2 CH2 – OH + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> CH3- CH2 CH –O +
H2O(l)
(propanol) (propanal)
CH3- CH – O + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> CH3- C –OOH
(propanal) (propanoic acid)
Industrially,large scale manufacture of alkanoic acid like ethanoic acid is obtained
from:
(a)Alkenes reacting with steam at high temperatures and pressure in presence of
phosphoric(V)acid catalyst and undergo hydrolysis to form alkanols. i.e.
Alkenes + Steam/water -- H2PO4 Catalyst--> Alkanol
The alkanol is then oxidized by air at 5 atmosphere pressure with Manganese
(II)sulphate(VI) catalyst to form the alkanoic acid.

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 475

Alkanol + Air -- MnSO4 Catalyst/5 atm pressure--> Alkanoic acid

Example
Ethene is mixed with steam over a phosphoric(V)acid catalyst,300oC temperature
and 60 atmosphere pressure to form ethanol.

CH2=CH2 + H2O -> CH3 CH2OH

(Ethene) (Ethanol)
This is the industrial large scale method of manufacturing ethanol
Ethanol is then oxidized by air at 5 atmosphere pressure with Manganese
(II)sulphate(VI) catalyst to form the ethanoic acid.
CH3 CH2OH + [O] -- MnSO4 Catalyst/5 atm pressure--> CH3 COOH
(Ethanol) (Ethanoic acid)
(b)Alkynes react with liquid water at high temperatures and pressure in presence of
Mercury(II)sulphate(VI)catalyst and 30% concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid to form
alkanals.
Alkyne + Water -- Mercury(II)sulphate(VI)catalyst--> Alkanal
The alkanal is then oxidized by air at 5 atmosphere pressure with Manganese (II)
sulphate(VI) catalyst to form the alkanoic acid.
Alkanal + air/oxygen -- Manganese(II)sulphate(VI)catalyst--> Alkanoic acid

Example
Ethyne react with liquid water at high temperature and pressure with Mercury (II)
sulphate (VI)catalyst and 30% concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid to form ethanal.
CH = CH + H2O --HgSO4--> CH3 CH2O
(Ethyne) (Ethanal)
This is another industrial large scale method of manufacturing ethanol from large
quantities of ethyne found in natural gas.
Ethanal is then oxidized by air at 5 atmosphere pressure with Manganese
(II)sulphate(VI) catalyst to form the ethanoic acid.
CH3 CH2O + [O] -- MnSO4 Catalyst/5 atm pressure--> CH3 COOH
(Ethanal) (Oxygen from air) (Ethanoic acid)
(D) PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANOIC ACIDS.
I.Physical properties of alkanoic acids
The table below shows some physical properties of alkanoic acids
Alkanol Melting Boiling Density(gcm-3) Solubility in
point(oC) point(oC) water

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Methanoic 18.4 101 1.22 soluble

acid
Ethanoic acid 16.6 118 1.05 soluble
Propanoic -2.8 141 0.992 soluble
acid
Butanoic acid -8.0 164 0.964 soluble
Pentanoic -9.0 187 0.939 Slightly soluble
acid
Hexanoic acid -11 205 0.927 Slightly soluble
Heptanoic -3 223 0.920 Slightly soluble
acid
Octanoic acid 11 239 0.910 Slightly soluble
Nonanoic 16 253 0.907 Slightly soluble
acid
Decanoic acid 31 269 0.905 Slightly soluble
From the table note the following:
(i) Melting and boiling point decrease as the carbon chain increases due to
increase in intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules
requiring more energy to separate the molecules.
(ii) The density decreases as the carbon chain increases as the intermolecular
forces of attraction increases between the molecules making the molecule
very close reducing their volume in unit mass.
(iii) Solubility decreases as the carbon chain increases as the soluble –COOH
end is shielded by increasing insoluble alkyl/hydrocarbon chain.
(iv) Like alkanols ,alkanoic acids exist as dimmers due to the hydrogen bonds
within the molecule. i.e..

Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds

R1 C O δ-…….….…H δ+ O δ-

O δ- H δ+……..….O δ- C R2
R1 and 2 are extensions of the molecule.
For ethanoic acid the extension is made up of
[email protected]
3 – to make the structure;
104

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 477

For ethanoic acid the extension is made up of

CH3 – to make the structure;
Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds

CH3 C O δ-…………… H δ+ O δ-

O δ- H δ+…………O δ- C CH3
Ethanoic acid has a higher melting/boiling point than
ethanol .This is because ethanoic acid has two/more
hydrogen bond than ethanol.
105 [email protected]

II Chemical properties of alkanoic acids

The following experiments shows the main chemical properties of ethanoic
(alkanoic) acid.
(a)Effect on litmus papers
Experiment
Dip both blue and red litmus papers in ethanoic acid. Repeat with a solution of
succinic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid and dilute nitric(V)acid.
Sample observations
Solution/acid Observations/effect on litmus papers Inference
Ethanoic acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Red litmus paper remain red
Succinic acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Red litmus paper remain red
Citric acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Red litmus paper remain red
Oxalic acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Red litmus paper remain red
Tartaric acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Red litmus paper remain red
Nitric(V)acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Red litmus paper remain red
Explanation
All acidic solutions contains H+/H3O+(aq) ions. The H+ /H3O+ (aq) ions is
responsible for turning blue litmus paper/solution to red

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 478

(b)pH
Experiment
Place 2cm3 of ethaoic acid in a test tube. Add 2 drops of universal indicator
solution and determine its pH. Repeat with a solution of succinic acid, citric acid,
oxalic acid, tartaric acid and dilute sulphuric (VI)acid.
Sample observations
Solution/acid pH Inference
Ethanoic acid 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
Succinic acid 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
Citric acid 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
Oxalic acid 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
Tartaric acid 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
Sulphuric(VI)acid 1/2/3 Strongly acidic
Explanations
Alkanoic acids are weak acids that partially/partly dissociate to release few H+ ions
in solution. The pH of their solution is thus 4/5/6 showing they form weakly acidic
solutions when dissolved in water.
All alkanoic acid dissociate to releases the “H” at the functional group in -COOH
to form the alkanoate ion; –COO-
Mineral acids(Sulphuric(VI)acid, Nitric(V)acid and Hydrochloric acid) are strong
acids that wholly/fully dissociate to release many H+ ions in solution. The pH of
their solution is thus 1/2/3 showing they form strongly acidic solutions when
dissolved in water.i.e
Examples
1. CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
(ethanoic acid) (ethanoate ion) (few H+ ion)

2. CH3 CH2COOH(aq) CH3 CH2COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

(propanoic acid) (propanoate ion) (few H+ ion)
3. CH3 CH2 CH2COOH(aq) CH3 CH2 CH2COO (aq) + H+(aq)
-

(Butanoic acid) (butanoate ion) (few H+ ion)

4. HOOH(aq) HOO-(aq) + H+(aq)
(methanoic acid) (methanoate ion) (few H+ ion)
2-
5. H2 SO4 (aq) SO4 (aq) + 2H+(aq)
(sulphuric(VI) acid) (sulphate(VI) ion) (many H+ ion)
- +
6. HNO3 (aq) NO3 (aq) + H (aq)
(nitric(V) acid) (nitrate(V) ion) (many H+ ion)

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 479

(c)Reaction with metals

Experiment
Place about 4cm3 of ethanoic acid in a test tube. Put about 1cm length of polished
magnesium ribbon. Test any gas produced using a burning splint. Repeat with a
solution of succinic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid and dilute sulphuric
(VI) acid.
Sample observations
Solution/acid Observations Inference
Ethanoic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that burn
with “pop” sound/explosion
Succinic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that burn
with “pop” sound/explosion
Citric acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that burn
with “pop” sound/explosion
Oxalic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that burn
with “pop” sound/explosion
Tartaric acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that burn
with “pop” sound/explosion
Nitric(V)acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that burn
with “pop” sound/explosion
Explanation
Metals higher in the reactivity series displace the hydrogen in all acids to
evolve/produce hydrogen gas and form a salt. Alkanoic acids react with metals with
metals to form alkanoates salt and produce/evolve hydrogen gas .Hydrogen
extinguishes a burning splint with a pop sound/explosion. Only the “H”in the
functional group -COOH is /are displaced and not in the alkyl hydrocarbon chain.

Alkanoic acid + Metal -> Alkanoate + Hydrogen gas. i.e.

Examples
1. For a monovalent metal with monobasic acid
2R – COOH + 2M -> 2R- COOM + 2H2(g)

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 480

2.For a divalent metal with monobasic acid

2R – COOH + M -> (R- COO) 2M + H2(g)
3.For a divalent metal with dibasic acid
HOOC-R-COOH+ M -> MOOC-R-COOM + H2(g)
4.For a monovalent metal with dibasic acid
HOOC-R-COOH+ 2M -> MOOC-R-COOM + H2(g)
5 For mineral acids
(i)Sulphuric(VI)acid is a dibasic acid
H2 SO4 (aq) + 2M -> M2 SO4 (aq) + H2(g)
H2 SO4 (aq) + M -> MSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
(ii)Nitric(V) and hydrochloric acid are monobasic acid
HNO3 (aq) + 2M -> 2MNO3 (aq) + H2(g)
HNO3 (aq) + M -> M(NO3 ) 2 (aq) + H2(g)
Examples
1.Sodium reacts with ethanoic acid to form sodium ethanoate and produce.
hydrogen gas.
Caution: This reaction is explosive.
CH3COOH (aq) + Na(s) -> CH3COONa (aq) + H2(g)
(Ethanoic acid) (Sodium ethanoate)
2.Calcium reacts with ethanoic acid to form calcium ethanoate and produce.
hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH (aq) + Ca(s) -> (CH3COO) 2Ca (aq) + H2(g)
(Ethanoic acid) (Calcium ethanoate)
3.Sodium reacts with ethan-1,2-dioic acid to form sodium ethan-1,2-dioate and
produce. hydrogen gas.
HOOC-COOH+ 2Na -> NaOOC - COONa + H2(g)
(ethan-1,2-dioic acid) (sodium ethan-1,2-dioate)
Commercial name of ethan-1,2-dioic acid is oxalic acid. The salt is sodium oxalate.
4.Magnesium reacts with ethan-1,2-dioic acid to form magnesium ethan-1,2-dioate
and produce. hydrogen gas.
HOOC-R-COOH+ Mg -> ( OOC - COO) Mg + H2(g)
(ethan-1,2-dioic acid) (magnesium ethan-1,2-dioate)
5.Magnesium reacts with
(i)Sulphuric(VI)acid to form Magnesium sulphate(VI)
H2 SO4 (aq) + Mg -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
(ii)Nitric(V) and hydrochloric acid are monobasic acid
2HNO3 (aq) + Mg -> M(NO3 ) 2 (aq) + H2(g)

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(d)Reaction with hydrogen carbonates and carbonates

Experiment
Place about 3cm3 of ethanoic acid in a test tube. Add about 0.5g/ ½ spatula end
full of sodium hydrogen carbonate/sodium carbonate. Test the gas produced using
lime water. Repeat with a solution of succinic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, tartaric
acid and dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.
Sample observations
Solution/acid Observations Inference
Ethanoic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that
forms a white precipitate with lime
water
Succinic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that
forms a white precipitate with lime
water
Citric acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that
forms a white precipitate with lime
water
Oxalic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that
forms a white precipitate with lime
water
Tartaric acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that
forms a white precipitate with lime
water
Nitric(V)acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that
forms a white precipitate with lime
water
All acids react with hydrogen carbonate/carbonate to form salt ,water and
evolve/produce bubbles of carbon(IV)oxide and water.
Carbon(IV)oxide forms a white precipitate when bubbled in lime
water/extinguishes a burning splint.

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Alkanoic acids react with hydrogen carbonate/carbonate to form alkanoates ,water

and evolve/produce bubbles of carbon(IV)oxide and water.
Alkanoic acid + hydrogen carbonate -> alkanoate + water + carbon(IV)oxide

Alkanoic acid + carbonate -> alkanoate + water + carbon(IV)oxide

Examples
1. Sodium hydrogen carbonate reacts with ethanoic acid to form sodium
ethanoate ,water and carbon(IV)oxide gas.
CH3COOH (aq) + NaHCO3 (s) -> CH3COONa (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(Ethanoic acid) (Sodium ethanoate)
2.Sodium carbonate reacts with ethanoic acid to form sodium ethanoate ,water
and carbon(IV)oxide gas.
2CH3COOH (aq) + Na2CO3 (s) -> 2CH3COONa (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(Ethanoic acid) (Sodium ethanoate)
3.Sodium carbonate reacts with ethan-1,2-dioic acid to form sodium ethanoate
,water and carbon(IV)oxide gas.
HOOC-COOH+ Na2CO3 (s) -> NaOOC - COONa + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(ethan-1,2-dioic acid) (sodium ethan-1,2-dioate)
4.Sodium hydrogen carbonate reacts with ethan-1,2-dioic acid to form sodium
ethanoate ,water and carbon(IV)oxide gas.
HOOC-COOH+ 2NaHCO3 (s) -> NaOOC - COONa + H2O(l) + 2CO2 (g)
(ethan-1,2-dioic acid) (sodium ethan-1,2-dioate)
(e)Esterification
Experiment
Place 4cm3 of ethanol acid in a boiling tube.
Add equal volume of ethanoic acid. To the mixture, add 2 drops of concentrated
sulphuric(VI)acid carefully. Warm/heat gently on Bunsen flame.
Pour the mixture into a beaker containing 50cm3 of water. Smell the products.
Repeat with a solution of succinic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid and
dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.
Sample observations
Solution/acid Observations
Ethanoic acid Sweet fruity smell
Succinic acid Sweet fruity smell
Citric acid Sweet fruity smell
Oxalic acid Sweet fruity smell
Tartaric acid Sweet fruity smell

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Dilute No sweet fruity smell

sulphuric(VI)acid

Explanation
Alkanols react with alkanoic acid to form the sweet smelling homologous series of
esters and water.The reaction is catalysed by concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid in the
laboratory but naturally by sunlight /heat.Each ester has a characteristic smell
derived from the many possible combinations of alkanols and alkanoic acids.
Alkanol + Alkanoic acids -> Ester + water
Esters derive their names from the alkanol first then alkanoic acids. The alkanol
“becomes” an alkyl group and the alkanoic acid “becomes” alkanoate hence
alkylalkanoate. e.g.
Ethanol + Ethanoic acid -> Ethylethanoate + Water
Ethanol + Propanoic acid -> Ethylpropanoate + Water
Ethanol + Methanoic acid -> Ethylmethanoate + Water
Ethanol + butanoic acid -> Ethylbutanoate + Water
Propanol + Ethanoic acid -> Propylethanoate + Water
Methanol + Ethanoic acid -> Methyethanoate + Water
Methanol + Decanoic acid -> Methyldecanoate + Water
Decanol + Methanoic acid -> Decylmethanoate + Water
During the formation of the ester, the “O” joining the alkanol and alkanoic acid
comes from the alkanol.
R1 -COOH + R2 –OH -> R1 -COO –R2 + H2O
Examples
1. Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid to form the ester ethyl ethanoate and water.
Ethanol + Ethanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water
C2H5OH (l) + CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COO C2H5(aq) +H2O(l)
CH3CH2OH (l)+ CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COOCH2CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
2. Ethanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester ethylpropanoate and water.
Ethanol + Propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water
C2H5OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 -->CH3CH2COO C2H5(aq)
+H2O(l)
CH3CH2OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 -->
CH3 CH2COOCH2CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
3. Methanol reacts with ethanoic acid to form the ester methyl ethanoate and water.
Methanol + Ethanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Methylethanoate + Water
CH3OH (l) + CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COO CH3(aq) +H2O(l)

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4. Methanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester methyl propanoate and
water.
Methanol + propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Methylpropanoate + Water
CH3OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3 CH2COO CH3(aq)
+H2O(l)
5. Propanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester propylpropanoate and
water.
Propanol + Propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water
C3H7OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 -->CH3CH2COO C3H7(aq)
+H2O(l)
CH3CH2 CH2OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3 CH2COOCH2
CH2CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
C. DETERGENTS
Detergents are cleaning agents that improve the cleaning power /properties of
water.A detergent therefore should be able to:
(i)dissolve substances which water cannot e.g grease ,oil, fat
(ii)be washed away after cleaning.
There are two types of detergents:
(a)Soapy detergents
(b)Soapless detergents
(a) SOAPY DETERGENTS
Soapy detergents usually called soap is long chain salt of organic alkanoic
acids.Common soap is sodium octadecanoate .It is derived from reacting
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution with octadecanoic acid(18 carbon alkanoic
acid) i.e.
Sodium hydroxide + octadecanoic acid -> Sodium octadecanoate + water
NaOH(aq) + CH3 (CH2) 16 COOH(aq) -> CH3 (CH2) 16 COO – Na+ (aq) +H2 O(l)
Commonly ,soap can thus be represented ;
R- COO – Na+ where;
R is a long chain alkyl group and -COO – Na+ is the alkanoate ion.
In a school laboratory and at industrial and domestic level,soap is made by reacting
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution with esters from (animal) fat and oil. The
process of making soap is called saponification. During saponification ,the ester is
hydrolyzed by the alkali to form sodium salt /soap and glycerol/propan-1,2,3-
triol is produced.
Fat/oil(ester)+sodium/potassium hydroxide->sodium/potassium salt(soap)+
glycerol

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Fats/Oils are esters with fatty acids and glycerol parts in their structure;
C17H35COOCH2

C17H35COOCH

C17H35COOCH2
When boiled with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution NaOH;
(i)NaOH ionizes/dissociates into Na+ and OH- ions
(ii)fat/oil split into three C17H35COO- and one CH2 CH CH2
(iii) the three Na+ combine with the three C17H35COO- to form the salt
C17H35COO- Na+
(iv)the three OH-ions combine with the CH2 CH CH2 to form an alkanol with
three functional groups CH2 OH CH OH CH2 OH(propan-1,2,3-triol)
C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH

C17H35COOCH +NaOH -> 3 C17H35COO- Na+ + CHOH

C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH
Ester Alkali Soap glycerol
Generally:
CnH2n+1COOCH2 CH2OH

CnH2n+1COOCH +NaOH -> 3 CnH2n+1COO- Na+ + CHOH

CnH2n+1COOCH2 CH2OH
Ester Alkali Soap glycerol

R - COOCH2 CH2OH

R - COOCH +NaOH -> 3R-COO- Na+ + CHOH

R- COOCH2 CH2OH
Ester Alkali Soap glycerol

During this process a little sodium chloride is added to precipitate the soap by
reducing its solubility. This is called salting out.
The soap is then added colouring agents ,perfumes and herbs of choice.

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School laboratory preparation of soap

Place about 40 g of fatty (animal fat)beef/meat in 100cm3 beaker .Add about
15cm3 of 4.0M sodium hydroxide solution. Boil the mixture for about
15minutes.Stir the mixture .Add about 5.0cm3 of distilled water as you boil to
make up for evaporation. Boil for about another 15minutes.Add about four spatula
end full of pure sodium chloride crystals. Continue stirring for another five
minutes. Allow to cool. Filter of /decant and wash off the residue with distilled
water .Transfer the clean residue into a dry beaker. Preserve.
The action of soap
Soapy detergents:
(i)act by reducing the surface tension of water by forming a thin layer on top
of the water.
(ii)is made of a non-polar alkyl /hydrocarbon tail and a polar -COO-Na+
head. The non-polar alkyl /hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic (water hating) and thus
does not dissolve in water .It dissolves in non-polar solvent like grease, oil and fat.
The polar -COO-Na+ head is hydrophilic (water loving)and thus dissolve in water.
When washing with soapy detergent, the non-polar tail of the soapy detergent
surround/dissolve in the dirt on the garment /grease/oil while the polar head
dissolve in water.
Through mechanical agitation/stirring/sqeezing/rubbing/beating/kneading, some
grease is dislodged/lifted of the surface of the garment. It is immediately
surrounded by more soap molecules It float and spread in the water as tiny droplets
that scatter light in form of emulsion making the water cloudy and shinny. It is
removed from the garment by rinsing with fresh water. The repulsion of the soap
head prevent /ensure the droplets do not mix. Once removed, the dirt molecules
cannot be redeposited back because it is surrounded by soap molecules.
Advantages and disadvantages of using soapy detergents
Soapy detergents are biodegradable. They are acted upon by bacteria and rot. They
thus do not cause environmental pollution.
Soapy detergents have the disadvantage in that:
(i)they are made from fat and oils which are better eaten as food than make
soap.
(ii)forms an insoluble precipitate with hard water called scum. Scum is
insoluble calcium octadecanoate and Magnesium octadecanoate formed when soap
reacts with Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in hard water.
Chemical equation
2C17H35COO- Na+ (aq) + Ca2+(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Ca2+ (s) + 2Na+(aq)

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(insoluble Calcium octadecanote/scum)

2C17H35COO Na (aq) + Mg (aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Mg2+ (s) + 2Na+(aq)
- + 2+

(insoluble Magnesium octadecanote/scum)

This causes wastage of soap.
Potassium soaps are better than Sodium soap. Potassium is more expensive than
sodium and thus its soap is also more expensive.
(b)SOAPLESS DETERGENTS
Soapless detergent usually called detergent is a long chain salt fromed from by-
products of fractional distillation of crude oil.Commonly used soaps include:
(i)washing agents
(ii)toothpaste
(iii)emulsifiers/wetting agents/shampoo
Soapless detergents are derived from reacting:
(i)concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid with a long chain alkanol e.g.
Octadecanol(18 carbon alkanol) to form alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
Alkanol + Conc sulphuric(VI)acid -> alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) + Water
R –OH + H2SO4 -> R –O-SO3H + H2O
(ii)the alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) is then neutralized with sodium/potassium
hydroxide to form sodium/potassium alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
Sodium/potassium alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) is the soapless detergent.
alkyl hydrogen + Potassium/sodium -> Sodium/potassium +
Water
sulphate(VI) hydroxide alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
R –O-SO3H + NaOH -> R –O-SO3- Na+ + H2O
Example
Step I : Reaction of Octadecanol with Conc.H2SO4
C17H35CH2OH (aq) + H2SO4 -> C17H35CH2-O- SO3- H+ (aq) + H2O (l)
octadecanol + sulphuric(VI)acid -> Octadecyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) + water
Step II: Neutralization by an alkali
C17H35CH2-O- SO3- H+ (aq) + NaOH -> C17H35CH2-O- SO3- Na+ (aq) + H2O
(l)
Octadecyl hydrogen + sodium/potassium -> sodium/potassium octadecyl+Water
sulphate(VI) hydroxide hydrogen sulphate(VI)
School laboratory preparation of soapless detergent
Place about 20g of olive oil in a 100cm3 beaker. Put it in a trough containing ice
cold water.

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Add dropwise carefully 18M concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid stirring continuously

into the olive oil until the oil turns brown.Add 30cm3 of 6M sodium hydroxide
solution.Stir.This is a soapless detergent.
The action of soapless detergents
The action of soapless detergents is similar to that of soapy detergents.The soapless
detergents contain the hydrophilic head and a long hydrophobic tail. i.e.
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv-COO-Na+

vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv-O-SO3- Na+
(long hydrophobic /non-polar alkyl tail) (hydrophilic/polar/ionic head)
The tail dissolves in fat/grease/oil while the ionic/polar/ionic head dissolves in
water.
The tail stick to the dirt which is removed by the attraction of water molecules and
the polar/ionic/hydrophilic head by mechanical agitation /squeezing/kneading/
beating/rubbing/scrubbing/scatching.
The suspended dirt is then surrounded by detergent molecules and repulsion of the
anion head preventing the dirt from sticking on the material garment.
The tiny droplets of dirt emulsion makes the water cloudy. On rinsing the cloudy
emulsion is washed away.
Advantages and disadvantages of using soapless detergents
Soapless detergents are non-biodegradable unlike soapy detergents.
They persist in water during sewage treatment by causing foaming in rivers ,lakes
and streams leading to marine /aquatic death.
Soapless detergents have the advantage in that they:
(i)do not form scum with hard water.
(ii)are cheap to manufacture/buying
(iii)are made from petroleum products but soapis made from fats/oil for
human consumption.

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Sample revision questions

1. Study the scheme below
Fat/oil KOH

Boiling Sodium Chloride

Filtration

Filtrate Y
Residue X

(a)Identify the process

Saponification
(b)Fats and oils are esters. Write the formula of the a common structure of
ester
C17H35COOCH2

C17H35COOCH

C17H35COOCH2
(c)Write a balanced equation for the reaction taking place during boiling
C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH

C17H35COOCH +3NaOH -> 3 C17H35COO- Na+ + CHOH

C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH
Ester Alkali Soap glycerol

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(d)Give the IUPAC name of:

(i)Residue X
Potassium octadecanoate
(ii)Filtrate Y
Propan-1,2,3-triol
(e)Give one use of fitrate Y
Making paint
(f)What is the function of sodium chloride
To reduce the solubility of the soap hence helping in precipitating it out

(g)Explain how residue X helps in washing.

Has a non-polar hydrophobic tail that dissolves in dirt/grease /oil/fat
Has a polar /ionic hydrophilic head that dissolves in water.
From mechanical agitation,the dirt is plucked out of the garment and
surrounded by the tail end preventing it from being deposited back on the garment.
(h)State one:
(i)advantage of continued use of residue X on the environment
Is biodegradable and thus do not pollute the environment
(ii)disadvantage of using residue X
Uses fat/oil during preparation/manufacture which are better used for
human consumption.
(i)Residue X was added dropwise to some water.The number of drops used
before lather forms is as in the table below.
Water sample

A B C
Drops of residue X 15 2 15
Drops of residue X in boiled 2 2 15
water
(i)State and explain which sample of water is:
I. Soft
Sample B .Very little soap is used and no effect on amount of soap
even on boiling/heating.
II. Permanent hard

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Sample C . A lot of soap is used and no effect on amount of soap even

on boiling/heating. Boiling does not remove permanent hardness of
water.
III. Temporary hard
Sample A . A lot of soap is used before boiling. Very little soap is used
on boiling/heating. Boiling remove temporary hardness of water.
(ii)Write the equation for the reaction at water sample C.
Chemical equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + CaSO4(aq) ->(C17H35COO- )Ca2+ (s) + K2SO4(aq)
(insoluble Calcium octadecanote/scum)
Ionic equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Ca2+(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Ca2+ (s) + 2K+(aq)
(insoluble Calcium octadecanote/scum)
Chemical equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + MgSO4(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Mg2+ (s) +
K2SO4(aq)
(insoluble Calcium octadecanote/scum)
Ionic equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Mg2+(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Mg2+ (s) + 2K+(aq)
(insoluble Magnesium octadecanote/scum)
(iii)Write the equation for the reaction at water sample A before boiling.
Chemical equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Ca(HCO3)(aq) ->(C17H35COO- )Ca2+ (s) + 2KHCO3
(aq)
(insoluble Calcium octadecanote/scum)
Ionic equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Ca2+(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Ca2+ (s) + 2K+(aq)
(insoluble Calcium octadecanote/scum)
Chemical equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Mg(HCO3)(aq) ->(C17H35COO- )Mg2+ (s) + 2KHCO3
(aq)
(insoluble Calcium octadecanote/scum)
Ionic equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Mg2+(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Mg2+ (s) + 2K+(aq)
(insoluble Magnesium octadecanote/scum)
(iv)Explain how water becomes hard

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Natural or rain water flowing /passing through rocks containing calcium (chalk,
gypsum, limestone)and magnesium compounds (dolomite)dissolve them to form
soluble Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions that causes water hardness.
(v)State two useful benefits of hard water
-Used in bone and teeth formation
-Coral polyps use hard water to form coral reefs
-Snails use hard water to make their shells
2.Study the scheme below and use it to answer the questions that follow.

Olive oil Conc. H2SO4

Ice cold water

6M sodium hydroxide
Brown solid A

Substance B

(a)Identify :
(i)brown solid A
Alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
(ii)substance B
Sodium alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
(b)Write a general formula of:
(i)Substance A.
O

R-O-S O3 H // R- O - S - O - H

O
(ii)Substance B O

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 493

R-O-S O3 - Na+ R- O - S - O - Na+

O
(c)State one
(i) advantage of continued use of substance B
-Does not form scum with hard water
-Is cheap to make
-Does not use food for human as a raw material.
(ii)disadvantage of continued use of substance B.
Is non-biodegradable therefore do not pollute the environment
(d)Explain the action of B during washing.
Has a non-polar hydrocarbon long tail that dissolves in dirt/grease/oil/fat.
Has a polar/ionic hydrophilic head that dissolves in water
Through mechanical agitation the dirt is plucked /removed from the garment
and surrounded by the tail end preventing it from being deposited back on the
garment.
(e) Ethene was substituted for olive oil in the above process. Write the
equation and name of the new products A and B.
Product A
Ethene + Sulphuric(VI)acid -> Ethyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
H2C=CH2 + H2SO4 –> H3C – CH2 –O-SO3H
Product B
Ethyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) + sodium hydroxide -> sodium Ethyl + Water
hydrogen sulphate(VI)
H3C – CH2 –O-SO3H + NaOH -> H3C – CH2 –O-SO3-Na+ + H2O
(f)Ethanol can also undergo similar reactions forming new products A and B.Show
this using a chemical equation.
Product A
Ethanol + Sulphuric(VI)acid ->Ethyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) +
water
H3C-CH2OH + H2SO4 –> H3C – CH2 –O-SO3H + H2O
Product B
Ethyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) + sodium hydroxide -> sodium Ethyl + Water
hydrogen sulphate(VI)
H3C – CH2 –O-SO3H + NaOH -> H3C – CH2 –O-SO3-Na+ + H2O

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3.Below is part of a detergent

H3C – (CH2 )16 – O - SO3 - K +
(a)Write the formular of the polar and non-polar end
Polar end
H3C – (CH2 )16 –
Non-polar end
– O - SO3 - K +
(b)Is the molecule a soapy or saopless detergent?
Soapless detergent
(c)State one advantage of using the above detergent
-does not form scum with hard water
-is cheap to manufacture
4.The structure of a detergent is
H H H HH H H H H H H H H

H- C- C- C-C- C- C- C- C- C- C -C- C- -C- COO-Na+

H H H H H H H H H H H H H
a) Write the molecular formula of the detergent. (1mk)
CH3(CH2)12COO-Na+
b) What type of detergent is represented by the formula? (1mk)
Soapy detergent
c) When this type of detergent is used to wash linen in hard water, spots (marks)
are left on the linen. Write the formula of the substance responsible for the spots
(CH3(CH2)12COO-)2Ca2+ / CH3(CH2)12COO-)2Mg2+

D. POLYMERS AND FIBRES

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Polymers and fibres are giant molecules of organic compounds. Polymers and
fibres are formed when small molecules called monomers join together to form
large molecules called polymers at high temperatures and pressures. This process
is called polymerization.
Polymers and fibres are either:
(a)Natural polymers and fibres
(b)Synthetic polymers and fibres
Natural polymers and fibres are found in living things(plants and animals) Natural
polymers/fibres include:
-proteins/polypeptides making amino acids in animals
-cellulose that make cotton,wool,paper and silk
-Starch that come from glucose
-Fats and oils
-Rubber from latex in rubber trees.
Synthetic polymers and fibres are man-made. They include:
-polyethene
-polychloroethene
-polyphenylethene(polystyrene)
-Terylene(Dacron)
-Nylon-6,6
-Perspex(artificial glass)
Synthetic polymers and fibres have the following characteristic advantages over
natural polymers
1. They are light and portable
2. They are easy to manufacture.
3. They can easily be molded into shape of choice.
4. They are resistant to corrosion, water, air , acids, bases and salts.
5. They are comparatively cheap, affordable, colourful and aesthetic
Synthetic polymers and fibres however have the following disadvantages over
natural polymers
1. They are non-biodegradable and hence cause environmental pollution during
disposal
2. They give out highly poisonous gases when burnt like
chlorine/carbon(II)oxide
3. Some on burning produce Carbon(IV)oxide. Carbon(IV)oxide is a green
house gas that cause global warming.

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4. Compared to some metals, they are poor conductors of heat,electricity and

have lower tensile strength.
To reduce environmental pollution from synthetic polymers and fibres, the
followitn methods of disposal should be used:
1.Recycling: Once produced all synthetic polymers and fibres should be recycled to
a new product. This prevents accumulation of the synthetic polymers and fibres in
the environment.
2.Production of biodegradable synthetic polymers and fibres that rot away.
There are two types of polymerization:
(a)addition polymerization
(b)condensation polymerization
(a)addition polymerization
Addition polymerization is the process where a small unsaturated monomer (alkene
) molecule join together to form a large saturated molecule. Only alkenes undergo
addition polymerization.
Addition polymers are named from the alkene/monomer making the polymer and
adding the prefix “poly” before the name of monomer to form a polyalkene
During addition polymerization
(i)the double bond in alkenes break
(ii)free radicals are formed
(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger
molecule. The more collisions the larger the molecule.
Examples of addition polymerization
1.Formation of Polyethene
Polyethene is an addition polymer formed when ethene molecule/monomer join
together to form a large molecule/polymer at high temperatures and pressure.
During polymerization:
(i)many molecules are brought nearer to each other by the high pressure(which
reduces the volume occupied by reacting paticles)
H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H H H H H H H H

Ethene + Ethene + Ethene + Ethene + …

(ii)the double bond joining the ethane molecule break to free readicals

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H H H H H H H H

•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …

H H H H H H H H

Ethene radical + Ethene radical + Ethene radical + Ethene radical +

…
(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule
H H H H H H H H lone pair of electrons

•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …

H H H H H H H H
Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer
polyethene.
Polyethene molecule can be represented as:
H H H H H H H H extension of
molecule/polymer
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C- + …

H H H H H H H H
Since the molecule is a repetition of one monomer, then the polymer is:
H H

( C – C )n

H H
Where n is the number of monomers in the polymer. The number of monomers in
the polymer can be determined from the molar mass of the polymer and monomer
from the relationship:
Number of monomers/repeating units in monomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
Examples

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 498

Polythene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of ethene molecules

in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0 )
Number of monomers/repeating units in polyomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C2H4 )= 28 Molar mass polyethene = 4760

Substituting 4760 = 170 ethene molecules

28
The commercial name of polyethene is polythene. It is an elastic, tough,
transparent and durable plastic. Polythene is used:
(i)in making plastic bag
(ii)bowls and plastic bags
(iii)packaging materials
2.Formation of Polychlorethene
Polychloroethene is an addition polymer formed when chloroethene
molecule/monomer join together to form a large molecule/polymer at high
temperatures and pressure.
During polymerization:
(i)many molecules are brought nearer to each other by the high pressure(which
reduces the volume occupied by reacting particles)
H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
chloroethene + chloroethene + chloroethene + chloroethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the chloroethene molecule break to free radicals
H H H H H H H H

•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule
H H H H H H H H lone pair of electrons

•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …

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H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer
polychloroethene.
Polychloroethene molecule can be represented as:
H H H H H H H H extension of
molecule/polymer
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C- + …

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
Since the molecule is a repetition of one monomer, then the polymer is:
H H

( C – C )n

H Cl
Examples
Polychlorothene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of
chlorethene molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0,Cl=35.5 )
Number of monomers/repeating units in monomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C2H3Cl )= 62.5 Molar mass polyethene = 4760
Substituting 4760 = 77.16 => 77 polychloroethene molecules(whole
number)
62.5
The commercial name of polychloroethene is polyvinylchloride(PVC). It is a
tough, non-transparent and durable plastic. PVC is used:
(i)in making plastic rope
(ii)water pipes
(iii)crates and boxes
3.Formation of Polyphenylethene
Polyphenylethene is an addition polymer formed when phenylethene
molecule/monomer join together to form a large molecule/polymer at high
temperatures and pressure.
During polymerization:
(i)many molecules are brought nearer to each other by the high pressure(which
reduces the volume occupied by reacting particles)
H H H H H H H H

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 500

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

phenylethene + phenylethene + phenylethene + phenylethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the phenylethene molecule break to free radicals
H H H H H H H H

•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule
H H H H H H H H lone pair of electrons

•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C • + …

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer
polyphenylethene.
Polyphenylethene molecule can be represented as:

H H H H H H H H

-C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C -

H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5

Since the molecule is a repetition of one monomer, then the polymer is:
H H

( C – C )n

H C6H5
Examples

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 501

Polyphenylthene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of

phenylethene molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0, )
Number of monomers/repeating units in monomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C8H8 )= 104 Molar mass polyethene = 4760

Substituting 4760 = 45.7692 =>45 polyphenylethene molecules(whole

number)
104
The commercial name of polyphenylethene is polystyrene. It is a very light
durable plastic. Polystyrene is used:
(i)in making packaging material for carrying delicate items like computers,
radion,calculators.
(ii)ceiling tiles
(iii)clothe linings
4.Formation of Polypropene
Polypropene is an addition polymer formed when propene molecule/monomer join
together to form a large molecule/polymer at high temperatures and pressure.
During polymerization:
(i)many molecules are brought nearer to each other by the high pressure(which
reduces the volume occupied by reacting particles)

H H H H H H H H

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

propene + propene + propene+ propene + …

(ii)the double bond joining the phenylethene molecule break to free radicals
H H H H H H H H

•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule

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 502

H H H H H H H H lone pair of electrons

•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C • + …

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer propene.
propene molecule can be represented as:
H H H H H H H H

-C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C -

H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

Since the molecule is a repetition of one monomer, then the polymer is:
H H

( C – C )n

H CH3
Examples
Polypropene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of propene
molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0, )
Number of monomers/repeating units in monomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass propene (C3H8 )= 44 Molar mass polyethene = 4760

Substituting 4760 = 108.1818 =>108 propene molecules(whole number)

44
The commercial name of polyphenylethene is polystyrene. It is a very light
durable plastic. Polystyrene is used:
(i)in making packaging material for carrying delicate items like computers,
radion,calculators.
(ii)ceiling tiles
(iii)clothe linings
5.Formation of Polytetrafluorothene
Polytetrafluorothene is an addition polymer formed when tetrafluoroethene
molecule/monomer join together to form a large molecule/polymer at high
temperatures and pressure.

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During polymerization:
(i)many molecules are brought nearer to each other by the high pressure(which
reduces the volume occupied by reacting particles)
F F F F F F F F

C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …

F F F F F F F F
tetrafluoroethene + tetrafluoroethene+ tetrafluoroethene+ tetrafluoroethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the tetrafluoroethene molecule break to free radicals
F F F F F F F F

•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …

F F F F F F F F
(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule
F F F F F F F F lone pair of electrons

•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …

F F F F F F F F
Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer
polytetrafluoroethene.
polytetrafluoroethene molecule can be represented as:
F F F F F F F F extension of
molecule/polymer
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C- + …

F F F F F F F F
Since the molecule is a repetition of one monomer, then the polymer is:
F F

( C – C )n

F F

Examples

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 504

Polytetrafluorothene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of

tetrafluoroethene molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, ,F=19 )
Number of monomers/repeating units in monomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C2F4 )= 62.5 Molar mass polyethene = 4760

Substituting 4760 = 77.16 => 77 polychloroethene molecules(whole

number)
62.5
The commercial name of polytetrafluorethene(P.T.F.E) is Teflon(P.T.F.E). It is a
tough, non-transparent and durable plastic. PVC is used:
(i)in making plastic rope
(ii)water pipes
(iii)crates and boxes
5.Formation of rubber from Latex
Natural rubber is obtained from rubber trees.
During harvesting an incision is made on the rubber tree to produce a milky white
substance called latex.
Latex is a mixture of rubber and lots of water.
The latex is then added an acid to coagulate the rubber.
Natural rubber is a polymer of 2-methylbut-1,3-diene ;
H CH3 H H

CH2=C (CH3) CH = CH2 H - C = C – C = C - H

During natural polymerization to rubber, one double C=C bond break to self add to
another molecule. The double bond remaining move to carbon “2” thus;
H CH3 H H H CH3 H H

- C - C = C - C - C - C = C - C -

H H H H
Generally the structure of rubber is thus;
H CH3 H H

-(- C - C = C - C -)n-

H H

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 505

Pure rubber is soft and sticky. It is used to make erasers, car tyres. Most of it is
vulcanized. Vulcanization is the process of heating rubber with sulphur to make it
harder/tougher.
During vulcanization the sulphur atoms form a cross link between chains of rubber
molecules/polymers. This decreases the number of C=C double bonds in the
polymer.
H CH3 H H H CH3 H H
Sulphur atoms make
- C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C -cross link between
polymers
H S H H S H

H CH3 S H H CH3 S H

- C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C -

H H H H H H
Vulcanized rubber is used to make tyres, shoes and valves.
6.Formation of synthetic rubber
Synthetic rubber is able to resist action of oil,abrasion and organic solvents which
rubber cannot.
Common synthetic rubber is a polymer of 2-chlorobut-1,3-diene ;
H Cl H H

CH2=C (Cl CH = CH2 H - C = C – C = C - H

During polymerization to synthetic rubber, one double C=C bond is broken to self
add to another molecule. The double bond remaining move to carbon “2” thus;
H Cl H H H Cl H H

- C - C = C - C - C - C = C - C -

H H H H
Generally the structure of rubber is thus;
H Cl H H

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 506

-(- C - C = C - C -)n-

H H
Rubber is thus strengthened through vulcanization and manufacture of synthetic
rubber.

(b)Condensation polymerization
Condensation polymerization is the process where two or more small monomers
join together to form a larger molecule by elimination/removal of a simple
molecule. (usually water).
Condensation polymers acquire a different name from the monomers because the
two monomers are two different compounds
During condensation polymerization:
(i)the two monomers are brought together by high pressure to reduce
distance between them.
(ii)monomers realign themselves at the functional group.
(iii)from each functional group an element is removed so as to form simple
molecule (of usually H2O/HCl)
(iv)the two monomers join without the simple molecule of H2O/HCl
Examples of condensation polymerization
1.Formation of Nylon-6,6
Method 1: Nylon-6,6 can be made from the condensation polymerization of
hexan-1,6-dioic acid with hexan-1,6-diamine.Amines are a group of homologous
series with a general formula R-NH2 and thus -NH2 as the functional group.
During the formation of Nylon-6,6:
(i)the two monomers are brought together by high pressure to reduce
distance between them and realign themselves at the functional groups.
O O H H

H- O - C – (CH2 ) 4 – C – O - H + H –N – (CH2) 6 – N – H
(iii)from each functional group an element is removed so as to form a
molecule of H2O and the two monomers join at the linkage .
O O H H

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 507

H- O - C – (CH2 ) 4 – C – N – (CH2) 6 – N – H + H 2O

.
Polymer bond linkage
Nylon-6,6 derive its name from the two monomers each with six carbon chain
Method 2: Nylon-6,6 can be made from the condensation polymerization of
hexan-1,6-dioyl dichloride with hexan-1,6-diamine.
Hexan-1,6-dioyl dichloride belong to a group of homologous series with a general
formula R-OCl and thus -OCl as the functional group.
The R-OCl is formed when the “OH” in R-OOH/alkanoic acid is replaced by
Cl/chlorine/Halogen
During the formation of Nylon-6,6:
(i)the two monomers are brought together by high pressure to reduce
distance between them and realign themselves at the functional groups.
O O H H

Cl - C – (CH2 ) 4 – C – Cl + H –N – (CH2) 6 – N – H
(iii)from each functional group an element is removed so as to form a
molecule of HCl and the two monomers join at the linkage .
O O H H

Cl - C – (CH2 ) 4 – C – N – (CH2) 6 – N – H + HCl

.
Polymer bond linkage
The two monomers each has six carbon chain hence the name “nylon-6,6”
The commercial name of Nylon-6,6 is Nylon It is a a tough, elastic and durable
plastic. It is used to make clothes, plastic ropes and carpets.
2.Formation of Terylene
Method 1: Terylene can be made from the condensation polymerization of ethan-
1,2-diol with benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid.
Benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid a group of homologous series with a general
formula R-COOH where R is a ring of six carbon atom called Benzene ring .The
functional group is -COOH.
During the formation of Terylene:
(i)the two monomers are brought together by high pressure to reduce
distance between them and realign themselves at the functional groups.

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O O

H- O - C – C6H5 – C – O - H + H –O – CH2 CH2 – O – H

(iii)from each functional group an element is removed so as to form a
molecule of H2O and the two monomers join at the linkage .
O O

H- O - C – C6H5 – C – O – (CH2) 6 – N – H + H 2O

.
Polymer bond linkage of terylene

Method 2: Terylene can be made from the condensation polymerization of

benzene-1,4-dioyl dichloride with ethan-1,2-diol.
Benzene-1,4-dioyl dichloride belong to a group of homologous series with a
general formula R-OCl and thus -OCl as the functional group and R as a benzene
ring.
The R-OCl is formed when the “OH” in R-OOH is replaced by
Cl/chlorine/Halogen
During the formation of Terylene
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 509

(i)the two monomers are brought together by high pressure to reduce

distance between them and realign themselves at the functional groups.
O O

Cl - C – C5H5 – C – Cl + H –O – CH2 CH2 – O - H

(iii)from each functional group an element is removed so as to form a
molecule of HCl and the two monomers join at the linkage .
O O

Cl - C – C5H5 – C – O – CH2 CH2 – O – H + HCl

.
Polymer bond linkage of terylene

The commercial name of terylene is Polyester /polyster It is a a tough, elastic and

durable plastic. It is used to make clothes, plastic ropes and sails and plastic
model kits.
Practice questions Organic chemistry

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 510

1. A student mixed equal volumes of Ethanol and butanoic acid. He added a

few drops of concentrated Sulphuric (VI) acid and warmed the mixture
(i) Name and write the formula of the main products
Name………………………………….
Formula……………………………………..
(ii) Which homologous series does the product named in (i) above
belong?
2. The structure of the monomer phenyl ethene is given below:-
HC = CH2

a) Give the structure of the polymer formed when four of the monomers are
added together
b) Give the name of the polymer formed in (a) above
3. Explain the environmental effects of burning plastics in air as a disposal
method 4. Write chemical equation to represent the effect of heat on ammonium
carbonate
5. Sodium octadecanoate has a chemical formula CH3(CH2)6 COO-Na+, which is
used as soap.
Explain why a lot of soap is needed when washing with hard water

6. A natural polymer is made up of the monomer:

O

CH3CH2CH C OH

(a) Write the structural formula of the repeat unit of the polymer
(b) When 5.0 x 10-5 moles of the polymer were hydrolysed, 0.515g of the
monomer were obtained.
Determine the number of the monomer molecules in this polymer.
(C = 12; H = 1; N = 14; O =16)
7. The formula below represents active ingredients of two cleansing agents A
and B

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 511

Which one of the cleansing agents would be suitable to be used in water

containing magnesium hydrogen carbonate? Explain

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 512

8. Study the polymer below and use it to answer the questions that follow:
H H H H

C C C C

(a) Give the name of the monomer and draw its structures
(b) Identify the type of polymerization that takes place
(c) State one advantage of synthetic polymers
9. Ethanol and Pentane are miscible liquids. Explain how water can be used to
separate a mixture of ethanol and pentane

10. GLUCOSE G CRUDE H 95% ETHANOL ABSOLUTE

SOLUTION ETHANOL ETHANOL
(a) What is absolute ethanol?
(b) State two Volume of Oxygen
conditions required for evolved (cm3)
process G to take place
efficiently 11.
(a) (i) The table
below shows the volume of
oxygen obtained per unit
time when hydrogen
peroxide was decomposed
in the presence of
manganese (IV) Oxide. Use
it to answer the questions
that follow:-

Time in
seconds
0 0
30 10
60 19
90 27
120 34
150 38

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 513

180 43
210 45
240 45
270 45
300 45
(i) Plot a graph of volume of oxygen gas against time
(ii) Determine the rate of reaction at time 156 seconds
(iii) From the graph, find the time taken for 18cm3 of oxygen to be
produced (iv) Write a chemical equation to show how hydrogen peroxide
decomposes in the presence of manganese (IV) Oxide

(b) The diagram below shows how a Le’clanche (Dry cell) appears:-

(i) What is the function of MnO2 in the cell above?

(ii) Write the equation of a reaction that occurs at the cathode
(iii) Calculate the mass of Zinc that is consumed when a current of
0.1amperes flows through the above cell for 30minutes (1F =96500c Zn =65)

12. (a) Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds:

(i) CH3COOCH2CH3 *
CH2 = C – CHCH3
(ii)

(b) The structure below shows some reactions starting with ethanol. Study it
and answer
the questions that follow: Reagent R
NaOH(aq)
S CH3COOH CH3COONa Heat
Na Metal Step II

CH3CH2OH CH3COOH CH4

P
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Step for
I thousands of educational Resources Excess
Cl2 /U.V
CH2 CH2 CH2=CH2 Step III CH3CH3 T
n
Compound U
 514

(i) Write the formula of the organic compounds P and S

(ii) Name the type of reaction, the reagent(s) and condition for the
reactions in the following steps :-
(I) Step I
(II) Step II
(III) Step III
(iii) Name reagent R
…………………………………………………………… (iv) Draw the
structural formula of T and give its name
(v) (I) Name compound
U………………………………………………………..
(II) If the relative molecular mass of U is 42000, determine the value
of n (C=12, H=1)
(c) State why C2H4 burns with a more smoky flame than C2H6
13. a) State two factors that affect the properties of a polymer
b) Name the compound with the formula below :
CH3CH2CH2ONa
c) Study the scheme below and use it to answer the questions that follow:-
H H
Step Step
CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH = CH2

P C– C n
K
CH3CH2CH2OH

Step R
K2CO3 NaOH
Gas F CH3CH2COOH CH3CH2COONa

NaOH
Step X
Heat
CH3CH2COOCH3 Product T

G + Na CO
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 515

i) Name the following compounds:-

I. Product T ………………………… II. K ………
ii) State one common physical property of substance G
iii) State the type of reaction that occurred in step J
iv) Give one use of substance K
v) Write an equation for the combustion of compound P
vi) Explain how compounds CH3CH2COOH and CH3CH2CH2OH can be
distinguished chemically
vii) If a polymer K has relative molecular mass of 12,600, calculate the value
of n (H=1 C =12)
14. Study the scheme given below and answer the questions that follow:-

Polymerization Step III

Polymer Q Compound P CH3CH2CH3
H2 (g) Ni

o
Conc. H2SO4 180 CHigh temp
Na(s) Step I
CH3CH2CH2ONa + H2 Propan-l-ol Propylethanoate

Step II

CH3CH2COOH

Na2CO3(aq)

Solution T + CO2 (g)

(a) (i) Name compound P

……………………………………………………………………
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction between CH3CH2COOH and Na2CO3
(b) State one use of polymer Q
(c) Name one oxidising agent that can be used in step II
…………………………………..

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 516

(d) A sample of polymer Q is found to have a molecular mass of 4200. Determine

the number of
monomers in the polymer (H = 1, C = 12)
(e) Name the type of reaction in step I
…………………………………………………………..
(f) State one industrial application of step III
(g)State how burning can be used to distinguish between propane and propyne.
Explain your
answer
(h) 1000cm3 of ethene (C2H4) burnt in oxygen to produce Carbon (II) Oxide and
water vapour.
Calculate the minimum volume of air needed for the complete combustion of
ethene
(Air contains 20% by volume of oxygen)
15. (a) Study the schematic diagram below and answer the questions that follow:-

CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3
X

Ni H2 Step 1 R

Step 3 CH3CH2CH2OH Na
CH3CHCH2 CH3CH2CH2ONa + Gas P

H + -
MnO 4 Step2
HCl Step 5

V Step 4
Q + H2O

(i) Identify the following:

Substance Q
..............................................................................................................
Substance
R...............................................................................................................
Gas
P..........................................................................................................................
(ii) Name:

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 517

Step 1.................................................................................................

Step 4.................................................................................................

(iii) Draw the structural formula of the major product of step 5

(iv) State the condition and reagent in step 3
16. Study the flow chart below and answer the questions that follow
M
CO2 (g)
KMnO4/H+
CH2CH2 Ni/H2(g) J
Step 4
Reagent P K
STEP 2
+
Ethyl CH2CH2OH KMnO4/H (aq)
Reagent Q
Ethanoate L
Step 3
(a) (i) Name the following organic compounds:
M……………………………………………………………..……..

L…………………………………………………………………..
(ii) Name the process in step:
Step 2 ………………………………………………………….….

Step 4 ………………………………………………………….…

(iii) Identify the reagent P and Q

(iv) Write an equation for the reaction between CH3CH2CH2OH and sodium
17. a) Give the names of the following compounds:
i) CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
……………………………………………………………………
ii) CH3CH2COOH
…………………………………………………………………
iii) CH3C – O- CH2CH3
……………………………………………………………………
18. Study the scheme given below and answer the questions that follow;
Step I
Products Step V CH ≡CH C2H5COONa

Complete combustion Step II

Step IV + Heat

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 518

CH2 = CH2
C2H6
Step III

n
i) Name the reagents used in: CH = CHCl
Step I:
………………………………………………………………………
Step II
……………………………………………………………………
Step III
………………………………………………………………………
ii) Write an equation to show products formed for the complete combustion
of CH = CH
iii) Explain one disadvantage of continued use of items made from the
compound formed in step III
19. A hydrated salt has the following composition by mass. Iron 20.2 %, oxygen
23.0%, sulphur 11.5%, water 45.3%
i) Determine the formula of the hydrated salt (Fe=56, S=32, O=16, H=11)
ii) 6.95g of the hydrated salt in c(i) above were dissolved in
distilled water and the total volume made to 250cm3 of solution. Calculate the
concentration of the resulting salt solution in moles per litre. (Given that the
molecula mass of the salt is 278)
20. Write an equation to show products formed for the complete combustion of CH
= CH
iii) Explain one disadvantage of continued use of items made from the
compound formed in step III
21. Give the IUPAC name for each of the following organic compounds;
i) CH3 - CH - CH2 - CH3

OH
ii)CH3 – CH – CH2 – CH2 - CH3

C2H5
iii)CH3COOCH2CH2CH3
22. The structure below represents a cleansing agent.
O

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 519

R – S – O-Na+

O
a) State the type of cleansing agent represented above
b) State one advantage and one disadvantage of using the above cleansing agent.
23. The structure below shows part of polymer .Use it to answer the questions
that follow.
CH3 CH3 CH3
  
― CH - CH2 – CH- CH2 - CH – CH2 ―
a) Derive the structure of the monomer
b) Name the type of polymerization represented above
24. The flow chart below represents a series of reactions starting with ethanoic
acid:-
Ethanol B Ethanoic Na2CO3 Salt A + CO2 + H2O
acid
process I
(a) Identify substances A and B
(b) Name the process I
25. a) Write an equation showing how ammonium nitrate may be prepared
starting with ammonia gas
(b) Calculate the maximum mass of ammonium nitrate that can be prepared
using 5.3kg of ammonia (H=1, N=14, O=16)

26. (a) What is meant by the term, esterification?

(b) Draw the structural formulae of two compounds that may be reacted to
form ethylpropanoate
27. (a) Draw the structure of pentanoic acid
(b) Draw the structure and give the name of the organic compound formed
when ethanol reacts with pentanoic acid in presence of concentrated sulphuric acid

28. The scheme below shows some reactions starting with ethanol. Study it and
answer the questions
that follow:- Q

Step 4 CH3CH2OH/H2SO4
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Step 3
P CH3COONa

2-
Step 2 Cr2O7(aq) / H+(aq)

H2SO4(l)
Ethanol C

Na(s)
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(i) Name and draw the structure of substance Q

(ii) Give the names of the reactions that take place in steps 2 and 4
(iii) What reagent is necessary for reaction that takes place in step 3
29. Substances A and B are represented by the formulae ROH and RCOOH
respectively.
They belong to two different homologous series of organic compounds. If
both A and B
react with potassium metal:
(a) Name the common product produced by both
(b) State the observation made when each of the samples A and B are reacted
with sodium hydrogen carbonate
(i) A
(ii) B
30. Below are structures of particles. Use it to answer questions that follow. In
each case only electrons in the outermost energy level are shown
key
P = Proton
N = Neutron 19P

X = Electron
U V W

Y Z
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 521

(a) Identify the particle which is an anion

31. Plastics and rubber are extensively used to cover electrical wires.
(a) What term is used to describe plastic and rubbers used in this way?
(b) Explain why plastics and rubbers are used this way
32. The scheme below represents the manufacture of a cleaning agent X

R Conc. R Cleaning
SO H agent X

(a) Draw the structure of X and state the type of cleaning agent to which X
belong (b) State one disadvantage of using X as a cleaning agent

33. Y grams of a radioactive isotope take 120days to decay to 3.5grams. The

half-life period of the isotope is 20days
(a) Find the initial mass of the isotope
(b) Give one application of radioactivity in agriculture
34. The structure below represents a polymer. Study and answer the questions
that follow:- H H

-C – C - n
(i) Name the polymer
above.................................................................................. (ii) Determine the value
of n if giant molecule had relative molecular mass of 4956
35. RCOO-Na+ and RCH2OSO3-Na+ are two types of cleansing agents;
i) Name the class of cleansing agents to which each belongs
ii) Which one of these agents in (i) above would be more suitable when
washing with water from the Indian ocean. Explain

iii) Both sulphur (IV) oxide and chlorine are used bleaching agents. Explain
the difference in their bleaching properties

36. The formula given below represents a portion of a polymer

H H H H

C C C C
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n
O H O H
 522

(a) Give the name of the polymer

(b) Draw the structure of the monomer used to manufacture the polymer

THE MOLE
(a)Gas laws
1. Matter is made up of small particle in accordance to Kinetic Theory of matter:
Naturally, there are basically three states of matter: Solid, Liquid and gas:
(i)A solid is made up of particles which are very closely packed with a
definite/fixed shape and fixed/definite volume /occupies definite space. It has a
very high density.
(ii) A liquid is made up of particles which have some degree of freedom. It thus
has no definite/fixed shape. It takes the shape of the container it is put. A liquid has
fixed/definite volume/occupies definite space.
(iii)A gas is made up of particles free from each other. It thus has no definite
/fixed shape. It takes the shape of the container it is put. It has no fixed/definite
volume/occupies every space in a container.
2.Gases are affected by physical conditions. There are two physical conditions:
(i)Temperature
(ii)Pressure
3. The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin(K).
Degrees Celsius/Centigrade(oC) are also used.
The two units can be interconverted from the relationship:
o
C + 273= K
K -273 = oC
Practice examples
1. Convert the following into Kelvin.
(i) O oC
o
C + 273 = K substituting : O oC + 273 = 273 K
(ii) -273 oC
o
C + 273 = K substituting : -273oC + 273 = 0 K
(iii) 25 oC

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 523

o
C + 273 = K substituting : 25 oC + 273 = 298 K
(iv) 100 oC
o
C + 273 = K substituting : 100 oC + 273 = 373 K
2. Convert the following into degrees Celsius/Centigrade(oC).
(i) 10 K
K -273 = oC substituting: 10 – 273 = -263 oC
(ii) (i) 1 K
K -273 = oC substituting: 1 – 273 = -272 oC
(iii) 110 K
K -273 = oC substituting: 110 – 273 = -163 oC

(iv) -24 K
K -273 = oC substituting: -24 – 273 = -297 oC
The standard temperature is 273K = 0 oC.
The room temperature is assumed to be 298K = 25oC
4. The SI unit of pressure is Pascal(Pa) / Newton per metre squared (Nm-2) .
Millimeters’ of mercury(mmHg) ,centimeters of mercury(cmHg) and atmospheres
are also commonly used.
The units are not interconvertible but Pascals(Pa) are equal to Newton per metre
squared(Nm-2).
The standard pressure is the atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is equal to about:
(i)101325 Pa
(ii)101325 Nm-2
(iii)760 mmHg
(iv)76 cmHg
(v)one atmosphere.
5. Molecules of gases are always in continuous random motion at high speed. This
motion is affected by the physical conditions of temperature and pressure.
Physical conditions change the volume occupied by gases in a closed system.
The effect of physical conditions of temperature and pressure was investigated and
expressed in both Boyles and Charles laws.
6. Boyles law states that
“the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure
at constant/fixed temperature ”
Mathematically:
Volume α 1 (Fixed /constant Temperature)

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 524

Pressure
V α 1 (Fixed /constant T) ie PV = Constant(k)
P
From Boyles law , an increase in pressure of a gas cause a decrease in volume. i.e
doubling the pressure cause the volume to be halved.
Graphically therefore a plot of volume(V) against pressure (P) produces a curve.

P
Graphically a plot of volume(V) against inverse/reciprocal of pressure (1/p)
produces a straight line

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 525

1
/P

For two gases then P1 V1 = P2 V2

P1 = Pressure of gas 1
V1 = Volume of gas 1
P2 = Pressure of gas 2
V2 = Volume of gas 2
Practice examples:
1. A fixed mass of gas at 102300Pa pressure has a volume of 25cm3.Calculate
its volume if the pressure is doubled.
Working
P1 V1 = P2 V2 Substituting :102300 x 25 = (102300 x 2) x V2
V2 = 102300 x 25 = 12.5cm3
(102300 x 2)
2. Calculate the pressure which must be applied to a fixed mass of 100cm3 of
Oxygen for its volume to triple at 100000Nm-2.
P1 V1 = P2 V2 Substituting :100000 x 100 = P2 x (100 x 3)
V2 = 100000 x 100 = 33333.3333 Nm-2
(100 x 3)
3.A 60cm3 weather ballon full of Hydrogen at atmospheric pressure of
101325Pa was released into the atmosphere. Will the ballon reach stratosphere
where the pressure is 90000Pa?
P1 V1 = P2 V2 Substituting :101325 x 60 = 90000 x V2
V2 = 101325 x 60 = 67.55 cm3
90000
The new volume at 67.55 cm3 exceed ballon capacity of 60.00 cm3.It will burst
before reaching destination.
7.Charles law states that“the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature at constant/fixed pressure ”
Mathematically:
Volume α Pressure (Fixed /constant pressure)

V α T (Fixed /constant P) ie V = Constant(k)

T
From Charles law , an increase in temperature of a gas cause an increase in
volume. i.e doubling the temperature cause the volume to be doubled.

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 526

Gases expand/increase by 1/273 by volume on heating.Gases contact/decrease by

1
/273 by volume on cooling at constant/fixed pressure.
The volume of a gas continue decreasing with decrease in temperature until at
-273oC /0 K the volume is zero. i.e. there is no gas.
This temperature is called absolute zero. It is the lowest temperature at which a
gas can exist.
Graphically therefore a plot of volume(V) against Temperature(T) in:
(i)oC produces a straight line that is extrapolated to the absolute zero of -273oC .

-273oC 0 oC
T(oC)

(ii)Kelvin/K produces a straight line from absolute zero of O Kelvin

0 T(Kelvin)
For two gases then V1 = V2
T1 T2

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 527

T1 = Temperature in Kelvin of gas 1

V1 = Volume of gas 1
T2 = Temperature in Kelvin of gas 2
V2 = Volume of gas 2
Practice examples:
1. 500cm3 of carbon(IV)oxide at 0oC was transfered into a cylinder at -4oC. If
the capacity of the cylinder is 450 cm3,explain what happened.
V1 = V2 substituting 500 = V2
T1 T2 (0 +273) (-4 +273)

= 500 x (-4 x 273) = 492.674cm3

(0 + 273)
The capacity of cylinder (500cm3) is less than new volume(492.674cm3).
7.326cm3(500-492.674cm3)of carbon(IV)oxide gas did not fit into the cylinder.
2. A mechanic was filling a deflated tyre with air in his closed garage using a
hand pump. The capacity of the tyre was 40,000cm3 at room temperature. He
rolled the tyre into the car outside. The temperature outside was 30oC.Explain
what happens.
V1 = V2 substituting 40000 = V2
T1 T2 (25 +273) (30 +273)
= 40000 x (30 x 273) = 40671.1409cm3
(25 + 273)
The capacity of a tyre (40000cm3) is less than new volume(40671.1409cm3).
The tyre thus bursts.
3. A hydrogen gas balloon with 80cm3 was released from a research station at
room temperature. If the temperature of the highest point it rose is -30oC ,
explain what happened.
V1 = V2 substituting 80 = V2
T1 T2 (25 +273) (-30 +273)
= 80 x (-30 x 273) = 65.2349cm3
(25 + 273)
The capacity of balloon (80cm3) is more than new volume (65.2349cm3).
The balloon thus remained intact.
8. The continuous random motion of gases differ from gas to the other.The
movement of molecules (of a gas) from region of high concentration to a region of
low concentration is called diffusion.

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 528

The rate of diffusion of a gas depends on its density. i.e. The higher the rate of
diffusion, the less dense the gas.
The density of a gas depends on its molar mass/relative molecular mass. i.e. The
higher the density the higher the molar mass/relative atomic mass and thus the
lower the rate of diffusion.
Examples
1.Carbon (IV)oxide(CO2) has a molar mass of 44g.Nitrogen(N2)has a molar mass
of 28g. (N2)is thus lighter/less dense than Carbon (IV)oxide(CO2). N2 diffuses
faster than CO2.
2.Ammonia(NH3) has a molar mass of 17g.Nitrogen(N2)has a molar mass of 28g.
(N2)is thus about twice lighter/less dense than Ammonia(NH3). Ammonia(NH3)
diffuses twice faster than N2.
3. Ammonia(NH3) has a molar mass of 17g.Hydrogen chloride gas has a molar
mass of 36.5g.Both gases on contact react to form white fumes of ammonium
chloride .When a glass/cotton wool dipped in ammonia and another glass/cotton
wool dipped in hydrochloric acid are placed at opposite ends of a glass tube, both
gases diffuse towards each other. A white disk appears near to glass/cotton wool
dipped in hydrochloric acid. This is because hydrogen chloride is heavier/denser
than Ammonia and thus its rate of diffusion is lower .

The rate of diffusion of a gas is in accordance to Grahams law of diffusion.

Grahams law states that:
“the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
density, at the same/constant/fixed temperature and pressure”
Mathematically
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 529

R α 1 and since density is proportional to mass then R α 1

√ p √ m
For two gases then:
R1 = R2 where: R1 and R2 is the rate of diffusion of 1st and 2nd gas.
√M2 √M1 M1 and M2 is the molar mass of 1st and 2nd gas.
Since rate is inverse of time. i.e. the higher the rate the less the time:
For two gases then:
T1 = T2 where: T1 and T2 is the time taken for 1st and 2nd gas to diffuse.
√M1 √M2 M1 and M2 is the molar mass of 1st and 2nd gas.
Practice examples:
1. It takes 30 seconds for 100cm3 of carbon(IV)oxide to diffuse across a porous
plate. How long will it take 150cm3 of nitrogen(IV)oxide to diffuse across the
same plate under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.
(C=12.0,N=14.0=16.0)
Molar mass CO2=44.0 Molar mass NO2=46.0
Method 1
100cm3 CO2 takes 30seconds
150cm3 takes 150 x30 = 45seconds
100
T CO2 = √ molar mass CO2 => 45seconds = √ 44.0
T NO2 √ molar mass NO2 T NO2 √ 46.0

T NO2 =45seconds x √ 46.0 = 46.0114 seconds

√ 44.0
Method 2
100cm3 CO2 takes 30seconds
1cm3 takes 100 x1 = 3.3333cm3sec-1
30
R CO2 = √ molar mass NO2 => 3.3333cm3sec-1 = √ 46.0
R NO2 √ molar mass CO2 R NO2 √ 44.0
R NO2 = 3.3333cm3sec-1 x √ 44.0 = 3.2601cm3sec-1
√ 46.0
3.2601cm3 takes 1seconds
150cm3 take 150cm3 = 46.0109seconds
3.2601cm3

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 530

2. How long would 200cm3 of Hydrogen chloride take to diffuse through a

porous plug if carbon(IV)oxide takes 200seconds to diffuse through.
Molar mass CO2 = 44g Molar mass HCl = 36.5g
T CO2 = √ molar mass CO2 => 200 seconds = √ 44.0
T HCl √ molar mass HCl T HCl √ 36.5
T HCl = 200seconds x √ 36.5 = 182.1588 seconds
√ 44.0
3. Oxygen gas takes 250 seconds to diffuse through a porous diaphragm.
Calculate the molar mass of gas Z which takes 227 second to diffuse.
Molar mass O2 = 32g Molar mass Z = x g
T O2 = √ molar mass O2 => 250 seconds = √ 32.0
T Z √ molar mass Z 227seconds √ x
√ x = 227seconds x √ 32 = 26.3828 grams
250
4. 25cm3 of carbon(II)oxide diffuses across a porous plate in 25seconds. How
long will it take 75cm3 of Carbon(IV)oxide to diffuse across the same plate
under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. (C=12.0,0=16.0)
Molar mass CO2 = 44.0 Molar mass CO = 28.0
Method 1
25cm3 CO takes 25seconds
75cm3 takes 75 x25 = 75seconds
25
T CO2 = √ molar mass CO2 => T CO2seconds = √ 44.0
T CO √ molar mass CO 75 √ 28.0
T CO2 =75seconds x √ 44.0 = 94.0175 seconds
√ 28.0
Method 2
25cm3 CO2 takes 25seconds
1cm3 takes 25 x1 = 1.0cm3sec-1
25
R CO2 = √ molar mass CO => x cm3sec-1 = √ 28.0
R CO √ molar mass CO2 1.0cm3sec-1 √ 44.0

R CO2 = 1.0cm3sec-1 x √ 28.0 = 0.7977cm3sec-1

√ 44.0
0.7977cm3 takes 1 seconds
75cm3 takes 75cm3 = 94.0203seconds

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 531

0.7977cm3

(b)Introduction to the mole, molar masses and Relative atomic masses

1. The mole is the SI unit of the amount of substance.
2. The number of particles e.g. atoms, ions, molecules, electrons, cows, cars are all
measured in terms of moles.
3. The number of particles in one mole is called the Avogadros Constant. It is
denoted “L”.
The Avogadros Constant contain 6.023 x10 23 particles. i.e.
1mole = 6.023 x10 23 particles = 6.023 x10 23
23
2 moles = 2 x 6.023 x10 particles = 1.205 x10 24
0.2 moles = 0.2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles = 1.205 x10 22
0.0065 moles = 0.0065 x 6.023 x10 23 particles = 3.914 x10 21
3. The mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass. The molar mass of:
(i)an element has mass equal to relative atomic mass /RAM(in grams)of the
element e.g.
Molar mass of carbon(C)= relative atomic mass = 12.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of carbon = 1 mole =12.0 g
Molar mass of sodium(Na) = relative atomic mass = 23.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of sodium = 1 mole =23.0 g
Molar mass of Iron (Fe) = relative atomic mass = 56.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of iron = 1 mole =56.0 g
(ii)a molecule has mass equal to relative molecular mass /RMM (in grams)of the
molecule. Relative molecular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the
elements making the molecule.
The number of atoms making a molecule is called atomicity. Most gaseous
molecules are diatomic (e.g. O2, H2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)noble gases are
monoatomic(e.g. He, Ar, Ne, Xe),Ozone gas(O3) is triatomic e.g.
Molar mass Oxygen molecule(O2) =relative molecular mass =(16.0x 2)g =32.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen molecule = 1 mole = 32.0 g
Molar mass chlorine molecule(Cl2) =relative molecular mass =(35.5x 2)g =71.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of chlorine molecule = 1 mole = 71.0 g
Molar mass Nitrogen molecule(N2) =relative molecular mass =(14.0x 2)g =28.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Nitrogen molecule = 1 mole = 28.0 g

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 532

(ii)a compound has mass equal to relative formular mass /RFM (in grams)of the
molecule. Relative formular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the
elements making the compound. e.g.
(i)Molar mass Water(H2O) = relative formular mass =[(1.0 x 2 ) + 16.0]g =18.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Water molecule = 1 mole = 18.0 g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Water molecule has:
- 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Hydrogen atoms
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms

(ii)Molar mass sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) = relative formular mass

=[(1.0 x 2 ) + 32.0 + (16.0 x 4)]g =98.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) = 1 mole = 98.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) has:
- 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Hydrogen atoms
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Sulphur atoms
-4 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms
(iii)Molar mass sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) = relative formular mass
=[(23.0 x 2 ) + 12.0 + (16.0 x 3)]g =106.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) = 1 mole = 106.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) has:
- 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Sodium atoms
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Carbon atoms
-3 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms
(iv)Molar mass Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) = relative formular mass
=[(40.0+ 12.0 + (16.0 x 3)]g =100.0g.

6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) = 1 mole = 100.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) has:
- 1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium atoms
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Carbon atoms
-3 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms
(v)Molar mass Water(H2O) = relative formular mass
=[(2 x 1.0 )+ 16.0 ]g =18.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Water(H2O) = 1 mole = 18.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Water(H2O) has:
- 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Hydrogen atoms
-2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms

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 533

Practice
1. Calculate the number of moles present in:
(i)0.23 g of Sodium atoms
Molar mass of Sodium atoms = 23g
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.01moles
Molar mass 23
(ii) 0.23 g of Chlorine atoms
Molar mass of Chlorine atoms = 35.5 g
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.0065moles /6.5 x 10-3 moles
Molar mass 35.5
(iii) 0.23 g of Chlorine molecules
Molar mass of Chlorine molecules =( 35.5 x 2) = 71.0 g
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.0032moles /3.2 x 10-3 moles
Molar mass 71
(iv) 0.23 g of dilute sulphuric(VI)acid
Molar mass of H2SO4 = [(2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x14)] = 98.0g
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.0023moles /2.3 x 10-3 moles
Molar mass 98
2. Calculate the number of atoms present in:(Avogadros constant L = 6.0 x 10 23)
(i) 0.23 g of dilute sulphuric (VI)acid
Method I
Molar mass of H2SO4 = [(2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x14)] = 98.0g
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.0023moles /2.3 x 10-3 moles
Molar mass 98
23
1 mole has 6.0 x 10 atoms
2.3 x 10-3 moles has (2.3 x 10-3 x 6.0 x 10 23) = 1.38 x 10 21 atoms
1
Method II
Molar mass of H2SO4 = [(2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x14)] = 98.0g
98.0g = 1 mole has 6.0 x 10 23 atoms
0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 1.38 x 10 21 atoms
98
(ii)0.23 g of sodium carbonate(IV)decahydrate
Molar mass of Na2CO3.10H2 O=
[(2 x 23) + 12 + (3 x16) + (10 x 1.0) + (10 x 16)] = 276.0g
Method I
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.00083moles /

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 534

Molar mass 276 8.3 x 10-4 moles

23
1 mole has 6.0 x 10 atoms
8.3 x 10-4 moles has (8.3 x 10-4 moles x 6.0 x 10 23) = 4.98 x 10 20 atoms
1
Method II
276.0g = 1 mole has 6.0 x 10 23 atoms
0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 4.98 x 10 20 atoms
276.0
(iii)0.23 g of Oxygen gas

Molar mass of O2 = (2 x16) = 32.0 g

Method I
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.00718moles /
Molar mass 32 7.18 x 10-3 moles
1 mole has 2 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in O2
7.18 x 10-3moles has (7.18 x 10-3moles x 2 x 6.0 x 10 23) =8.616 x 10 21atoms
1

Method II
32.0g = 1 mole has 2 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in O2
0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 2 x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 8.616 x 10 21atoms
32.0
(iv)0.23 g of Carbon(IV)oxide gas
Molar mass of CO2 = [12 + (2 x16)] = 44.0 g
Method I
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.00522moles /
Molar mass 44 5.22 x 10-3 moles
1 mole has 3 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in CO2
7.18 x 10-3moles has (5.22 x 10-3moles x 3 x 6.0 x 10 23) =9.396 x 10 21atoms
1
Method II
44.0g = 1 mole has 3 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in CO2
0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 3 x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 9.409 x 10 21atoms
44.0
(c)Empirical and molecular formula

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1.The empirical formula of a compound is its simplest formula. It is the simplest

whole number ratios in which atoms of elements combine to form the compound.
2.It is mathematically the lowest common multiple (LCM) of the atoms of the
elements in the compound
3.Practically the empirical formula of a compound can be determined as in the
following examples.
To determine the empirical formula of copper oxide
(a)Method 1:From copper to copper(II)oxide
Procedure.
Weigh a clean dry covered crucible(M1).Put two spatula full of copper powder into
the crucible. Weigh again (M2).Heat the crucible on a strong Bunsen flame for five
minutes. Lift the lid, and swirl the crucible carefully using a pair of tong. Cover the
crucible and continue heating for another five minutes. Remove the lid and stop
heating. Allow the crucible to cool. When cool replace the lid and weigh the
contents again (M3).
Sample results
Mass of crucible(M1) 15.6g
Mass of crucible + copper before heating(M2) 18.4
Mass of crucible + copper after heating(M3) 19.1
Sample questions
1. Calculate the mass of copper powder used.
Mass of crucible + copper before heating(M2) = 18.4
Less Mass of crucible(M1) = - 15.6g
Mass of copper 2.8 g

2. Calculate the mass of Oxygen used to react with copper.

Method I
Mass of crucible + copper after heating(M3) = 19.1g
Mass of crucible + copper before heating(M2) = - 18.4g
Mass of Oxygen = 0.7 g
Method II
Mass of crucible + copper after heating(M3) = 19.1g
Mass of crucible = - 15.6g
Mass of copper(II)Oxide = 3.5 g
Mass of copper(II)Oxide = 3.5 g
Mass of copper = - 2.8 g
Mass of Oxygen = 0.7 g

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3. Calculate the number of moles of:

(i) copper used (Cu = 63.5)
number of moles of copper = mass used => 2.8 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 63.5
(ii) Oxygen used (O = 16.0)
number of moles of oxygen = mass used => 0.7 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 16.0
4. Determine the mole ratio of the reactants
Moles of copper = 0.0441moles = 1 => Mole ratio Cu: O = 1:1
Moles of oxygen 0.0441moles 1
5.What is the empirical, formula of copper oxide formed.
CuO (copper(II)oxide
6. State and explain the observations made during the experiment.
Observation
Colour change from brown to black
Explanation
Copper powder is brown. On heating it reacts with oxygen from the air to
form black copper(II)oxide
7. Explain why magnesium ribbon/shavings would be unsuitable in a similar
experiment as the one above.
Hot magnesium generates enough heat energy to react with both Oxygen and
Nitrogen in the air forming a white solid mixture of Magnesium oxide and
magnesium nitride. This causes experimental mass errors.
(b)Method 2:From copper(II)oxide to copper
Procedure.
Weigh a clean dry porcelain boat (M1). Put two spatula full of copper(II)oxide
powder into the crucible. Reweigh the porcelain boat (M2).Put the porcelain boat
in a glass tube and set up the apparatus as below;

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Determining empirical formula from copper(II)oxide to copper

Copper(II)oxide Excess hydrogen

burning

HEAT

Hydrogen /Laboratory gas /

Ammonia gas/Carbon(II)Oxide
gas from a generator
[email protected] 52

Pass slowly(to prevent copper(II)oxide from being blown away)a stream of either
dry Hydrogen /ammonia/laboratory gas/ carbon(II)oxide gas for about two minutes
from a suitable generator.
When all the in the apparatus set up is driven out ,heat the copper(II)oxide strongly
for about five minutes until there is no further change. Stop heating.
Continue passing the gases until the glass tube is cool.
Turn off the gas generator.
Carefully remove the porcelain boat form the combustion tube.
Reweigh (M3).
Sample results

Mass of boat(M1) 15.6g

Mass of boat before heating(M2) 19.1
Mass of boat after heating(M3) 18.4
Sample questions
1. Calculate the mass of copper(II)oxide used.
Mass of boat before heating(M2) = 19.1
Mass of empty boat(M1) = - 15.6g
Mass of copper(II)Oxide 3.5 g
2. Calculate the mass of
(i) Oxygen.
Mass of boat before heating(M2) = 19.1
Mass of boat after heating (M3) = - 18.4g

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 538

Mass of oxygen = 0.7 g

(ii)Copper
Mass of copper(II)Oxide = 3.5 g
Mass of oxygen = 0.7 g
Mass of oxygen = 2.8 g
3. Calculate the number of moles of:
(i) Copper used (Cu = 63.5)
number of moles of copper = mass used => 2.8 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 63.5
(ii) Oxygen used (O = 16.0)
number of moles of oxygen = mass used => 0.7 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 16.0
4. Determine the mole ratio of the reactants
Moles of copper = 0.0441moles = 1 => Mole ratio Cu: O = 1:1
Moles of oxygen 0.0441moles 1
5.What is the empirical, formula of copper oxide formed.
CuO (copper(II)oxide
6. State and explain the observations made during the experiment.
Observation
Colour change from black to brown
Explanation
Copper(II)oxide powder is black. On heating it is reduced by a suitable
reducing agent to brown copper metal.
7. Explain why magnesium oxide would be unsuitable in a similar experiment
as the one above.
Magnesium is high in the reactivity series. None of the above reducing agents is
strong enough to reduce the oxide to the metal.
8. Write the equation for the reaction that would take place when the reducing
agent is:
(i) Hydrogen
CuO(s) + H2(g) -> Cu(s) + H2O(l)
(Black) (brown) (colourless liquid form
on cooler parts )
(ii)Carbon(II)oxide
CuO(s) + CO (g) -> Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(Black) (brown) (colourless gas, form
white ppt with lime water )

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 539

(iii)Ammonia
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) -> 3Cu(s) + N2 (g) + 3H2O(l)
(Black) (brown) (colourless liquid form
on cooler parts )

9. Explain why the following is necessary during the above experiment;

(i)A stream of dry hydrogen gas should be passed before heating copper
(II) Oxide.
Air combine with hydrogen in presence of heat causing an explosion
(ii)A stream of dry hydrogen gas should be passed after heating copper
(II) Oxide has been stopped.
Hot metallic copper can be re-oxidized back to copper(II)oxide
(iii) A stream of excess carbon (II)oxide gas should be ignited to burn
Carbon (II)oxide is highly poisonous/toxic. On ignition it burns to form less
toxic carbon (IV)oxide gas.
10. State two sources of error in this experiment.
(i)All copper(II)oxide may not be reduced to copper.
(ii)Some copper(II)oxide may be blown out the boat by the reducing agent.
4.Theoreticaly the empirical formula of a compound can be determined as in the
following examples.
(a)A oxide of copper contain 80% by mass of copper. Determine its empirical
formula. (Cu = 63.5, 16.0)
% of Oxygen = 100% - % of Copper => 100- 80 = 20% of Oxygen
Element Copper Oxygen
Symbol Cu O
Moles present = % composition 80 20
Molar mass 63.5 16
Divide by the smallest value 1.25 1.25
1.25 1.25
Mole ratios 1 1
Empirical formula is CuO
(b)1.60g of an oxide of Magnesium contain 0.84g by mass of Magnesium.
Determine its empirical formula(Mg = 24.0, 16.0)
Mass of Oxygen = 1.60 – 0.84 => 0.56 g of Oxygen
Element Magnesium Oxygen
Symbol Mg O
Moles present = % composition 0.84 0.56

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 540

Molar mass 24 16
Divide by the smallest value 0.35 0.35
0.35 0.35
Mole ratios 1 1
Empirical formula is MgO

(c)An oxide of Silicon contain 47% by mass of Silicon. What is its empirical
formula(Si = 28.0, 16.0)
Mass of Oxygen = 100 – 47 => 53% of Oxygen
Element Silicon Oxygen
Symbol Si O
Moles present = % composition 47 53
Molar mass 28 16
Divide by the smallest value 1.68 3.31
1.68 1.68
Mole ratios 1 1.94 = 2
Empirical formula is SiO2
(d)A compound contain 70% by mass of Iron and 30% Oxygen. What is its
empirical formula(Fe = 56.0, 16.0)
Mass of Oxygen = 100 – 47 => 53% of Oxygen
Element Silicon Oxygen
Symbol Si O
Moles present = % composition 47 53
Molar mass 28 16
Divide by the smallest value 1.68 3.31
1.68 1.68
Mole ratios 1 1.94 = 2
Empirical formula is SiO2
2.During heating of a hydrated copper (II)sulphate(VI) crystals, the following
readings were obtained:
Mass of evaporating dish =300.0g
Mass of evaporating dish + hydrated salt = 305.0g
Mass of evaporating dish + anhydrous salt = 303.2g
Calculate the number of water of crystallization molecules in hydrated copper
(II)sulphate(VI)
(Cu =64.5, S = 32.0,O=16.0, H = 1.0)
Working

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Mass of Hydrated salt = 305.0g -300.0g = 5.0g

Mass of anhydrous salt = 303.2 g -300.0g = 3.2 g
Mass of water in hydrated salt = 5.0g -3.2 g = 1.8g
Molar mass of water(H2O) = 18.0g
Molar mass of anhydrous copper (II)sulphate(VI) (CuSO4) = 160.5g
Element/compound anhydrous copper (II) Oxygen
sulphate(VI)
Symbol CuSO4 O
Moles present = composition by 3,2 1.8
mass 160.5 18
Molar mass
Divide by the smallest value 0.0199 0.1
0.0199 18
Mole ratios 1 5
The empirical formula of hydrated salt = CuSO4.5H2O
Hydrated salt has five/5 molecules of water of crystallizations
4. The molecular formula is the actual number of each kind of atoms present in a
molecule of a compound.
The empirical formula of an ionic compound is the same as the chemical formula
but for simple molecular structured compounds, the empirical formula may not be
the same as the chemical formula.
The molecular formula is a multiple of empirical formula .It is determined from
the relationship:
(i) n = Relative formular mass
Relative empirical formula
where n is a whole number.
(ii) Relative empirical formula x n = Relative formular mass where n is a whole
number.
Practice sample examples
1. A hydrocarbon was found to contain 92.3% carbon and the remaining
Hydrogen.
If the molecular mass of the compound is 78, determine the molecular
formula(C=12.0, H =1.0)
Mass of Hydrogen = 100 – 92.3 => 7.7% of Oxygen
Element Carbon Hydrogen
Symbol C H
Moles present = % composition 92.3 7.7

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Molar mass 12 1
Divide by the smallest value 7.7 7.7
7.7 7.7
Mole ratios 1 1
Empirical formula is CH
The molecular formular is thus determined :
n = Relative formular mass = 78 = 6
Relative empirical formula 13
The molecular formula is (C H ) x 6 = C6H6
2. A compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen contain 54.55% carbon,
9.09% and remaining 36.36% oxygen.
If its relative molecular mass is 88, determine its molecular formula(C=12.0, H
=1.0, O= 16.0)
Element Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
Symbol C H O
Moles present = % composition 54.55 9.09 36.36
Molar mass 12 1 16
Divide by the smallest value 4.5458 9.09 2.2725
2.2725 2.2725 2.2725
Mole ratios 2 4 1
Empirical formula is C2H4O
The molecular formula is thus determined :
n = Relative formular mass = 88 = 2
Relative empirical formula 44
The molecular formula is (C2H4O ) x 2 = C4H8O2.
4.A hydrocarbon burns completely in excess air to form 5.28 g of carbon (IV)
oxide and 2,16g of water.
If the molecular mass of the hydrocarbon is 84, draw and name its molecular
structure.
Since a hydrocarbon is a compound containing Carbon and Hydrogen only. Then:
Mass of carbon in CO2 = Mass of C in CO2 x mass of CO2 =>
Molar mass of CO2
12 x 5.28 = 1.44g√
44
Mass of Hydrogen in H2O = Mass of C in H2O x mass of H2O =>
Molar mass of H2O
2 x 2.16 = 0.24g√

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 543

18
Element Carbon Hydrogen
Symbol C H
Moles present = mass 1.44g 0.24g√
Molar mass 12 1
Divide by the smallest value 0.12 0.24
0.12 0.12

Mole ratios 1 2√
Empirical formula is CH2√
The molecular formular is thus determined :
n = Relative formular mass = 84 = 6√
Relative empirical formula 14

The molecular formula is (CH2 ) x 6 = C6H12. √

molecular name Hexene√/Hex-1-ene (or any position isomer of Hexene)
Molecular structure
H H H H H H

H C C C C C C H√

H H H H
5. Compound A contain 5.2% by mass of Nitrogen .The other elements present
are Carbon, hydrogen and Oxygen. On combustion of 0.085g of A in excess
Oxygen,0.224g of carbon(IV)oxide and 0.0372g of water was formed.
Determine the empirical formula of A (N=14.0, O=16.0 , C=12.0 , H=1.0)
Mass of N in A = 5.2% x 0.085 = 0.00442 g
Mass of C in A = 12 x 0.224 = 0.0611g
44
Mass of H in A = 2 x 0.0372 = 0.0041g
18
Mass of O in A = 0.085g – 0.004442g = 0.0806g (Mass of C,H,O)
=> 0.0611g + 0.0041g = 0.0652g (Mass of C,H)
0.0806g (Mass of C,H,O)- 0.0652g (Mass of C,H) = 0.0154 g
Element Nitrogen Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
Symbol N C H O
Moles present = mass 0.00442 g 0.0611g 0.0041g 0.0154

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 544

Molar 14 12 1 g 16
mass
Divide by the smallest value 0.00032 0.00509 0.0041g 0.00096
0.00032 0.00032 0.00032 0.00032
Mole ratios 1 16 13 3
Empirical formula = C16H13NO3
(d)Molar gas volume
The volume occupied by one mole of all gases at the same temperature and
pressure is a constant.It is:
(i) 24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at room temperature(25oC/298K)and pressure(r.t.p).
i.e. 1mole of all gases =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
Examples
1mole of O2 = 32g =6.0 x1023 particles= 24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of H2 = 2g =6.0 x1023 particles =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of CO2 = 44g = 6.0 x1023 particles =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of NH3 = 17g =6.0 x1023 particles = 24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of CH4 = 16g =6.0 x1023 particles =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p

(ii)22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at standard temperature(0oC/273K) and

pressure(s.t.p)
i.e. 1mole of all gases =22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
Examples
1mole of O2 = 32g =6.0 x1023 particles= 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of H2 = 2g =6.0 x1023 particles = 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of CO2 = 44g = 6.0 x1023 particles = 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of NH3 = 17g =6.0 x1023 particles= 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of CH4 = 16g =6.0 x1023 particles = 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
The volume occupied by one mole of a gas at r.t.p or s.t.p is commonly called the
molar gas volume. Whether the molar gas volume is at r.t.p or s.t.p must always be
specified.
From the above therefore a less or more volume can be determined as in the
examples below.
Practice examples
1. Calculate the number of particles present in:
(Avogadros constant =6.0 x1023mole-1 )
(i) 2.24dm3 of Oxygen.
22.4dm3 -> 6.0 x1023

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 545

2.24dm3 -> 2.24 x 6.0 x1023

22.4
=6.0 x1022 molecules = 2 x 6.0 x1022. = 1.2 x1023 atoms
(ii) 2.24dm3 of Carbon(IV)oxide.
22.4dm3 -> 6.0 x1023
2.24dm3 -> 2.24 x 6.0 x1023
22.4
=6.0 x10 molecules = (CO2) = 3 x 6.0 x1022. = 1.8 x1023 atoms
22

2. 0.135 g of a gaseous hydrocarbon X on complete combustion produces 0.41g

of carbon(IV)oxide and 0.209g of water.0.29g of X occupy 120cm3 at room
temperature and 1 atmosphere pressure .Name X and draw its molecular
structure.(C=12.0,O= 16.O,H=1.0,1 mole of gas occupies 24dm3 at r.t.p)
Molar mass CO2= 44 gmole-1√ Molar mass H2O = 18 gmole-1√
Molar mass X = 0.29 x (24 x 1000)cm3 = 58 gmole-1√
120cm3
Since a hydrocarbon is a compound containing Carbon and Hydrogen only. Then:
Mass of carbon in CO2 = Mass of C in CO2 x mass of CO2 =>
Molar mass of CO2
12 x 0.41 = 0.1118g√
44
Mass of Hydrogen in H2O = Mass of C in H2O x mass of H2O =>
Molar mass of H2O
2 x 0.209 = 0.0232g√
18

Element Carbon Hydrogen

Symbol C H
Moles present = % composition 0.g118 0.0232g√
Molar mass 12 1
Divide by the smallest value 0.0093 0.0232
0.0093 0.0093√

Mole ratios 1 x2 2.5x2

2 5√
Empirical formula is C2H5√
The molecular formular is thus determined :
n = Relative formular mass = 58 = 2√

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 546

Relative empirical formula 29

The molecular formula is (C2H5 ) x 2 = C4H10.√
Molecule name Butane
Molecula structure
H H H H

H C C C C H√

H H H H
(e)Gravimetric analysis
Gravimetric analysis is the relationship between reacting masses and the volumes
and /or masses of products. All reactants are in mole ratios to their products in
accordance to their stoichiometric equation. Using the mole ration of reactants and
products any volume and/or mass can be determined as in the examples:
1. Calculate the volume of carbon(IV)oxide at r.t.p produced when 5.0 g of calcium
carbonate is strongly heated.(Ca=40.0, C= 12.0,O = 16.0,1 mole of gas =22.4 at
r.t.p)
Chemical equation
CaCO3(s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Mole ratios 1: 1: 1
Molar Mass CaCO3 =100g
Method 1
100g CaCO3(s) -> 24dm3 CO2(g) at r.t.p
5.0 g CaCO3(s) -> 5.0 g x 24dm3 = 1.2dm3/1200cm3
100g
Method 2
Moles of 5.0 g CaCO3(s) = 5.0 g = 0.05 moles
100 g
Mole ratio 1:1
Moles of CO2(g) = 0.05moles
Volume of CO2(g) = 0.05 x 24000cm3 =1200cm3 /1.2dm3
2. 1.0g of an alloy of aluminium and copper were reacted with excess
hydrochloric acid. If 840cm3 of hydrogen at s.t.p was produced, calculate the
% of copper in the alloy.(Al =27.0,one mole of a gas at s.t.p =22.4dm3 )
Chemical equation
Copper does not react with hydrochloric acid
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) -> 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

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 547

Method 1
3H2(g) = 3 moles x (22.4 x 1000)cm3 => 2 x 27 g Al
840cm3 => 840cm3 x 2 x 27 = 0.675g of Aluminium
3 x 22.4 x 1000
Total mass of alloy – mass of aluminium = mass of copper
=> 1.0g - 0.675g =0.325g of copper
% copper = mass of copper x100% = 32.5%
Mass of alloy
Method 2
Mole ratio 2Al: 3H2 = 2:3
Moles of Hydrogen gas = volume of gas => 840cm3 = 0.0375moles
Molar gas volume 22400cm3
Moles of Al = 2/3 moles of H2 => 2/3x 0.0375moles = 0.025moles
Mass of Al = moles x molar mass =>0.025moles x 27 = 0.675g
Total mass of alloy – mass of aluminium = mass of copper
=> 1.0g - 0.675g = 0.325 g of copper
% copper = mass of copper x100% = 32.5%
Mass of alloy

(f)Gay Lussac’s law

Gay Lussacs law states that “when gases combine/react they do so in simple
volume ratios to each other and to their gaseous products at constant/same
temperature and pressure”
Gay Lussacs law thus only apply to gases
Given the volume of one gas reactant, the other gaseous reactants can be deduced
thus:
Examples
1. Calculate the volume of Oxygen required to completely react with 50cm3 of
Hydrogen.
Chemical equation: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) -> 2H2O(l)
Volume ratios 2 : 1 : 0
Reacting volumes 50cm3 : 25cm3
50cm3 of Oxygen is used

2. Calculate the volume of air required to completely reacts with 50cm3 of

Hydrogen.(assume Oxygen is 21% by volume of air)
Chemical equation: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) -> 2H2O(l)

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 548

Volume ratios 2 : 1 : 0
Reacting volumes 50cm3 : 25cm3
50cm3 of Oxygen is used
21% = 25cm3
100% = 100 x 25 =
21
3.If 5cm3 of a hydrocarbon CxHy burn in 15cm3 of Oxygen to form 10cm3 of
Carbon(IV)oxide and 10cm3 of water vapour/steam, obtain the equation for the
reaction and hence find the value of x and y in CxHy.
Chemical equation: CxHy (g) + O2 (g) -> H2O(g) + CO2(g)
Volumes 5cm3 : 15cm3 : 10cm3 : 10cm3
Volume ratios 5cm3 : 15cm3 : 10cm3 : 10cm3
(divide by lowest volume) 5 5 5 5
Reacting volume ratios 1volume 3 volume 2 volume 2
volume
Balanced chemical equation: CxHy (g) + 3O2 (g) -> 2H2O(g) +
2CO2(g)
If “4H” are in 2H2O(g) the y=4
If “2C” are in 2CO2 (g) the x=2
Thus(i) chemical formula of hydrocarbon = C2H4
(ii) chemical name of hydrocarbon = Ethene
4.100cm3 of nitrogen (II)oxide NO combine with 50cm3 of Oxygen to form
100cm3 of a single gaseous compound of nitrogen. All volumes measured at
the same temperature and pressure. Obtain the equation for the reaction and
name the gaseous product.
Chemical equation: NO (g) + O2 (g) -> NOx
Volumes 100cm3 : 50cm3 : 100
Volume ratios 100cm3 : 50cm3 : 100cm3 (divide
by lowest volume) 50 50 50
Reacting volume ratios 2volume 1 volume 2 volume
Balanced chemical equation: 2 NO (g) + O2 (g) -> 2NO x(g)
Thus(i) chemical formula of the nitrogen compound = 2 NO2
(ii) chemical name of compound = Nitrogen(IV)oxide
5.When 15cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was burnt in 100cm3 of Oxygen ,the
resulting gaseous mixture occupied70cm3 at room temperature and pressure.
When the gaseous mixture was passed through, potassium hydroxide its volume
decreased to 25cm3.

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 549

(a)What volume of Oxygen was used during the reaction.(1mk)

Volume of Oxygen used =100-25 =75cm3√
(P was completely burnt)

(b)Determine the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon(2mk)

CxHy + O2 -> xCO2 + yH2O
15cm3 : 75cm3
15 15
1 : 3√
=> 1 atom of C react with 6 (3x2)atoms of Oxygen
Thus x = 1 and y = 2 => P has molecula formula CH4√
(g) Ionic equations
An ionic equation is a chemical statement showing the movement of ions (cations
and anions ) from reactants to products.
Solids, gases and liquids do not ionize/dissociate into free ions. Only ionic
compounds in aqueous/solution or molten state ionize/dissociate into free cations
and anions (ions)
An ionic equation is usually derived from a stoichiometric equation by using the
following guidelines
Guidelines for writing ionic equations
1.Write the balanced stoichiometric equation
2.Indicate the state symbols of the reactants and products
3.Split into cations and anions all the reactants and products that exist in aqueous
state.
4.Cancel out any cation and anion that appear on both the product and reactant
side.
5. Rewrite the chemical equation. It is an ionic equation.
Practice
(a)Precipitation of an insoluble salt
All insoluble salts are prepared in the laboratory from double decomposition
/precipitation. This involves mixing two soluble salts to form one soluble and one
insoluble salt
1. When silver nitrate(V) solution is added to sodium chloride solution,sodium
nitrate(V) solution and a white precipitate of silver chloride are formed.
Balanced stoichiometric equation
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) -> AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion

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 550

Ag+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s) + Na+(aq)+ NO3- (aq)
Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side
Ag+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s) + Na+(aq)+ NO3- (aq)
Rewrite the equation
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s) (ionic equation)
2. When barium nitrate(V) solution is added to copper(II)sulphate(VI) solution,
copper(II) nitrate(V) solution and a white precipitate of barium sulphate(VI) are
formed.
Balanced stoichiometric equation
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + CuSO4(aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + Cu(NO3) 2 (aq)

Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion

Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + 2NO3- (aq)+ Cu2+(aq)
Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side
Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) +Cu2+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)-> BaSO4(s) + 2NO3- (aq) + Cu2+(aq)
Rewrite the equation
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) -> BaSO4(s) (ionic equation)
3.A yellow precipitate of Potassium Iodide is formed from the reaction of
Lead(II)nitrate(v) and potassium iodide.
Balanced stoichiometric equation
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) -> PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion
Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + 2K +(aq) + 2I - (aq) -> PbI2 (s) + 2NO3- (aq)+ 2K +(aq)
Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side
Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + 2K +(aq) + 2I - (aq) -> PbI2 (s) + 2NO3- (aq)+ 2K +(aq)
Rewrite the equation
Pb2+(aq) + 2I - (aq) -> PbI2 (s) (ionic equation)
(b)Neutralization
Neutralization is the reaction of an acid with a soluble base/alkali or insoluble
base.
(i)Reaction of alkalis with acids
1.Reaction of nitric(V)acid with potassium hydroxide
Balanced stoichiometric equation
HNO3(aq) + KOH (aq) -> H2O (l) + KNO3 (aq)
Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion
H+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + K +(aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) + NO3- (aq)+ K +(aq)
Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side

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H+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + K +(aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) + NO3- (aq)+ K +(aq)
Rewrite the equation
H+ (aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) (ionic equation)
2.Reaction of sulphuric(VI)acid with ammonia solution
Balanced stoichiometric equation
H2SO4(aq) + 2NH4OH (aq) -> H2O (l) + (NH4) 2SO4 (aq)
Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion
2H+(aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2NH4 +(aq)+ 2OH - (aq) ->2H2O (l) +SO42- (aq)+ 2NH4 + (aq)
Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side
2H+(aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2NH4 +(aq)+ 2OH - (aq) ->2H2O (l) +SO42- (aq)+ 2NH4 + (aq)
Rewrite the equation
2H+ (aq) + 2OH - (aq) -> 2H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) (ionic equation)
3.Reaction of hydrochloric acid with Zinc hydroxide

Balanced stoichiometric equation

2HCl(aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) -> 2H2O (l) + ZnCl 2 (aq)
Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion
2H+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) ->2H2O (l) + 2Cl- (aq)+ Zn 2+ (aq)
Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side
2H+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) ->2H2O (l) + 2Cl- (aq)+ Zn 2+ (aq)
Rewrite the equation
2H+(aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) ->2H2O (l) + Zn 2+ (aq) (ionic equation)
(h)Molar solutions
A molar solution is one whose concentration is known. The SI unit of concentration
is Molarity denoted M.
Molarity may be defined as the number of moles of solute present in one cubic
decimeter of solution.
One cubic decimeter is equal to one litre and also equal to 1000cm3.
The higher the molarity the higher the concentration and the higher/more solute has
been dissolved in the solvent to make one cubic decimeter/ litre/1000cm3 solution.
Examples
2M sodium hydroxide means 2 moles of sodium hydroxide solute is dissolved in
enough water to make one cubic decimeter/ litre/1000cm3 uniform solution
mixture of sodium hydroxide and water.

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0.02M sodium hydroxide means 0.02 moles of sodium hydroxide solute is

dissolved in enough water to make one cubic decimeter/ litre/1000cm3 uniform
solution mixture of sodium hydroxide and water.
“2M” is more concentrated than“0.02M”.
Preparation of molar solution
Procedure
Weigh accurately 4.0 g of sodium hydroxide pellets into a 250cm3 volumetric
flask.
Using a wash bottle add about 200cm3 of distilled water.
Stopper the flask.
Shake vigorously for three minutes.
Remove the stopper for a second then continue to shake for about another two
minutes until all the solid has dissolved.
Add more water slowly upto exactly the 250 cm3 mark.
Sample questions
1.Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide pellets present in:
(i) 4.0 g.
Molar mass of NaOH = (23 + 16 + 1) = 40g
Moles = Mass => 4.0 = 0.1 / 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
Molar mass 40
(ii) 250 cm3 solution in the volumetric flask.

Moles in 250 cm3 = 0.1 / 1.0 x 10 -1 moles

(iii) one decimeter of solution
Method 1
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
=> 1.0 x 10 -1 moles x 1000cm3 =
250cm3
= 0.4 M / 0.4 molesdm-3
Method 2
250cm3 solution contain 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
250 cm3
= 0.4 M / 0.4 molesdm-3
Theoretical sample practice
1. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing:

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 553

(i) 4.0 g sodium hydroxide dissolved in 500cm3 solution

Molar mass of NaOH = (23 + 16 + 1) = 40g
Moles = Mass => 4.0 = 0.1 / 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
Molar mass 40
Method 1
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
=> 1.0 x 10 -1 moles x 1000cm3
500cm3
= 0.2 M / 0.2 molesdm-3
Method 2
500 cm3 solution contain 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
500 cm3
= 0.2 M / 0.2 molesdm-3
(ii) 5.3 g anhydrous sodium carbonate dissolved in 50cm3 solution
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = (23 x 2 + 12 + 16 x 3) = 106 g

Moles = Mass => 5.3 = 0.05 / 5. 0 x 10-2 moles

Molar mass 106
Method 1
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
=> 1.0 moles x 1000cm3 =
50cm3
=1.0 M
Method 2
50 cm3 solution contain 5.0 x 10 -2 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 5.0 x 10 -2 moles
50 cm3
= 1.0M / 1.0 molesdm-3
(iii) 5.3 g hydrated sodium carbonate decahydrate dissolved in 50cm3 solution
Molar mass of Na2CO3.10H2O = (23 x 2 + 12 + 16 x 3 + 20 x 1 + 10 x 16) =286g
Moles = Mass => 5.3 = 0.0185 / 1.85 x 10 -2 moles
Molar mass 286
Method 1
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3

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 554

Volume of solution
=> 1.85 x 10 -2 moles x 1000cm3 =
50cm3
= 0.37 M/0.37 molesdm-3
Method 2
50 cm3 solution contain 1.85 x 10 -2 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 1.85 x 10 -2 moles
50 cm3
= 3.7 x 10-1 M / 3.7 x 10-1 molesdm-3
(iv) 7.1 g of anhydrous sodium sulphate(VI)was dissolved in 20.0 cm3 solution.
Calculate the molarity of the solution.
Method 1
20.0cm3 solution ->7.1 g
1000cm3 solution -> 1000 x 71 = 3550 g dm-3
20
Molar mass Na2SO4 = 142 g
Moles dm-3 = Molarity = Mass 3550 = 2.5 M/ molesdm-3
Molar mass 142
Method 2
Molar mass Na2SO4 = 142 g
Moles = Mass => 7.1 = 0.05 / 5.0 x 10 -2 moles
Molar mass 142
Method 2(a)
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
=> 5.0 x 10 -2 moles x 1000cm3
20cm3
= 2.5 M/2.5 molesdm-3
Method 2(b)
20 cm3 solution contain 5.0 x 10 -2 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 5.0 x 10 -2 moles
20 cm3
= 2.5 M/2.5 molesdm-3
(iv) The density of sulphuric(VI) is 1.84gcm-3 Calculate the molarity of the
acid.
Method 1
1.0cm3 solution ->1.84 g

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 555

1000cm3 solution -> 1000 x 1.84 = 1840 g dm-3

1
Molar mass H2SO4 = 98 g
Moles dm-3 = Molarity = Mass = 1840
Molar mass 98
= 18.7755 M/ molesdm-3
Method 2
Molar mass H2SO4 = 98 g
Moles = Mass => 1.84 = 0.0188 / 1.88 x 10 -2 moles
Molar mass 98
Method 2(a)
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
=> 1.88 x 10 -2 moles x 1000cm3
1.0cm3
= 18.8M/18.8 molesdm-3
Method 2(b)
20 cm3 solution contain 1.88 x 10 -2 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 1.88 x 10 -2 moles
1.0 cm3
= 18.8M/18.8 molesdm-3
2. Calculate the mass of :
(i) 25 cm3 of 0.2M sodium hydroxide solution(Na =23.0.O =16.0, H=1.0)
Molar mass NaOH = 40g
Moles in 25 cm3 = Molarity x volume => 0.2 x 25 = 0.005/5.0 x 10-3moles
1000 1000
Mass of NaOH =Moles x molar mass = 5.0 x 10-3 x 40 = 0.2 g
(ii) 20 cm3 of 0.625 M sulphuric(VI)acid (S =32.0.O =16.0, H=1.0)
Molar mass H2SO4 = 98g
Moles in 20 cm3 = Molarity x volume=> 0.625 x 20 = 0.0125/1.25.0 x 10-3moles
1000 1000
Mass of H2SO4 =Moles x molar mass => 5.0 x 10-3 x 40 = 0.2 g
(iii) 1.0 cm3 of 2.5 M Nitric(V)acid (N =14.0.O =16.0, H=1.0)
Molar mass HNO3 = 63 g

Moles in 1 cm3 = Molarity x volume => 2.5 x 1 = 0.0025 / 2.5. x 10-3moles

1000 1000

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Mass of HNO3 =Moles x molar mass => 2.5 x 10-3 x 40 = 0.1 g

3. Calculate the volume required to dissolve :
(a)(i) 0.25moles of sodium hydroxide solution to form a 0.8M solution
Volume (in cm3) = moles x 1000 => 0.25 x 1000 = 312.5cm3
Molarity 0.8
(ii) 100cm3 was added to the sodium hydroxide solution above. Calculate
the concentration of the solution.
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 where:
C1 = molarity/concentration before diluting/adding water
C2 = molarity/concentration after diluting/adding water
V1 = volume before diluting/adding water
V2 = volume after diluting/adding water
=> 0.8M x 312.5cm3 = C2 x (312.5 + 100)
C2 = 0.8M x 312.5cm3 = 0.6061M
412.5
(b)(ii) 0.01M solution containing 0.01moles of sodium hydroxide solution .
Volume (in cm3) = moles x 1000 => 0.01 x 1000 = 1000 cm3
Molarity 0.01
(ii) Determine the quantity of water which must be added to the sodium
hydroxide solution above to form a 0.008M solution.
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 where:
C1 = molarity/concentration before diluting/adding water
C2 = molarity/concentration after diluting/adding water
V1 = volume before diluting/adding water
V2 = volume after diluting/adding water
=> 0.01M x 1000 cm3 = 0.008 x V2
V2 = 0.01M x 1000cm3 = 1250cm3
0.008
Volume added = 1250 - 1000 = 250cm3
(c)Volumetric analysis/Titration
Volumetric analysis/Titration is the process of determining unknown concentration
of one reactant from a known concentration and volume of another.
Reactions take place in simple mole ratio of reactants and products.
Knowing the concentration/ volume of one reactant, the other can be determined
from the relationship:
M1V1 = M2V2 where:
n1 n2

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M1 = Molarity of 1st reactant

M2 = Molarity of 2nd reactant
V1 = Volume of 1st reactant
V1 = Volume of 2nd reactant
n1 = number of moles of 1st reactant from stoichiometric equation
n2 = number of moles of 2nd reactant from stoichiometric equation
Examples
1.Calculate the molarity of MCO3 if 5.0cm3 of MCO3 react with 25.0cm3 of
0.5M hydrochloric acid.(C=12.0 ,O =16.0)
Stoichiometric equation: MCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Method 1
M1V1 = M2V2 -> M1 x 5.0cm3 = 0.5M x 25.0cm3
n1 n2 1 2
=> M1 = 0.5 x 25.0 x1 = 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3
5.0 x 2
Method 2
Moles of HCl used = molarity x volume
1000
=> 0.5 x 25.0 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles
1000
Mole ratio MCO3 : HCl = 1:2
Moles MCO3 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles = 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 moles
2
Molarity MCO3 = moles x 1000 => 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 x 1000
Volume 5
= 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3
2. 2.0cm3 of 0.5M hydrochloric acid react with 0.1M of M2CO3. Calculate the
volume of 0.1M M2CO3 used.
Stoichiometric equation: M2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2MCl (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Method 1
M1V1 = M2V2 -> 0.5 x 2.0cm3 = 0.1M x V2 cm3
n1 n2 2 1
=> V2 = 0.5 x 2.0 x1 = 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3
0.1 x 2
Method 2
Moles of HCl used = molarity x volume

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 558

1000
=> 0.5 x 2.0 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles
1000
Mole ratio M2CO3 : HCl = 1:2
Moles M2CO3 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles = 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 moles
2

Molarity M2CO3 = moles x 1000 => 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 x 1000

Volume 5
= 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3
3. 5.0cm3 of 0.1M sodium iodide react with 0.1M of Lead(II)nitrate(V).
Calculate(i) the volume of Lead(II)nitrate(V) used.
(ii)the mass of Lead(II)Iodide formed
(Pb=207.0, I =127.0)
Stoichiometric equation: 2NaI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)
(i)Volume of Lead(II)nitrate(V) used
Method 1
M1V1 = M2V2 -> 5 x 0.1cm3 = 0.1M x V2 cm3
n1 n2 2 1
=> V2 = 0.1 x 5.0 x 1 = 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3
0.1 x 2
Method 2
Moles of HCl used = molarity x volume
1000
=> 0.1 x 5.0 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles
1000

Mole ratio M2CO3 : HCl = 1:2

Moles M2CO3 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles = 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 moles
2
Molarity M2CO3 = moles x 1000 => 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 x 1000
Volume 5
-3
= 1.25M / 1.25 moledm
4. 0.388g of a monobasic organic acid B required 46.5 cm3 of 0.095M sodium
hydroxide for complete neutralization. Name and draw the structural formula
of B
Moles of NaOH used = molarity x volume

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 559

1000
=> 0.095 x 46.5 = 0.0044175 /4.4175 x 10-3moles
1000
Mole ratio B : NaOH = 1:1
Moles B = 0.0044175 /4.4175 x 10-3moles

Molar mass B = mass => 0.388

moles 0.0044175 /4.4175 x 10-3moles
= 87.8324 gmole-1
X-COOH = 87.8324 where X is an alkyl group
X =87.8324- 42 = 42.8324=43
By elimination: CH3 = 15 CH3CH2 = 29 CH3CH2 CH2 = 43
Molecula formula : CH3CH2 CH2COOH
Molecule name : Butan-1-oic acid
Molecular structure
H H H O

H C C C C O H

H H H H
5. 10.5 g of an impure sample containing ammonium sulphate (VI) fertilizer
was warmed with 250cm3 of o.8M sodium hydroxide solution.The excess of the
alkali was neutralized by 85cm3 of 0.5M hydrochloric acid. Calculate the % of
impurities in the ammonium sulphate (VI)fertilizer. (N=14.0,S=32.0,O=16.0,
H=1.0)
Equation for neutralization
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaOH(aq) + H2O(l)
Mole ratio NaOH(aq):HCl(aq)= 1:1
Moles of HCl = Molarity x volume => 0.5 x 85 = 0.0425 moles
1000 1000
Excess moles of NaOH(aq)= 0.0425 moles
Equation for reaction with ammonium salt
2NaOH(aq) + (NH4) 2SO4(aq) -> Na 2SO4(aq) + 2NH3 (g)+ 2H2O(l)
Mole ratio NaOH(aq): (NH4) 2SO4(aq)= 2:1
Total moles of NaOH = Molarity x volume => 0.8 x 250 = 0.2 moles
1000 1000

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Moles of NaOH that reacted with(NH4) 2SO4 = 0.2 - 0.0425 = 0.1575moles

Moles (NH4) 2SO4 = ½ x 0.1575moles = 0. 07875moles
Molar mass (NH4) 2SO4= 132 gmole-1
Mass of in impure sample = moles x molar mass =>0. 07875 x 132 = 10.395 g
Mass of impurities = 10.5 -10.395 = 0.105 g
% impurities = 0.105 x 100 = 1.0 %
10.5
Practically volumetric analysis involves titration.
Titration generally involves filling a burette with known/unknown concentration of
a solution then adding the solution to unknown/known concentration of another
solution in a conical flask until there is complete reaction. If the solutions used are
both colourless, an indicator is added to the conical flask. When the reaction is
over, a slight/little excess of burette contents change the colour of the indicator.
This is called the end point.

Set up of titration apparatus

The titration process involve involves determination of titre. The titre is the
volume of burette contents/reading before and after the end point. Burette
contents/reading before titration is usually called the Initial burette reading.
Burette contents/reading after titration is usually called the Final burette reading.
The titre value is thus a sum of the Final less Initial burette readings.
To reduce errors, titration process should be repeated at least once more.
The results of titration are recorded in a titration table as below

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Sample titration table

Titration number 1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of solution used(cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
As evidence of a titration actually done examining body requires the candidate to
record their burette readings before and after the titration.
For KCSE candidates burette readings must be recorded in a titration table in the
format provided by the Kenya National Examination Council.
As evidence of all titration actually done Kenya National Examination Council
require the candidate to record their burette readings before and after the titration to
complete the titration table in the format provided.
Calculate the average volume of solution used
24.0 + 24.0 + 24.0 = 24.0 cm3
3
As evidence of understanding the degree of accuracy of burettes , all readings must
be recorded to a decimal point.
As evidence of accuracy in carrying the out the titration , candidates value should
be within 0.2 of the school value .
The school value is the teachers readings presented to the examining body/council
based on the concentrations of the solutions s/he presented to her/his candidates.
Bonus mark is awarded for averaged reading within 0.1 school value as Final
answer.
Calculations involved after the titration require candidates thorough practical and
theoretical practice mastery on the:
(i)relationship among the mole, molar mass, mole ratios, concentration, molarity.
(ii) mathematical application of 1st principles.
Very useful information which candidates forget appears usually in the beginning
of the question paper as:
“You are provided with…”
All calculation must be to the 4th decimal point unless they divide fully to a lesser
decimal point.
Candidates are expected to use a non programmable scientific calculator.
(a)Sample Titration Practice 1 (Simple Titration)
You are provided with:
0.1M sodium hydroxide solution A
Hydrochloric acid solution B

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You are required to determine the concentration of solution B in moles per litre.
Procedure
Fill the burette with solution B. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution A into a conical flask.
Titrate solution A with solution B using phenolphthalein indicator to complete the
titration table 1
Sample results Titration table 1
Titration number 1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of solution B used(cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Sample worked questions
1. Calculate the average volume of solution B used
Average titre = Titre 1 + Titre 2 +Titre 3 => ( 20.0 +20.0 +20.0 ) = 20.0cm3
3 3
2. How many moles of:
(i)solution A were present in 25cm3 solution.

Moles of solution A = Molarity x volume = 0.1 x 25 = 2.5 x 10-3 moles

1000 1000
(ii)solution B were present in the average volume.
Chemical equation: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Mole ratio 1:1 => Moles of A = Moles of B = 2.5 x 10-3 moles

(iii) solution B in moles per litre.
Moles of B per litre = moles x 1000 = 2.5 x 10-3 x 1000 = 0.1M
Volume 20
(b)Sample Titration Practice 2 (Redox Titration)
You are provided with:
Acidified Potassium manganate(VII) solution A
0.1M of an iron (II)salt solution B
8.5g of ammonium iron(II)sulphate(VI) crystals(NH4)2 SO4FeSO4.xH2O
solid C
You are required to
(i)standardize acidified potassium manganate(VII)
(ii)determine the value of x in the formula (NH4)2 SO4FeSO4.xH2O.
Procedure 1

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 563

Fill the burette with solution A. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution B into a conical flask.
Titrate solution A with solution B until a pink colour just appears.
Record your results to complete table 1.
Table 1:Sample results
Titration number 1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of solution A used(cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Sample worked questions
1. Calculate the average volume of solution A used
Average titre = Titre 1 + Titre 2 +Titre 3 => ( 20.0 +20.0 +20.0 ) = 20.0cm3
3 3
2. How many moles of:
(i)solution B were present in 25cm3 solution.

Moles of solution A = Molarity x volume = 0.1 x 25 = 2.5 x 10-3 moles

1000 1000
(ii)solution A were present in the average volume. Assume one mole of B
react with five moles of B

Mole ratio A : B = 1:5

=> Moles of A = Moles of B = 2.5 x 10-3 moles = 5.0 x 10 -4 moles
5 5
(iii) solution B in moles per litre.
Moles of B per litre = moles x 1000 = 2.5 x 10-3 x 1000
Volume 20
= 0.025 M /moles per litre /moles l-1

Procedure 2
Place all the solid C into the 250cm3 volumetric flask carefully. Add about 200cm3
of distilled water. Shake to dissolve. Make up to the 250cm3 of solution by adding
more distilled water. Label this solution C. Pipette 25cm3 of solution C into a
conical flask, Titrate solution C with solution A until a permanent pink colour just
appears. Complete table 2.
Table 2:Sample results
Titration number 1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0

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 564

Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0

Volume of solution A used(cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Sample worked questions
1. Calculate the average volume of solution A used
Average titre = Titre 1 + Titre 2 +Titre 3 => ( 20.0 +20.0 +20.0 ) = 20.0cm3
3 3
2. How many moles of:
(i)solution A were present inin the average titre.
Moles of solution A = Molarity x volume = 0.025 x 20 = 5.0 x 10-4 moles
1000 1000
(ii)solution C in 25cm3 solution given the equation for the reaction:
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5Fe2+ (aq) -> Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
Mole ratio MnO4- (aq): 5Fe2+ (aq) = 1:5 =>
Moles of 5Fe2+ (aq) = Moles of MnO4- (aq) = 5.0 x 10-4 moles = 1.0 x 10 -4 moles
5 5
(iii) solution B in 250cm3.
Moles of B per litre = moles x 250 = 1.0 x 10 -4 x 250 = 1.0 x 10 -3 moles
Volume 25
3. Calculate the molar mass of solid C and hence the value of x in the chemical
formula (NH4)2SO4FeSO4.xH2O.
(N=14.0, S=32.0, Fe=56.0, H=1.0 O=16.0)
Molar mass = mass perlitre = 8.5 = 8500 g
Moles per litre 1.0 x 10 -3 moles
NH4)2SO4FeSO4.xH2O = 8500
284 + 18x =8500
8500 - 284 = 8216 = 18x = 454.4444
18 18
x = 454 (whole number)
(c)Sample Titration Practice 3 (Back titration)
You are provided with:
(i)an impure calcium carbonate labeled M
(ii)Hydrochloric acid labeled solution N
(iii)solution L containing 20g per litre sodium hydroxide.
You are required to determine the concentration of N in moles per litre and the %
of calcium carbonate in mixture M.
Procedure 1

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 565

Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution L into a conical flask. Add 2-3 drops of

phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate with dilute hydrochloric acid solution N and
record your results in table 1(4mark)
Sample Table 1
1 2 3
Final burette reading 6.5 6.5 6.5
(cm3)
Initial burette reading 0.0 0.0 0.0
(cm3)
Volume of N used (cm3) 6.5 6.5 6.5
Sample questions
(a) Calculate the average volume of solution N used
6.5 + 6.5 + 6.5 = 6.5 cm3
3
(b) How many moles of sodium hydroxide are contained in 25cm3of solution L
Molar mass NaOH =40g
Molarity of L = mass per litre => 20 = 0.5M
Molar mass NaOH 40
Moles NaOH in 25cm3 = molarity x volume => 0.5M x 25cm3 = 0.0125 moles
1000 1000
(c)Calculate:
(i)the number of moles of hydrochloric acidthat react with sodium hydroxide
in (b)above.
Mole ratio NaOH : HCl from stoichiometric equation= 1:1
Moles HCl =Moles NaOH => 0.0125 moles
(ii)the molarity of hydrochloric acid solution N.
Molarity = moles x 1000 => 0.0125 moles x 1000 =1.9231M/moledm-3
6.5 6.5
Procedure 2
Place the 4.0 g of M provided into a conical flask and add 25.0cm3 of the dilute
hydrochloric acid to it using a clean pipette. Swirl the contents of the flask
vigorously until effervescence stop.Using a 100ml measuring cylinder add 175cm3
distilled waterto make up the solution up to 200cm3.Label this solution K.Using a
clean pipettetransfer 25.0cm3 of the solution into a clean conical flask and titrate
with solution L from the burette using 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator.Record
your observations in table 2.

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 566

Sample Table 2
1 2 3
Final burette reading 24.5 24.5 24.5
(cm3)
Initial burette reading 0.0 0.0 0.0
(cm3)
Volume of N used (cm3) 24.5 24.5 24.5
Sample calculations
(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used(1mk)
24.5 + 24.5 + 24.5 = 24.5cm3
3
(b)How many moles of sodium hydroxide are present in the average volume of
solution L used?
Moles = molarity x average burette volume => 0.5 x 24.5
1000 1000
= 0.01225 /1.225 x 10-2 moles
(c) How many moles of hydrochloric acid are present in the original 200cm3 of
solution K?
Mole ratio NaOH: HCl = 1:1 => moles of HCl = 0.01225 /1.225 x 10-2 moles
Moles in 200cm3 = 200cm3 x 0.01225 /1.225 x 10-2moles
25cm3(volume pipetted)
=0.49 /4.9 x 10-1moles
(d)How many moles of hydrochloric acid were contained in original 25 cm3
solution N used
Original moles = Original molarity x pipetted volume =>
1000cm3
1.9231M/moledm-3 x 25 = 0.04807/4.807 x 10-2 moles
1000
(e)How many moles of hydrochloric acid were used to react with calcium
carbonate present?
Moles that reacted = original moles –moles in average titre =>
0.04807/4.807 x 10-2moles - 0.01225 /1.225 x 10-2moles
= 0.03582/3.582 x 10 -2 moles
(f)Write the equation for the reaction between calcium carbonate and
hydrochloric acid.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

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 567

(g)Calculate the number of moles of calcium carbonate that reacted with

hydrochloric acid.
From the equation CaCO3(s):2HCl(aq) = 1:2
=> Moles CaCO3(s) = 1/2moles HCl
= 1/2 x 0.03582/3.582 x 10 -2 moles
= 0.01791 /1.791 x 10-2moles
(h)Calculate the mass of calcium carbonate in 4.0g of mixture M (Ca=40.0,O =
16.0,C=12.0)
Molar mass CaCO3 = 100g
Mass CaCO3 = moles x molar mass => 0.01791 /1.791 x 10-2moles x 100g
= 1.791g
(i)Determine the % of calcium carbonate present in the mixture
% CaCO3 = mass of pure x 100% => 1.791g x 100% = 44.775%
Mass of impure 4.0
(d)Sample titration practice 4 (Multiple titration)
You are provided with:
(i)sodium L containing 5.0g per litre of a dibasic organic acid H2X.2H2O.
(ii)solution M which is acidified potassium manganate(VII)
(iii)solution N a mixture of sodium ethanedioate and ethanedioic acid
(iv)0.1M sodium hydroxide solution P
(v)1.0M sulphuric(VI)
You are required to:
(i)standardize solution M using solution L
(ii)use standardized solution M and solution P to determine the % of sodium
ethanedioate in the mixture.
Procedure 1
Fill the burette with solution M. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution L into a conical flask.
Heat this solution to about 70oC(but not to boil).Titrate the hot solution L with
solution M until a permanent pink colour just appears .Shake thoroughly during the
titration. Repeat this procedure to complete table 1.
Sample Table 1
1 2 3
Final burette reading 24.0 24.0 24.0
(cm3)
Initial burette reading 0.0 0.0 0.0
(cm3)
Volume of N used (cm3) 24.0 24.0 24.0

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 568

Sample calculations
(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used (1mk)
24.0 + 24.0 + 24.0 = 24.0cm3
3
(b)Given that the concentration of the dibasic acid is 0.05molesdm-3.determine
the value of x in the formula H2X.2H2O (H=1.0,O=16.0)
Molar mass H2X.2H2O= mass per litre => 5.0g/litre = 100g
-3
Moles/litre 0.05molesdm

H2X.2H2O =100
X = 100 – ((2 x1) + 2 x (2 x1) + (2 x 16) => 100 – 34 = 66
(c) Calculate the number of moles of the dibasic acid H2X.2H2O.
Moles = molarity x pipette volume => 0.5 x 25 = 0.0125/1.25 x10 -2 moles
1000 1000
(d)Given the mole ratio manganate(VII)(MnO4-): acid H2X is 2:5, calculate
the number of moles of manganate(VII) (MnO4-) in the average titre.
Moles H2X = 2/5 moles of MnO4-
=> 2/5 x 0.0125/1.25 x10 -2 moles
= 0.005/5.0 x 10 -3moles
(e)Calculate the concentration of the manganate(VII)(MnO4-) in moles per
litre.
Moles per litre/molarity = moles x 1000
average burette volume
=>0.005/5.0 x 10 -3moles x 1000 = 0.2083 molesl-1/M
24.0
Procedure 2
With solution M still in the burette ,pipette 25.0cm3 of solution N into a conical
flask. Heat the conical flask containing solution N to about 70oC.Titrate while hot
with solution M.Repeat the experiment to complete table 2.
Sample Table 2
1 2 3
Final burette reading 12.5 12.5 12.5
(cm3)
Initial burette reading 0.0 0.0 0.0
(cm3)
Volume of N used (cm3) 12.5 12.5 12.5
Sample calculations

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 569

(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used (1mk)

12.5 + 12.5 + 12.5 =12.5cm3
3
(b)Calculations:
(i)How many moles of manganate(VII)ions are contained in the average
volume of solution M used?
Moles = molarity of solution M x average burette volume
1000
=> 0.2083 molesl-1/ M x 12.5 = 0.0026 / 2.5 x 10-3 moles
1000
(ii)The reaction between manganate(VII)ions and ethanedioate ions that
reacted with is as in the equation:
2MnO4- (aq) + 5C2O42- (aq) + 16H+ (aq) -> 2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)

Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioate ions that reacted with

manganate (VII) ions in the average volume of solution M.
From the stoichiometric equation,mole ratio MnO4- (aq): C2O42- (aq) = 2:5
=> moles C2O42- = 5/2 moles MnO4- => 5/2 x 0.0026 / 2.5 x 10-3 moles
= 0.0065 /6.5 x10-3 moles
(iii)Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioate ions contained in
250cm3 solution N.
25cm3 pipette volume -> 0.0065 /6.5 x10-3 moles
250cm3 ->
0.0065 /6.5 x10-3 moles x 250 = 0.065 / 6.5 x10-2 moles
25
Procedure 3
Remove solution M from the burette and rinse it with distilled water. Fill the
burette with sodium hydroxide solution P. Pipette 25cm3 of solution N into a
conical flask and add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate this solution N
with solution P from the burette. Repeat the procedure to complete table 3.
Sample Table 2
1 2 3
Final burette reading 24.9 24.9 24.9
(cm3)
Initial burette reading 0.0 0.0 0.0
(cm3)
Volume of N used (cm3) 24.9 24.9 24.9

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 570

Sample calculations
(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used (1mk)
24.9 + 24.9 + 24.9 = 24.9 cm3
3
(b)Calculations:
(i)How many moles of sodium hydroxide solution P were contained in the
average volume?
Moles = molarity of solution P x average burette volume
1000
=> 0.1 molesl-1 x 24.9 = 0.00249 / 2.49 x 10-3 moles
1000
(ii)Given that NaOH solution P reacted with the ethanedioate ions from
the acid only and the equation for the reaction is:
2NaOH (aq) + H2C2O4 (aq) -> Na2C2O4(g) + 2H2O(l)
Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioic acid that were used in the
reaction
From the stoichiometric equation,mole ratio NaOH(aq): H2C2O4 (aq) = 2:1
=> moles H2C2O4 = 1/2 moles NaOH => 1/2 x 0.00249 / 2.49 x 10-3 moles

= 0.001245/1.245 x10-3 moles.

(iii)How many moles of ethanedioic acid were contained in 250cm3 of solution
N?
25cm3 pipette volume -> 0.001245/1.245 x10-3 moles
250cm3 ->
0.001245/1.245 x10-3 moles x 250 = 0.01245/1.245 x10-2 moles
25
(iii)Determine the % by mass of sodium ethanedioate in the micture
(H= 1.0,O=16.0,C=12.0 and total mass of mixture =2.0 g in 250cm3 solution)
Molar mass H2C2O4 = 90.0g
Mass of H2C2O4 in 250cm3 = moles in 250cm3 x molar mass H2C2O4
=>0.01245/1.245 x10-2 moles x 90.0
= 1.1205g
% by mass of sodium ethanedioate
=(Mass of mixture - mass of H2C2O4) x 100%
Mass of mixture
=> 2.0 - 1.1205 g = 43.975%
2.0

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 571

Note
(i) L is 0.05M Oxalic acid
(ii) M is 0.01M KMnO4
(iii) N is 0.03M oxalic acid(without sodium oxalate)
Practice example 5.(Determining equation for a reaction)
You are provided with
-0.1M hydrochloric acid solution A
-0.5M sodium hydroxide solution B
You are to determine the equation for thereaction between solution A and B
Procedure
Fill the burette with solution A.Using a pipette and pipette filler transfer 25.0cm3
of solution B into a conical flask.Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.Run
solution A into solution B until a permanent pink colour just appears.Record your
results in Table 1.Repeat the experiment to obtain three concordant results to
complete Table 1
Table 1(Sample results)
Titration 1 2 3
Final volume(cm3) 12.5 25.0 37.5
Initial volume(cm3) 0.0 12.5 25.0
Volume of solution A used(cm3) 12.5 12.5 12.5
Sample questions
Calculate the average volume of solution A used.
12.5+12.5+12.5 = 12.5cm3
3

Theoretical Practice examples

1. 1.0g of dibasic acid HOOC(CH2)xCOOH was dissolved in 250cm3 solution.
25.0 cm3 of this solution reacted with 30.0cm3 of 0.06M sodium hydroxide
solution. Calculate the value of x in HOOC(CH2)xCOOH.
(C=12.0,H=1.0,O=16.)
Chemical equation
2NaOH(aq) + H2X(aq) -> Na2X (aq) + 2H2O(aq)
Mole ratio NaOH(aq) :H2X(aq) = 2:1
Method 1
Ma Va = na => Ma x 25.0 = 1 => Ma =0.06 x 30.0 x1
Mb Vb = nb 0.06 x 30.0 2 25.0 x 2
-1
Molarity of acid = 0.036M/Mole l

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 572

Mass of acid per lite = 1.0 x1000 = 4.0 g/l

250
0.036M/ Mole l-1 -> 4.0 g /l
1 mole= molar mass of HOOC(CH2)xCOOH = 4.0 x 1 = 111.1111 g
0.036
Molar mass (CH2)x = 111.1111 – (HOOCCOOH = 90.0) = 21.1111
(CH2)x = 14x = 21.1111 = 1.5 = 1 (whole number)
14
Method 2
Moles of sodium hydroxide = Molarity x volume = 0.06 x 30 = 1.8 x 10 -3moles
1000
Moles of Hydrochloric acid = 1/2 x 1.8 x 10 -3moles = 9.0 x10 -4moles
Molarity of Hydrochloric acid = moles x 1000 = 9.0 x10 -4moles x1000
Volume 25
Molarity of acid = 0.036M/Mole l-1
Mass of acid per lite = 1.0 x1000 = 4.0 g/l
250
0.036M/ Mole l-1 -> 4.0 g /l
1 mole= molar mass of HOOC(CH2)xCOOH = 4.0 x 1 = 111.1111 g
0.036
Molar mass (CH2)x = 111.1111 – (HOOCCOOH = 90.0) = 21.1111
(CH2)x = 14x = 21.1111 = 1.5 = 1 (whole number)
14
2. 20.0cm3 of 0.05 M acidified potassium manganate(VII)solution oxidized
25.0cm3 of Fe2+(aq) ions in 40.0g/l of impure Iron (II)sulphate(VI) to Fe3+(aq)
ions. Calculate the percentage impurities in the Iron (II)sulphate(VI).
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+(aq)+ 5Fe2+(aq)-> 5Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(aq)
Fe=56.0,S= 32.0, O=16.0).
Moles of MnO4- (aq) = Molarity x volume = 0.05 x 20.0 = 0.001 Moles
1000 1000
Mole ratio MnO4- (aq): 5Fe2+(aq)= 1:5
Moles 5Fe2+(aq) = 5 x0.001 = 0.005 Moles
Moles of 5Fe2+(aq) per litre/molarity = Moles x 1000 = 0005 x 1000
Volume 25.0
= 0.2 M/ Moles/litre
Molar mass =FeSO4=152 g
Mass of in the mixture = Moles x molar mass => 0.2 x 152 = 30.4 g

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 573

Mass of impurity = 40.0 – 30.4 =9.6 g

% impurity = 9.6 g x100 = 24.0 % impurity
40.0
3.9.7 g of a mixture of Potassium hydroxide and Potassium chloride was
dissolved to make one litre solution.20.0cm3 of this solution required 25.0cm3
of 0.12M hydrochloric acid for completed neutralization. Calculate the
percentage by mass of Potassium chloride.(K=39.0,Cl= 35.5)
Chemical equation
KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Moles of HCl = Molarity x volume => 0.12 x 25.0 = 0.003/3.0 x 10 -3 moles
1000 1000
Mole ratio KOH(aq) : HCl(aq) -= 1:1
Moles KOH =0.003/3.0 x 10 -3 moles
Method 1
Molar mass KOH =56.0g
Mass KOH in 25cm3 =0.003/3.0 x 10 -3 moles x56.0 = 0.168g
Mass KOH in 1000cm3/1 litre = 0.168 x1000= 8.4 g/l
20
Mass of KCl = 9.7g - 8.4g = 1.3 g
% of KCl = 1.3 x 100 = 13.4021%
9.7
Method 2
Moles KOH in 1000cm3 /1 litre = Moles in 20cm3 x 1000 =>0.003 x 1000
20 20
=0.15M/Moles /litre
Molar mass KOH =56.0g
Mass KOH in 1000/1 litre = 0.15M/Moles /litre x 56.0 = 8.4g/l
Mass of KCl = 9.7g - 8.4g = 1.3 g
% of KCl = 1.3 x 100 = 13.4021%
9.7
4.A certain carbonate, GCO3, reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid according
to the equation given below:
GCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> GCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)

If 1 g of the carbonate reacts completely with 20 cm3 of 1 M hydrochloric acid

,calculate the relative atomic mass of G (C = 12.0 = 16.0)
Moles of HCl = Molarity x volume=> 1 x20 = 0.02 moles

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 574

1000 1000
Mole ratio HCl; GCO3 = 2:1
Moles of GCO3= 0.02 moles = 0.01moles
2
Molar mass of GCO3 = mass => 1 = 100 g
moles 0.01moles
G= GCO3 - CO3 =>100g – (12+ 16 x3 = 60) = 40(no units)
5. 46.0g of a metal carbonate MCO3 was dissolved 160cm3 of 0.1M excess
hydrochloric acid and the resultant solution diluted to one litre.25.0cm3 of this
solution required 20.0cm3 of 0.1M sodium hydroxide solution for complete
neutralization. Calculate the atomic mass of ‘M’
Equation
Chemical equation
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Moles of NaOH = Molarity x volume=> 0.1 x20 = 0.002 moles
1000 1000
Mole ratio HCl; NaOH = 1:1
Excess moles of HCl = 0.002 moles
25cm3 -> 0.002 moles
1000cm3 -> 1000 x 0.002 = 0.08moles
25cm3
Original moles of HCl = Molarity x volume => 1M x 1litre = 1.0 moles

Moles of HCl reacted with MCO3 = 1.0 - 0.08 moles = 0.92moles

Chemical equation
MCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
Mole ratio MCO3(s) : HCl(aq) =1:2

Moles of MCO3 = 0.92moles => 0.46moles

2
Molar mass of MCO3= mass => 46g = 100 g
moles 0.46moles
M= MCO3 - CO3 =>100g – (12+ 16 x3 = 60) = 40
6. 25.0cm3 of a mixture of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions in an aqueous salt was acidified
with sulphuric(VI)acid then titrated against potassium manganate(VI).The
salt required 15cm3 ofe0.02M potassium manganate(VI) for complete
reaction.

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 575

A second 25cm3 portion of the Fe2+ and Fe3+ ion salt was reduced by Zinc then
titrated against the same concentration of potassium manganate(VI).19.0cm3
of potassium manganate(VI)solution was used for complete reaction. Calculate
the concentration of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ion in the solution on moles per litre.
Mole ratio Fe2+ :Mn04- = 5:1
Moles Mn04- used = 0.02 x 15 = 3.0 x 10-4 moles
1000
2+
Moles Fe = 3.0 x 10-4 moles = 6.0 x 10-5 moles
5
Molarity of Fe2+ = 6.0 x 10-4 moles x 1000 = 2.4 x 10-3 moles l-1
25
Since Zinc reduces Fe3+ to Fe2+ in the mixture:
Moles Mn04- that reacted with all Fe2+= 0.02 x 19 = 3.8 x 10-4 moles
1000
Moles of all Fe2+ = 3.8 x 10-4 moles = 7.6 x 10-5 moles
5
Moles of Fe3+ = 3.8 x 10-4 - 6.0 x 10-5 = 1.6 x 10-5 moles
3+
Molarity of Fe = 1.6 x 10 moles x 1000 = 4.0 x 10-4 moles l-1
-5

CHEMISTRY FORM FOUR NOTES

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

A.ACIDS AND BASES

At a school laboratory:
(i)An acid may be defined as a substance that turn litmus red.
(ii)A base may be defined as a substance that turn litmus blue.
Litmus is a lichen found mainly in West Africa. It changes its colour depending on
whether the solution it is in, is basic/alkaline or acidic.It is thus able to
identify/show whether
1. An acid is a substance that dissolves in water to form H+/H3O+ as the only
positive ion/cation. This is called the Arrhenius definition of an acid. From this
definition, an acid dissociate/ionize in water releasing H+ thus:
HCl(aq) -> H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
+
HNO3(aq) -> H (aq) + NO3- (aq)
CH3COOH(aq) -> H+ (aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
+
H2SO4(aq) -> 2H (aq) + SO42-(aq)

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 576

H2CO3(aq) -> 2H+ (aq) + CO32-(aq)

+
H3PO4(aq) -> 3H (aq) + PO43-(aq)
2.A base is a substance which dissolves in water to form OH- as the only negatively
charged ion/anion.
This is called Arrhenius definition of a base.
From this definition, a base dissociate/ionize in water releasing OH- thus:
KOH(aq) -> K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
+
NaOH(aq) -> Na (aq) + OH-(aq)
NH4OH(aq) -> NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
2+ -
Ca(OH)2(aq) -> Ca (aq) + 2OH (aq)
2+
Mg(OH)2(aq) -> Mg (aq) + 2OH-(aq)
3. An acid is a proton donor.
A base is a proton acceptor.
This is called Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases.
From this definition, an acid donates H+ .
H+ has no electrons and neutrons .It contains only a proton.
Examples
I. From the equation:
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) === H3O+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
(a)(i)For the forward reaction from left to right, H2O gains a proton to form
H3O+ and thus H2O is a proton acceptor .It is a Bronsted-Lowry base
(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, H3O+ donates a proton to
form H2O and thus H3O+ is an ‘opposite’ proton donor. It is a Bronsted-
Lowry conjugate acid
(b)(i)For the forward reaction from left to right, HCl donates a proton to
form Cl- and thus HCl is a proton donor .
It is a Bronsted-Lowry acid
(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, Cl- gains a proton to form
HCl and thus Cl- is an ‘opposite’ proton acceptor.
It is a Bronsted-Lowry conjugate base.
Every base /acid from Bronsted-Lowry definition thus must have a conjugate
product/reactant.
II. From the equation:
HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) === NH4+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
(a)(i)For the forward reaction from left to right, NH3 gains a proton to form
NH4+ and thus NH3 is a proton acceptor .
It is a Bronsted-Lowry base

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 577

(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, NH4+ donates a proton to
form NH3 and thus NH4+ is an ‘opposite’ proton donor.
It is a Bronsted-Lowry conjugate acid

(b)(i)For the forward reaction from left to right, HCl donates a proton to
form Cl- and thus HCl is a proton donor .
It is a Bronsted-Lowry acid
(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, Cl- gains a proton to form
HCl and thus Cl- is an ‘opposite’ proton acceptor.
It is a Bronsted-Lowry conjugate base.
4. Acids and bases show acidic and alkaline properties/characteristics only in water
but not in other solvents e.g.
(a)Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid
Hydrochloric acid dissociates/ionizes in water to free H+(aq)/H3O+(aq) ions. The
free H3O+(aq) / H+(aq) ions are responsible for:
(i)turning blue litmus paper/solution red.
(ii)show pH value 1/2/3/4/5/6
(iii)are good electrolytes/conductors of electricity/undergo electrolysis.
(iv)react with metals to produce /evolve hydrogen gas and a salt. i.e.
Ionically:
-For a monovalent metal: 2M(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2M+(aq) + H2(g)
-For a divalent metal: M(s) + 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + H2(g)
-For a trivalent metal: 2M(s) + 6H+(aq) -> 2M3+(aq) + 3H2(g)
Examples:
-For a monovalent metal: 2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2Na+(aq) + H2(g)
-For a divalent metal: Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) -> Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)
-For a trivalent metal: 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) -> 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)
(v)react with metal carbonates and hhydrogen carbonates to produce /evolve
carbon(IV)oxide gas ,water and a salt. i.e.
Ionically:
-For a monovalent metal: M2CO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> 2M+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
MHCO3(s)+ H+(aq) -> M+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
-For a divalent metal: MCO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
M(HCO3) 2(aq)+2H+(aq) ->M2+(aq)+2H2O(l)+2CO2(g)
Examples:
-For a monovalent metal: K2CO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> 2K+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
NH4HCO3(s)+ H+(aq) -> NH4+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)

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 578

-For a divalent metal: ZnCO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> Zn2+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
Mg(HCO3) 2(aq)+2H+(aq) ->Mg2+(aq)+2H2O(l)+2CO2(g)
(vi)neutralize metal oxides/hydroxides to salt and water only. i.e.
Ionically:
-For a monovalent metal: M2O(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2M+(aq) + H2O (l)
MOH(aq) + H+(aq) -> M+(aq) + H2O (l)
-For a divalent metal: MO(s) + 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + H2O (l)
M(OH) 2(s) + 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
-For a trivalent metal: M2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) -> 2M3+(aq) + 3H2O (l)
M(OH) 3(s) + 3H+(aq) -> M3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Examples:
-For a monovalent metal: K2O(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2K+(aq) + H2O (l)
NH4OH(aq) + H+(aq) -> NH4+(aq) + H2O (l)
-For a divalent metal: ZnO (s) + 2H+(aq) -> Zn2+(aq) + H2O (l)
Pb(OH) 2(s) + 2H+(aq) -> Pb2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
(b)Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in methylbenzene /benzene but does not
dissociate /ionize into free ions.
It exists in molecular state showing none of the above properties.
(c)Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form aqueous ammonia which
dissociate/ionize to free NH4+ (aq) and OH-(aq) ions.
This dissociation/ionization makes aqueous ammonia to:
(i)turn litmus paper/solution blue.
(ii)have pH 8/9/10/11
(iii)be a good electrical conductor
(iv)react with acids to form ammonium salt and water only.
NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
(d)Ammonia gas dissolves in methylbenzene/benzene /kerosene but does not
dissociate into free ions therefore existing as molecules
6. Solvents are either polar or non-polar.
A polar solvent is one which dissolves ionic compounds and other polar solvents.
Water is polar solvent that dissolves ionic and polar substance by surrounding the
free ions as below:
H ð+ H ð+ O ð-

H ð+ H ð+
ð+ ð- ð+ ð+
H O H H
H ð+

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 579

O ð- H+ O ð- O ð- Cl - O ð-
ð+ ð+
H H
H ð+ O ð- H ð+ H+ H ð+

H ð+ H ð+ O ð-

Beaker
Cl-
Cl- H+ water
H+
Cl- H+ Free ions

Note:Water is polar .It is made up of :

Oxygen atom is partially negative and two hydrogen atoms which are partially
positive.
They surround the free H+ and Cl- ions.
A non polar solvent is one which dissolved non-polar substances and covalent
compounds.
If a polar ionic compound is dissolved in non-polar solvent ,it does not
ionize/dissociate into free ions as below:
H-Cl

H-Cl
methyl benzene
H-Cl
H-Cl

Covalent bond
7. Some acids and bases are strong while others are weak.

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 580

(a)A strong acid/base is one which is fully/wholly/completely dissociated / ionized

into many free H+ /OH- ions i.e.
I. Strong acids exists more as free H+ ions than molecules. e.g.
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)
HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)
+
H2SO4(aq) 2H (aq) + SO42-(aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)
II. Strong bases/alkalis exists more as free OH- ions than molecules. e.g.
KOH(aq) K+(aq) + OH- (aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)
+
NaOH(aq) Na (aq) + OH-(aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)

(b) A weak base/acid is one which is partially /partly dissociated /ionized in water
into free OH- (aq) and H+(aq) ions.
I. Weak acids exists more as molecules than as free H+ ions. e.g.
CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)
H3PO4(aq) 3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)
H2CO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)
II. Weak bases/alkalis exists more as molecules than free OH- ions. e.g.
NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH- (aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)
2+ -
Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca (aq) + 2OH (aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)
Mg(OH)2(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)
8. The concentration of an acid/base/alkali is based on the number of moles of
acid/bases dissolved in a decimeter(litre)of the solution.
An acid/base/alkali with more acid/base/alkali in a decimeter(litre) of solution is
said to be concentrated while that with less is said to be dilute.
9. (a) (i)strong acids have pH 1/2/3 while weak acids have high pH 4/5/6.
(ii)a neutral solution have pH 7

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 581

(iii)strong alkalis/bases have pH 12/13/14 while weak bases/alkalis have pH

11/10 /9 / 8.
(b) pH is a measure of H+(aq) concentration in a solution.
The higher the H+(aq)ions concentration ;
-the higher the acidity
-the lower the pH
-the lower the concentration of OH-(aq)
-the lower the alkalinity
At pH 7 , a solution has equal concentration of H+(aq) and OH-(aq).
Beyond pH 7,the concentration of the OH-(aq) increases as the H+(aq) ions
decreases.
10.(a) When acids /bases dissolve in water, the ions present in the solution conduct
electricity.
The more the dissociation the higher the yield of ions and the greater the electrical
conductivity of the solution.
A compound that conducts electricity in an electrolyte and thus a compound
showing high electrical conductivity is a strong electrolyte while a compound
showing low electrical conductivity is a weak electrolyte.

(b) Practically, a bright light on a bulb ,a high voltage reading from a voltmeter
high ammeter reading from an ammeter, a big deflection on a galvanometer is an
indicator of strong electrolyte(acid/base) and the opposite for weak
electrolytes(acids/base)
11. Some compounds exhibit/show both properties of acids and bases/alkalis.
A substance that reacts with both acids and bases is said to be amphotellic.
The examples below show the amphotellic properties of:
(a) Zinc (II)oxide(ZnO) and Zinc hydroxide(Zn(OH)2)
(i)When ½ spatula full of Zinc(II)oxide is placed in a boiling tube containing
10cm3 of either 2M nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it
dissolves on both the acid and the alkali/base to form a colourless solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the oxide shows basic properties by
reacting with an acid to form a simple salt and water only.
Basic oxide + Acid -> salt + water
Examples:
Chemical equation
ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2 (aq) + H2O(l)
ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O(l)

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 582

ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O(l)

Ionic equation
ZnO(s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Zn 2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the oxide shows acidic properties by
reacting with a base to form a complex salt.
Basic oxide + Base/alkali + Water -> Complex salt
Examples:
Chemical equation
1.When Zinc oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium
tetrahydroxozincate(II) complex salt.
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> Na2Zn(OH) 4(aq)
2.When Zinc oxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is
potassium tetrahydroxozincate(II) complex salt.
ZnO(s) + 2KOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> K2Zn(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
ZnO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) -> 2[Zn(OH) 4]2- (aq)
(ii)When Zinc(II)hydroxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either
2M nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both
the acid and the alkali/base to form a colourless solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the hydroxide shows basic properties. It
reacts with an acid to form a simple salt and water only.
Basic hydroxide + Acid -> salt + water
Examples:
Chemical equation
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ionic equation
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Zn 2+ (aq) + 2H2O(l)
(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the hydroxide shows acidic properties
by reacting with a base to form a complex salt.
Basic hydroxide + Base/alkali -> Complex salt
Examples:
Chemical equation
1.When Zinc hydroxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is
sodium tetrahydroxozincate(II) complex salt.
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2NaOH(aq) -> Na2Zn(OH) 4(aq)

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 583

2.When Zinc hydroxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is
potassium tetrahydroxozincate(II) complex salt.
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2KOH(aq) -> K2Zn(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2OH-(aq) -> 2[Zn(OH) 4]2- (aq)
(b) Lead (II)oxide(PbO) and Lead(II) hydroxide (Pb(OH)2)
(i)When ½ spatula full of Lead(II)oxide is placed in a boiling tube containing
10cm3 of either 2M nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it
dissolves on both the acid and the alkali/base to form a colourless solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the oxide shows basic properties by
reacting with an acid to form a simple salt and water only. All other Lead salts are
insoluble.
Chemical equation
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2 (aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation
PbO(s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Pb 2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the oxide shows acidic properties by
reacting with a base to form a complex salt.
Chemical equation
1.When Lead(II) oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is
sodium tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) complex salt.
PbO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> Na2Pb(OH) 4(aq)
2.When Lead(II) oxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is
potassium tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) complex salt.
PbO(s) + 2KOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> K2Pb(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
PbO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) -> 2[Pb(OH) 4]2- (aq)

(ii)When Lead(II)hydroxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either

2M nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both
the acid and the alkali/base to form a colourless solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the hydroxide shows basic properties. It
reacts with the acid to form a simple salt and water only.
Chemical equation
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ionic equation
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Pb 2+ (aq) + 2H2O(l)

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 584

(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the hydroxide shows acidic properties. It
reacts with a base to form a complex salt.
Chemical equation
1.When Lead(II) hydroxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is
sodium tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) complex salt.
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2NaOH(aq) -> Na2Pb(OH) 4(aq)
2.When Lead(II) hydroxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is
potassium tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) complex salt.
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2KOH(aq) -> K2Pb(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2OH-(aq) -> 2[Pb(OH) 4]2- (aq)
(c)Aluminium(III)oxide(Al2O3) and Aluminium(III)hydroxide(Al(OH)3)
(i)When ½ spatula full of Aluminium(III)oxide is placed in a boiling tube
containing 10cm3 of either 2M nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide
solution, it dissolves on both the acid and the alkali/base to form a colourless
solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the oxide shows basic properties by
reacting with an acid to form a simple salt and water only.
Chemical equation
Al2O3 (s) + 6HNO3(aq) -> Al(NO3)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al2O3 (s) + 6HCl(aq) -> AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al2O3 (s) + 3H2SO4(aq) -> Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
Ionic equation
Al2O3 (s) + 3H+ (aq) -> Al 3+ (aq) + 3H2O(l)

(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the oxide shows acidic properties by
reacting with a base to form a complex salt.
Chemical equation
1.When Aluminium(III) oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is
sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate(III) complex salt.
Al2O3 (s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2NaAl(OH) 4(aq)

2.When Aluminium(III) oxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex

salt is potassium tetrahydroxoaluminate(II) complex salt.
Al2O3 (s) + 2KOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2NaAl(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
Al2O3 (s) + 2OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2[Al(OH) 4]- (aq)

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 585

(ii)When Aluminium(III)hydroxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of

either 2M nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on
both the acid and the alkali/base to form a colourless solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the hydroxide shows basic properties. It
reacts with the acid to form a simple salt and water only.
Chemical equation
Al(OH) 3 (s) + 3HNO3(aq) -> Al(NO3)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al(OH)3 (s) + 3HCl(aq) -> AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
2Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H2SO4(aq) -> Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
Ionic equation
Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H+ (aq) -> Al 3+ (aq) + 3H2O(l)
(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the hydroxide shows acidic properties. It
reacts with a base to form a complex salt.
Chemical equation
1.When aluminium(III) hydroxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex
salt is sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate(III) complex salt.
Al(OH) 3 (s) + NaOH(aq) -> NaAl(OH) 4(aq)
2.When aluminium(III) hydroxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex
salt is potassium tetrahydroxoaluminate(III) complex salt.
Al(OH) 3 (s) + KOH(aq) -> KAl(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
Al(OH) 3 (s) + OH-(aq) -> [Al(OH) 4]- (aq)
Summary of amphotellic oxides/hydroxides
Oxide Hydroxide Formula of simple Formula of complex salt
salt from nitric from sodium hydroxide
(V)acid
ZnO Zn(OH)2 Zn(NO3)2 Na2Zn(OH)4
[Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
Sodium tetrahydroxozincate(II)

PbO Pb(OH)2 Pb(NO3)2 Na2Pb(OH)4

[Pb(OH)4]2-(aq)
Sodium
tetrahydroxoplumbate(II)

Al2O3 Al(OH) 3 Al(NO3)3 NaAl(OH)4

[Al(OH)4]-(aq)

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 586

Sodium
tetrahydroxoaluminate(II)

12.(a) A salt is an ionic compound formed when the cation from a base combine
with the anion derived from an acid.
A salt is therefore formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced
wholly/fully or partially/partly ,directly or indirectly by a metal or ammonium
radical. (b) The number of ionizable/replaceable hydrogen in an acid is called
basicity of an acid.
Some acids are therefore:
(i)monobasic acids generally denoted HX e.g.
HCl, HNO3,HCOOH,CH3COOH.
(ii)dibasic acids ; generally denoted H2X e.g.
H2SO4, H2SO3, H2CO3,HOOCOOH.
(iii)tribasic acids ; generally denoted H3X e.g.
H3PO4.
(c) Some salts are normal salts while other are acid salts.
(i)A normal salt is formed when all the ionizable /replaceable hydrogen in
an acid is replaced by a metal or metallic /ammonium radical.
(ii)An acid salt is formed when part/portion the ionizable /replaceable
hydrogen in an acid is replaced by a metal or metallic /ammonium radical.
Table showing normal and acid salts derived from common acids
Acid name Chemic Basicity Normal salt Acid salt
al
formula
Hydrochloric HCl Monobas Chloride(Cl-) None
acid ic
Nitric(V)acid HNO3 Monobas Nitrate(V)(NO3-) None
ic
Nitric(III)acid HNO2 Monobas Nitrate(III)(NO2-) None
ic
Sulphuric(VI) H2SO4 Dibasic Sulphate(VI) Hydrogen
acid (SO42-) sulphate(VI)
(HSO4-)

Sulphuric(IV) H2SO3 Dibasic Sulphate(IV) Hydrogen

acid (SO32-) sulphate(IV)

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 587

(HSO3-)

Carbonic(IV)a H2CO3 Dibasic Carbonate(IV)(C Hydrogen

cid O32-) carbonate(IV)
(HCO3-)

Phosphoric(V) H3PO4 Tribasic Phosphate(V)(P Dihydrogen

acid O43-) phosphate(V)
(H2PO42-)

Hydrogen
diphosphate(V)
(HP2O42-)
The table below show shows some examples of salts.
Base/alkali Cation Acid Anion Salt Chemical name of salts

+ -
NaOH Na HCl Cl NaCl Sodium(I)chloride
2+
Mg(OH)2 Mg H2SO4 SO 2- MgSO4 Magnesium sulphate(VI)
4
Mg(HSO4)2 Magnesium hydrogen
sulphate(VI)

2+
Pb(OH)2 Pb HNO3 NO - Pb(NO3)2 Lead(II)nitrate(V)
3
2+
Ba(OH)2 Ba HNO3 NO - Ba(NO3)2 Barium(II)nitrate(V)
3
2+
Ca(OH)2 Ba H2SO4 SO 2- MgSO4 Calcium sulphate(VI)
4
+
NH4OH NH4 H3PO4 PO 3- (NH4 )3PO4 Ammonium phosphate(V)
4 Diammonium phosphate(V)
(NH4
Ammonium diphosphate(V)
)2HPO4
NH4 H2PO4
+
KOH K H3PO4 PO 3- K3PO4 Potassium phosphate(V)
4

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 588

3+
Al(OH)3 Al H2SO4 SO 2- Al2(SO4)2 Aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)
4
2+
Fe(OH)2 Fe H2SO4 SO 2- FeSO4 Iron(II)sulphate(VI)
4
3+
Fe(OH)3 Fe H2SO4 SO 2- Fe2(SO4)2 Iron(III)sulphate(VI)
4
(d) Some salts undergo hygroscopy, deliquescence and efflorescence.
(i) Hygroscopic salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the atmosphere
but do not form a solution.
Some salts which are hygroscopic include anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI),
anhydrous cobalt(II)chloride, potassium nitrate(V) common table salt.
(ii)Deliquescent salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the atmosphere
and form a solution.
Some salts which are deliquescent include: Sodium nitrate(V),Calcium chloride,
Sodium hydroxide, Iron(II)chloride, Magnesium chloride.
(iii)Efflorescent salts/compounds are those that lose their water of crystallization to
the atmosphere.
Some salts which effloresces include: sodium carbonate decahydrate,
Iron(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate, sodium sulphate (VI)decahydrate.
(e)Some salts contain water of crystallization.They are hydrated.Others do not
contain water of crystallization. They are anhydrous.
Table showing some hydrated salts.
Name of hydrated salt Chemical formula
Copper(II)sulphate(VI)pentahydrate CuSO4.5H2O
Aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)hexahydrate Al2 (SO4) 3.6H2O
Zinc(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate ZnSO4.7H2O
Iron(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate FeSO4.7H2O
Calcium(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate CaSO4.7H2O
Magnesium(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate MgSO4.7H2O
Sodium sulphate(VI)decahydrate Na2SO4.10H2O
Sodium carbonate(IV)decahydrate Na2CO3.10H2O
Potassium carbonate(IV)decahydrate K2CO3.10H2O
Potassium sulphate(VI)decahydrate K2SO4.10H2O
(f)Some salts exist as a simple salt while some as complex salts. Below are some
complex salts.
Table of some complex salts
Name of complex salt Chemical Colour of the
formula complex salt

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Tetraamminecopper(II)sulphate( Cu(NH3) 4 SO4 Royal/deep blue

VI) H2O solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)nitrate(V) Zn(NH3) 4 (NO3 Colourless solution
)2
Tetraamminecopper(II) nitrate(V) Cu(NH3) 4 (NO3 Royal/deep blue
)2 solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)sulphate(VI) Zn(NH3) 4 SO4 Colourless solution
(g)Some salts exist as two salts in one. They are called double salts.

Table of some double salts

Name of double salts Chemical formula
Trona(sodium sesquicarbonate) Na2CO3 NaHCO3.2H2O
Ammonium iron(II)sulphate(VI) FeSO4(NH4) 2SO4.2H2O
Ammonium Al2(SO4) 3(NH4) 2SO4.H2O
aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)
(h)Some salts dissolve in water to form a solution. They are said to be soluble.
Others do not dissolve in water. They form a suspension/precipitate in water.
Table of solubility of salts
Soluble salts Insoluble salts
All nitrate(V)salts
All sulphate(VI)/SO42- salts Barium(II) sulphate(VI)/BaSO4
except Calcium(II) sulphate(VI)/CaSO4
Lead(II) sulphate(VI)/PbSO4
2-
All sulphate(IV)/SO3 salts Barium(II) sulphate(IV)/BaSO3
except Calcium(II) sulphate(IV)/CaSO3
Lead(II) sulphate(IV)/PbSO3
All chlorides/Cl- Silver chloride/AgCl
except Lead(II)chloride/PbCl2(dissolves in
hot water)
All phosphate(V)/PO43-
All sodium,potassium and
ammonium salts
All hydrogen carbonates/HCO3-
All hydrogen sulphate(VI)/ HSO4-
Sodium carbonate/Na2CO3, except All carbonates
potassium carbonate/ K2CO3,
ammonium carbonate (NH4) 2CO3

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 590

All alkalis(KOH,NaOH, NH4OH) except All bases

13 Salts can be prepared in a school laboratory by a method that uses its solubility
in water.
(b) Soluble salts may be prepared by using any of the following methods:
(i)Direct displacement/reaction of a metal with an acid.
By reacting a metal higher in the reactivity series than hydrogen with a dilute acid,a
salt is formed and hydrogen gas is evolved.
Excess of the metal must be used to ensure all the acid has reacted.
When effervescence/bubbling /fizzing has stopped ,excess metal is filtered.
The filtrate is heated to concentrate then allowed to crystallize.
Washing with distilled water then drying between filter papers produces a sample
crystal of the salt. i.e.
M(s) + H2X -> MX(aq) + H2(g)
Examples
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Pb(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2(g)
(ii)Reaction of an insoluble base with an acid
By adding an insoluble base (oxide/hydroxide )to a dilute acid until no more
dissolves, in the acid,a salt and water are formed. Excess of the base is filtered off.
The filtrate is heated to concentrate ,allowed to crystallize then washed with
distilled water before drying between filter papers e.g.
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)
CaO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + 2HNO3(aq)-> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
ZnO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)
CuO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
CuO (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l)
Ag2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
Na2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)

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 591

(iii)reaction of insoluble /soluble carbonate /hydrogen carbonate with an acid.

By adding an excess of a soluble /insoluble carbonate or hydrogen carbonate to
adilute acid, effervescence /fizzing/bubbling out of carbon(IV)oxide gas shows the
reaction is taking place. When effervescence /fizzing/bubbling out of the gas is
over, excess of the insoluble carbonate is filtered off. The filtrate is heated to
concentrate ,allowed to crystallize then washed with distilled water before drying
between filter paper papers e.g.
PbCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
CaCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
MgCO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
Cu CO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Ag2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Na2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
K2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2KCl(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
NaHCO3 (s) + HNO3(aq) -> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
KHCO3 (s) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l) +
CO2(g)
(iv)neutralization/reaction of soluble base/alkali with dilute acid
By adding an acid to a burette into a known volume of an alkali with 2-3 drops of
an indicator, the colour of the indicator changes when the acid has completely
reacted with an alkali at the end point. The procedure is then repeated without the
indicator .The solution mixture is then heated to concentrate , allowed to crystallize
,washed with distilled water before drying with filter papers. e.g.
NaOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
KOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> KNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
KOH (aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l)
2KOH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
2 NH4OH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
NH4OH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NH4NO3(aq) + H2O (l)
(iv)direct synthesis/combination.
When a metal burn in a gas jar containing a non metal , the two directly combine
to form a salt. e.g.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)
2K(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2KCl(s)
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) -> Mg Cl2 (s)
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) -> Ca Cl2 (s)

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 592

Some salts once formed undergo sublimation and hydrolysis. Care should be
taken to avoid water/moisture into the reaction flask during their preparation.Such
salts include aluminium(III)chloride(AlCl3) and iron (III)chloride(FeCl3)
1. Heated aluminium foil reacts with chlorine to form aluminium(III)chloride that
sublimes away from the source of heating then deposited as solid again
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2AlCl3 (s/g)
Once formed aluminium(III)chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour /
moisture present to form aluminium hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of
hydrogen chloride gas.
AlCl3(s)+ 3H2 O(g) -> Al(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)
2. Heated iron filings reacts with chlorine to form iron(III)chloride that sublimes
away from the source of heating then deposited as solid again
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2FeCl3 (s/g)
Once formed , aluminium(III)chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour /
moisture present to form aluminium hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of
hydrogen chloride gas.
FeCl3(s)+ 3H2 O(g) -> Fe(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)
(b)Insoluble salts can be prepared by reacting two suitable soluble salts to form
one soluble and one insoluble. This is called double decomposition or
precipitation. The mixture is filtered and the residue is washed with distilled
water then dried.
CuSO4(aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) -> CuCO3 (s) + Na2 SO4(aq)
BaCl2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + 2KCl (aq)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
2AgNO3(aq) + MgCl2 (aq) -> 2AgCl(s) + Mg(NO3)2
(aq)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + (NH4) 2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2NH4NO 3(aq)
BaCl2(aq) + K2SO3 (aq) -> BaSO3 (s) + 2KCl (aq)
14. Salts may lose their water of crystallization , decompose ,melt or sublime on
heating on a Bunsen burner flame.
The following shows the behavior of some salts on heating gently /or strongly in a
laboratory school burner:
(a)effect of heat on chlorides
All chlorides have very high melting and boiling points and therefore are not
affected by laboratory heating except ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride
sublimes on gentle heating. It dissociate into the constituent ammonia and
hydrogen chloride gases on strong heating.

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 593

NH4Cl(s) NH4Cl(g) NH3(g) + HCl(g)

(sublimation) (dissociation)
(b)effect of heat on nitrate(V)
(i) Potassium nitrate(V)/KNO3 and sodium nitrate(V)/NaNO3 decompose on
heating to form Potassium nitrate(III)/KNO2 and sodium nitrate(III)/NaNO2 and
producing Oxygen gas in each case.
2KNO3 (s) -> 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
2NaNO3 (s) -> 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
(ii)Heavy metal nitrates(V) salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and a
mixture of brown acidic nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gases. e.g.
2Ca(NO3)2 (s) -> 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Mg(NO3)2(s) -> 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Zn(NO3)2(s) -> 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) -> 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Cu(NO3)2(s) -> 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Fe(NO3)2(s) -> 2FeO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(iii)Silver(I)nitrate(V) and mercury(II) nitrate(V) are lowest in the reactivity series.
They decompose on heating to form the metal(silver and mercury)and the
Nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gas. i.e.
2AgNO3(s) -> 2Ag (s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Hg(NO3)2 (s) -> 2Hg (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(iv)Ammonium nitrate(V) and Ammonium nitrate(III) decompose on heating to
Nitrogen(I)oxide(relights/rekindles glowing splint) and nitrogen gas
respectively.Water is also formed.i.e.
NH4NO3(s) -> N2O (g) + H2O(l)
NH4NO2(s) -> N2 (g) + H2O(l)

(c) effect of heat on nitrate(V)

Only Iron(II)sulphate(VI), Iron(III)sulphate(VI) and copper(II)sulphate(VI)
decompose on heating. They form the oxide, and produce highly acidic fumes of
acidic sulphur(IV)oxide gas.
2FeSO4 (s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g)
Fe2(SO4) 3(s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g)
CuSO4 (s) -> CuO(s) + SO3(g)
(d) effect of heat on carbonates(IV) and hydrogen carbonate(IV).
(i)Sodium carbonate(IV)and potassium carbonate(IV)do not decompose on
heating.

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 594

(ii)Heavy metal nitrate(IV)salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and

produce carbon(IV)oxide gas. Carbon (IV)oxide gas forms a white precipitate
when bubbled in lime water. The white precipitate dissolves if the gas is in excess.
e.g. CuCO3 (s) -> CuO(s) + CO2(g)
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
PbCO3 (s) -> PbO(s) + CO2(g)
FeCO3 (s) -> FeO(s) + CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) -> ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
(iii)Sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Potassium hydrogen
carbonate(IV)decompose on heating to give the corresponding carbonate (IV) and
form water and carbon(IV)oxide gas. i.e.
2NaHCO 3(s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2KHCO 3(s) -> K2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(iii) Calcium hydrogen carbonate (IV) and Magnesium hydrogen carbonate(IV)
decompose on heating to give the corresponding carbonate (IV) and form water and
carbon(IV)oxide gas. i. e.
Ca(HCO3) 2(aq) -> CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Mg(HCO3) 2(aq) -> MgCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
15. Salts contain cation(positively charged ion) and anions(negatively charged
ion).When dissolved in polar solvents/water.
The cation and anion in a salt is determined/known usually by precipitation of the
salt using a precipitating reagent.
The colour of the precipitate is a basis of qualitative analysis of a compound.
16.Qualitative analysis is the process of identifying an unknown compound /salt by
identifying the unique qualities of the salt/compound.
It involves some of the following processes.
(a)Reaction of cation with sodium/potassium hydroxide solution.
Both sodium/potassium hydroxide solutions are precipitating reagents.
The alkalis produce unique colour of a precipitate/suspension when a few/three
drops is added and then excess alkali is added to unknown salt/compound solution.
NB: Potassium hydroxide is not commonly used because it is more expensive than
sodium hydroxide.
The table below shows the observations, inferences / deductions and explanations
from the following test tube experiments:
Procedure

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 595

Put about 2cm3 of MgCl2, CaCl2, AlCl3, NaCl, KCl, FeSO4, Fe2(SO4) 3, CuSO4,
ZnSO4NH4NO3, Pb(NO3) 2, Ba(NO3) 2 each into separate test tubes. Add three drops
of 2M sodium hydroxide solution then excess (2/3 the length of a standard test
tube).
Observation Inference Explanation

No white Na+ and K+ Both Na+ and K+ ions react with OH- from
precipitate 2M sodium hydroxide solution to form
soluble colourless solutions

Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> NaOH(aq)

K+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> KOH(aq)
No white NH4+ ions NH4+ ions react with 2M sodium hydroxide
precipitate then solution to produce pungent smelling
pungent smell ammonia gas
of ammonia
/urine NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq) -> NH3 (g) + H2O(l)

White Ba2+ ,Ca2+, Ba2+ ,Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions react with OH-
precipitate Mg2+ ions from 2M sodium hydroxide solution to form
insoluble in insoluble white precipitate of their
excess hydroxides.

Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ba(OH) 2(s)

Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ca(OH) 2(s)
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Mg(OH) 2(s)

White Zn2+ ,Pb2+, Pb2+ ,Zn2+ and Al3+ ions react with OH- from
precipitate Al3+ ions 2M sodium hydroxide solution to form
soluble in insoluble white precipitate of their
excess hydroxides.

Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Zn(OH) 2(s)

Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Pb(OH) 2(s)
Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Al(OH) 3(s)

The hydroxides formed react with more OH-

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 596

ions to form complex salts/ions.

Zn(OH) 2(s) + 2OH(aq) -> [ Zn(OH) 4]2-(aq)

Pb(OH) 2(s) + 2OH(aq) -> [ Pb(OH) 4]2-(aq)
Al(OH) 3(s) + OH(aq) -> [ Al(OH) 4]-(aq)

Blue precipitate Cu2+ Cu2+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium
insoluble in hydroxide solution to form insoluble blue
excess precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide.

Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Cu(OH) 2(s)

Green Fe2+ Fe2+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium

precipitate hydroxide solution to form insoluble green
insoluble in precipitate of Iron(II) hydroxide.
excess
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 2(s)
2+
On adding Fe Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent that
3cm3 of oxidized to oxidizes green Fe2+ oxidized to brown Fe3+
hydrogen Fe3+
peroxide, Fe(OH) 2(s) + 2H+ -> Fe(OH) 3(aq)
brown/yellow
solution formed
Brown Fe3+ Fe3+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium
precipitate hydroxide solution to form insoluble brown
insoluble in precipitate of Iron(II) hydroxide.
excess Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 3(s)
(b)Reaction of cation with aqueous ammonia
Aqueous ammonia precipitating reagent that can be used to identify the cations
present in a salt.
Like NaOH/KOH the OH- ion in NH4OH react with the cation to form a
characteristic hydroxide .
Below are the observations ,inferences and explanations of the reactions of aqueous
ammonia with salts from the following test tube reactions.

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 597

Procedure
Put about 2cm3 of MgCl2, CaCl2, AlCl3, NaCl, KCl, FeSO4, Fe2(SO4) 3, CuSO4,
ZnSO4NH4NO3, Pb(NO3) 2, Ba(NO3) 2 each into separate test tubes.
Add three drops of 2M aqueous ammonia then excess (2/3 the length of a standard
test tube).

Observation Inference Explanation

No white Na+ and K+ NH4+,Na+ and K+ ions react with OH- from
precipitate 2M aqueous ammonia to form soluble
colourless solutions
NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq) -> NH4+OH(aq)
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> NaOH(aq)
K+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> KOH(aq)

White Ba2+ ,Ca2+, Ba2+ ,Ca2+,Mg2+ ,Pb2+ and Al3+, ions react
precipitate Mg2+ ,Pb2+, with OH- from 2M aqueous ammonia to
insoluble in Al3+, ions form insoluble white precipitate of their
excess hydroxides.

Pb2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Pb(OH) 2(s)

Al3+ (aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Al(OH) 3(s)
Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ba(OH) 2(s)
Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ca(OH) 2(s)
Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Mg(OH) 2(s)
White Zn2+ ions Zn2+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous
precipitate ammonia to form insoluble white precipitate
soluble in of Zinc hydroxide.
excess
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Zn(OH) 2(s)
The Zinc hydroxides formed react NH3(aq)
to form a complex salts/ions.
Zn(OH) 2(s) + 4NH3(aq)
->[ Zn(NH3) 4]2+(aq)+ 2OH-
(aq)

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 598

Blue precipitate Cu2+ Cu2+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous
that dissolves in ammonia to form blue precipitate of
excess copper(II) hydroxide.
ammonia
solution to form Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Cu(OH) 2(s)
a deep/royal The copper(II) hydroxide formed react
blue solution NH3(aq) to form a complex salts/ions.

Cu(OH) 2 (s) + 4NH3(aq)

->[ Cu(NH3) 4]2+(aq)+ 2OH-
(aq)

Green Fe2+ Fe2+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous

precipitate ammonia to form insoluble green precipitate
insoluble in of Iron(II) hydroxide.
excess. Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 2(s)

On adding Fe2+ Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent that

3cm3 of oxidized to oxidizes green Fe2+ oxidized to brown Fe3+
hydrogen Fe3+ Fe(OH) 2(s) + 2H+ -> Fe(OH) 3(aq)
peroxide,
brown/yellow
solution formed
Brown Fe3+ Fe3+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous
precipitate ammonia to form insoluble brown
insoluble in precipitate of Iron(II) hydroxide.
excess Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 3(s)

Note
(i) Only Zn2+ ions/salts form a white precipitate that dissolve in excess of both
2M sodium hydroxide and 2M aqueous ammonia.
(ii) Pb2+ and Al3+ ions/salts form a white precipitate that dissolve in excess of 2M
sodium hydroxide but not in 2M aqueous ammonia.
(iii) Cu2+ ions/salts form a blue precipitate that dissolve to form a deep/royal blue
solution in excess of 2M aqueous ammonia but only blue insoluble precipitate in
2M sodium hydroxide
(c)Reaction of cation with Chloride (Cl-)ions

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 599

All chlorides are soluble in water except Silver chloride and Lead (II)chloride
(That dissolve in hot water).When a soluble chloride like NaCl, KCl, NH4Cl is
added to about 2cm3 of a salt containing Ag+ or Pb2+ions a white precipitate of
AgCl or PbCl2 is formed. The following test tube reactions illustrate the above.
Experiment
Put about 2cm3 of silver nitrate(V) andLead(II)nitrate(V)solution into separate test
tubes. Add five drops of NaCl /KCl / NH4Cl/HCl. Heat to boil.
Observation Inference Explanation

(i)White precipitate Ag+ ions Ag+ ions reacts with Cl- ions from a
does not dissolve soluble chloride salt to form a white
on heating precipitate of AgCl
(ii)White Pb2+ ions Pb2+ ions reacts with Cl- ions from a
precipitate dissolve soluble chloride salt to form a white
on heating precipitate of PbCl2. PbCl2 dissolves
on heating.
Note
Both Pb2+ and Al3+ ions forms an insoluble white precipitate in excess aqueous
ammonia. A white precipitate on adding Cl- ions/salts shows Pb2+.
No white precipitate on adding Cl- ions/salts shows Al3+.
Adding a chloride/ Cl- ions/salts can thus be used to separate the identity of Al3+
and Pb2+.
(d)Reaction of cation with sulphate(VI)/SO42- and sulphate(IV)/SO32- ions
All sulphate(VI) and sulphate(IV)/SO32- ions/salts are soluble/dissolve in water
except Calcium sulphate(VI)/CaSO4, Calcium sulphate(IV)/CaSO3, Barium
sulphate(VI)/BaSO4, Barium sulphate(IV)/BaSO3, Lead(II) sulphate(VI)/PbSO4 and
Lead(II) sulphate(IV)/PbSO3.When a soluble sulphate(VI)/SO42- salt like Na2SO4,
H2SO4, (NH4)2SO4 or Na2SO3 is added to a salt containing Ca2+, Pb2+, Ba2+ ions, a
white precipitate is formed.
The following test tube experiments illustrate the above.
Procedure
Place about 2cm3 of Ca(NO3)2, Ba(NO3)2, BaCl2 and Pb(NO3)2, in separate boiling
tubes. Add six drops of sulphuric(VI)acid /sodium sulphate(VI)/ammonium
sulphate(VI)solution. Repeat with six drops of sodium sulphate(IV).
Observation Inference Explanation
White Ca2+, Ba2+, CaSO3 and CaSO4 do not form a thick precipitate
precipitate Pb2+ ions as they are sparingly soluble.

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 600

Ca2+(aq)+ SO32-(aq) -> CaSO3(s)

Ca2+(aq)+ SO42-(aq) -> CaSO4(s)

Ba2+(aq)+ SO32-(aq) -> BaSO3(s)

Ba2+(aq)+ SO42-(aq) -> BaSO4(s)

Pb2+(aq)+ SO32-(aq) -> PbSO3(s)

Pb2+(aq)+ SO42-(aq) -> PbSO4(s)

(e)Reaction of cation with carbonate(IV)/CO32- ions

All carbonate salts are insoluble except sodium/potassium carbonate(IV) and
ammonium carbonate(IV).
They dissociate /ionize to release CO32- ions. CO32- ions produce a white
precipitate when the soluble carbonate salts is added to any metallic cation.
Procedure
Place about 2cm3 of Ca(NO3)2, Ba(NO3)2, MgCl2 ,Pb(NO3)2 andZnSO4 in separate
boiling tubes.
Add six drops of Potassium /sodium carbonate(IV)/ ammonium carbonate
(IV)solution.
Observation Inference Explanation
2+
Green Cu Copper(II)carbonate(IV) and Iron(II)
precipitate ,Fe2+,ions carbonate (IV) are precipitated as insoluble
green precipitates.
2-
CO3 (aq)
Cu2+(aq)+ CO32-(aq) -> CuCO3(s)
Fe2+(aq)+ CO32-(aq) -> FeCO3(s)

When sodium carbonate(IV)is added to

CuCO3(s) the CO32-(aq) ions are first
hydrolysed to produce CO2(g) and OH-
(aq)ions.

CO32-(aq) + H2O (l) -> CO2 (g) + 2OH-

(aq)
The OH-(aq) ions further react to form
basic copper(II) carbonate(IV). Basic
copper(II) carbonate(IV) is the only green

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 601

salt of copper.
Cu2+(aq)+ CO32-(aq)+2OH- (aq)
->CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
(s)

White CO32- White ppt of the carbonate(IV)salt is

precipitate precipitated
Ca2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> CaCO3(s)
Mg2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> MgCO3(s)
Pb2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> PbCO3(s)
Zn2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> ZnCO3(s)
Note
(i)Iron(III)carbonate(IV) does not exist.
(ii)Copper(II)Carbonate(IV) exist only as the basic CuCO3.Cu(OH) 2
(iii)Both BaCO3 and BaSO3 are insoluble white precipitate. If hydrochloric
acid is added to the white precipitate;
I. BaCO3 produces CO2 gas. When bubbled/directed into lime water
solution,a white precipitate is formed.
II. I. BaSO3 produces SO2 gas. When bubbled/directed into orange
acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution, it turns to
green/decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII).
(f) Reaction of cation with sulphide / S2- ions
All sulphides are insoluble black solids/precipitates except sodium sulphide/ Na2S/
potassium sulphide/K2S.When a few/3drops of the soluble sulphide is added to a
metal cation/salt, a black precipitate is formed.
Procedure
Place about 2cm3 of Cu(NO3)2, FeSO4, MgCl2,Pb(NO3)2 and ZnSO4 in separate
boiling tubes.
Add six drops of Potassium /sodium sulphide solution.
Observation Inference Explanation
2-
Black ppt S ions CuS, FeS,MgS,PbS, ZnS are black insoluble
precipitates
Cu2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> CuS(s)
Pb2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> PbS(s)
Fe2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> FeS(s)
Zn2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> ZnS(s)

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 602

Sample qualitative analysis guide

You are provided with solid Y(aluminium (III)sulphate(VI)hexahydrate).Carry out
the following tests and record your observations and inferences in the space
provided.
1(a) Appearance
Observations inference
(1mark)

White crystalline solid Coloured ions Cu2+ , Fe2+ ,Fe3+ absent

(b)Place about a half spatula full of the solid into a clean dry boiling tube. Heat
gently then strongly.
Observations inference
(1mark)

Colourless droplets formed on the cooler Hydrated compound/compound

part of the test tube containing water of crystallization
Solid remains a white residue
(c)Place all the remaining portion of the solid in a test tube .Add about 10cm3 of
distilled water. Shake thoroughly. Divide the mixture into five portions.
Observation Inference (1mark)
Solid dissolves to form Polar soluble compound
a colourless solution Cu2+ , Fe2+ ,Fe3+ absent
(i)To the first portion, add three drops of sodium hydroxide then add excess of the
alkali.
Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt, soluble in excess Zn2+ , Pb2+ , Al3+

(ii)To the second portion, add three drops of aqueous ammonia then add excess of
the alkali.
Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt, insoluble in excess Pb2+ , Al3+
(iii)To the third portion, add three drops of sodium sulphate(VI)solution.
Observation Inference (1mark)
No white ppt Al3+
(iv)I.To the fourth portion, add three drops of Lead(II)nitrate(IV)solution. Preserve
Observation Inference (1mark)

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 603

White ppt CO32-, SO42-, SO32-, Cl-,

II.To the portion in (iv) I above , add five drops of dilute hydrochloric acid.
Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt persist/remains SO42-, Cl-,
III.To the portion in (iv) II above, heat to boil.
Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt persist/remains SO42-,
Note that:
(i)From test above, it can be deduced that solid Y is hydrated
aluminium(III)sulphate(VI) solid
(ii)Any ion inferred from an observation below must be derived from previous
correct observation and inferences above. e.g.
Al3+ in c(iii) must be correctly inferred in either/or in c(ii) or c(i)above
SO42- in c(iv)III must be correctly inferred in either/or in c(iv)II or c(iv)I
above
(iii)Contradiction in observations and inferences should be avoided.e.g.
“White ppt soluble in excess” to infer presence of Al3+ ,Ba2+ ,Pb3+
(iv)Symbols of elements/ions should be correctly capitalized. e.g.
“SO4-2” is wrong, “sO42-” is wrong, “cu2+” is wrong.
Sample solutions of salt were labeled as I,II, III and IV. The actual solutions,
not in that order are lead nitrate, zinc sulphate potassium chloride and
calcium chloride.
a)When aqueous sodium carbonate was added to each sample separately, a
white precipitate was formed in I, III and IV only. Identify solution II.
b)When excess sodium hydroxide was added to each sample separately, a
white precipitate was formed in solutions III and I only.
Identify solution I
17.When solids/salts /solutes are added to a solvent ,some dissolve to form a
solution.
Solute + Solvent -> Solvent
If a solution has a lot of solute dissolved in a solvent ,it is said to be concentrated.
If a solution has little solute dissolved in a solvent ,it is said to be dilute.

There is a limit to how much solute can dissolve in a given /specified amount of
solvent/water at a given /specified temperature.
The maximum mass of salt/solid/solute that dissolve in 100g of solvent/water
at a specified temperature is called solubility of a salt.

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 604

When no more solute can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specified

temperature, a saturated solution is formed.
For some salts, on heating, more of the salt/solid/solute dissolve in the saturated
solution to form a super saturated solution.
The solubility of a salt is thus calculated from the formula
Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100
Mass/volume of water/solvent
Practice examples
(a)Calculate the solubility of potassium nitrate(V) if 5.0 g of the salt is
dissolved in 50.0cm3 of water.
Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100 =>( 5.0 x 100 ) = 10.0 g /100g H2O
Mass/volume of water/solvent 50.0
(b)Calculate the solubility of potassium chlorate(V) if 50.0 g of the salt is
dissolved in 250.0cm3 of water.
Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100 =>( 50.0 x 100 ) = 20.0 g /100g H2O
Mass/volume of water/solvent 250.0
(c)If the solubility of potassium chlorate(V) is 5g/100g H2O at 80oC,how much
can dissolve in 5cm3 of water at 80oC .
Mass of solute/salt/solid = Solubility x Mass/volume of water/solvent
100
=> 5 x 5 = 0.25g of KClO3 dissolve
100
(d)If the solubility of potassium chlorate(V) is 72g/100g H2O at 20oC,how
much can saturate 25g of water at 20oC .
Mass of solute/salt/solid = Solubility x Mass/volume of water/solvent
100
=> 72 x 25 = 18.0g of KClO3 dissolve/saturate
100
(e) 22g of potassium nitrate(V) was dissolved in 40.0g of water at 10oC.
Calculate the solubility of potassium nitrate(V) at 10oC.
Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100 =>( 22 x 100 ) = 55.0 g /100g H2O
Mass/volume of water/solvent 40.0.
(f)What volume of water should be added to 22.0g of water at 10oC if the
solubility of KNO3 at 10oC is 5.0g/100g H2O?
Solubility is mass/100g H2O => 22.0g + x = 100cm3/100g H2O
X= 100 – 22 = 78 cm3 of H2O

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18. A graph of solubility against temperature is called solubility curve.

It shows the influence of temperature on solubility of different
substances/solids/salts.
Some substances dissolve more with increase in temperature while for others
dissolve less with increase in temperature
KNO3

KClO3

Saturated solution of KClO3

Solubility

/100g A
unsaturated solution of KClO3

B NaCl

Temperature (0C)
Note:
(i)solubility of KNO3 and KClO3 increase with increase in temperature.
(ii)solubility of KNO3 is always higher than that of KClO3 at any specified
temperature.
(iii)solubility of NaCl decrease with increase in temperature.
(iv)NaCl has the highest solubility at low temperature while KClO3 has the lowest
solubility at low temperature.
(v)At point A both NaCl and KNO3 are equally soluble.
(vi)At point B both NaCl and KClO3 are equally soluble.
(vii) An area above the solubility curve of the salt shows a saturated
/supersaturated solution.
(viii) An area below the solubility curve of the salt shows an unsaturated solution.
19.(a) For salts whose solubility increases with increase in temperature, crystals
form when the salt solution at higher temperatures is cooled to a lower
temperature.

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 606

(c) For salts whose solubility decreases with increase in temperature, crystals
form when the salt solution at lower temperatures is heated to a higher
temperature.
The examples below shows determination of the mass of crystals deposited with
changes in temperature.
1.The solubility of KClO3 at 100oC is 60g/100g water .What mass of KClO3
will be deposited at:
(i)75 oC if the solubility is now 39g/100g water.
At 100oC = 60.0g
Less at 75oC = - 39.0g
Mass of crystallized out 21.0g
(i)35 oC if the solubility is now 28 g/100g water.
At 100oC = 60.0g
Less at 35oC = - 28.0.0g
Mass of crystallized out 32.0g
2. KNO3 has a solubility of 42 g/100g water at 20oC.The salt was heated and
added 38g more of the solute which dissolved at100oC. Calculate the solubility
of KNO3 at 100oC.
Solubility of KNO3 at 100oC = solubility at 20oC + mass of KNO3 added
=> 42g + 38g = 80g KNO3 /100g H2O
3. A salt solution has a mass of 65g containing 5g of solute. The solubility of
this salt is 25g per 100g water at 20oC. 60g of the salt are added to the solution
at 20oC.Calculate the mass of the solute that remain undissolved.
Mass of solvent at 20oC = mass of solution – mass of solute
=> 65 - 5 = 60g
Solubility before adding salt = mass of solute x 100
Volume of solvent
=> 5 x 100 = 8.3333g/100g water
60
Mass of solute to equalize with solubility = 25 – 8.3333g = 16.6667g
Mass of solute undissolved = 60.0 - 16.6667g = 43.3333 g
4. Study the table below
Salt Solubility in gram at
50oC 20oC
KNO3 90 30

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 607

KClO3 20 6
(i)What happens when the two salts are dissolved in water then cooled from
50oC to 20oC.
(90 – 30) = 60.0 g of KNO3 crystals precipitate
(20 – 6) = 14.0 g of KClO3 crystals precipitate
(ii)State the assumption made in (i) above.
Solubility of one salt has no effect on the solubility of the other.
5. 10.0 g of hydrated potassium carbonate (IV) K2CO3.xH2O on heating leave
7.93 of the hydrate.
(a)Calculate the mass of anhydrous salt obtained.
Hydrated on heating leave anhydrous = 7.93 g
(b)Calculate the mass of water of crystallization in the hydrated salt
Mass of water of crystallization = hydrated – anhydrous
=> 10.0 - 7.93 = 2.07 g
(c)How many moles of anhydrous salt are there in 10of hydrate? (K=
39.0,C=12.0.O= 16.0)
Molar mass K2CO3= 138
Moles K2CO3 = mass of K2CO3 => 7.93 = 0.0515 moles
Molar mass K2CO3 138
(d)How many moles of water are present in the hydrate for every one mole of
K2CO3 ? (H=1.0.O= 16.0)
Molar mass H2O = 18
Moles H2O = mass of H2O => 2.07 = 0.115 moles
Molar mass H2O 18
Mole ratio H2O : K2CO3 = 0.115 moles 2 = 2
0.0515 moles 1
(e)What is the formula of the hydrated salt?
K2CO3 .2 H2O
6. The table below shows the solubility of Potassium nitrate(V) at different
temperatures.
Temperature(oC) 5.0 10.0 15.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
mass KNO3/ 15.0 20.0 25.0 50.0 65.0 90.0 120.0
100g water
(a)Plot a graph of mass of in 100g water(y-axis) against temperature in oC

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 608

(b)From the graph show and determine

(i)the mass of KNO3 dissolved at:
I. 20oC
From a correctly plotted graph = 32g
II. 35oC
From a correctly plotted graph = 57g
III. 55oC
From a correctly plotted graph = 104g
(ii)the temperature at which the following mass of KNO3 dissolved:
I. 22g
From a correctly plotted graph =13.0oC
II. 30g
From a correctly plotted graph =17.5oC
III.100g
From a correctly plotted graph =54.5oC
(c)Explain the shape of your graph.
Solubility of KNO3 increase with increase in temperature/More KNO3 dissolve as
temperature rises.
(d)Show on the graph the supersaturated and unsaturated solutions.

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 609

Above the solubility curve write; “supersaturated”

Below the solubility curve write; “unsaturated”
(e)From your graph, calculate the amount of crystals obtained when a
saturated solution of KNO3 containing 180g of the salt is cooled from 80oC to:
I. 20oC
Solubility before heating = 180 g
Less Solubility after heating(from the graph) = 32 g
Mass of KNO3crystals = 148 g
II. 35oC
Solubility before heating = 180 g
Less Solubility after heating(from the graph) = 58 g
Mass of KNO3crystals = 122 g
III. 55oC
Solubility before heating = 180 g
Less Solubility after heating(from the graph) = 102 g
Mass of KNO3crystals = 78 g
7. The table below shows the solubility of salts A and B at various
temperatures.

Temperature( 0.0 10. 20. 30. 40. 50. 60.0 70.0 80.0
o
C) 0 0 0 0 0
Solubility of 28.0 31. 34. 37. 40. 43. 45.0 48.0 51.0
A 0 0 0 0 0
Solubility of 13.0 21. 32. 46. 64. 85. 110. 138. 169.
B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

(a)On the same axis plot a graph of solubility (y-axis) against temperature for
each salt.
(b)At what temperature are the two salts equally soluble.
The point of intersection of the two curves = 24oC
(c)What happens when a mixture of 100g of salt B with 100g if water is heated
to 80oC
From the graph, the solubility of B at 80oC is 169g /100g water. All the 100g
crystals of B dissolve.
(d)What happens when the mixture in (c) above is then cooled from 50oC to
20oC.
Method I.

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 610

Total mass before cooling at 50oC = 100.0 g

o
(From graph) Solubility/mass after cooling at 20 C = 32.0 g
Mass of crystals deposited 68.0 g
Method II.
Mass of soluble salt crystals at 50oC added = 100 g
(From graph)Solubility/mass before cooling at 50oC = 85.0 g
Mass of crystals that cannot dissolve at 50oC 15.0 g
o
(From graph) Solubility/mass before cooling at 50 C = 85.0 g
(From graph) Solubility/mass after cooling at 20oC = 32.0 g
Mass of crystals deposited after cooling 53.0 g
Total mass of crystals deposited = 15.0 + 53.0 = 68.0 g
(e)A mixture of 40g of A and 60g of B is added to 10g of water and heated to
70oC.The solution is then allowed to cool to 10oC.Describe clearly what
happens.
I.For salt A
Solubility of A before heating = mass of A x 100
Volume of water added
=> 40 x 100 = 400g/100g Water
10
(Theoretical)Solubility of A before heating = 400 g
Less (From graph ) Solubility of A after heating at 70oC = 48g
Mass of crystals that can not dissolve at70oC = 352 g
(From graph ) Solubility of A after heating at 70oC = 48g
Less (From graph ) Solubility of A after cooling to 10oC = 31g
Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10oC = 17 g
Mass of crystals that can not dissolve at70oC = 352 g
Add Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10oC = 17 g
Total mass of A that does not dissolve/crystallize/precipitate = 369 g

I.For salt B
Solubility of B before heating = mass of B x 100
Volume of water added
=> 60 x 100 = 600g/100g Water
10
(Theoretical)Solubility of B before heating = 600 g
o
Less (From graph ) Solubility of B after heating at 70 C = 138g
Mass of crystals that cannot dissolve at70oC = 462 g

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 611

(From graph ) Solubility of B after heating at 70oC = 138g

Less (From graph ) Solubility of B after cooling to 10oC = 21g
Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10oC = 117 g
Mass of crystals that cannot dissolve at70oC = 462 g
o
Add Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10 C = 117 g
Total mass of A that does not dissolve/crystallize/precipitate = 579 g
(f)State the assumption made in (e)above
Solubility of one salt has no effect on the solubility of the other
8. When 5.0 g of potassium chlorate (V) was put in 10cm3 of water and heated,
the solid dissolves. When the solution was cooled , the temperature at which
crystals reappear was noted. Another 10cm3 of water was added and the
mixture heated to dissolve then cooled for the crystals to reappear .The table
below shows the the results obtained
Total volume of water added(cm3) 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0
Mass of KClO3 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Temperature at which crystals 80.0 65.0 55.0 45.0 30.0
appear
Solubility of KclO3 50.0 25.0 16.6667 12.5 10.0
(a)Complete the table to show the solubility of KclO3 at different
temperatures.
(b)Plot a graph of mass of KClO3 per 100g water against temperature at
which crystals form.
(c)From the graph, show and determine ;
(i)the solubility of KClO3 at
I. 50oC
From a well plotted graph = 14.5 g KClO3/100g water
II. 35oC
From a well plotted graph = 9.0 g KclO3/100g water
(ii)the temperature at which the solubility is:
I.10g/100g water
From a well plotted graph = 38.0 oC
II.45g/100g water
From a well plotted graph = 77.5 oC

(d)Explain the shape of the graph.

Solubility of KClO3 increase with increase in temperature/more KclO3dissolve as
temperature rises.

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 612

(e)What happens when 100g per 100g water is cooled to 35.0 oC

Solubility before heating = 100.0
(From the graph) Solubility after cooling = 9.0
Mass of salt precipitated/crystallization = 91.0 g
9. 25.0cm3 of water dissolved various masses of ammonium chloride crystals
at different temperatures as shown in the table below.
Mass of ammonium chloride(grams) 4.0 4.5 5.5 6.5 9.0

Temperature at which solid 30.0 50.0 70.0 90.0 120.0

dissolved(oC)
Solubility of NH4Cl 16.0 18.0 22.0 26.0 36.0

(a)Complete the table

(b)Plot a solubility curve
(c)What happens when a saturated solution of ammonium chloride is cooled
from 80oC to 40oC.
(From the graph )Solubility at 80oC = 24.0 g
Less (From the graph )Solubility at 40oC = 16.8 g
Mass of crystallized/precipitated = 7.2 g
20. Solubility and solubility curves are therefore used
(i) to know the effect of temperature on the solubility of a salt
(ii)to fractional crystallize two soluble salts by applying their differences in
solubility at different temperatures.
(iii)determine the mass of crystal that is obtained from crystallization.
21.Natural fractional crystallization takes place in Kenya/East Africa at:
(i) Lake Magadi during extraction of soda ash(Sodium carbonate) from
Trona(sodium sesquicarbonate)
(ii) Ngomeni near Malindi at the Indian Ocean Coastline during the
extraction of common salt(sodium chloride).
22.Extraction of soda ash from Lake Magadi in Kenya
Rain water drains underground in the great rift valley and percolate underground
where it is heated geothermically.
The hot water dissolves underground soluble sodium compounds and comes out on
the surface as alkaline springs which are found around the edges of Lake Magadi
in Kenya.
Temperatures around the lake are very high (30-40oC) during the day.

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 613

The solubility of trona decrease with increase in temperature therefore solid

crystals of trona grows on top of the lake (upto or more than 30metres thick)

A bucket dredger mines the trona which is then crushed ,mixed with lake liquor and
pumped to washery plant where it is further refined to a green granular product
called CRS.
The CRS is then heated to chemically decompose trona to soda ash(Sodium
carbonate)
Chemical equation
2Na2CO3.NaHCO3.2H2O(s) -> 3Na2CO3 (s) + CO2(g) + 5H2O(l)
Soda ash(Sodium carbonate) is then stored .It is called Magadi Soda. Magadi Soda
is used :
(i) make glass
(ii) for making soapless detergents
(iii) softening hard water.
(iv)
Common salt is colledcted at night because its solubility decreases with decrease in
temperature. It is used as salt lick/feed for animals.
Summary flow diagram showing the extraction of Soda ash from Trona
Sodium chloride and Trona
dissolved in the sea

Carbon(IV) oxide

Natural fractional crystallization

Crystals of Trona Dredging Crushing Furnace

(Day time) /scooping/ (Heating)
digging

Crystals of sodium
Soda ash
chloride(At night)

Bagging Bagging
Na2CO3 (s)
NaCl(s)
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 614

23.Extraction of common salt from Indian Ocean at Ngomeni in Kenya

Oceans are salty.They contain a variety of dissolved salts (about 77% being sodium
chloride).
During high tide ,water is collected into shallow pods and allowed to crystallize as
evaporation takes place.The pods are constructed in series to increase the rate of
evaporation.
At the final pod ,the crystals are scapped together,piled in a heap and washed with
brine (concentrated sodium chloride).
It contains MgCl2 and CaCl2 . MgCl2 and CaCl2are hygroscopic. They absorb
water from the atmosphere and form a solution.
This makes table salt damp/wet on exposure to the atmosphere.
24.Some water form lather easily with soap while others do not.
Water which form lather easily with soap is said to be “soft”
Water which do not form lather easily with soap is said to be “hard”
Hardness of water is caused by the presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions react with soap to form an insoluble grey /white
suspension/precipitate called Scum/ curd. Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in water come from
the water sources passing through rocks containing soluble salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+
e.g. Limestone or gypsum
There are two types of water hardness:
(a)temporary hardness of water
(b)permanent hardness of water
(a)temporary hardness of water
Temporary hardness of water is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium
hydrogen carbonate/Ca(HCO3)2 and magnesium hydrogen carbonate/Mg(HCO3)2
When rain water dissolve carbon(IV) oxide from the air it forms waek carbonic(IV)
acid i.e.
CO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2CO3(aq)
When carbonic(IV) acid passes through limestone/dolomite rocks it reacts to form
soluble salts i.e.
In limestone areas; H2CO3(aq) + CaCO3(s) -> Ca(HCO3)2 (aq)
In dolomite areas; H2CO3(aq) + MgCO3(s) -> Mg(HCO3)2 (aq)
(b)permanent hardness of water

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 615

Permanent hardness of water is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium

sulphate(VI)/CaSO4 and magnesium sulphate(VI)/Mg SO4 Permanent hardness of
water is caused by water dissolving CaSO4 and MgSO4 from ground rocks.
Hardness of water can be removed by the following methods:
(a)Removing temporary hardness of water
(i)Boiling/heating.
Boiling decomposes insoluble calcium hydrogen carbonate/Ca(HCO3)2 and
magnesium hydrogen carbonate/Mg(HCO3)2 to insoluble CaCO3 and MgCO3 that
precipitate away. i.e
Chemical equation
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) -> CaCO3 (s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Mg(HCO3)2(aq) -> MgCO3 (s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(ii)Adding sodium carbonate (IV) /Washing soda.
Since boiling is expensive on a large scale ,a calculated amount of sodium
carbonate decahydrate /Na2CO3.10H2O precipitates insoluble Ca2+(aq) and
Mg2+(aq) ions as carbonates to remove both temporary and permanent hardness of
water .This a double decomposition reaction where two soluble salts form an
insoluble and soluble salt. i.e.
(i)with temporary hard water
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) + Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq) -> NaHCO3(aq) + CaCO3 (s)
Na2CO3 (aq) + Mg(HCO3) 2 (aq) -> NaHCO3(aq) + MgCO3 (s)
Ionic equation
CO32- (aq) + Ca2+ (aq) -> CaCO3 (s)
2-
CO3 (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) -> MgCO3 (s)
(ii)with permanent hard water
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + MgCO3 (s)
Na2CO3 (aq) + CaSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + MgCO3 (s)
Ionic equation
CO32- (aq) + Ca2+ (aq) -> CaCO3 (s)
2-
CO3 (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) -> MgCO3 (s)
(iii)Adding calcium (II)hydroxide/Lime water
Lime water/calcium hydroxide removes only temporary hardness of water from by
precipitating insoluble calcium carbonate(IV).
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq) -> 2H2O(l) + 2CaCO3 (s)

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 616

Excess of Lime water/calcium hydroxide should not be used because it dissolves

again to form soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate(IV) causing the hardness again.
(iv)Adding aqueous ammonia
Aqueous ammonia removes temporary hardness of water by precipitating insoluble
calcium carbonate(IV) and magnesium carbonate(IV)
Chemical equation
2NH3 (aq) + Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq) -> (NH4) 2CO3(aq) + CaCO3 (s)
2NH3 (aq) + Mg(HCO3) 2 (aq) -> (NH4) 2CO3(aq) + MgCO3 (s)
(v)Use of ion-exchange permutit
This method involves packing a chamber with a resin made of insoluble complex
of sodium salt called sodium permutit.
The sodium permutit releases sodium ions that are exchanged with Mg2+ and Ca2+
ions in hard water making the water to be soft. i.e.
Na2X(aq) + Ca2+ (aq) -> Na+ (aq) + CaX(s)
Na2X(aq) + Mg2+ (aq) -> Na+ (aq) + MgX(s)

Hard water containing Mg2+ and Ca2+

Ion exchange resin as

Sodium permutit

------- Na+ ions replace Mg2+

and Ca2+ to make the water soft.

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 617

When all the Na+ ions in the resin is fully exchanged with Ca2+ and Ng2+ ions in
the permutit column ,it is said to be exhausted.
Brine /concentrated sodium chloride solution is passed through the permutit
column to regenerated /recharge the column again.
Hard water containing Mg2+ and Ca2+

Ion exchange resin as

Sodium permutit

------- Na+ ions replace Mg2+

and Ca2+ to make the water soft.

(vi)Deionization /demineralization
This is an advanced ion exchange method of producing deionized water .Deionized
water is extremely pure water made only of hydrogen and oxygen only without any
dissolved substances.
Deionization involve using the resins that remove all the cations by using:
(i)A cation exchanger which remove /absorb all the cations present in water and
leave only H+ ions.
(ii)An anion exchanger which remove /absorb all the anions present in water and
leave only OH- ions.
The H+(aq) and OH- (aq) neutralize each other to form pure water.
Chemical equation

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 618

H+(aq) + OH- (aq) -> H2O(l)

When exhausted the cation exchanger is regenerated by adding H+(aq) from
sulphuric(VI)acid/hydrochloric acid.
When exhausted the anion exchanger is regenerated by adding OH-(aq) from
sodium hydroxide.
Advantages of hard water
Hard water has the following advantages:
(i)Ca2+(aq) in hard water are useful in bone and teeth formation
(ii) is good for brewing beer
(iii)contains minerals that cause it to have better /sweet taste
(iv)animals like snails and coral polyps use calcium to make their shells
and coral reefs respectively.
(v)processing mineral water
Disadvantages of hard water
Hardness of water:
(i)waste a lot of soap during washing before lather is formed.
(ii)causes stains/blemishes/marks on clothes/garments
(iii)causes fur on electric appliances like kettle ,boilers and pipes form
decomposition of carbonates on heating .This reduces their efficiency hence
more/higher cost of power/electricity.

Sample revision questions

In an experiment, soap solution was added to three separate samples of water. The
table below shows the volumes of soap solution required to form lather with
1000cm3 of each sample of water before and after boiling.
Sample Sample Sample
I II III
Volume of soap before water is boiled 27.0 3.0 10.0
(cm3)
Volume of soap after water is 27.0 3.0 3.0
boiled(cm3)
a) Which water sample is likely to be soft? Explain. (2mks)
Sample II: Uses little sample of soap .

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 619

c) Name the change in the volume of soap solution used in sample III
(1mk)
On heating the sample water become soft bcause it is temporary hard.
2.Study the scheme below and use it to aanswer the questions that follow:

(a)Write the formula of:

(i)Cation in solution K
Al3+
(ii)white ppt L
Al(OH)3
(iii) colourless solution M
[Al(OH)4]-
(iv) colourless solution N
AlCl3
(v)white ppt P
Al(OH)3

(b)Write the ionic equation for the reaction for the formation of:
(i)white ppt L
Al3+(aq) + 3OH- (aq) -> Al(OH)3(s)
(v)white ppt P
Al3+(aq) + 3OH- (aq) -> Al(OH)3(s)
(c)What property is illustrated in the formation of colourless solution M and N.
Amphotellic

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 620

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY PRACTICALS

Introduction/Rationale
Chemistry is a science.
Chemistry practical all over the world is emphasized to all candidates sitting for a
Chemistry paper.
There are about seven main basic universal emphasis for all chemistry candidates
sitting for a chemistry paper;
(i)Titration /volumetric analysis
(ii)Thermochemistry(energy changes)
(iii)Chemical kinetic(rates of reaction)
(iv)Qualitative analysis(organic/inorganic)
(v)Solubility and solubility curves
(vi)Flame test
(vii)Physical / general chemistry
(a) Titration/volumetric analysis
Titration is determining the end point of the burette contents that react with fixed
(usually 25.0cm3 from a pipette) conical flask contents.
As evidence of a titration actually done examining body require the candidate to
record their burette readings before and after the titration.
For KCSE candidates burette readings must be recorded in a titration table in the
format provided by the Kenya National Examination Council.
As evidence of all titration actually done Kenya National Examination Council
require the candidate to record their burette readings before and after the titration to
complete the titration table in the format provided.
Sample Titration table format
Final burette reading (cm3) 24.0 24.0 24.0
Initial burette reading (cm3 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of solution used(cm3) 24.0 24.0 24.0

Calculate the average volume of solution used

24.0 + 24.0 + 24.0 = 24.0 cm3
3
As evidence of understanding the degree of accuracy of burettes ,all readings must
be recorded to a decimal point.
As evidence of accuracy in carrying the out the titration ,candidates value should be
within 0.2 of the school value .

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 621

The school value is the teachers readings presented to the examining body/council
based on the concentrations of the solutions s/he presented to her/his candidates.
Bonus mark is awarded for averaged reading within 0.1 school value as Final
answer.
Calculations involved after the titration require candidates thorough practice
mastery on the:
(i)relationship among the mole, molar mass, mole ratios, concentration, molarity.
(ii) mathematical application of 1st principles.
Very useful information which candidates forget appear usually in the beginning of
the paper as:
“You are provided with…”
All calculation must be to the 4th decimal point unless they divide fully to a lesser
decimal point.
Never round off answers.
b)Thermochemistry/energy changes
Energy is the capacity to do work which is measured in Joules(J) or(kJ) .
Chemical/physical changes take place with absorption (Endothermic ) or
evolution/ production (Exothermic)of heat.
Practically:
(i)endothermic changes show absorption of heat by a fall / drop in temperature
and has a +∆H
(ii)exothermic changes show evolution/ production of heat by a rise in
temperature and has a -∆H
(iii)temperature is measure using a thermometer.
(iv)a school thermometer is either coloured (alcohol) or colourless(mercury)
(v) For accuracy ,candidates in the same practical session should use the same type
of thermometer.
(vi) fall / drop (+∆H) in temperature is movement of thermometer level
downward.
(vii) rise (-∆H) in temperature is movement of thermometer level upwards.
Physical changes changes mainly involve melting/freezing/fussion and boiling
/vapourization.
Chemical changes changes mainly involve displacement ,dissolving , neutralization
a).Energy changes in physical processes
Melting/freezing/fusion/solidification and boiling/vaporization/evaporation are
the two physical processes.
Melting /freezing point of pure substances is fixed /constant.

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 622

The boiling point of pure substance depends on external atmospheric pressure.

Melting/fusion is the physical change of a solid to liquid. Freezing/fusion is the
physical change of a liquid to solid.
Melting/freezing/fusion/solidification are therefore two opposite but same
reversible physical processes. i.e
A (s) ========A(l)
Boiling/vaporization/evaporation is the physical change of a liquid to gas/vapour.
Condensation/liquidification is the physical change of gas/vapour to liquid.
Boiling/vaporization/evaporation and condensation/liquidification are therefore two
opposite but same reversible physical processes. i.e
B (l) ========B(g)
Practically
(i) Melting/liquidification/fusion involves heating a solid to weaken the strong
bonds holding the solid particles together.
Solids are made up of very strong bonds holding the particles very close to
each other (Kinetic Theory of matter
On heating these particles gain energy/heat from the surrounding heat source to
form a liquid with weaker bonds holding the particles close together but with some
degree of freedom.
Melting/fusion is an endothermic (+∆H)process that require/absorb energy from
the surrounding.
(ii)Freezing/fusion/solidification involves cooling a a liquid to reform /rejoin the
very strong bonds to hold the particles very close to each other as solid and thus
lose their degree of freedom (Kinetic Theory of matter).
Freezing /fusion / solidification is an exothermic (-∆H)process that require
particles holding the liquid together to lose energy to the surrounding.
(iii)Boiling/vaporization/evaporation involves heating a liquid to completely
break/free the bonds holding the liquid particles together.
Gaseous particles have high degree of freedom (Kinetic Theory of matter).
Boiling /vaporization / evaporation is an endothermic (+∆H) process that
require/absorb energy from the surrounding.
(iv)Condensation/liquidification is reverse process of boiling /vaporization /
evaporation.
It involves gaseous particles losing energy to the surrounding to form a liquid.It is
an exothermic(+∆H) process.

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The quantity of energy required to change one mole of a solid to liquid or to form
one mole of a solid from liquid at constant temperature is called molar
enthalpy/latent heat of fusion. e.g.
H2O(s) -> H2O(l) ∆H = +6.0kJ mole-1 (endothermic process)
H2O(l) -> H2O(s) ∆H = -6.0kJ mole-1 (exothermic process)
The quantity of energy required to change one mole of a liquid to gas/vapour or to
form one mole of a liquid from gas/vapour at constant temperature is called molar
enthalpy/latent heat of vapourization. e.g.
H2O(l) -> H2O(g) ∆H = +44.0kJ mole-1 (endothermic process)
H2O(g) -> H2O(l) ∆H = -44.0kJ mole-1 (exothermic process)
• To determine the boiling point of water
Procedure:
Measure 20cm3 of tap water into a 50cm3 glass beaker. Determine and record its
temperature.Heat the water on a strong Bunsen burner flame and record its
temperature after every thirty seconds for four minute
Sample results
Time 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
(seconds)
o
Temperature( C) 25.0 45.0 85.0 95.0 96.0 96.0 96.0 97.0 98.0

Questions
1.Plot a graph of temperature against time(y-axis)
Sketch graph of temperature against time

Temperature
o
C

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 624

Time in Seconds
2.From the graph show and determine the boiling point of water
Note:
Water boils at 100oC at sea level/one atmosphere pressure/101300Pa but boils at
below 100oC at higher altitudes.
The sample results above are from Kiriari Girls High School-Embu County on the
slopes of Mt Kenya in Kenya. Water here boils at 96oC.
3.Calculate the molar heat of vaporization of water.(H= 1.0,O= 16.O)
Working:
Mass of water = density x volume => (20 x 1) /1000 = 0.02kg
Quantity of heat produced
= mass of water x specific heat capacity of water x temperature change
=>0.02kg x 4.2 x ( 96 – 25 ) = -5.964kJ

Heat of vaporization of one mole H2O

= Quantity of heat
Molar mass of H2O

=> -5.964kJ = -0.3313 kJ mole -1

18
To determine the melting point of candle wax
Procedure
Weigh exactly 5.0 g of candle wax into a boiling tube. Heat it on a strongly
Bunsen burner flame until it completely melts.
Insert a thermometer and remove the boiling tube from the flame. Stir
continuously. Determine and record the temperature after every 30seconds for four
minutes.
Sample results
Time 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 240
(seconds)
Temperature 93.0 85.0 78.0 70.0 69.0 69.0 69.0 67.0 65.0 65.0
o
( C)

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 625

Questions
1.Plot a graph of temperature against time(y-axis)

Sketch graph of temperature against time

96 oC

melting point(690C)

Temperature(0C)
25oC

time(seconds)
[email protected] 20

b)Energy changes in chemical processes

(i)Standard enthalpy/heat of displacement ∆Hᶿd
(ii)Standard enthalpy/heat of neutralization ∆Hᶿn
(iii)Standard enthalpy/heat of solution/dissolution ∆Hᶿs
(i) Standard enthalpy/heat of displacement ∆Hᶿd
The molar standard enthalpy/heat of displacement may be defined as the
energy/heat change when one mole of substance is displaced /removed from its
solution at standard conditions
Some displacement reactions
(i)Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) -> Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)
Ionically: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) -> Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq)
(ii)Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) -> Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq)
Ionically: Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) -> Cu(s) + Fe2+ (aq)
(iii)Pb(s) + CuSO4(aq) -> Cu(s) + PbSO4(s)
This reaction stops after some time as insoluble PbSO4(s) coat/cover unreacted
lead.
(iv)Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) -> Br2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq)
Ionically:
Cl2(g)+ 2Br- (aq) -> Br2(aq) + 2Cl- (aq)

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 626

To determine the molar standard enthalpy/heat of displacement(∆Hᶿd) of copper

Procedure
Place 20cm3 of 0.2M copper(II)sulphate(VI)solution into a 50cm3 plastic
beaker/calorimeter.
Determine and record the temperature of the solution T1.
Put all the Zinc powder provided into the plastic beaker. Stir the mixture using the
thermometer.
Determine and record the highest temperature change to the nearest 0.5oC- T2 .
Repeat the experiment to complete table 1 below
Sample results Table 1
Experiment I II
o o
Final temperature of solution(T )
2 30.0 C 31.0 C
o o
initial temperature of solution(T )
1 25.0 C 24.0 C
Change in temperature(∆T) 5.0 6.0
Questions
1.(a) Calculate:
(i)average ∆T
Average ∆T = change in temperature in experiment I and II
=>5.0 + 6.0 = 5.5oC
2
(ii)the number of moles of solution used
Moles used = molarity x volume of solution = 0.2 x 20 = 0.004 moles
1000 1000
(iii) the enthalpy change ∆H for the reaction
Heat produced ∆H = mass of solution(m) x specific heat capacity (c)x ∆T
=> 20 x 4.2 x 5.5 = 462 Joules = -0.462 kJ
1000 1000
(iv)State two assumptions made in the above calculations.
Density of solution = density of water = 1gcm-3
Specific heat capacity of solution=Specific heat capacity of water =4.2 kJ-1kg-1K
This is because the solution is assumed to be infinite dilute.
2. Calculate the enthalpy change for one mole of displacement of Cu2+ (aq)
ions.
Molar heat of displacement ∆Hd = Heat produced ∆H
Number of moles of fuel
=> 0.462 kJ = -115.5 kJmole-1
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 627

0.004
3.Write an ionic equation for the reaction taking place.
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) -> Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)
4.State the observation made during the reaction.
Blue colour of copper(II)sulphate(VI) fades/becomes less blue/colourless.
Brown solid deposits are formed at the bottom of reaction vessel/ beaker.
5.Illustrate the above reaction using an energy level diagram.

Cu2+ (aq) + Zn (s)

∆H = -115.5kJ

Energy
(kJ)

Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

Reaction path/coordinate/ progress

[email protected] 52

8. The enthalpy of displacement ∆Hd of copper(II)sulphate (VI) solution is

12k6kJmole-1.Calculate the molarity of the solution given that 40cm3 of this
solution produces 2.204kJ of energy during a displacement reaction with
excess iron filings.
Number of moles = Heat produced ∆H
Molar heat of displacement ∆Hd

=> 2.204 kJ = 0.0206moles

126 moles
Molarity of the solution = moles x 1000
Volume of solution used

0.0206moles x 1000 = 0.5167 M

=
40
Graphical determination of the molar enthalpy of displacement of copper

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 628

Procedure:
Place 20cm3 of 0.2M copper(II)sulphate (VI) solution into a calorimeter/50cm3 of
plastic beaker wrapped in cotton wool/tissue paper.
Record its temperature at time T= 0.Stir the solution with the thermometer
carefully and continue recording the temperature after every 30 seconds .
Place all the (1.5g) Zinc powder provided after 1 ½ minutes.
Stir the solution with the thermometer carefully and continue recording the
temperature after every 30 seconds for five minutes.
Determine the highest temperature change to the nearest 0.5oC.

Sample results
Time oC 0.0 30.0 60.0 90.0 120.0 150.0 180.0 210.0 240.0 270.0

Temperature 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 xxx 36.0 35.5 35.0 34.5

Plot a graph of temperature(y-axis) against time

36.5

Temperature
(oC) Extrapolation ∆T
point

25oC

150 Time(seconds)
[email protected] 29

Questions
1.Show and determine the change in temperature ∆T
From a well constructed graph ∆T= T2 –T1 at 150 second by extrapolation
∆T = 36.5 – 25.0 = 11.5oC
2.Calculate the number of moles of copper(II) sulphate(VI)used given the
molar heat of displacement of Cu2+ (aq)ions is 125kJmole-1
Heat produced ∆H = mass of solution(m) x specific heat capacity (c)x ∆T
=> 20 x 4.2 x 11.5 = 966 Joules = -0.966 kJ
1000
Number of moles = Heat produced ∆H
Molar heat of displacement ∆Hd

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 629

=> 0.966 kJ = -0.007728moles

125 moles -7.728 x 10-3moles
3. What was the concentration of copper(II)sulphate(VI) in moles per litre.
Molarity = moles x 1000
Volume used
=>7.728 x 10-3moles x 1000 = 0.3864M
20
4.The actual concentration of copper
(II) Sulphate (VI) solution was 0.4M. Explain the differences between the two.
Practical value is lower than theoretical
. Heat/energy loss to the surrounding and that absorbed by the reaction vessel
decreases ∆T hence lowering the practical number of moles and molarity against
the theoretical value
(c)Standard enthalpy/heat of neutralization ∆Hᶿn
The molar standard enthalpy/heat of neutralization ∆Hᶿn is defined as the
energy/heat change when one mole of a H+ (H3O+)ions react completely with one
mole of OH- ions to form one mole of H2O/water.
Neutralization is thus a reaction of an acid /H+ (H3O+)ions with a base/alkali/ OH-
ions to form salt and water only.
Strong acids/bases/alkalis are completely/fully/wholly dissociated to many free
ions(H+ /H3O+ and OH- ions).
(ii) for strong acid/base/alkali neutralization, no energy is used to dissociate /ionize
since molecule is wholly/fully dissociated/ionized into free H+ H3O+ and OH- ions.
The overall energy evolved is comparatively higher / more than weak acid-base/
alkali neutralizations.
For strong acid-base/alkali neutralization, the enthalpy of neutralization is
constant at about 57.3kJmole-1 irrespective of the acid-base used.
This is because ionically:
OH-(aq)+ H+(aq) -> H2O(l)
for all wholly/fully /completely dissociated acid/base/alkali
Weak acids/bases/alkalis are partially dissociated to few free ions(H+ (H3O+ and
OH- ions) and exist more as molecules.
Neutralization is an exothermic(-∆H) process.
The energy produced during neutralization depend on the amount of free ions (H+
H3O+ and OH-)ions existing in the acid/base/alkali reactant:

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 630

(i)for weak acid-base/alkali neutralization,some of the energy is used to

dissociate /ionize the molecule into free H+ H3O+ and OH- ions therefore the overall
energy evolved is comparatively lower/lesser/smaller than strong acid / base/
alkali neutralizations.
Practically ∆Hᶿn can be determined as in the examples below:
To determine the molar enthalpy of neutralization ∆Hn of Hydrochloric acid
Procedure
Place 50cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid into a calorimeter/200cm3 plastic beaker
wrapped in cotton wool/tissue paper.
Record its temperature T1.
Using a clean measuring cylinder, measure another 50cm3 of 2M sodium
hydroxide.
Rinse the bulb of the thermometer in distilled water.
Determine the temperature of the sodium hydroxide T2.
Average T2 andT1 to get the initial temperature of the mixture T3.
Carefully add all the alkali into the calorimeter/200cm3 plastic beaker wrapped in
cotton wool/tissue paper containing the acid.
Stir vigorously the mixture with the thermometer.
Determine the highest temperature change to the nearest 0.5oC T4 as the final
temperature of the mixture.
Repeat the experiment to complete table 1.
(ii)enthalpy change ∆H of neutralization.
∆H = (m)mass of solution(acid+base) x (c)specific heat capacity of solution x
∆T(T6) => (50 +50) x 4.2 x 13.5 = 5670Joules = 5.67kJ
(iii) the molar heat of neutralization the acid.
∆Hn = Enthalpy change ∆H => 5.67kJ = 56.7kJ mole-1
Number of moles 0.1moles
(c)Write the ionic equation for the reaction that takes place
OH-(aq)+ H+(aq) -> H2O(l)
(d)The theoretical enthalpy change is 57.4kJ. Explain the difference with the
results above.
The theoretical value is higher
Heat/energy loss to the surrounding/environment lowers ∆T/T6 and thus ∆Hn
Heat/energy is absorbed by the reaction vessel/calorimeter/plastic cup lowers ∆T
and hence ∆Hn
Sample results
Experiment I II

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o
Temperature of acid T1 ( C) 22.5 22.5
o
Temperature of base T2 ( C) 22.0 23.0
o
Final temperature of solution T4( C) 35.5 36.0
o
Initial temperature of solution T3( C) 22.25 22.75

Temperature change( T5) 13.25 13.75

(a)Calculate T6 the average temperature change T6 =
o
13.25 +13.75 = 13.5 C 2
(b)Why should the apparatus be very clean?
Impurities present in the apparatus reacts with acid /base lowering the overall
temperature change and hence ∆Hᶿn.
(c)Calculate the:
(i)number of moles of the acid used
number of moles = molarity x volume => 2 x 50 = 0.1moles
1000 1000
(e)Compare the ∆Hn of the experiment above with similar experiment repeated
with neutralization of a solution of:
(i) potassium hydroxide with nitric(V) acid
The results would be the same/similar.
Both are neutralization reactions of strong acids and bases/alkalis that are fully
/wholly dissociated into many free H+ / H3O+ and OH- ions.
(ii) ammonia with ethanoic acid
The results would be lower/∆Hn would be less.
Both are neutralization reactions of weak acids and bases/alkalis that are partially
/partly dissociated into few free H+ / H3O+ and OH- ions. Some energy is used to
ionize the molecule.
(f)Draw an energy level diagram to illustrate the energy changes
Theoretical examples
1.The molar enthalpy of neutralization was experimentary shown to be 51.5kJ
per mole of 0.5M hydrochloric acid and 0.5M sodium hydroxide. If the volume
of sodium hydroxide was 20cm3, what was the volume of hydrochloric acid
used if the reaction produced a 5.0oC rise in temperature?
Working:
Moles of sodium hydroxide = molarity x volume
1000

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 632

=> 0.5 M x 20cm3 = 0.01 moles

1000
Enthalpy change ∆H = ∆Hn => 51.5 = 0.515kJ
Moles sodium hydroxide 0.01 moles
Mass of base + acid = Enthalpy change ∆H in Joules
Specific heat capacity x ∆T
=> 0.515kJ x 1000 = 24.5238g
4.2 x 5
Mass/volume of HCl = Total volume – volume of NaOH
=>24.5238 - 20.0 = 4.5238 cm3
Graphically ∆Hn can be determined as in the example below:
Procedure
Place 8 test tubes in a test tube rack .
Put 5cm3 of 2M sodium hydroxide solution into each test tube. Measure 25cm3 of
1M hydrochloric acid into 100cm3 plastic beaker.
Record its initial temperature at volume of base =0.
Put one portion of the base into the beaker containing the acid.
Stir carefully with the thermometer and record the highest temperature change to
the nearest 0.5oC.
Repeat the procedure above with other portions of the base to complete table 1
below
Volume 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25. 25.0 25.
of 0 0
acid(cm3)
Volume 0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40. 35.0 40.
of 0 0
alkali(cm
3)
Final 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 28.0 27.0 26.0 25.0 24. 25.0 24.
temperatu 0 0
o
re( C)
Initial 22.0 22.0 22.0 22.0 22.0 22.0 22.0 22.0 22. 22.0 22.
temperatu 0 0
o
re( C)
Change in 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0
temperatu

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 633

re
Complete the table to determine the change in temperature.
Plot a graph of volume of sodium hydroxide against temperature change.
From the graph show and determine :
(i)the highest temperature change ∆T
∆T =T2-T1 : highest temperature-T2 (from extrapolating a correctly plotted
graph) less lowest temperature at volume of base=0-T1
=> 28.7 – 22.0 = 6.7 0 oC

28.7 T2 Extrapolation point

x
x
x
x
x
x
Energy(kJ) x
x

22.0 =T1 x
Vn=16.75 Volume of sodium hydroxide(cm3)
[email protected] 43

(ii) the volume of sodium hydroxide used for complete neutralization

From correctly plotted graph = 16.75 cm3
(iii) Calculate the number of moles of the alkali used
Moles NaOH = molarity x volume ()Vn=
1000
=> 2 x 16.75 = 0.0335 moles
1000
(iv)Calculate ∆H for the reaction.
∆H = mass of solution mixture x c x ∆T
=> (25.0 + 16.75) x 4.2 x 6.7
= 1174.845 J = 1.174845 kJ
1000

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 634

(iii) Calculate the molar enthalpy of the alkali:

∆Hn = Heat change => 1.174845 kJ
number of moles 0.0335 moles
= 35.0699kJ mole-1
(i) Standard enthalpy/heat of solution/dissolution ∆Hᶿs
The standard enthalpy of solution ∆Hᶿs is defined as the energy change when one
mole of a substance is dissolved in excess distilled water to form an infinite dilute
solution.
An infinite dilute solution is one which is too dilute to be diluted further.
Practically the heat of solution is determined by dissolving a known mass /volume
of a solute in known mass/volume of water/solvent and determining the
temperature change.
To determine the heat of dissolution of ammonium nitrate(V)
Place 100cm3 of distilled water into a plastic cup/beaker/calorimeter
Put all the 5.0g of ammonium nitrate(v)/potassium nitrate(V)/ ammonium chloride
into the water.
Stir the mixture using the thermometer and record the temperature change after
every ½ minute to complete table1.
Continue stirring throughout the experiment.

Sample results:Table1
time(minutes) 0 ½ 1 1½ 2 2½ 3 3½

Temperature 22.0 21.0 20.0 19.0 19.0 19.5 20.0 20.5

(oC)

Plot a graph of temperature (y-axis )against temperature

22.0 =T1 x
x x

∆T x
Temperature x
(oC) x
x x
18.7 =T2

Time((oC))
[email protected] 47

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 635

(a)From the graph show and determine:

(i)the highest temperature change ∆T
∆T =T2-T1 : highest temperature-T2 (from extrapolating a correctly plotted
graph) less lowest temperature at volume of base=0-T1
=> 18.7 – 22.0 = 3.3 oC ( not -3.3 oC)
(b) Calculate the total energy change ∆H during the reaction
∆H = mass of water x c x ∆T
=>∆H=100 x4.2 x 3.3 oC = + 1386 J = + 1.386 kJ
1000
(c) Calculate the number of moles of ammonium nitrate (v) used
Moles = mass => 5.0 = 0.0625 moles
molar mass 80
(d)What is the molar heat of dissolution of ammonium nitrate(V)
∆H = Heat change = + 1.386 kJ = + 22.176 kJmole-1
Number of mole 0.0625 moles
(e)What would happen if the distilled water is heated before experiment was
performed .
The ammonium nitrate(V) would take less time to dissolve.
Increase in temperature reduces lattice energy causing endothermic dissollution to
be faster.
(e)Illustrate the above process on an energy level diagram

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 636

Graphically ∆Hr can be represented in an energy level diagram

Endothermic process
NH4 + + NO3-(g)
(g)

Hydration energy
(exothermic- -∆H)

+ -
NH4 (aq)+NO3 (aq)
Energy
Lattice energy
(kJ) (endothermic- +∆H) ∆H = +22.176kJ

NH4 NO3(s)

Reaction progress/coordinate/path
[email protected] 50

c)Chemical Kinetic/Rate of reaction

The rate of a chemical reaction can be defined as the time taken for a known
amount of reactants to form known amount of products.
Some reactions are too slow to be determined e.g weathering others are
instantaneous
The SI unit of time is seconds. Minutes and hours are also common .
Time is determined using a stop watch/clock
Candidates using stop watch/clock should learn to:
(i)Press start button concurrently with starting off determination of a reaction using
one hand each.
(ii)Press stop button when the reaction is over.
(iii)Record all times in seconds unless specified.
(iv)Press reset button to begin another timing
(v)Ignore time beyond seconds for stop clock/watch beyond this accuracy
(vi)Avoid accidental pressing of any button before recording
It can be very frustrating repeating a whole procedure
The following factors theoretically and practically alter/influence/affect/determine
the rate of a chemical reaction:
(a)Concentration
(b)Temperature

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 637

(a)Concentration
An increase in concentration increases the rate the rate of reaction by reducing the
time taken to completion.
Theoretically, increase in concentration is a decrease in distance between reacting
particles which increases their collision frequency.
Practically decreasing concentration is diluting/adding water
To demonstrate the effect of concentration on reaction rate
You are provided with
(i) sodium thiosulphate containing 40gdm -3 solution labeled A
(ii) 2M hydrochloric acid labeled solution B
You are required to determine the rate of reaction between solution A and B
Procedure
Measure 40cm3 of solution A into 100 cm3 glass beaker. Place it on top of a pen-
mark “X”. Measure another 40cm3 of solution B. Simultaneously put solution B
into solution A and start off a stop watch/clock. Determine the time taken for the
pen-mark “X” to be invisible/obscurred from above. Repeat the procedure by
measuring 35cm3 of solution B and adding 5cm3 of water. Complete the table 1
below by using other values os solution B and water

Sample results: Table 1

Volume of solution A 40 40 40 40 40 40
(cm3)
Volume of solution B 40 35 30 25 20 15
(cm3)
Volume of water (cm3) 0 5 10 15 20 25

Time taken for x to be 14 17 21 25 50 120

invisible
1/t 0.0714 0.0588 0.0351 0.04 0.02 0.0083

Calculate 1/t in each case

Plot a graph of 1/t (y-axis) against volume of solution B.
[email protected] 55

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 638

1/t x 10 -2
sec -1

Volume of solutionB (cm3)

[email protected] 56

Sample questions
(i)Explain the shape of the graph
(Straight line graph from the origin)
Decrease in concentration decreases the rate of reaction. The higher the
concentration of solution B the less time taken for mark x to be obscurred/invisible
due to increased collision frequency between the reacting particles.
(ii)From the graph determine the time taken for the mark to be invisible at
37cm3
At 37cm3 then 1/t => 1/ 37 = 0.027
From a well plotted graph:
1/t = 0.027 => 16.2602 seconds
(ii)From the graph determine the volume of solution B at 100 seconds
100 seconds => 1/t = 1 / 1000 = 0.01
From a well plotted graph:
At 1/t = 0.01 => the volume of B = 17.0cm3
(iii) State another factor that would alter the rate of the above reaction.
Temperature
(iii) State another factor that would not alter the rate of the above reaction.
Surface area
Pressure
Catalyst
(b) Temperature

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 639

An increase in temperature increases the rate of reaction.

An increase of 10 oC/10K practically doubles the rate of a chemical
reaction/reduces time of completion by 1/2.
An increase in temperature increase the kinetic energy of reacting particles
increasing their collision frequency
Practically ,increase in temperature involves heating the reactants
The results and presentation should be as in the effect of concentration.
Increased temperature reverses the table I time results
i.e less time as temperature increases.
d)Qualitative analysis
Process of identifying unknown compounds
Compounds may be:
(i)Inorganic
(ii)organic
Inorganic analysis:
This involve mainly identification of ionic compounds containing cations and
anions.
Cations present in an ionic compounds are identified by adding a precipitating
reagent that forms a precipitate unique to the cation/s in the compound.
The main precipitating reagents used are:
2M NaOH and/or 2M NH3(aq)
When using 2M sodium hydroxide:
(i)No white precipitate is formed if K + and Na + ions are present
(ii) No white precipitate is formed if NH4+ ions are present but a clourless gas
with pungent smell of urine is produced which may not be recognized in a school
laboratory examination setting.
(iii)White precipitate that dissolves / soluble in excess if Zn2+ Pb2+ Al3+ ions
are present.
(iv)White precipitate that do not dissolves/insoluble in excess if Ba2+ Mg2+ Ca2+
ions are present.
(v)Blue precipitate that do not dissolves /insoluble in excess if Cu2+ ions are
present.
(vi)Green precipitate that do not dissolves/insoluble in excess if Fe2+ ions are
present.
(vii)Brown precipitate that do not dissolves/insoluble in excess if Fe3+ ions are
present.
When using 2M aqueous ammonia

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 640

(i)No white precipitate is formed if K + ,NH4+ Na + ions are present

(ii)White precipitate that dissolves / soluble in excess if Zn2+ ions are
present.
(iii)White precipitate that do not dissolves/insoluble in excess if Ba2+ Mg2+ Ca2+
Pb2+ Al3+ ions are present.
(iv)Blue precipitate that dissolves /soluble in excess to form a deep/royal blue
solution in excess if Cu2+ ions are present.
(v)Green precipitate that do not dissolves/insoluble in excess if Fe2+ ions are
present.
(vi)Brown precipitate that do not dissolves/insoluble in excess if Fe3+ ions are
present.
Anions present in an ionic compounds are identified by adding a specific
precipitating reagent that forms a precipitate unique to the specific anion/s in the
compound.
(i)Lead(II)nitrate(V) solution
Lead forms insoluble PbSO4 ,PbSO3 ,PbCO3, PbS, PbI2,PbCl2
PbS is a black precipitate,
PbI2 is a yellow precipitate.
All the others are white precipitates.
(a)If a Lead(II)nitrate(V) solution is added to a substance/ solution/ compound :
(i)A yellow ppt shows presence of I- ions
(ii)A black ppt shows presence of S2- ions
(iii) A white ppt shows presence of SO42- ,SO32- ,CO32- Cl-
(b)If the white precipitate is added dilute nitric(V) acid:
(i)It dissolves to show presence of SO32- ,CO32-
(ii)It persist/remains to show presence of SO42-, Cl-
(c)If the white precipitate in b(i) is added acidified potassium manganate(VII)/
dichromate(VI)
(i) acidified potassium manganate(VII) is decolorized /orange colour of acidified
potassium dichromate(VI) turns to green to show presence of SO32-
(ii) acidified potassium manganate(VII) is not decolorized /orange colour of
acidified potassium dichromate(VI) does not turn to green/remains orange to show
absence of SO32- /presence of CO32-
(c)If the white precipitate in b(ii) is boiled:
(i)It dissolves to show presence of Cl-
(ii)It persist/remains to show presence of SO42-
(ii)Barium(II)nitrate(V)/Barium chloride solution

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 641

Barium(II)nitrate(V)/Barium chloride solution precipitates BaSO4 ,BaSO3 , BaCO3,

from SO42- ,SO32- ,CO32- ions.
Inorganic qualitative analysis require continous practice discussion
Sample presentation of results
You are provided with solid Y(aluminium (III)sulphate(VI)hexahydrate).Carry out
the following tests and record your observations and inferences in the space
provided.
1(a) Appearance
Observations inference
(1mark)

White crystalline solid Coloured ions Cu2+ , Fe2+ ,Fe3+ absent

(b)Place about a half spatula full of the solid into a clean dry boiling tube. Heat
gently then strongly.
Observations inference
(1mark)

Colourless droplets formed on the cooler Hydrated compound/compound

part of the test tube containing water of crystallization
Solid remains a white residue

(c)Place all the remaining portion of the solid in a test tube .Add about 10cm3 of
distilled water. Shake thoroughly. Divide the mixture into five portions.
Observation Inference (1mark)
Solid dissolves to form Polar soluble compound
a colourless solution Cu2+ , Fe2+ ,Fe3+ absent
(i)To the first portion, add three drops of sodium hydroxide then add excess of the
alkali.
Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt, soluble in excess Zn2+ , Pb2+ , Al3+
(ii)To the second portion, add three drops of aqueous ammonia then add excess of
the alkali.
Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt, insoluble in excess Pb2+ , Al3+
(iii)To the third portion, add three drops of sodium sulphate(VI)solution.
Observation Inference (1mark)

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 642

No white ppt Al3+

(iv)I.To the fourth portion, add three drops of Lead(II)nitrate(IV)solution. Preserve
Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt CO32-, SO42-, SO32-, Cl-,
II.To the portion in (iv) I above , add five drops of dilute hydrochloric acid.
Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt persist/remains SO42-, Cl-,
III.To the portion in (iv) II above, heat to boil.
Observation Inference (1mark)
White ppt persist/remains SO42-,
Organic analysis:
This involve mainly identification of the functional group:
(i) - C = C- / = C = C= / C - C

(ii) R OH

(iii) R COOH / H+

These functional groups can be identified by:

(i)burning-a substance which “catches fire” must reduce in amount.
Candidates should not confuse burning with flame coloration/test
(ii)Decolorization of bromine water/chlorine water/acidified KMnO 4 / to show
presence of

- C=C- / - C = C - and R – OH

(iii)Turning orange acidified K 2 Cr 2 O 7 to green to show presence as in above.

(iii)pH 1/2/3 for strongly acidic solutions. pH 4/5/6 for weakly acidic solutions
(iv)Turning blue litmus paper red. red litmus paper remaining red show presence
of H+ ions
d)Flame test
The colour change on a clear colourless Bunsen flame is useful in identifying some
cations / metals.
A very clean metallic spatula is recommended since dirt obscures /changes the
correct coloration distinct flame coloration of some compounds
Barium/barium salts orange

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 643

Sodium/ sodium salts yellow

Potassium/potassium salts Purple/lilac

Lithium/Lithium salts Deep

red/crimson
Calcium/ calcium salts red

Copper/copper salts Blue/ green

(e)Physical chemistry
Chemistry is a science subject that incorporate many scientific techniques.
Examining body/council, require tabulated results/data from the candidate.
This tabulated results is usually then put in a graph.
The general philosophy of methods of presentation of chemistry practical data
is therefore availability of evidence showing:
(i)Practical done(complete table)
(ii)Accuracy of apparatus used(decimal point)
(iii)Accuracy/care in doing experiment to get collect trend(against teachers results)
(iv)Graphical work(use of mathematical science)
(v)Calculations (Scientific mathematical integration)

(f)Sample practicals
Name ………………..………………….Class…………..Index No……………..
Candidate’s signature………………………………..
Date done………………Date marked………… .……Date
revised…………….…..….
233/3
CHEMISTRY Paper 3
PRACTICAL.
Pre-KCSE Practice 1: 2013
MARKS SCHEME

Instruction to Candidate
Write your name and index number in the spaces provided above.
Sign and write the date of examination in the spaces provided above
Answer all questions in the spaces provided.

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 644

Mathematical tables and electronic calculators may be used.

All working must be clearly shown where necessary.
This paper consist of 8 printed pages.
Candidates should check the question paper to ascertain that all the pages are
printed and indicated and that no questions are missin
For examiners use only
Question Maximum Candidates
score core

1 20 20

2 10 10

3 10 10

Total score 40 40

1.You are provided with:

(i)solution L containing 5.0g per litre of a dibasic organic acid H2X.2H2O.
(ii)solution M which is acidified potassium manganate(VII)
(iii)solution N a mixture of sodium ethanedioate and ethanedioic acid
(iv)0.1M sodium hydroxide solution P
(v)1.0M sulphuric(VI)
You are required to:
(i)standardize solution M using solution L
(ii)use standardized solution M and solution P to determine the % of sodium
ethanedioate in the mixture.
Procedure 1
Fill the burette with solution M. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution L into a conical flask.
Heat this solution to about 70oC(but not to boil).Titrate the hot solution L with
solution M until a permanent pink colour just appears .Shake thoroughly during the
titration. Repeat this procedure to complete table 1. Table 1
1
CT= /2 mk
DP=1/2 mk
AC=1/2 mk
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AV= 1 mk
FA=1/2 mk
Total=3 mk
 645

Table 1
1 2 3
Final burette reading 20.0 20.0
(cm3) 20.0
Initial burette reading 0.0 0.0 0.0
(cm3)
Volume of N used (cm3) 20.0
20.0 20.0
(2marks)
(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used
(1mk)
20.0 + 20.0+ 20.0 = 20.0cm3
3
(b)Given that the concentration of the dibasic acid is 0.05molesdm-3.determine the
value of x in the formula H2X.2H2O (H=1.0,O=16.0)
(1mark)
Molar mass H2X.2H2O = mass / litre =>
moles / litre
5.0g/litre = 100 g
-3
0.05molesdm
H2X.2H2O =100
X = 100 – ((2 x1) + 2 x (2 x1) + (2 x 16) => 100 – 34 = 62
(c) Calculate the number of moles of the dibasic acid H2X.2H2O. (1mark)
Moles = molarity x pipette volume =>
1000
0.05 x 25 = 0.00125 / 1.25 x10 -3 moles
1000
(d)Given the mole ratio manganate(VII)(MnO4-): acid H2X is 2:5, calculate the
number of moles of manganate(VII) (MnO4-) in the average titre. (1mark)
Moles H2X = 2/5 moles of MnO4-
=> 2/5 x 0.0125/1.25 x10 -2 moles = 0.0005 / 5.0 x 10 -4 moles
(e)Calculate the concentration of the manganate(VII)(MnO4-) in moles per litre.
(1mark)
Moles per litre/molarity = moles x 1000
average burette volume
=> 0.0005/5.0 x 10 -4moles x 1000 = 0.02083 moles l-1 / M
24.0

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 646

Procedure 2
With solution M still in the burette ,pipette 25.0cm3 of solution N into a conical
flask. Heat the conical flask containing solution N to about 70oC.Titrate while hot
with solution M. Repeat the experiment to complete table 2. Table 1
1
Table 2 (2marks) CT= /2 mk
DP=1/2 mk
1 2 3 AC=1/2 mk
Final burette reading 12.5 12.5 12.5 AV= 1 mk
(cm3) FA=1/2 mk
Total=3 mk
Initial burette reading 0.0 0.0 0.0
(cm3)
Volume of N used (cm3) 12.5 12.5 12.5

(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used

(1mk)
12.5 + 12.5 + 12.5 = 12.5 cm3
3
(b)Calculations:
(i)How many moles of manganate(VII)ions are contained in the average
volume of solution M used?
(1mark)
Moles = molarity of solution M x average burette volume
1000
-1
=> 0.02083 molesl / M x 12.5 = 0.00026 / 2.6 x 10-4 moles
1000
(ii)The reaction between manganate(VII)ions and ethanedioate ions that
reacted with is as in the equation:
2MnO4- (aq) + 5C2O42- (aq) + 16H+ (aq) -> 2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)
Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioate ions that reacted with manganate
(VII) ions in the average volume of solution M.
(1mark)
From the stoichiometric/ionic equation:
mole ratio MnO4- (aq): C2O42- (aq) = 2:5
=> moles C2O42- = 5/2 moles MnO4-
=> 5/2 x 0.00026 / 2.5 x 10-3 moles
= 0.00065 / 6.5 x10-4 moles
(iii)Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioate ions contained in 250cm3
solution N. (1mark)

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 647

25cm3 pipette volume -> 0.00065 /6.5 x10-4 moles

250cm3 -> 0.0065 /6.5 x10-3 moles x 250 = 0.0065 / 6.5 x10-3
moles
25
Procedure 3
Remove solution M from the burette and rinse it with distilled water. Fill the
burette with sodium hydroxide solution P. Pipette 25cm3 of solution N into a
conical flask and add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate this solution N
Table 1
with solution P from the burette. Repeat the procedure to completeCT=table
1
/2 mk 3.
Table 3 1
DP= /2 mk
1 2 3 AC=1/2 mk
AV= 1 mk
Final burette reading (cm3) 12.5 12.5 12.5 FA=1/2 mk
Initial burette reading 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total=3mk
(cm3)
Volume of N used (cm3) 12.5 12.5 12.5
(2 mark)
(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used
(1mk)
12.5 + 12.5 + 12.5 = 12.5 cm3
3
(b)Calculations:
(i)How many moles of sodium hydroxide solution P were contained in the average
volume?
(1mark)
Moles = molarity of solution P x average burette volume
1000
=> 0.1 molesl-1 x 24.9 = 0.00249 / 2.49 x 10-3 moles
1000
(ii)Given that NaOH solution P reacted with the ethanedioate ions from the acid
only and the equation for the reaction is:
2NaOH (aq) + H2C2O4 (aq) -> Na2C2O4(g) + 2H2O(l)
Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioic acid that were used in the reaction.(1
mk)

From the stoichiometric equation,mole ratio

NaOH(aq): H2C2O4 (aq) = 2:1
=> moles H2C2O4 = 1/2 moles NaOH

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 648

=> 1/2 x 0.00249 / 2.49 x 10-3 moles

=0.001245/1.245 x10-3 moles.
(iii)How many moles of ethanedioic acid were contained in 250cm3 of solution N?
(1mark)
25cm3 pipette volume -> 0.001245/1.245 x10-3
250cm3 -> 0.001245/1.245 x10-3 moles x 250
25
= 0.01245/1.245 x10-2 moles
(iii)Determine the % by mass of sodium ethanedioate in the mixture
(H= 1.0,O=16.0,C=12.0 and total mass of mixture =2.0 g in 250cm3 solution)
(1mark)
Molar mass H2C2O4 = 90.0g
Mass of H2C2O4 in 250cm3 =
moles in 250cm3 x molar mass H2C2O4
=>0.01245/1.245 x10-2 moles x 90.0
= 1.1205g
% by mass of sodium ethanedioate
=(Mass of mixture - mass of H2C2O4) x 100%
Mass of mixture
=> 2.0 - 1.1205 g = 43.975%
2.0
2. You are provided with 5.0 g solid B. You are to determine the molar mass of
solid B.
Procedure
Place 100cm3 of liquid L into a plastic beaker. Determine its temperature and
record it at time = 0 in Table 2 below. Stir continuously using the thermometer and
record the highest temperature change to the nearest 0.5oC after every 30 seconds.
Table 2
After 120 seconds, add all solid B. Continue stirring and recording the temperature
CT=1/2 mk
to complete table 2. DP=1/2 mk
Table 2 AC=1/2 mk
1
Time 0. 30 60 90 120 15 18 21 24 27 30 TR= /2 mk
Total=2 mk
(seconds) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Temperat 20 20 20 20 18 16 14 14 15 16
ure(oC)
(2mark)

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 649

(a)Plot a graph of temperature against time(x-axis)(3marks)

Graph
Scale(plots cover over 1/2 graph paper )=1/2 mk
Labelling(both axis)=1/2 mk
Plotting all points= 1 mk
(b)From the graph show and determine (2 mark )Shape(Extrapolated graph)=1mk
(i) the highest temperature change ∆T Total =3 mk
∆T = T2 –T1 => 13.4 -20 = 6.6o C
Note ∆T is not - 6.6oC
(ii) the temperature of the mixture at 130 seconds
From extrapolation at 130 seconds = 19.2 oC
(iii)the time when all the solid first dissolved
From extrapolation of the lowest temperature = 220 Seconds
(d) Calculate the heat change for the reaction.(Assume density of liquid L is
1.0gcm-3 ) specific heat capacity is 4.2Jkg-1K-1(1mark)
∆H = mass of liquid L x c x ∆T =>100 x 4.2 x 6.6 = + 2772 J = +
2.772 kJ
1000
(e) Given the molar enthalpy of dissolution of Solid B in liquid L is + 22.176kJ
mole-1,determine the number of moles of B used(1mark)
Moles of B = ∆H => + 2.772 kJ = 0.125 moles
∆Hs + 22.176kJ mole-1
(f)Calculate the molar mass of B (1mark)
Molar mass of B = Mass used => 5.0 =>40 g
Moles used 0.125 moles
3(a)You are provided with solid Y. Carry out the following tests and record your
observations and inferences in the space provided.
(i) Appearance
Observations inference
(1mark)
White crystalline solid Coloured Fe2+ ,Fe3+ , Cu2+ ions absent

(ii)Place about a half spatula full of the solid into a clean dry boiling tube. Heat
gently then strongly.
Observations inference
(1mark)

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 650

Colourless droplets forms on the cooler parts of Hydrated

compound/salt
test tube
Solid remain white
(ii)Place all the remaining portion of the solid in a test tube .Add about 10cm3 of
distilled water. Shake thoroughly. Divide the mixture into five portions.
Observation Inference
(1mark)
Solid dissolves to form a colourless solution Coloured Fe2+ , Fe3+ , Cu2+ ions
absent

I. To the first portion add three drops of universal indicator. (1mark)

Observation Inference
pH= 4 weakly acidic solution

II.To the second portion, add three drops of aqueous ammonia then add excess of
the alkali.
Observation Inference
(1mark)
White ppt, insoluble in excess Al3+ , Pb2+

III.To the third portion, add three drops of sodium sulpide solution.
Observation Inference
(1mark)
No black ppt Al3+

IV.To the fourth portion, add three drops of acidified Lead(II)nitrate(IV)solution.

Heat to boil
Observation Inference
(1mark)
White ppt , persist/remains on boiling SO42-

(b)You are provided with solid P. Carry out the following tests and record your
observations and inferences in the space provided.
(i)Place a portion of solid P on a clean metallic spatula and introduce it on a
Bunsen flame.

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 651

(1/2 mark)
Solid burns with a yellow sooty flame C C // C C bonds

(ii)Add all the remaining solid to about 10cm3 of water in a test tube and shake
well. Divide the mixture into 4 portions. (1/2 mark)
Solid dissolves to form a clourless solution Polar organic compound

I. To the 1st portion, test with litmus papers (1/2 mark)

Red litmus paper remain red H+ ions
Blue litmus paper turn blue

II. To the 2nd portion, add a little sodium hydrogen carbonate(1/2 mark)

Effervescence/fizzing/bubbles H+ ions
Colourless gas produced

III.To the 3rd portion, and three drops of solution M. Warm(1/2 mark)
Acidified KMnO4 is decolorized R OH, C C // C C
bonds
// solution M is decolorized
IV.To
th 1
the 4 portion, add three drops of bromine water ( /2marks)
Bromine water is decolorized C C // C C bonds

233/3 CHEMISTRY
Pre-KCSE 2013
Practice 1
Moi High School-Mbiruri
Requirements for each Candidates:
0.05 M Oxalic acid labeled Solution L
0.01M Potassium manganate (VII) labeled Solution M

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 652

0.03M oxalic acid labeled Solution N

0.1M Sodium hydroxide labeled Solution P
1.0M sulphuric(VI)acid.
15 0cm3 distilled water labeled Liquid L
50cm3 burette
25cm3 pipette
Two clean conical flasks
Pipette filler
-10 -1100C Thermometer
Stop watch/clock
200cm3 clean beaker
5.4g ammonium chloride/8.0g Ammonium nitrate(V) labeled Solid B
weighed accurately
About 2.0 g of hydrated Aluminium sulphate labeled Solid Y
About 2.0g of Citric acid labeled Solid P
One boiling tube
Six clean dry test tubes
Pair of litmus papers(red and blue)
Clean metallic spatula
Access to bench reagents/apparatus
Means of heating
2M aqueous ammonia
0.1M acidified Lead(II)nitrate(V)
Bromine water
0.1M sodium sulphide
About 0.1g Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Universal indicator solution
pH chart
Name …………………….Index Number……………..
233/3 Candidates signature………………
CHEMISTRY Date………………………..
Paper 3
PRACTICAL
Practice 2012
21/4 hours
You are provided with :
- Solution A containing an oxidizing agent A;

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 653

- Solution B ,0.05M aqueous sodium thiosulphate;

- Solution C containing a reducing agent C;
- Aqueous Potassium iodide;
- Solution D, starch solution.
You are required to determined the:
Concentration of solution A
Rate of reaction between the oxidizing agent A and the reducing agent C.
Procedure 1
1. Using a pipette and pipette filter ,place 25.0cm3 of solution A into a 250ml
conical flask.
2. Meassure 10cm3 of aqueous potassium iodide and add it to solution A in the
conical flask.
Shake the mixture .Add 10cm3 of 2M sulphuric(VI)acid to the mixture and
shake.
3. Fill a burette with solution B and use it to titrate the mixture in the conical
flask until it just turns orange yellow.Add 2cm3 of solution D to the mixture
in the conical flask .Shake thoroughly. Continue titrating until the mixture
just turns colourless. Record your results in table 1 below.
4. Repeat the procedure and complete table 1.Retain the remainder of solution
A and D for use in procedure II
Table I
I II III
Final burette reading 20.0 20.0 20.0

Initial burette reading 0.0 0.0 0.0

Volume of solution B used (cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0

(4mks)
(a)Calculate the:
(i) average volume of solution B used(1mk)
20.0 + 20.0 +20.0 √ = 20.0 √cm3
3
(ii)number of moles of sodium thisulphate(1mk)
Moles = molarity x burette volume
1000

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 654

=> 0.05 x20.0 √ = 0.001 / 1.0 x10-3 √ moles

1000
(b)Given that one mole of A reacts with six moles of sodium thiosulphate ,calculate
the:
(i)number of moles of A that were used (1mk)
Mole ratio A:B = 1:6 √
=> Moles A = 0.001 / 1.0 x10-3 moles = 0.00016/1.6 x10-4 √ moles
6
(ii)concentration of solution A in moles per litre(2mk)
Molarity of solution A = moles x 1000
Pipette volume
=> 0.00016/1.6 x10-4 moles x1000 √ = 0.008/8.0 x10-4 M√
20
Procedure II
1. Label six test tubes as 1,2,3,4 ,5 and 6 and place them on a test tube rack.
2. Using a clean burette, measure the volumes of distilled water as shown in
table 2 into the labeled test tubes.
3. Using a burette ,measure the volumes of solution A shown in table 2 into
each of the test tubes .
4. Clean the burette and rinse it with about 5cm3 of solution C
5. Using the burette ,measure 5cm3 of solution C and place it into a 100ml
beaker.
6. Using a 10ml measuring cylinder ,measure 5cm3 of solution D and add it to
the beaker containing solution C .Shake the mixture.
7. Pour the contents of test tube number 1 to the mixture in the beaker and
immediately start off stop watch/clock. Swirl the contents of the
beaker.Record the time taken for a blue colour to appear in table 2.
8. Repeat steps 5 to7 using the contents of test-tube 2,3,4,5 and 6.
9. Complete table 2 by computing Rate = 1 (S-1)
Time
Table 2(Sample results)
Test-tube number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Volume of distilled 0 2 3 5 6 7
water(cm3)
Volume of solution 10 8 7 5 4 3
A(cm3)

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 655

Time(seconds) 40.0 60.0 70.0 90.0 100.0 110.0

Rate = 1 0.025 0.0167 0.0143 0.0111 0.0.1 0.0083

(S-1) 2.5 x 1.67 x 1.43 x 1.11 x 1.11 x 8.3 x 10-
time 10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2 3

Plot a graph of rate(y-axis )against volume of solution A(3mk)

Sketch graph of rate against time

Rate

S-1

Volume of solution A(cm3)

(b)What time would be taken for the blue colour to appear if the experiment was
repeated using 4cm3 of distilled water and 6cm3 of solution A?(2mk)
From a correctly plotted graph
1/t at 6cm3 = 0.0125 √ => t = 1/0.0125 = 80seconds√
2. You are provided with solid E. Carry out the experiments below. Write your
observations and inferences in the spaces provided

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 656

(a)Place all solid in a boiling tube .Add 20cm3 of distilled water and shakeuntil all
the solid dissolves.Label the solution as solution E.Use solution E for experiment
(i)and (ii)
(i)To 2cm3 of solution E in a test tube in each of experiment I,II,III and IV add:
I. two drops of aqueous sodium sulphate(VI)
Observation(1mk) Inferences(1mk)

White precipitate Pb2+ Ba2+ Ca2+

II.five drops of aqueous sodium chloride

Observations (1mk) Inferences(1mk)

White ppt Ca2+ Ba2+

III.two drops of barium chloride

Observations(1mk) Inferences(1mk)
No white ppt SO42- SO32- CO32-

IV .two drops
of lead(II)nitrate(V)
Observations(1mk) Inferences(1mk)
No white ppt Cl -

(ii) To 2cm3 of solution E in a test tube ,add 5 drops of aqueous sodium hydroxide
.Add the piece of aluminium foil provided to the mixture and shake. Warm the
mixture and test any gas produced with both blue and red litmus papers
Observations(1mk) Inferences(1mk)
Blue litmus paper remain blue
Red limus paper turn blue NO3 -
Effervescence /fizzing/ bubbles
Note:
Solid E is Calcium nitrate(V) / Barium nitrate(V)

3.You are provided with solid F. Carry out the following test.Write your
observations and inferences in the spaces provided.

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 657

(a)Place all of solid F in a boiling tube. Add about 20cm3 of distilled water and
shake until all the solid dissolves. Label the solution as solution F.
Add about half of the solid sodium hydrogen carbonate provided to 2cm3 of
solution F
Observations(1mk) Inferences (1mk)

No effervescence/fizzing H+ absent

(b)(i)Add about 10cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid to the rest of solution F in the
boiling tube. Filter the mixture. Wash the residue with about 2cm3 of distilled
water.Dry the residue between filter papers. Place about one third of the dry
residue on a metallic spatula and burn it in a Bunsen burner flame.
Observations(1mk) Inferences(1mk)

Solid burns with a yellow sooty flame C C // C C

(ii)Place all the remaining residue into a boiling tube. Add about 10cm3 of distilled
water and shake thoroughly. Retain the mixture for the tests in (c)
Observations (1/2mk) Inferences(1/2mk)
Solid
dissolves to a colourless solution Polar compound

(c)Divide the mixture into two portions:

(i)to the first portion ,add the rest of the solid sodium hydrogen carbonate
Observations (1mk) Inferences(1mk)

Effervescence/fizzing H+

(ii)to the second portion ,add two drops of bromine water.

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 658

Observations (1mk) Inferences(1mk)

Bromine
water decolorized C C // C C bonds

CHEMISTRY OF METALS
a)Introduction to metals
The rationale of studying metals cannot be emphasized.Since ages, the world over,
metals like gold and silver have been used for commercial purposes.
The periodicity of alkali and alkaline earth metals was discussed in year 2 of
secondary school education. This topic generally deals with:
(a)Natural occurrence of the chief ores of the most useful metals for
industrial /commercial purposes.
(b)Extraction of these metals from their ores for industrial/ commercial
purposes.
(c)industrial/ commercial uses of these metals.
(d)main physical and chemical properties /characteristic of the metals.
The metals given detailed emphasis here are; Sodium, Aluminium, Iron, Zinc,
Lead and Copper.
The main criteria used in extraction of metals is based on its position in the
electrochemical/reactivity series and its occurrence on the earth’s crust.
Position on the earth’s crust

If deep on the earth’s crust

If near the surface ,open
deep mining is used
cast mining / quarrying is
used

Electrolysis of the ore is used for

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reactive metals; Potassium, Sodium,
Magnesium, Calcium, Aluminium
 659

If the ore is low grade oil, water, and air

is blown forming a froth(froth flotation)
to concentrate

The ore first roasted if it is a carbonate or

sulphide of Zinc, Iron, Tin, Lead, and Copper
to form the oxide

The oxide is reduced using carbon/ carbon(II)

oxide in a furnace if it is made of Zinc ,Tin,
Lead ,Copper and Iron

1.SODIUM
a) Natural occurrence
Sodium naturally occurs as:
(i)Brine-a concentrated solution of sodium chloride(NaCl(aq)) in salty seas
and oceans.
(ii)Rock salt-solid sodium chloride(NaCl(s)
(iii)Trona-sodium sesquicarbonate(NaHCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O) especially in
lake Magadi in Kenya.
(iv)Chile saltpeter-sodium nitrate(NaNO3)
b)(i)
Extraction of Sodium from brine/Manufacture of Sodium hydroxide/The
flowing mercury cathode cell/ TheCaster-Keller process
I.Raw materials

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 660

(i) Brine-concentrated solution of sodium chloride (NaCl (aq)) from

salty seas and oceans.
(ii)Mercury
(iii)Water from river/lakes
II. Chemical processes
Salty lakes, seas and oceans contain large amount of dissolved sodium chloride
(NaCl (aq)) solution.
This solution is concentrated to form brine which is fed into an electrolytic
chamber made of suspended Carbon graphite/titanium as the anode and a
continuous flow of Mercury as the cathode.Note
Mercury is the only naturally occurring known liquid metal at room
temperature and pressure
Questions
I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolyte during the electrolytic
process.
H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NaCl(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
II. Name the ions present in brine that moves to the:
(i)Mercury cathode; H+(aq) , Na+(aq)
(ii)Titanium/graphite; OH-(aq), Cl-(aq)
III. Write the equation for the reaction that take place during the electrolytic
process at the;
Cathode; 2Na+(aq) + 2e 2Na(s)
Anode; 2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e
Note
(i)Concentration of 2Cl-(aq) ions is higher than OH- ions causing overvoltage thus
blocking OH- ions from being discharged at the anode.
(ii)Concentration of Na+(aq) ions is higher than H+ ions causing overvoltage thus
blocking H+ ions from being discharged at the cathode.
IV. Name the products of electrolysis in the flowing mercury-cathode cell.
(i)Mercury cathode; Sodium metal as grey soft metal/solid
(ii)Titanium/graphite; Chlorine gas as a pale green gas that turns moist
blue/red litmus papers red then bleaches both. Chlorine gas is a very
useful by-product in;
(i)making (PVC)polyvinylchloride(polychloroethene) pipes.
(ii)chlorination/sterilization of water to kill germs.
(iii)bleaching agent

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 661

(iv)manufacture of hydrochloric acid.

Sodium produced at the cathode immediately reacts with the mercury at the cathode
forming sodium amalgam(NaHg) liquid that flow out of the chamber.
Na(s) + Hg(l) Na Hg (l)
Sodium amalgam is added distilled water and reacts to form sodium hydroxide
solution, free mercury and Hydrogen gas.
2Na Hg (l) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH (aq) + 2Hg(l) + H2(g)
Hydrogen gas is a very useful by-product in;
(i)making ammonia gas in the Haber process
(ii)manufacture of hydrochloric acid
(iii)in weather balloons to forecast weather
(iv)as rocket fuel
As the electrolysis of brine continues, the concentration of Cl-ions decreases and
oxygen gas start being liberated. Continuous feeding of the electrolyte is therefore
very necessary.
III.Uses of sodium hydroxide
The sodium hydroxide produced is very pure and is used mainly in:
(i)Making soapy and soapless detergents.
(ii)making cellulose acetate/rayon
IV. Diagram showing the Manufacture of Sodium hydroxide from the flowing
Mercury-cathode cell.

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 662

V. Environmental effects of Manufacture of Sodium hydroxide from the

flowing Mercury-cathode cell.
1.Most of the Mercury used at the cathode is recycled ;
(i)to reduce the cost because mercury is expensive
(ii)to reduce pollution because mercury kills marine life.
(iii)because it causes chromosomal/genetic mutation to human beings.
2.Chlorine produced at the anode;
(i)has a pungent irritating smell that causes headache to human beings.
(ii)bleaches any wet substance.
(iii)dissolves water to form both hydrochloric acid and chloric(I)acid
Both cause marine pollution and stomach upsets.
b)(ii)
Extraction of sodium from rock salt/The Downs cell/process
I. Raw materials

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 663

(i)Rock salt/solid sodium chloride

(ii)calcium(II)chloride

II. Chemical processes.

Rock salt/ solid sodium chloride is heated to molten state in a chamber lined with
fire bricks on the outside.
Sodium chloride has a melting point of about 800oC. A little calcium (II) chloride is
added to lower the melting point of the electrolyte to about 600oC.
The molten electrolyte is the electrolyzed in a carbon graphite anode suspended at
the centre and surrounded by steel cathode.
Questions
I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolyte during the electrolytic
process.
NaCl(l) Na+(l) + Cl-(l)
Note: In absence of water, the ions are in liquid state.
II. Name the ions present in molten rock salt that move to the;
(i)Steel cathode -Na+(l)
(ii)Carbon graphite anode- Cl-(l)
III. Write the equation for the reaction that take place during the electrolytic
process at the;
(i)Steel cathode
2Na+(l) + 2e 2Na(l)
(ii)Carbon graphite anode
2Cl-(l) Cl2(g) + 2e
IV. Name the products of electrolysis in the Downs cell at;
(i)Cathode:
Grey solid Sodium metal is less dense than the molten electrolyte and
therefore float on top of the cathode to be periodically tapped off.
(ii)Anode:
Pale green chlorine gas that turns moist/damp/wet blue/red litmus papers red
then bleaches/decolorizes both. Chlorine gas is again a very useful by-
product in;
(i)making (PVC)polyvinylchloride(polychloroethene) pipes.
(ii)chlorination/sterilization of water to kill germs.
(iii)bleaching agent
(iv)manufacture of hydrochloric acid.

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 664

A steel diaphragm/gauze is suspended between the electrodes to prevent

recombination of sodium at the cathode and chlorine gas at the anode back to
sodium chloride.

III. Diagram showing the Downs cell/process for extraction of sodium

IV. Uses of sodium.

1.Sodium vapour is used as sodium lamps to give a yellow light in street lighting.
2.Sodium is used in making very useful sodium compounds like;
(i)Sodium hydroxide(NaOH)
(ii)Sodium cyanide(NaCN)
(iii)Sodium peroxide(Na2O2)
(iv)Sodamide(NaNH2)
3.An alloy of Potassium and Sodium is used as coolant in nuclear reactors.
V. Environmental effects of Downs cell.

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 665

1.Chlorine produced at the anode;

(i)has a pungent irritating smell that causes headache to human beings.
(ii)bleaches any wet substance.
(iii)dissolves water to form both hydrochloric acid and chloric(I)acid
Both cause marine pollution and stomach upsets.
2.Sodium metal rapidly react with traces of water to form alkaline Sodium
hydroxide(NaOH(aq))solution. This raises the pH of rivers/lakes killing aquatic
lifein case of leakages.
VI. Test for presence of Na.
If a compound has Na+ ions in solid/molten/aqueous state then it changes a non-
luminous clear/colourless flame to a yellow coloration but does not burn

Experiment
Scoop a portion of sodium chloride crystals/solution in a clean metallic spatula.
Introduce it to a clear /colourless Bunsen flame.

Observation Inference
Yellow coloration Na+
Practice
(i)Calculate the time taken in hours for 230kg of sodium to be produced in the
Downs cell when a current of 120kA is used.
(ii)Determine the volume of chlorine released to the atmosphere.
(Na=23.0),Faraday constant=96500C.I mole of a gas =24dm3 at r.t.p)
Working:
Equation at the cathode:
2Na+ (l) + 2e -> 2Na(l)
2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C deposits a mass = molar mass of
Na = 23.0g thus;
23.0 g -> 2 x 96500 C
(230 x 1000)g -> 230 x 1000 x 2 x 96500
23
= 1,930,000,000 / 1.93 x 10 9C
Time(t) in seconds = Quantity of electricity
Current(I) in amperes
Substituting
= 1,930,000,000 / 1.93 x 10 9C

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 666

120 x 1000A
= 16,083,3333seconds / 268.0556 minutes
= 4.4676hours

Volume of Chlorine
Method 1
Equation at the anode:
2 Cl- (l) -> Cl2(g) + 2e
From the equation:
2 moles of electrons = 2 Faradays =2 x 96500C
2 x 96500C -> 24dm3
1,930,000,000 / 1.93 x 10 9C->1,930,000,000 / 1.93x10 9C x 24
2 x 96500C
Volume of Chlorine = 240,000dm3 /2.4 x 105dm3

Method 2
Equation at the anode: Cl- (l) -> Cl2(g) + 2e
Mole ratio of products at Cathode: anode = 1:1
Moles of sodium at cathode =(230 x 1000 )g= 10,000moles
23
10,000moles of Na = 10,000moles moles of Chlorine
1 moles of Chlorine gas = 24000cm3
10,000moles of Chlorine- > 10000 x 24
=240,000dm3 / 2.4x 105dm3
Method 3
Equation at the anode: Cl- (l) -> Cl2(g) + 2e
Ratio of Faradays of products at Cathode: anode = 2:2
=> 2 x 96500C produce 24000cm3 of chlorine gas Then: 1,930,000,000 / 1.93 x
10 9C ->
1,930,000,000 / 1.93 x 10 9C x24 = 240,000dm3
2 x 96500
(iij)The sodium metal produced was reacted with water to form 25000dm3
solution in a Caster-Keller tank.
(a)Calculate the concentration of the resulting solution in moles per litre.
(b)The volume of gaseous products formed at s.t.p(1 mole of gas =22.4 dm3 at
s.t.p)

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 667

Chemical equation at Caster-Keller tank

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq) + H2 (g)
Mole ratio Na:NaOH = 2 : 2 => 1:1
Moles Na =10000moles=10000moles of NaOH
25000dm3 ->10000moles of NaOH
1dm3 -> 10000 x 1 = 0.4M / 0.4 moles/dm3
25000
Mole ratio Na: H2 (g) = 2 : 1
Moles Na = 10000moles = 5000moles of H2 (g)
Volume of H2 (g) = moles x molar gas volume at s.t.p
=> 5000moles x 22.4 dm3
=120,000dm3
(iv)The solution formed was further diluted with water for a titration
experiment. 25.0 cm3 of the diluted solution required 20.0cm3 of 0.2M
sulphuric(VI)acid for complete neutralization. Calculate the volume of water
added to the diluted solution before titration.
Chemical equation
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Moles ratio NaOH : H2SO4 = 2 : 1
Moles ratio H2SO4 = molarity x volume => 0.2M x 20
1000 1000
-3
=4.0 x 10 moles
Moles NaOH = 2 x 4.0 x 10-3 moles= 8.0 x 10-3 moles
Molarity of NaOH= Moles x 1000=> 8.0 x 10-3 moles x 1000
volume 25
=0.16 molesdm-3 /M
Volume used during dilution
C1V1 = C2V2 => 0.4M x V1 = 0.16 M x 25
= 0.16 M x 25 = 10cm3
0.4
(a) Below is a simplified diagram of the Downs Cell used for the
manufacture of sodium. Study it and answer the questions that follow

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 668

(i)What material is the anode made of? Give a reason (2 mks)

Carbon graphite/Titanium
This because they are cheap and inert/do not influence/affect the products of
electrolysis
(ii) What precaution is taken to prevent chlorine and sodium from re-
combination? ( 1 mks)
Using a steel gauze/diaphragm separating the cathode from anode
(iii) Write an ionic equation for the reaction in which chlorine gas is formed
( 1mk)
2Cl-(l) -> Cl2(g) + 2e
(b) In the Downs process, (used for manufacture of sodium), a certain salt is
added to lower the melting point of sodium chloride from about 8000C to
about 6000C.
(i) Name the salt that is added (1mk)
Calcium chloride
(ii) State why it is necessary to lower the temperature(1mk)
To reduce the cost of production
(c) Explain why aqueous sodium chloride is not suitable as an electrolyte for
the manufacture of sodium in the Downs process( 2mk)
The sodium produced react explosively/vigorously with water in the aqueous
sodium chloride
(d) Sodium metal reacts with air to form two oxide. Give the formulae of two
oxides ( 1mk)
Na2O Sodium oxide(in limited air)
Na2O2 Sodium peroxide(in excess air)
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 669

2.ALUMINIUM
a)Natural occurrence
Aluminium is the most common naturally occurring metal. It makes 7% of the
earths crust as:
(i)Bauxite ore- Hydrated aluminium oxide(Al2O3.2H2O)
(ii)Mica ore-Potassium aluminium silicate(K2Al2Si6O16)
(iii)China clay ore- aluminium silicate (Al2Si6O16)
(iv)Corrundum-Anhydrous aluminium oxide(Al2O3)
b)Extraction of aluminium from Bauxite/Halls cell/process)
The main ore from which aluminium is extracted is Bauxite ore- hydrated
aluminium oxide(Al2O3.2H2O).
The ore is mined by open-caste mining method/quarrying where it is scooped
together with silica/sand/silicon(IV)oxide (SiO2) and soil/ iron(III)oxide (Fe2O3) as
impurities.
The mixture is first dissolved in hot concentrated sodium/potassium hydroxide
solution.
The alkalis dissolve both bauxite and silicon(IV)oxide.
This is because bauxite is amphotellic while silicon(IV)oxide is acidic.
Iron(III)oxide (Fe2O3) is filtered of /removed as a residue.
Carbon(IV)oxide is bubbled into the filtrate to precipitate aluminium (III)
hydroxide (Al(OH)3) as residue.
The aluminium (III) hydroxide (Al(OH)3) residue is filtered off. Silicon (IV)oxide
remain in the solution as filtrate. Aluminium (III) hydroxide (Al(OH)3) residue is
then heated to form pure aluminium (III)oxide(Al2O3)
2Al(OH)3 (s) Al2O3 (s) + 3H2O(l)
Pure aluminium (III)oxide (Al2O3) has a very high melting point of 2015oC.
Alot of energy is required to melt the oxide.
It is therefore dissolved first in molten cryolite /sodium hexafluoroaluminate
(III)/Na3AlF6 to lower the melting point to about 800oC.

The molten electrolyte is put in the Hall cell made up of a steel tank lined with
carbon graphite and an anode suspended into the electrolyte.
During the electrolysis:
(i)At the cathode;
4Al3+(l) + 12e 4Al(l)
(ii) At the anode;

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 670

6O2-(l) 3O2(g) + 12e

Aluminium is denser than the electrolyte therefore sink to the bottom of the Hall
cell.
At this temperature ,the Oxygen evolved/produced at the anode reacts with carbon
anode to form carbon(IV)oxide gas that escape to the atmosphere.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
The anode thus should be continuously replaced from time to time.
Flow chart summary of extraction of aluminium from Bauxite

Hot concentrated sodium

hydroxide

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 671

Bauxite(Al2O3.2H2O) ore with Crush (increase Powdered mixture

impurities Fe2O3 and SiO2 surface area)

Carbon(IV)oxide Sodium aluminate (NaAl(OH)4)

and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) Iron(III)oxide-

as filtrate Fe2O3 as residue

Aluminium hydroxide Cryolite

(Al(OH)3) as residue Sodium silicate
(Na2SiO3)

Roast at Aluminium
1000oC (III) Oxide

Electrolysis

Pure aluminium
sinks in Hall cell Oxygen gas at
anode

c) Diagram showing the Hall cell / process for extraction of Bauxite

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 672

d)Uses of aluminium
(i) In making aeroplane parts, buses, tankers, furniture because aluminium is very
light.
(ii)Making duralumin-an alloy which is harder and has a higher tensile strength
(iii)Making utensils,sauce pans,spoons because it is light and good conductor of
electricity.
(iv)Making overhead electric cables because it is light,ductile and good conductor
of electricity.
(iv)Used in the thermite process for production of Manganese, Chromium amd
Titanium.
e) Environmental effects of extracting aluminium from Bauxite.
Carbon(IV)oxide gas that escape to the atmosphere is a green house gas that causes
global warming.
Bauxite is extracted by open caste mining that causes soil/environmental
degradation.
f) Test for presence of Al3+

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 673

If an ore is suspected to contain Al3+ it is;

(i)added hot concentrated sulphuric(VI)/Nitric(V)acid to free the ions present.
(ii)the free ions are then added a precipitating reagent like 2M sodium
hydroxide /2M aqueous ammonia.
Observation Inference
White precipitate in excess 2M NaOH(aq) Pb2+ , Al3+, Zn2+
White precipitate in excess 2M NH3(aq) Pb2+ , Al3+
No black precipitate on adding Na2S(aq) Al3+
No white precipitate on adding either Al3+
NaCl(aq),HCl(aq),H2SO4(aq),Na2SO4(aq)
Practice
1.An unknown rock X was discovered in Ukraine. Test with dilute sulphuric
(VI)acid shows rapid effervescence with production of a colourless gas A that
forms a white precipitate with lime water and colourless solution B. On adding
3cm3 of 2M sodium hydroxide, a white precipitate C is formed that dissolves to
form a colourless solution D on adding more sodium hydroxide. On adding 2M
aqueous ammonia, a white precipitate E is formed which persist in excess aqueous
ammonia.On which on adding 5cm3 of 1M Lead(II)nitrate(V) to F a white
precipitate G is formed which remains on heating.
Identify:
A Hydrogen/H2
B Aluminium sulphate(VI)/Al2(SO4) 3
C Aluminium hydroxide/ Al(OH4) 3
D Tetrahydroxoaluminate(III)/ [Al(OH4) 3] -
E Aluminium hydroxide/ Al(OH) 3
F Aluminium chloride/ AlCl3
2.Aluminium is obtained from the ore with the formula Al2O3. 2H2O. The ore is
first heated and refined to obtain pure aluminium oxide (Al2O3). The oxide is then
electrolysed to get Aluminium and oxygen gas using carbon anodes and carbon as
cathode. Give the common name of the ore from where aluminium is extracted
from ½ mark
What would be the importance of heating the ore first before refining it?1 mark
To remove the water of crystallization
The refined ore has to be dissolved in cryolite first before electrolysis. Why is this
necessary? 1½ mark
To lower the melting point of aluminium oxide from about 2015oC to 900oC
so as to lower /reduce cost of production

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 674

Why are the carbon anodes replaced every now and then in the cell for
electrolysing aluminium oxide? 1 mark
Oxygen produced at anode react with carbon to form carbon(IV)oxide gas
that escape
State two uses of aluminium
In making aeroplane parts, buses, tankers, utensils, sauce pans,spoons
Making overhead electric cables
Making duralumin

3. IRON
a)Natural occurrence
Iron is the second most common naturally occurring metal. It makes 4% of the
earths crust as:
(i)Haematite(Fe2O3)
(ii)Magnetite(Fe3O4)
(iii)Siderite(FeCO3)
b)The blast furnace for extraction of iron from Haematite and Magnetite
a)Raw materials:
(i)Haematite(Fe2O3)
(ii)Magnetite(Fe3O4)
(iii)Siderite(FeCO3)
(iv)Coke/charcoal/ carbon
(v)Limestone
b)Chemical processes:
Iron is usually extracted from Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite(Fe3O4) Siderite
(FeCO3).These ores contain silicon(IV)oxide(SiO2) and aluminium(III)oxide
(Al2O3) as impurities.
When extracted from siderite, the ore must first be roasted in air to decompose the
iron(II)Carbonate to Iron(II)oxide with production of carbon(IV)oxide gas:
FeCO3(s) FeO(s) + CO2(g)
Iron(II)oxide is then rapidly oxidized by air to iron(III)oxide(Haematite).
4FeO(s) + O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite(Fe3O4), coke and limestone are all then fed from top
into a tall (about 30metres in height) tapered steel chamber lined with refractory
bricks called a blast furnace.
The furnace is covered with inverted double cap to prevent/reduce amount of any
gases escaping .

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 675

Near the base/bottom, blast of hot air at about 1000K (827oC) is driven/forced into
the furnace through small holes called Tuyeres.
As the air enters ,it reacts with coke/charcoal/carbon to form carbon(IV)oxide gas.
This reaction is highly exothermic.
C(s)+ O2(g) CO2 (g) ∆H = -394kJ
This raises the temperature at the bottom of the furnace to about
2000K(1650oC).As Carbon(IV)oxide gas rises up the furnace it reacts with more
coke to form carbon(II)oxide gas.This reaction is endothermic.
CO2 (g) + C(s) 2CO (g) ∆H = +173kJ

Carbon(II)oxide gas is a strong reducing agent that reduces the ores at the upper
parts of the furnace where temperatures are about 750K(500oC) i.e.
For Haematite;
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + CO2(g)
For Magnetite;
Fe3O4 (s) + 4CO(g) 3Fe(s) + 4CO2(g)
Iron is denser than iron ore. As it falls to the hotter base of the furnace it melts and
can easily be tapped off.
Limestone fed into the furnace decomposes to quicklime/calcium oxide and
produce more carbon(IV)oxide gas.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Quicklime/calcium oxide reacts with the impurities silicon(IV)oxide(SiO2) and
aluminium(III)oxide(Al2O3)in the ore to form calcium silicate and calcium
aluminate.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3 (l)
CaO(s) + Al2O3(s) Ca Al2O4 (l)
Calcium silicate and calcium aluminate mixture is called slag.Slag is denser than
iron ore but less dense than iron therefore float on the pure iron. It is tapped at
different levels to be tapped off for use in:
(i)tarmacing roads
(ii) cement manufacture
(iii)as building construction material
(c)Uses of Iron
Iron obtained from the blast furnace is hard and brittle. It is called Pig iron. It is
remelted, added scrap steel then cooled. This iron is called cast iron.
Iron is mainly used to make:

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 676

(i)gates ,pipes, engine blocks, rails, charcoal iron boxes,lamp posts because it is
cheap.
(ii)nails, cutlery, scissors, sinks, vats, spanners,steel rods, and railway points from
steel.
Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon, and/or Vanadium, Manganese, Tungsten,
Nickel ,Chromium. It does not rust/corrode like iron.

e) Environmental effects of extracting Iron from Blast furnace

(i)Carbon(IV)oxide(CO2) gas is a green house gas that causes/increases global
warming if allowed to escape/leak from the furnace.
(ii)Carbon(II)oxide(CO)gas is a highly poisonous/toxic odourless gas that can kill
on leakage.
It is preferentially absorbed by the haemoglobin in mammals instead of Oxygen to
form a stable compound that reduce free hemoglobin in the blood.

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 677

(iii) Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite(Fe3O4) and Siderite (FeCO3) are extracted

through quarrying /open cast mining that cause soil / environmental degradation .
f) Test for the presence of Iron
Iron naturally exist in its compound as Fe2+ /Fe3+
If an ore is suspected to contain Fe2+ /Fe3+ it is;
(i)added hot concentrated sulphuric(VI)/Nitric(V)acid to free the ions present.
(ii)the free ions are then added a precipitating reagent like 2M sodium
hydroxide /2M aqueous ammonia which forms;
I) an insoluble green precipitate in excess of 2M sodium hydroxide /2M
aqueous ammonia if Fe2+ ions are present.
I) an insoluble brown precipitate in excess of 2M sodium hydroxide
/2M aqueous ammonia if Fe2+ ions are present.

Observation Inference
green precipitate in excess 2M NaOH(aq) Fe2+
green precipitate in excess 2M NH3(aq) Fe2+
brown precipitate in excess 2M NaOH(aq) Fe3+
brown precipitate in excess 2M NH3(aq) Fe3+

4. COPPER
a)Natural occurrence
Copper is found as uncombined element/metal on the earths crust in Zambia,
Tanzania, USA and Canada .The chief ores of copper are:
(i)Copper pyrites(CuFeS2)
(ii)Malachite(CuCO3.Cu(OH)2)
(iii)Cuprite(Cu2O)
b)Extraction of copper from copper pyrites.
Copper pyrites are first crushed into fine powder. The powdered ore is the added
water and oil. The purpose of water is to dissolve hydrophilic substances/particle.
The purpose of oil is to make cover copper ore particle so as to make it
hydrophobic

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 678

Air is blown through the mixture. Air creates bubbles that stick around
hydrophobic copper ore. The air bubbles raise through buoyancy small
hydrophobic copper ore particles to the surface. A concentrated ore floats at the top
as froth. This is called froth flotation. The concentrated ore is then skimmed
off.The ore is then roasted in air to form copper(I)sulphide ,sulphur(IV)oxide and
iron (II) oxide.
2CuFeS2(s) + 4O2(g) Cu2S(s) + 3SO2(g) + 2FeO(s)
Limestone (CaCO3) and silicon(IV)oxide (SiO2) are added and the mixture heated
in absence of air.Silicon(IV)oxide (SiO2) reacts with iron (II) oxide to form Iron
silicate which constitutes the slag and is removed.
FeO(s) + SiO2(s) FeSiO3(s)
The slag separates off from the copper(I)sulphide. Copper(I)sulphide is then heated
in a regulated supply of air where some of it is converted to copper (I) oxide.
2Cu2S (s) + 3O2(g) 2Cu2S(s) + 2SO2(g)
The mixture then undergo self reduction in which copper(I)oxide is reduced by
copper(I)sulphide to copper metal.
Cu2S (s) + 2Cu2O (s) 6Cu (s) + SO2(g)
The copper obtained has Iron, sulphur and traces of silver and gold as impurities.It
is therefore about 97.5% pure. It is refined by electrolysis/electrolytic method.
During the electrolysis of refining copper, the impure copper is made the anode and
a small pure strip is made the cathode.
Electrode ionization takes place where:
At the anode;
Cu(s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e
Note: Impure copper anode dissolves/erodes into solution and decreases in size.
At the Cathode;
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e Cu(s)
Note: The copper ions in the electrolyte(CuSO4) are reduced and deposited as
copper metal at the cathode. The copper obtained is 99.98% pure.
Valuable traces of silver and gold collect at the bottom of the electrolytic cell as
sludge. It is used to finance the extraction of copper pyrites.
(c)Flow chart summary of extraction of copper from Copper pyrites
Water Oil

Copper pyrites(CuFeS2) ore with Crush (increase

impurities Fe2O3 and SiO2 Froth
surface area)
flotation

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 679

Excess air Rocky impurities

Silicon(IV)
oxide Limestone 1st roasting chamber Concentration
chamber

Cu2S

Sulphur(IV)Oxide

Smelting furnace

Limited air

Calcium Iron Silicate

2nd roasting furnace
aluminate (FeSiO3)Slag Cu2S, Cu2O
(CaAl2O4)slag
Impure copper Self reduction
Sulphur(IV)Oxide

Electrolysis using Copper electrodes

Cathode; Pure Copper deposited.

Anode; Impure Copper eroded.

Electrolytic purification of impure copper

d) Uses of copper
Copper is mainly used in:
(i)making low voltage electric cables,contact switches, cockets and plugs because it
is a good conductor of electricity.
(ii)Making solder because it is a good thermal conductor.
(iii)Making useful alloys e.g.
-Brass is an alloy of copper and Zinc(Cu/Zn)
-Bronze is an alloy of copper and Tin(Cu/Sn)
-German silver is an alloy of copper ,Zinc and Nickel(Cu/Zn/Ni)
(iv)Making coins and ornaments.

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 680

e) Environmental effects of extracting copper from Copper pyrites

(i)Sulphur(IV)oxide is a gas that has a pungent poisonous smell that causes head
ache to human in high concentration.
(ii)Sulphur(IV)oxide gas if allowed to escape dissolves in water /rivers/rain to
form weak sulphuric(IV)acid lowering the pH of the water leading to marine
pollution, accelerated corrosion/rusting of metals/roofs and breathing problems to
human beings.
(iii)Copper is extracted by open caste mining leading to land /environmental /soil
degradation.
f) Test for the presence of copper in an ore
Copper naturally exist in its compound as Cu2+ /Cu+
Copper (I) / Cu+ is readily oxidized to copper(II)/ Cu2+
If an ore is suspected to contain Cu2+ /Cu+ it is;
(i)added hot concentrated sulphuric(VI)/Nitric(V)acid to free the ions present.
(ii)the free ions are then added a precipitating reagent; 2M sodium hydroxide
/2M aqueous ammonia which forms;
I) an insoluble blue precipitate in excess of 2M sodium hydroxide if
Cu2+ ions are present.
I) an insoluble blue precipitate in 2M aqueous ammonia that dissolve to
royal/deep blue solution in excess if Cu2+ ions are present.
Observation Inference
blue precipitate in excess 2M NaOH(aq) Cu2+
blue precipitate,dissolve to royal/deep blue solution Cu2+
in excess 2M NH3(aq)
g)Sample questions
Copper is extracted from copper pyrites as in the flow chart outlined below. Study
it and answer the questions that follow

5.ZINC and LEAD

a)Natural occurrence
Zinc occurs mainly as:
(i)Calamine-Zinc carbonate(ZnCO3)
(ii)Zinc blende-Zinc sulphide(ZnS)
Lead occurs mainly as Galena-Lead(II)Sulphide mixed with Zinc blende:

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 681

b)Extraction of Zinc/Lead from Calamine ,Zinc blende and Galena.

During extraction of Zinc , the ore is first roasted in air:
For Calamine Zinc carbonate decompose to Zinc oxide and carbon(IV) oxide gas.
ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Zinc blende does not decompose but reacts with air to form Zinc oxide and
sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
Galena as a useful impurity also reacts with air to form Lead(II) oxide and
sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
(Zinc blende)
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)
(Galena)
The oxides are mixed with coke and limestone/Iron(II)oxide/ Aluminium (III)
oxide and heated in a blast furnace.
At the furnace temperatures limestone decomposes to quicklime/CaO and produce
Carbon(IV)oxide gas.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
Carbon(IV)oxide gas reacts with more coke to form the Carbon(II)oxide gas.
C(s) + CO2 (g) 2CO (g)
Both Carbon(II)oxide and carbon/coke/carbon are reducing agents.
The oxides are reduced to the metals by either coke or carbon (II)oxide.
ZnO(s) + C(s) Zn(g) + CO (g)
PbO(s) + C(s) Pb(l) + CO (g)
PbO(s) + CO(s) Pb(l) + CO2 (g)
PbO(s) + CO(s) Pb(g) + CO2 (g)
At the furnace temperature:
(i)Zinc is a gas/vapour and is collected at the top of the furnace. It is
condensed in a spray of molten lead to prevent reoxidation to Zinc oxide. On
further cooling , Zinc collects on the surface from where it can be tapped off
(ii)Lead is a liquid and is ale to trickle to the bottom of the furnace from
where it is tapped off.
Quicklime/CaO, Iron(II)Oxide, Aluminium(III)oxide are used to remove
silica/silicon(IV)oxide as silicates which float above Lead preventing its
reoxidation back to Lead(II)Oxide.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(s/l)
(Slag-Calcium silicate)
FeO(s) + SiO2(s) FeSiO3(s/l)

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 682

(Slag-Iron silicate)
Al2O3(s) + SiO2(s) Al2SiO4(s/l)
(Slag-Aluminium silicate)
c)Flow chart on extraction of Zinc from Calamine ,Zinc blende.

Zinc ore (calamine Powdered ore Oil Water CO2 from SO2 from
/Zinc blende calamine Zinc blende

Froth flotation Roasting chamber

Iron/aluminium/ Limestone

Coke Reduction chamber

Water Filtration Condenser

Slag (Iron silicate/
aluminium
silicate/calcium
Granulating tank silicate)

Granulated Zinc Lead liquid

d) Flow chart on extraction of Lead from Galena

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 683

Lead ore/Galena Powdered ore oil Water

Iron/Limestone coke
Froth flotation

Roasting chamber

Reduction chamber

SO2(g)

Slag(Iron silicate)

Condenser Filtration LEAD VAPOUR

Zinc residue

e) Uses of Lead
Lead is used in:
(i)making gun-burettes.
(ii)making protective clothes against nuclear (alpha rays/particle) radiation
in a nuclear reactor.
(iii)Mixed with tin(Sn) to make solder alloy
f) Uses of Zinc
Zinc is used in:
(i)Galvanization-when iron sheet is dipped in molten Zinc ,a thin layer of
Zinc is formed on the surface.Since Zinc is more reactive than iron ,it reacts with
elements of air(CO2/ O2 / H2O) to form basic Zinc carbonate(ZnCO3.Zn(OH)2).This
sacrificial method protects iron from corrosion/rusting.
(ii)As negative terminal and casing in dry/Laclanche cells.
(iii)Making brass alloy with copper(Cu/Zn)
g) Environmental effects of extracting Zinc and Lead.
(i) Lead and Lead salts are carcinogenic/causes cancer
(ii)Carbon(IV)oxide is a green house gas that causes/accelerate global warming.

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 684

(iii)Carbon(II)oxide is a colourless odourless poisonous /toxic gas that combines

with haemoglobin in the blood to form stable carboxyhaemoglobin reducing free
haemoglobin leading to death.
(iv) Sulphur(IV)oxide is a gas that has a pungent poisonous smell that causes
headache to human if in high concentration.
(v)Any leakages in Sulphur(IV)oxide gas escapes to the water bodies to form weak
sulphuric(VI)acid lowering the pH of the water. This causes marine pollution
/death of aquatic life, accelerated rusting/corrosion of metals/roofs and breathing
problems to human beings.
h) Test for presence of Zinc/ Lead.
If an ore is suspected to contain Zinc/Lead it is:
I.added hot concentrated Nitric(V)acid to free the ions present.
Note:
Concentrated Sulphuric(VI)acid forms insoluble PbSO4 thus cannot be used to free
the ions in Lead salts.
II.the free ions are then added a precipitating reagent mostly 2M sodium hydroxide
or 2M aqueous ammonia with the formation of;
(i)a soluble precipitate in excess of 2M sodium hydroxide if Zn2+, Pb2+,
3+
Al ions are present.
(ii)a white precipitate that dissolves to form a colorless solution in excess 2M
aqueous ammonia if Zn2+ions are present.
(iii)an insoluble white precipitate in excess 2M aqueous ammonia if Pb2+,
Al3+ions are present.
(iv) Pb2+ ions form a white precipitate when any soluble SO42-, SO32-, CO32-,
Cl , is added while Al3+ ions do not form a white precipitate
-

(v) Pb2+ ions form a yellow precipitate when any soluble I-(e.g.
Potassium/sodium Iodide) is added while Al3+ ions do not form a yellow
precipitate.
(vi) Pb2+ ions form a black precipitate when any soluble S-(e.g.
Potassium/sodium sulphide) is added while Al3+ ions do not form a black
precipitate.i.e;
Observation Inference
White precipitate in excess 2M NaOH (aq) Zn2+, Pb2+, Al3+ ions
White precipitate that dissolves to form a Zn2+ ions
colourless solution in excess 2M NH3(aq)
White precipitate in excess 2M NH3(aq) Pb2+, Al3+ ions
White precipitate on adding about 4 drops of Pb2+ions

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 685

either Na2CO3(aq), Na2SO3(aq), Na2SO4(aq),

H2SO4(aq), HCl(aq), NaCl(aq)
Yellow precipitate on adding about 4 drops of of Pb2+ ions
KI(aq).NaI (aq)
Black precipitate on adding aout 4 drops of Pb2+ ions
Na2S(aq)/K2S(aq)
6.GENERAL SUMMARY OF METALS
a) Summary methods of extracting metal from their ore
The main criteria used in extraction of metals is based on its position in the
electrochemical/reactivity series and its occurrence on the earth’s crust.
Position on the earth’s crust

If near the surface use open

If deep on the earth’s
cast mining / quarrying
crust use deep mining

Add oil, water, and blow air to form froth

to concentrate the ore if it is a low grade

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 686

Electrolyse the ore if it is made of Roast the ore first if it is a

reactive metals; Potassium, Sodium, carbonate / sulphide of Zinc,
Magnesium, Calcium, Aluminium Iron, Tin, Lead, and copper to
form the oxide

Reduce the oxide using carbon in a

furnace if it is made of Zinc ,Tin,
Lead ,Copper and Iron

b) Summary of extraction of common metal.

Metal Chief Chemical Method of Main equation during
ore/s formula of extraction extraction
ore
Sodium Rock salt NaCl(s) Downs process Cathode:
Through 2Na+(l) + 2e -> 2Na(l)
electrolysis of Anode:
molten NaCl 2Cl-(l) -> Cl2(g) + 2e
(CaCl2 lower m.pt
from 800oC->
600oC)

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 687

Sodium/ Brine NaCl(aq) Flowing mercury

Cathode:
sodium cathode cell2Na+(aq)+2e -
hydroxide Through electrolysis of
>2Na(aq)
concentrated NaCl(aq)
Anode:
2Cl-(aq) -> Cl2(g)
+ 2e
Aluminium Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O Halls process Cathode:
Through electrolysis of 4Al3+(l) + 12e ->
molten Al2O3. (Cryolite 4Al(l)
lower m.pt from 2015oC Anode:
-> 800oC) 6O2-(l) -> 3O2(g)
+ 12e
Iron Haematite Fe2O3 Blast furnace Fe2O3(s)+ 3CO(g)
Magnetite Fe3O4 Reduction of the ore by 2Fe(l)
carbon(II)oxide +3CO2(g)

Fe3O4(s)+ 4CO(g)
3Fe(l)
+4CO2(g)

Copper Copper CuFeS2 Roasting the ore in air 2CuFeS2 (s)+

pyrites to get Cu2S. 4O2(g) ->
Heating Cu2S ore in Cu2S(s)+3SO2(g)
regulated supply of air. +2FeO(s)
Reduction of Cu2O by
Cu2S 2Cu2S (s)+ 3O2(g)
->
2Cu2O(s)+2SO2(g)

Cu2S (s)+
2Cu2O(s) ->
6Cu(s)+ SO2(g)

Zinc Calamine ZnCO3 Roasting the ore in air ZnCO3(s)->

to get ZnO ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Blast furnace
/reduction of the oxide 2ZnS(s) +3O2(g) -

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 688

by > 2ZnO(s) +
Carbon(II)Oxide/Carbon 2SO2(g)

ZnO(s) + CO(g)->
Zn(s) + CO2(g)

Lead Galena PbS Blast furnace- PbO(s) + CO(g)->

Reduction of the oxide Pb(s) + CO2(g)
by carbon(II)oxide
/Carbon
of metal.
Alloy name Constituents of the Uses of the alloy
alloy
Brass Copper and Zinc Making scews and bulb caps
Bronze Copper and Tin Making clock springs,electrical contacts
and copper coins
Soldier Lead and Tin Soldering, joining electrical contacts
because of its low melting points and
high thermal conductivity
Duralumin Aluminium, Copper and Making aircraft , utensils ,windows
Magnesium frames because of its light weight and
corrosion resistant.
Steel Iron, Carbon Railway lines , car bodies girders and
,Manganese and other utensils.
metals
Nichrome Nichrome and Provide resistance in electric heaters
Chromium and ovens
German silver Copper,Zinc and Nickel Making coins
d) Physical properties of metal.
Metals form giant metallic structure joined by metallic bond from electrostatic
attraction between the metallic cation and free delocalized electrons.
This makes metals to have the following physical properties:
(i)High melting and boiling points
The giant metallic structure has a very close packed metallic lattice joined by
strong electrostatic attraction between the metallic cation and free delocalized
electrons.The more delocalized electrons the higher the melting/boiling points e.g.

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 689

Aluminium has a melting point of about 2015oC while that of sodium is about
98oC.This is mainly because aluminium has more/three delocalized electrons than
sodium/has one.
Aluminium has a boiling point of about 2470oC while that of sodium is about
890oC.This is mainly because aluminium has more/three delocalized electrons than
sodium/has one.
(ii)High thermal and electrical conductivity
All metals are good thermal and electrical conductors as liquid or solids. The more
delocalized electrons the higher the thermal and electrical conductivity. e.g.
Aluminium has an electrical conductivity of about 3.82 x 19-9 ohms per metre.
Sodium has an electrical conductivity of about 2.18 x 19-9 ohms per metre.
(iii)Shiny/Lustrous
The free delocalized electrons on the surface of the metal absorb, vibrate and then
scatter/re-emit/lose light energy. All metals are therefore usually shades of grey in
colour except copper which is shiny brown.e.g.
Zinc is bluish grey while iron is silvery grey.
(iv)High tensile strength
The free delocalized electrons on the surface of the metal atoms binds the surface
immediately when the metal is coiled/folded preventing it from breaking /being
brittle.
(v)Malleable.
Metals can be made into thin sheet. The metallic crystal lattice on being
beaten/pressed/hammered on two sides extend its length and width/bredth and is
then immediately bound by the delocalized electrons preventing it from
breaking/being brittle.
(vi)Ductile.
Metals can be made into thin wires. The metallic crystal lattice on being
beaten/pressed/hammered on all sides extend its length is then immediately bound
by the delocalized electrons preventing it from breaking/being brittle.
Revision questions
1.Given some soil , dilute sulphuric(VI)acid,mortar,pestle,filter paper,filter
funnel and 2M aqueous ammonia,describe with explanation,how you would
show that the soil contain Zinc.
Place the soil sample in the pestle. Crush using the mortar to reduce the particle
size/increase its surface area.
Add dilute sulphuric(VI)acid to free the ions in soil sample.
Filter to separate insoluble residue from soluble filtrate

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 690

To filtrate,add three drops of aqueous ammonia as precipitating reagent. A white

precipitate of Zn(OH)2, Pb(OH)2 or Al(OH)3 is formed
Add excess aqueous ammonia to the white precipitate. If it dissolves the Zn2+ ions
are present. Zn(OH)2 react with excess ammonia to form soluble [Zn(OH)4]2+
complex.
2.In the extraction of aluminium,the oxide is dissolved in cryolite.
(i)What is the chemical name of cryolite?
Sodium hexafloroaluminate/Na3AlF6
(ii)What is the purpose of cryolite?
To lower the melting point of the electrolyte/Aluminium oxide from about 2015oC
to 900oC
(iii)Name the substance used for similar purpose in the Down cell
Calcium chloride/CaCl2
(iv)An alloy of sodium and potassium is used as coolant in nuclear
reactors.Explain.
Nuclear reactors generate a lot of heat energy. sodium and potassium alloy
reduce/lower the high temperature in the reactors.
(v)Aluminium metal is used to make cooking utensils in preference to other
metals.Explain.
Aluminium
(i) is a very good conductor of electricity because it has three delocalized
electrons in its metallic structure
(ii)is cheap,malleable,ductile and has high tensile strength
(iii)on exposure to fire/heat form an impervious layer that prevent it from
rapid corrosion.
3.Study the scheme below and use it to answer the questions that follow.

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 691

(a)Identify:
(i)solid residue L
Iron(III)Oxide/Fe2O3
(ii)Solid N
Aluminium hydroxide /Al(OH)3
(iii)Filtrate M
Sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate/ NaAl(OH)4 and sodium silicate/ NaSiO3
(iv)Solid P
Aluminium oxide/ Al2O3
(v)Gas Q
Oxygen/O2
(vi)Process K1
Filtration
(vii)Process K2
Electrolysis
(b)Write the equation for the reaction taking place in the formation of solid P
from solid N
2Al(OH)3 -> Al2O3 (s) + 3H2O(l)
(c)Name a substance added to solid N before process Process K2 take place.
Cryolite/Sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate/ NaAl(OH)4

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 692

(d)State the effect of evolution of gas Q on

(i)process K2
Oxygen produced at the anode reacts with the carbon anode to form carbon(IV)
oxide which escape. The electrolytic process needs continuous replacement of the
carbon anode.
(ii)the environment
Oxygen produced at the anode reacts with the carbon anode to form carbon(IV)
oxide which escape to the atmosphere.CO2 is a green house gas that cause global
warming.
(e)An aluminium manufacturing factory runs for 24 hours. If the total mass of
aluminium produced is 27000kg,
(i)Calculate the current used. (Faraday constant=96500Coulombs, Al=27.0).
(ii)assuming all the gas produced react with 200kg of anode ,calculate the loss in
mass of the electrode.(Molar gas volume at room temperature = 24dm3,C=12.0)
Working
Equation at Cathode
Al3+(l) + 3e -> Al(l)
27g Al -> 3 Faradays = 3 x 96500C
(27000kg x 1000) g -> (27000kg x 1000) g x 3 x 96500C
27g
=289500000000 Coulombs

Current = Quantity of electricity =>289500000000 Coulombs

Time in seconds 24 x 60 x 60
3350690Ampheres
Working
Equation at Anode
2O2-(l) + 4e -> O2(g)
4 Faradays -> 4 x 96500C24dm3 O2(g) -
289500000000 Coulombs -> 289500000000 Coulombs x 24dm3
4 x 96500C
18,000,000dm3
Chemical equation at anode
O2(g) + C (s) -> CO2(g)
Method 1

24dm3 of O2(g) -> 12.0g Carbon

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 693

18,000,000dm3 of O2(g) -> 18,000,000dm3 x 12 = 9000000g = 9000kg

24dm3 1000g
Loss in mass of the carbon graphite anode = 9000kg
NB:Mass of the carbon graphite anode remaining =27000kg - 9000kg =18000kg
The flow chart below shows the extraction of iron metal.Use it to answer the
questions that follow.

(a)Identify:
(i)gas P
Carbon(IV)oxide/CO2
(ii)Solid Q
Carbon/coke/charcoal

(iii)Solid R
Carbon/coke/charcoal
(iv)Solid V
Limestone/calcium carbonate/CaCO3
(v)Solid S
Iron/Fe
(b)Write the chemical equation for the reaction for the formation of:
(i)Solid S
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) -> 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
(ii)Carbon(II)oxide
C(s) + CO2 (g) -> 2CO (g)
(iii)Slag

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 694

SiO2(s) + CaO(s) -> CaSiO3(s)

Al2O3 (s) + CaO(s) -> Ca Al2O4(s)
(iv)Gas P
C(s) + O2 (g) -> CO2 (g)
(c)State two uses of:
(i)Solid S
Iron is used in making:
(i)gates ,pipes, engine blocks, rails, charcoal iron boxes, lamp posts because it is
cheap.
(ii)nails, cutlery, scissors, sinks, vats, spanners, steel rods, and railway points from
steel.
Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon, and/or Vanadium, Manganese, Tungsten,
Nickel ,Chromium.
It does not rust/corrode like iron.
(ii)Slag
(i) tarmacing roads
(ii) cement manufacture
(iii) as building construction material
3.You are provided with sulphuric(VI)acid ,2M aqueous ammonia and two ores
suspected to contain copper and iron. Describe with explanation how you would
differentiate the two ores.
Crush the two ores separately in using a mortar and pestle to reduce the particle
size/increase the surface area.
Add sulphuric(VI)acid to separate portion of the ore. Filter.
To a portion of the filtrate,add three drops of 2M aqueous ammonia then axcess
Results
A green precipitate insoluble in excess 2M aqueous ammonia confirms the ore
contain Fe2+ ion.
A brown precipitate insoluble in excess 2M aqueous ammonia confirms the ore
contain Fe3+ ion.
A blue precipitate that dissolve in excess 2M aqueous ammonia to form a
deep/royal blue solution confirms the ore contain Cu2+ ion.
4. Use the flow chart below showing the extraction of Zinc metal to answer the
questions that follow

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 695

(a)Name:
(i)two ores from which Zinc can be extracted
Calamine(ZnCO3)
Zinc blende(ZnS)
(ii)two possible identity of gas P
Sulphur(IV)oxide(SO2) from roasting Zinc blende
Carbon(IV)oxide(CO2) from decomposition of Calamine.
(b)Write a possible chemical equation taking place in the roasting chamber.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) -> 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
ZnCO3(s) -> ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
(c)Explain the effect of the by-product of the roating on the environment.
Sulphur (IV)oxide from roasting Zinc blende is an acidic gas that causes “acid rain”
on dissolving in rain water.
Carbon(IV)oxide(CO2) from decomposition of Calamine is a green house gas that
causes global warming.
(d)(i)Name a suitable reducing agent used in the furnace during extraction of
Zinc.
Carbon(II)oxide
(ii)Write a chemical equation for the reduction process
ZnO(s) + CO(g) -> Zn(s) + CO2(g)
(e)(i)Before electrolysis, the products from roasting is added dilute sulphuric
(VI)acid. Write the equation for the reaction with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.
ZnO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> Zn SO4(aq) + H2(g)
(ii)During the electrolysis for extraction of Zinc,state the
I. Anode used
Aluminium sheet
II. Cathode used

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 696

Lead plate coated with silver

(ii)Write the equation for the electrolysis for extraction of Zinc at the:
I.Cathode;
Zn2+(aq) + 2e -> Zn(s)
II.Anode;
4OH-(aq) -> 2H2O(l) + O2(s) + 4e
(f)(i)What is galvanization
Dipping Iron in molten Zinc to form a thin layer of Zinc to prevent iron from
rusting.
(ii)Galvanized iron sheet rust after some time. Explain
The thin layer of Zinc protect Iron from rusting through sacrificial protection.
When all the Zinc has reacted with elements of air, Iron start rusting.
(g)State two uses of Zinc other than galvanization.
Making brass(Zinc/copper alloy)
Making german silver(Zinc/copper/nickel alloy)
As casing for dry cells/battery
(h)Calculate the mass of Zinc that is produced from the reduction chamber if
6400kg of Calamine ore is fed into the roaster. Assume the process is 80%
efficient in each stage(Zn=64.0,C=12.0,O=16.0)
Molar mass ZnCO3(s) =124g
Molar mass Zn = 64g
Molar mass ZnO = 80g
Chemical equation
ZnCO3(s) -> ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Method 1
124g ZnCO3 => 80g ZnO
(6400kg x1000)g ZnCO3 => (6400 x1000) x 80 = 512,000,000 g of ZnO
124
100% => 512,000,000 g of ZnO
80% => 80 x 512,000,000 g = 409600000g of ZnO
100
Chemical equation
ZnO(s) + CO(g) -> Zn(s) + CO2(g)
80g ZnO(s) => 64g Zn(s)
409600000g of ZnO => 409600000g x 64 = 327680000 g Zn
80
100% => 327680000 g Zn

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 697

80% => 80 x 327680000 g Zn = 262144000g of Zn

100
Mass of Zinc produced = 262144000g of Zn
5.An ore is suspected to bauxite. Describe the process that can be used to
confirm the presence of aluminium in the ore.
Crush the ore to fine powder to increase surface area/reduce particle size.
Add hot concentrated sulphuric(VI)/nitric(V) acid to free the ions.
Filter. Retain the filtrate
Add excess aqueous ammonia to a sample of filtrate.
A white precipitate confirms presence of either Al3+ or Pb2+.
Add sodium sulphate,dilute sulphuric(VI)to another portion of filtrate.
No white precipitate confirms presence of Al3+
Or Add potassium iodide to another portion of filtrate.
No yellow precipitate confirms presence of Al3+
6.The flow chart below illustrate the industrial extraction of Lead metal

(a)(i)Name the chief ore that is commonly used in this process

Galena(PbS)
(ii)Explain what take place in the roasting furnace

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Electrochemistry can be defined as the study of the effects of electricity on a

substance/ compound and how chemical reactions produce electricity.
Electrochemistry therefore deals mainly with:
i) Reduction and oxidation
ii) Electrochemical (voltaic) cell
iii)Electrolysis (electrolytic) cell

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 698

(i)REDUCTION AND OXIDATION (REDOX)

1. In teams of oxygen transfer:
i) Reduction is removal of oxygen.
ii) Oxidation is addition of oxygen.
iii) Redox is simultaneous addition and removal of oxygen.
iv) Reducing agent is the species that undergoes oxidation, therefore gains
oxygen.
v) Oxidizing agent is the species that undergoes reduction, therefore
looses/donates oxygen.
e.g. When hydrogen is passed through heated copper (II) oxide, it is oxidised
to copper metal as in the equation below:
CuO (s) + H2 (g) -> Cu (s) + H2O (l)
(Oxidising agent) (Reducing agent)
2. In terms of hydrogen transfer:
i) Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen.
ii) Reduction is the addition of hydrogen.
iii) Redox is simultaneous addition and removal of hydrogen.
iv) Reducing agent is the species that undergoes oxidation, therefore looses/
donates hydrogen.
v) Oxidizing agent is the species that undergoes reduction, therefore gains
hydrogen.
e.g. When hydrogen sulphide gas is bubbled into a gas jar containing chlorine gas
it is oxidized (loose the hydrogen) to sulphur (yellow solid). The chlorine is
reduced (gain hydrogen) to hydrogen chlorine gas.
Cl2 (g) + H2S (g) -> S(S) + 2HCl (g)
(Oxidizing agent) (Reducing agent)
3. In terms of electron transfer:
i) Oxidation is donation/ loss/ removal of electrons.
ii) Reduction is gain/ accept/ addition of electrons.
iii) Redox is simultaneous gain/ accept/ addition and donation/ loss/ removal
of electrons.
iv) Reducing agent is the species that undergoes oxidation, therefore looses/
donates electrons.
v) Oxidizing agent is the species that undergoes reduction, therefore gains/
accepts electrons.
Example
a) Displacement of metals from their solutions:

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 699

Place 5cm3 each of Iron (II) sulphate (VI) solution into three different test tubes.
Add about 1g of copper tunings / powder into one test tube then zinc and
magnesium powders separately into the other test tubes. Shake thoroughly for 2
minutes each. Record any colour changes in the table below.

Metal added to Iron (II) sulphate Colour changes

(VI) solution
Copper Solution remains green
Zinc Green colour fades
Magnesium Green colour fades
Explanation
-When a more reactive metal is added to a solution of less reactive metal, it
displaces it from its solution.
-When a less reactive metal is added to a solution of a more reactive metal, it does
not displace it from its solution.
-Copper is less reactive than iron therefore cannot displace iron its solution.
-Zinc is more reactive than iron therefore can displace iron from its solution.
-Magnesium is more reactive than iron therefore can displace iron from its solution.
In terms of electron transfer:
- the more reactive metal undergoes oxidation (reducing agent) by
donating/loosing electrons to form ions
-the less reactive metal undergoes reduction (oxidizing agent) by its ions in
solution gaining /accepting/acquiring the electrons to form the metal.
-displacement of metals involves therefore electron transfer from a more
reactive metal to ions of another less reactive metal.
Examples
1. Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2e (oxidation/donation of electrons)
Fe2+(aq) + 2e -> Fe(s) (reduction/gain of electrons)
Fe2+(aq) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + Fe(s) (redox/both donation and gain of
electrons)
2. Mg(s) -> Mg2+(aq) + 2e (oxidation/donation of electrons)
2+
Fe (aq) + 2e -> Fe(s) (reduction/gain of electrons)
Fe2+(aq) + Mg(s) -> Mg2+(aq) + Fe(s) (redox/both donation and gain of
electrons)
3. Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2e (oxidation/donation of electrons)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e -> Cu(s) (reduction/gain of electrons)

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 700

Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) (redox/both donation and gain of

electrons)
4. Fe(s) -> Fe2+(aq) + 2e (oxidation/donation of electrons)
2Ag+(aq) + 2e -> 2Ag(s) (reduction/gain of electrons)
2Ag+(aq) + Fe(s) -> Fe2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) (redox/both donation and gain
of electrons)
5. Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2e (oxidation/donation of electrons)
-
Cl2(g) + 2e -> 2Cl (aq) (reduction/gain of electrons)
Cl2(g) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) (redox/both donation and gain of
electrons)
6. 2Mg(s) -> 2Mg2+(aq) + 4e (oxidation/donation of electrons)
O2(g) + 4e -> 2O2-(aq) (reduction/gain of electrons)
O2(g) + 2Mg(s) -> 2Mg2+(aq) + 2O2-(aq) (redox/both donation and gain
of electrons)
Note
(i)The number of electrons donated/lost MUST be equal to the number of
electrons gained/acquired.
(i)During displacement reaction, the colour of ions /salts fades but does not if
displacement does not take place. e.g
a)Green colour of Fe2+(aq) fades if Fe2+(aq) ions are displaced from their
solution. Green colour of Fe2+(aq) appear if Fe/iron displaces another
salt/ions from their solution.
b)Blue colour of Cu2+(aq) fades if Cu2+(aq) ions are displaced from their
solution and brown copper deposits appear. Blue colour of Cu2+(aq) appear
if Cu/copper displaces another salt/ions from their solution.
c)Brown colour of Fe3+(aq) fades if Fe3+(aq) ions are displaced from their
solution. Brown colour of Fe3+(aq) appear if Fe/iron displaces another
salt/ions from their solution to form Fe3+(aq).
(iii)Displacement reactions also produce energy/heat. The closer/nearer the
metals in the reactivity/electrochemical series the less energy/heat of
displacement.
(iv)The higher the metal in the reactivity series therefore the easier to
loose/donate electrons and thus the stronger the reducing agent.
4. (a)In terms of oxidation number:
i) Oxidation is increase in oxidation numbers.
ii) Reduction is decrease in oxidation numbers.

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 701

iii) Redox is simultaneous increase in oxidation numbers of one

species/substance and a decrease in oxidation numbers of another
species/substance.
iv) Reducing agent is the species that undergoes oxidation, therefore
increases its oxidation number.
v) Oxidizing agent is the species that undergoes reduction, therefore increases
its oxidation number.
(b)The idea/concept of oxidation numbers uses/applies the following simple
guideline rules:
Guidelines /rules applied in assigning oxidation number
1.Oxidation number of combined Oxygen is always -2 except in peroxides
(Na2O2/H2O2) where its Oxidation number is -1
2.Oxidation number of combined Hydrogen is always +1except in Hydrides
(NaH/KH) where its Oxidation number is -1
3.All atoms and molecules of elements have oxidation number 0 (zero)
Atom Oxidation number Molecule Oxidation number
Na 0 Cl2 0
O 0 O2 0
H 0 H2 0
Al 0 N2 0
Ne 0 O3 0
K 0 P3 0
Cu 0 S8 0
4.All combined metals and non-metals have oxidation numbers equal to their
valency /oxidation state e.g.
Metal/non-metal Valency Oxidation Oxidation
ion state number
Fe2+ 2 -2 -2
Fe3+ 3 -3 -3
2+
Cu 2 -2 -2
Cu+ 1 +1 +1
-
Cl 1 -1 -1
O2- 2 -2 -2
Na+ 1 +1 +1
Al3+ 3 +3 +3
P3- 3 -3 -3
Pb2+ 2 +2 +2

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 702

5.Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms of elements making a compound is equal

zero(0) e.g.
Using this rule ,an unknown oxidation number of an atom in a compound can be
determined as below:
a) CuSO4 has-
-one atom of Cu with oxidation number +2( refer to Rule 4)
-one atom of S with oxidation number +6 ( refer to Rule 4)
-six atoms of O each with oxidation number -2( refer to Rule 4)
Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in CuSO4 = (+2 + +6 + (-2 x 6)) = 0
b) H2SO4 has-
-two atom of H each with oxidation number +1( refer to Rule 2)
-one atom of S with oxidation number +6 ( refer to Rule 4)
-four atoms of O each with oxidation number -2( refer to Rule 4)
Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in H2SO4 = (+2 + +6 + (-2 x 4)) = 0
c) KMnO4 has-
-one atom of K with oxidation number +1( refer to Rule 4)
-one atom of Mn with oxidation number +7 ( refer to Rule 4)
-four atoms of O each with oxidation number -2( refer to Rule 4)
Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in KMnO4 = (+1 + +7 + (-2 x 4)) = 0

Determine the oxidation number of:

I.Nitrogen in;
-NO => x + -2 = 0 thus x = 0 – (-2) = + 2
The chemical name of this compound is thus Nitrogen(II)oxide
-NO2 => x + (-2 x2)= 0 thus x = 0 – (-4) = + 4
The chemical name of this compound is thus Nitrogen(IV)oxide
-N2O => 2x + -2 = 0 thus 2x = 0 – (-2) = +2/2= +1
The chemical name of this compound is thus Nitrogen(I)oxide
II. Sulphur in;
-SO2 => x + (-2 x2)= 0 thus x = 0 – (-4) = + 4
The chemical name of this compound is thus Sulphur(IV)oxide
-SO3 => x + (-2 x3)= 0 thus x = 0 – (-6) = + 6
The chemical name of this compound is thus Sulphur(VI)oxide
-H2SO4 = ((+1 x 2) + x + (-2 x 4)) thus x= 0-( +2 +-8) =+6
The chemical name of this compound is thus Sulphuric(VI)acid
-H2SO3 = ((+1 x 2) + x + (-2 x 3)) thus x= 0-( +2 +-6) =+4
The chemical name of this compound is thus Sulphuric(IV)acid

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 703

III. Carbon in;

-CO2 => x + (-2 x2)= 0 thus x = 0 – (-4) = + 4
The chemical name of this compound is thus carbon(IV)oxide
-CO => x + -2 = 0 thus x = 0 – -2 = + 2
The chemical name of this compound is thus carbon(II)oxide
-H2CO3 = ((+1 x 2) + x + (-2 x 3)) thus x= 0-( +2 +-6) =+4
The chemical name of this compound is thus Carbonic(IV)acid
IV.Manganese in;
-MnO2 => x + (-2 x2)= 0 thus x = 0 – (-4) = + 4
The chemical name of this compound is thus Manganese(IV)oxide
-KMnO4 = ((+1 + x + (-2 x 4)) thus x= 0-( +1 +-8) =+7
The chemical name of this compound is thus Potassium
manganate(VII)
V.Chromium in;
- Cr2O3 => 2x + (-2 x 3)= 0 thus 2x = 0 – (-6) = +6 / 2= +3
The chemical name of this compound is thus Chromium(III)oxide
-K2Cr2O7 => (+1 x 2) + 2x + (-2 x7)= 0
thus 2x = 0 – +2 +-14 = +12 / 2= +6
The chemical name of this compound is thus Potassium
dichromate(VI)
-K2CrO4 => (+1 x 2) + x + (-2 x4)= 0
thus 2x = 0 – +2 +-8 = +12 / 2= +6
The chemical name of this compound is thus Potassium chromate(VI)

6.The sum of the oxidation numbers of atoms of elements making a charged

radical/complex ion is equal to its charge.
Using this rule ,the oxidation number of unknown atom of an element in a charged
radical/complex ion can be determined as in the examples below;
a) SO42- has-
-one atom of S with oxidation number +6( refer to Rule 4)
-four atoms of O each with oxidation number -2( refer to Rule 1)
Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in SO42- = ( +6 + (-2 x 4)) = -2
The chemical name of this radical is thus sulphate(VI) ion
b) NO3- has-
-one atom of N with oxidation number +4( refer to Rule 4)
-three atoms of O each with oxidation number -2( refer to Rule 1)
Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in NO3- = ( +4 + (-2 x 3)) = -1

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 704

The chemical name of this radical is thus nitrate(IV) ion.

Determine the oxidation number of:
I.Nitrogen in;
-NO2- => x + (-2 x2)= -1 thus x = -1 – (-4) = + 3
The chemical name of this compound/ion/radical is thus Nitrate(III)ion
II. Sulphur in;
-SO32- => x + (-2 x3)= -2 thus x = -2 – (-6) = + 4
The chemical name of this compound/ion/radical is thus Sulphate(IV)ion
III. Carbon in;
-CO32- = x + (-2 x 3) = -2 thus x = -2 – (-6) = + 4
The chemical name of this compound/ion/radical is thus Carbonate(IV)ion
IV.Manganese in;
-MnO4 - = x + (-2 x 4)= -1 thus x= -1-(-2 +-8) =+7
The chemical name of this compound/ion/radical is thus manganate(VII) ion
V.Chromium in
-Cr2O72- => 2x + (-2 x7)= -2
thus 2x = -2 – +2 +-14 = +12 / 2= +6
The chemical name of this compound/ion//radical is thus dichromate(VI) ion
-CrO42- => x + (-2 x4)= -2
thus x = -2 + (-2 x 4) = +6
The chemical name of this compound/ion//radical is thus chromate(VI) ion
(c)Using the concept/idea of oxidation numbers as increase and decrease in
oxidation numbers , the oxidizing and reducing species/agents can be determined
as in the following examples;
(i) Cu2+ (aq) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
Oxidation numbers -> +2 0 +2 0
Oxidizing species/agents =>Cu2+ ;its oxidation number decrease from+2 to 0 in
Cu(s)
Reducing species/agents => Zn2+ ;its oxidation number increase from 0 to +2 in
Zn(s)
(ii) 2Br- (aq) + Cl2(g) -> 2Cl- (aq) + Br2 (l)
Oxidation numbers -> -1 0 -1 0
Oxidizing agent =>Cl2(g) ;its oxidation number decrease from 0 to-1 in 2Cl- (aq)
Reducing agents => Zn2+ ;its oxidation number increase from -1 to 0 in Zn(s)
(iii) Br2 (l) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+ (aq) + 2Br- (aq)
Oxidation numbers -> 0 0 +2 -1
Oxidizing agent => Br2 (l) ;its oxidation number decrease from 0 to-1 in 2Br-(aq)

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 705

Reducing agents => Zn(s) ;its oxidation number increase from 0 to +2 in Zn2+
(iv) 2HCl (aq) + Mg(s) -> MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Oxidation numbers -> 2 (+1 -1) 0 +2 2(-1) 0
Oxidizing agent => H+ in HCl;its oxidation number decrease from +1to 0 in H2 (g)
Reducing agents => Mg(s) ;its oxidation number increase from 0 to +2 in Mg2+
(v) 2H2O (l) + 2Na(s) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Oxidation numbers -> +1 -2 0 +1 -2 +1 0
+
Oxidizing agent => H in H2O;its oxidation number decrease from +1to 0 in H2 (g)
Reducing agents => Na(s) ;its oxidation number increase from 0 to +1 in Na+
(vi) 5Fe2+ (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + MnO4- -> 5Fe3+ (aq) + Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2O
(l) +2 +1 +7 -2 +3 +2
+1 -2
Oxidizing agent => Mn in MnO4- ;its oxidation number decrease from +7to+2 in
Mn2+
Reducing agents => Fe2+ ;its oxidation number increase from +2 to +3 in Fe3+
(vii) 6Fe2+ (aq) + 14H+ (aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) -> 6Fe3+ (aq) + Cr3+ (aq) + 7H2O (l)
+2 +1 +6 -2 +3 +3 +1 -2
Oxidizing agent:
Cr in Cr2O72- ;its oxidation number decrease from +6 to+3 in Cr3+
Reducing agents => Fe2+ ;its oxidation number increase from +2 to +3 in Fe3+
(viii) 2Fe2+ (aq) + 2H+ (aq) + H2O2(aq) -> 2Fe3+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)
+2 +1 +1 -1 +3 +1 -2
Oxidizing agent:
O in H2O2;its oxidation number decrease from -1 to -2 in H2O
Reducing agents => Fe2+ ;its oxidation number increase from +2 to +3 in Fe3+
(ix) Cr2O72-(aq) + 6H+ (aq) + 5H2O2(aq) -> 2Cr3+ (aq) + 2H2O (l) +
5O2(g)
+6 -2 +1 +1 -1 +3 +1 -2 0
Oxidizing agents:
O in H2O2;its oxidation number decrease from -1 to -2 in H2O
Cr in Cr2O72- its oxidation number decrease from +6 to +3 in Cr3+
Reducing agents
O in H2O2;its oxidation number increase from -1 to O in O2(g)
O in Cr2O72- its oxidation number increase from -2 to O in O2(g)
(x) 2MnO4-(aq) + 6H+ (aq) + 5H2O2(aq) -> 2Mn2+ (aq) + 8H2O (l) +
5O2(g)
+7 -2 +1 +1 -1 +2 +1 -2 0

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 706

Oxidizing agents:
O in H2O2;its oxidation number decrease from -1 to -2 in H2O
Mn in MnO4- its oxidation number decrease from +7 to +2 in Mn2+
Reducing agents
O in H2O2;its oxidation number increase from -1 to O in O2(g)
O in MnO4- its oxidation number increase from -2 to O in O2(g)

(ii)ELECTROCHEMICAL (VOLTAIC) CELL

1. When a metal rod/plate is put in a solution of its own salt, some of the metal
ionizes and dissolve into the solution i.e.
M(s) -> M+(aq) + e ( monovalent metal)
M(s) -> M2+(aq) + 2e ( divalent metal)
M(s) -> M3+(aq) + 3e ( Trivalent metal)
The ions move into the solution leaving electrons on the surface of the metal
rod/plate.
2.The metal rod becomes therefore negatively charged while its own solution
positively charged. As the positive charges of the solution increase, some of them
recombine with the electrons to form back the metal atoms
M+(aq) + e -> M(s) ( monovalent metal)
M2+(aq) + 2e -> M(s) (divalent metal)
M3+(aq) + 3e -> M(s) (Trivalent metal)
3. When a metal rod/plate is put in a solution of its own salt, it constitutes/forms a
half-cell. The tendency of metals to ionize differ from one metal to the other. The
difference can be measured by connecting two half cells to form an
electrochemical/voltaic cell as in the below procedure:
To set up an electrochemical /voltaic cell
To compare the relative tendency of metals to ionize
Place 50cm3 of 1M Zinc(II) sulphate(VI) in 100cm3 beaker. Put a clean zinc
rod/plate into the solution. Place 50cm3 of 1M Copper(II) sulphate(VI) in another
100cm3 beaker. Put a clean copper rod/plate of equal area (length x width) with
Zinc into the solution. Connect/join the two metals(to a voltmeter) using
connecting wires. Dip a folded filter paper into a solution of Potassium nitrate(V)
or sodium(I) chloride(I) until it soaks. Use the folded soaked filter paper to
connect/join the two solutions in the two beakers. The whole set up should be as
below

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 707

Repeat the above procedure by replacing:

(i)Zinc half cell with Magnesium rod/plate/ribbon dipped in 50cm3 of IM
magnesium (II) sulphate(VI) solution
(ii)Zinc half cell with Silver rod/plate/coin dipped in 50cm3 of IM silver(I)
nitrate(V) solution
(iii)Copper half cell with Iron rod/plate/spoon dipped in 50cm3 of IM Iron (II)
sulphate(VI) solution
Record the observations in the table below
Changes on the Changes on Changes on the Changes on Voltage/voltm
st nd st nd
1 metal rod the 2 1 solution the 2 eter
(A) metal rod (B) (A(aq)) solution reading(Volts)
(B(aq))
Using Zn/Cu
half cell
-The rod -copper rod Zinc(II)sulphat Blue Copper 0.8
decrease in /plate e (II)sulphate (Theoretical
size /mass increase in (VI)colour (VI)colour value=1.10V)
/dissolves/ size /mass/ remain fades. Brown
erodes deposited colourless solid/residue/
deposit

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 708

Using Mg/Cu
half cell
-The rod -copper rod Magnesium(II) Blue Copper 1.5
decrease in /plate sulphate(VI) (II)sulphate (Theoretical
size /mass increase in colour remain (VI)colour value=2.04V)
/dissolves/ size /mass/ colourless fades Brown
erodes deposited solid/residue/
deposit

Using Ag/Cu
half cell
-The rod -silver coin/ Blue Copper Silver(I)nitrat 0.20
increase in size rod /plate (II)sulphate e (Theoretical
/mass increase in (VI)colour (V)colour value=0.46V)
/deposited size /mass/ remains remain
deposited colourless

Using Fe/Cu
half cell
-The rod -copper rod Iron(II)sulphat Blue Copper 0.60
decrease in /plate e (II)sulphate (Theoretical
size /mass increase in (VI)colour (VI)colour value=0.78V)
/dissolves/ size /mass/ becomes more fades.Brown
erodes deposited green solid/residue/
deposit

From the above observations ,it can be deduced that:

(i)in the Zn/Cu half-cell the;
-Zinc rod/plate ionizes /dissolves faster than the copper rod/plate to form Zn2+
Ionic equation Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2e
-blue copper ions in the Copper (II)sulphate solution gains the donated
electrons to form brown copper metal/atoms
Ionic equation Cu2+(aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)
This reaction shows /imply the Zinc rod has a higher tendency to ionize than
copper.The Zinc rod has a higher net accumulation of electrons and is more
negative compared to the copper rod which has lower accumulation of electrons.
The copper rod is therefore relatively more positive with respect to Zinc rod.

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 709

When the two half cells are connected , electrons therefore flow from the negative
Zinc rod through the external wire to be gained by copper ions. This means a net
accumulation/increase of Zn2+ positive ions on the negative half cell and a net
decrease in Cu2+ positive ions on the positive half cell.
The purpose of the salt bridge therefore is:
(i)complete the circuit
(ii)maintain balance of charges /ions on both half cells.
For the negative half cell the NO3- /Cl- from salt bridge decrease/neutralise the
increased positive(Zn2+) ion.
For the positive half cell the Na+ / K+ from salt bridge increase the decreased
positive(Cu2+) ion.

The voltmeter should theoretically register/read a 1.10Volts as a measure of the

electromotive force (e.m.f) of the cell .Practically the voltage reading is lowered
because the connecting wires have some resistance to be overcomed.
A combination of two half cells that can generate an electric current from a redox
reaction is called a voltaic/electrochemical cell.
By convention a voltaic/electrochemical cell is represented;
M(s) / M2+(aq) // N2+ (aq) / N(s)
(metal rod of M)(solution ofM)(solution ofN)(metal rod ofN)
Note;
a)(i)Metal M must be the one higher in the reactivity series.
(ii)It forms the negative terminal of the cell.
(iii)It must diagrammatically be drawn first on the left hand side when
illustrating the voltaic/electrochemical cell.
b)(i)Metal N must be the one lower in the reactivity series.
(ii)It forms the positive terminal of the cell.
(iii)It must diagrammatically be drawn second/after/ right hand side when
illustrating the voltaic/electrochemical cell.
Illustration of the voltaic/electrochemical cell.
(i)Zn/Cu cell
1. Zinc rod ionizes /dissolves to form Zn2+ ions at the negative terminal
Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2e
2. Copper ions in solution gain the donated electrons to form copper atoms/metal
Cu2+(aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)
3.Overall redox equation
Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

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 710

4.cell representation.
Zn(s) / 1M, Zn2+(aq) // 1M,Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s) E0 = +1.10 V
5.cell diagram

Voltmeter

(ii)Mg/Cu cell
1. Magnesium rod ionizes /dissolves to form Mg2+ ions at the negative terminal
Mg(s) -> Mg2+(aq) + 2e
2. Copper ions in solution gain the donated electrons to form copper atoms/metal
Cu2+(aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)
3.Overall redox equation
Cu2+(aq) + Mg(s) -> Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)
4.cell representation.
Mg(s) / 1M, Mg2+(aq) // 1M,Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s) E0 = +2.04 V

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 711

5.cell diagram.

(iii)Fe/Cu cell
1. Magnesium rod ionizes /dissolves to form Mg2+ ions at the negative terminal
Fe(s) -> Fe2+(aq) + 2e
2. Copper ions in solution gain the donated electrons to form copper atoms/metal
Cu2+(aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)
3.Overall redox equation
Cu2+(aq) + Fe(s) -> Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)
4.cell representation.
Fe(s) / 1M, Fe2+(aq) // 1M,Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s) E0 = +0.78 V
5.cell diagram.

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 712

Fe

Fe++

(iv)Ag/Cu cell
1. Copper rod ionizes /dissolves to form Cu2+ ions at the negative terminal
Cu(s) -> Cu2+(aq) + 2e
2. Silver ions in solution gain the donated electrons to form silver atoms/metal
2Ag+(aq) + 2e -> 2Ag(s)
3.Overall redox equation
2Ag+(aq) + Cu(s) -> Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
4.cell representation.
Cu(s) / 1M, Cu2+(aq) // 1M,2Ag+(aq) / 2Ag(s) E0 = +0.46 V
5.cell diagram.
V

Cu Ag

Ag+
Cu++

Cu(s) + 2Ag+ (aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)

Standard electrode potential (Eᶿ)

The standard electrode potential (Eᶿ) is obtained if the hydrogen half cell is
used as reference. The standard electrode potential (Eᶿ) consist of inert platinum
electrode immersed/dipped in 1M solution of (sulphuric(VI) acid) H+ ions.
Hydrogen gas is bubbled on the platinum electrodes at:

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 713

(i)a temperature of 25oC

(ii)atmospheric pressure of 101300Pa/101300Nm-2/1atm/760mmHg/76cmHg
(iii)a concentration of 1M(1moledm-3) of sulphuric(VI) acid/ H+ ions and
1M(1moledm-3) of the other half cell.
Hydrogen is adsorbed onto the surface of the platinum. An
equilibrium/balance exist between the adsorbed layer of molecular hydrogen and
H+ ions in solution to form a half cell.
½ H2 (g) ==== H+ (aq) + e
The half cell representation is:
Pt,½ H2 (g) / H+ (aq), 1M
The standard electrode potential (Eᶿ) is thus defined as the potential difference
for a cell comprising of a particular element in contact with1M solution of its
own ions and the standard hydrogen electrode.

If the other electrode has a higher/greater tendency to lose electrons than the
hydrogen electrode, the electrode is therefore negative with respect to hydrogen
electrode and its electrode potential has negative (Eᶿ) values.
If the other electrode has a lower/lesser tendency to lose electrons than the
hydrogen electrode, the electrode is therefore positive with respect to hydrogen
electrode and its electrode potential has positive (Eᶿ) values.
Table showing the standard electrode potential (Eᶿ) of some reactions
Reaction (Eᶿ) values in
volts
-
F2 (g)+ 2e -> 2F (aq) +2.87
H2 O2 (aq)+ H+ (aq) +2e -> H2 O (l) +1.77
Mn O4- (aq)+ 4H+ (aq) +3e -> MnO2 (s) +H2 O (l) +1.70
2HClO (aq)+ 2H+ (aq) +2e -> Cl2 (aq) +2H2 O (l) +1.59
Mn O4- (aq)+ 4H+ (aq) +5e -> Mn2+ (aq) +H2 O (l) +1.51
Cl2 (g)+ 2e -> 2Cl- (aq) +1.36
Mn O2 (s)+ 4H+ (aq) +2e -> Mn2+ (aq) +2H2 O (l) +1.23
-
Br2 (aq)+ 2e -> 2Br (aq) +1.09
NO3- (aq)+ 2H+ (aq) + e -> NO2 (g) + H2 O (l) +0.80
Ag+ (aq) + e -> Ag(s) +0.80
Fe3+ (aq) + e -> Fe2+ (aq) +0.77
+
2H (aq)+ O2 (g) -> H2 O2 (aq) +0.68
I2 (aq)+ 2e -> 2I- (aq) +0.54
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s) +0.34

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 714

2H+ (aq) + 2e -> H2(g) +0.00

2+
Pb (aq) + 2e -> Pb(s) -0.13
Fe2+ (aq) + 2e -> Fe(s) -0.44
2+
Zn (aq) + 2e -> Zn(s) -0.77
Al3+ (aq) + 3e -> Al(s) -1.66
Mg2+ (aq) + 2e -> Mg(s) -2.37
Na+ (aq) + e -> Na(s) -2.71
K+ (aq) + e -> K(s) -2.92
Note:
(i)Eᶿ values generally show the possibility/feasibility of a reduction
process/oxidizing strength.
(ii)The element/species in the half cell with the highest negative Eᶿ value
easily gain / acquire electrons.
It is thus the strongest oxidizing agent and its reduction process is highly
possible/feasible. The element/species in the half cell with the lowest positive Eᶿ
value easily donate / lose electrons.
It is thus the strongest reducing agent and its reduction process is the least
possible/feasible.
(iii)The overall redox reaction is possible/feasible is it has a positive (+) Eᶿ.
If the overall redox reaction is not possible/ not feasible/ forced, it has a
negative (-) Eᶿ
Sample standard electrochemical cell

Calculation examples on Eᶿ
Calculate the Eᶿ value of a cell made of:
a)Zn and Cu
From the table above:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s) Eᶿ = +0.34V(higher Eᶿ /Right Hand Side diagram)
Zn2+ (aq) + 2e ->Zn(s) Eᶿ = -0.77V(lower Eᶿ/ Left Hand Side diagram)

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 715

Zn(s) ->Zn2+ (aq) + 2e Eᶿ = +0.77(reverse lower Eᶿ to derive cell reaction /

representation)
Overall Eᶿ = Eᶿ higher- Eᶿ lower / Eᶿ RHS - Eᶿ LHS/ Eᶿoxidized- Eᶿ
reduced
Substituting:
Overall Eᶿ = +0.34 – (- 0.77) = +1.10V
Overall redox equation:
Cu2+ (aq) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s) Eᶿ = +1.10V
Overall conventional cell representation:
Zn(s) / Zn2+ (aq) 1M, // 1M,Cu2+ (aq) / Cu(s) Eᶿ = +1.10V

Overall conventional cell diagram:

Voltmeter(1.10V)

Zn2+
1M Cu2+ (aq)

1M Zn2+ (aq)

Zinc and copper reaction has a positive(+) overall Eᶿ therefore is possible/feasible

and thus Zinc can displace/reduce Copper solution.
b)Mg and Cu
From the table above:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s) Eᶿ = +0.34V(higher Eᶿ /Right Hand Side diagram)
Mg2+ (aq) + 2e ->Mg(s) Eᶿ = -2.37V(lower Eᶿ/ Left Hand Side diagram)
Mg(s) ->Mg2+ (aq) + 2e Eᶿ = +2.37(reverse lower Eᶿ to derive cell reaction
/ representation)
Overall Eᶿ = Eᶿ higher- Eᶿ lower / Eᶿ RHS - Eᶿ LHS/ Eᶿ oxidized- Eᶿ
reduced

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 716

Substituting:
Overall Eᶿ = +0.34 – (- 2.37) = +2.71V
Overall redox equation:
Cu2+ (aq) + Mg(s) -> Mg2+ (aq) + Cu(s) Eᶿ = +2.71V
Overall conventional cell representation:
Mg(s) / Mg2+ (aq) 1M, // 1M,Cu2+ (aq) / Cu(s) Eᶿ = +2.71V
c)Ag and Pb
From the table above:
2Ag+ (aq) + 2e -> 2Ag(s) Eᶿ = +0.80V(higher Eᶿ /Right Hand Side
diagram)
Pb2+ (aq) + 2e ->Pb(s) Eᶿ = -0.13V(lower Eᶿ/ Left Hand Side diagram)
Pb(s) ->Pb2+ (aq) + 2e Eᶿ = +0.13(reverse lower Eᶿ to derive cell reaction /
representation)
Overall Eᶿ = Eᶿ higher- Eᶿ lower / Eᶿ RHS - Eᶿ LHS/ Eᶿ oxidized- Eᶿ
reduced
Substituting:
Overall Eᶿ = +0.80 – (- 0.13) = +0.93V
Overall redox equation:
2Ag+ (aq) + Pb(s) -> Pb2+ (aq) + 2Ag(s) Eᶿ = +0.93V
Overall conventional cell representation:
Pb(s) / Pb2+ (aq) 1M, // 1M,2Ag+ (aq) / Ag(s) Eᶿ = +0.93V
d)Chlorine and Bromine
From the table above:
2e + Cl2(g) ->2Cl- (aq) Eᶿ = +1.36V(higher Eᶿ /Right Hand Side diagram)
2e + Br2(aq) ->2Br- (aq) Eᶿ = +0.13V(lower Eᶿ/ Left Hand Side diagram)
2Br- (aq) -> Br2(aq) + 2e Eᶿ = -0.13(reverse lower Eᶿ to derive cell reaction
/ representation)
Overall Eᶿ = Eᶿ higher- Eᶿ lower / Eᶿ RHS - Eᶿ LHS/ Eᶿ oxidized- Eᶿ
reduced
Substituting:
Overall Eᶿ = - 0.13 – (- 1.36) = +1.23V
Overall redox equation:
2Br- (aq) + Cl2(g) -> 2Cl- (aq) + Br2(aq) Eᶿ = +1.23V
Overall conventional cell representation:
Cl2(g) / 2Cl- (aq) 1M, // 1M, 2Br- (aq) / Br2(aq) Eᶿ = +1.23V

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 717

Chlorine displaces bromine from bromine water. When chlorine gas is thus
bubbled in bromine water, the pale green colour fades as displacement takes place
and a brown solution containing dissolved bromine liquid is formed. This reaction
is feasible /possible because the overall redox reaction has a positive Eᶿ value.
e)Strongest oxidizing agent and the strongest reducing agent.
From the table above:
2e + F2(g) ->2F- (aq) Eᶿ = +2.87V(highest Eᶿ /strongest oxidizing agent)
2e + 2K+ (aq) ->2K (aq) Eᶿ = -2.92V(lowest Eᶿ/ strongest reducing agent)
2K (aq) -> 2K+ (aq) + 2e Eᶿ = +2.92V (reverse lower Eᶿ to derive cell
reaction / representation)
Overall Eᶿ = Eᶿ higher- Eᶿ lower / Eᶿ RHS - Eᶿ LHS/ Eᶿ oxidized- Eᶿ
reduced
Substituting:
Overall Eᶿ = +2.87 – (-2.92) = +5.79V
Overall redox equation:
F2(g) + 2K(s) -> 2F- (aq) + 2K+ (aq) Eᶿ = +5.79V
Overall conventional cell representation:
2K(s) / 2K+ (aq),1M, // 1M, 2F- (aq) / F2(g) Eᶿ = +5.79V
The redox reactions in an electrochemical/voltaic is commercially applied to make
the:
(a)Dry /primary/Laclanche cell.
(b)Wet /secondary /accumulators.
(a)Dry/primary/Laclanche cell
Examine a used dry cell.
Note the positive and the negative terminal of the cell. Carefully using a knife cut a
cross section from one terminal to the other.
The dry cell consist of a Zinc can containing a graphite rod at the centre
surrounded by a paste of;
-Ammonium chloride
-Zinc chloride
-powdered manganese (IV) oxide mixed with Carbon.
Zinc acts/serve as the negative terminal where it ionizes/dissociates:

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 718

Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2e

Ammonium ions in ammonium chloride serve as the positive terminal where it is
converted to ammonia gas and hydrogen gas.
2NH4+(aq) + 2e -> 2NH3(g) + H2(g)
Ammonia forms a complex salt / compound /(Zn(NH3) 4)2+ (aq) /
tetramminezinc(II) complex with the Zinc chloride in the paste.
Manganese (IV) oxide oxidizes the hydrogen produced at the electrodes to water
preventing any bubbles from coating the carbon terminal which would reduce the
efficiency of the cell.
Ammonium chloride is used as paste because the solid does not conduct electricity
because the ions are fused/not mobile.
Since the reactants are used up, the dry /primary /Laclanche cell cannot provide
continous supply of electricity.The process of restoring the reactants is called
recharging.
b)Wet/Secondary/Accumulators
1. Wet/Secondary/Accumulators are rechargeable unlike dry /primary /Laclanche
cells.Wet/Secondary/Accumulators are made up of:
(i)Lead plate that forms the negative terminal
(ii)Lead(IV) oxide that forms the positive terminal
2.The two electrodes are dipped in concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid of a relative
density 1.2/1.3
3.At the negative terminal,lead ionizes /dissolves;

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 719

Pb(s) -> Pb2+ + 2e

4.At the positive terminal,
(i) Lead(IV) oxide reacts with the hydrogen ions in sulphuric(VI)acid to
form Pb2+ (aq) ions;
PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2e -> Pb2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
(ii) Pb2+ (aq) ions formed instantly react with sulphate (VI) ions/ SO42- (aq)
from sulphuric (VI)acid to form insoluble Lead(II) sulphate (VI).
Pb2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) -> PbSO4(s)
5.The overall cell reaction is called discharging
PbO2(s) +Pb(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2SO42- (aq)-> 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) Eᶿ = +2.0V
6.The insoluble Lead(II) sulphate (VI) formed should not be left for long since
fine Lead(II) sulphate (VI) will change to a course non-reversible and inactive
form making the cell less efficient.
As the battery discharges ,lead and lead(IV)oxide are depleted/finished/reduced
and the concentration of sulphuric(VI)acid decreases.
7. During recharging, the electrode reaction is reversed as below:
2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) ->PbO2(s) +Pb(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2SO42- (aq)
8. A car battery has six Lead-acid cells making a total of 12 volts.

(iii)ELECTROLYSIS (ELECTROLYTIC CELL)

1.Electrolysis is defined simply as the decomposition of a compound by an
electric current/electricity.
A compound that is decomposed by an electric current is called an electrolyte.
Some electrolytes are weak while others are strong.
2.Strong electrolytes are those that are fully ionized/dissociated into (many) ions.
Common strong electrolytes include:
(i)all mineral acids
(ii)all strong alkalis/sodium hydroxide/potassium hydroxide.
(iii)all soluble salts
3.Weak electrolytes are those that are partially/partly ionized/dissociated into (few)
ions.
Common weak electrolytes include:
(i)all organic acids
(ii)all bases except sodium hydroxide/potassium hydroxide.
(iii)Water

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 720

4. A compound that is not decomposed by an electric current is called non-

electrolyte. Non-electrolytes are those compounds /substances that exist as
molecules and thus cannot ionize/dissociate into(any) ions .
Common non-electrolytes include:
(i) most organic solvents (e.g.
petrol/paraffin/benzene/methylbenzene/ethanol)
(ii)all hydrocarbons(alkanes /alkenes/alkynes)
(iii)Chemicals of life(e.g. proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, starch, sugar)
5. An electrolytes in solid state have fused /joined ions and therefore do not
conduct electricity but the ions (cations and anions) are free and mobile in molten
and aqueous (solution, dissolved in water) state.
6.During electrolysis, the free ions are attracted to the electrodes. An electrode is a
rod through which current enter and leave the electrolyte during electrolysis. An
electrode that does not influence/alter the products of electrolysis is called an inert
electrode.
Common inert electrodes include:
(i)Platinum
(ii)Carbon graphite
Platinum is not usually used in a school laboratory because it is very expensive.
Carbon graphite is easily/readily and cheaply available (from used dry cells).
7.The positive electrode is called Anode.The anode is the electrode through which
current enter the electrolyte/electrons leave the electrolyte
8.The negative electrode is called Cathode. The cathode is the electrode through
which current leave the electrolyte / electrons enter the electrolyte
9. During the electrolysis, free anions are attracted to the anode where they lose
/donate electrons to form neutral atoms/molecules. i.e.

M(l) -> M+(l) + e (for cations from molten electrolytes)

M(s) -> M+(aq) + e (for cations from electrolytes in aqueous state /
solution / dissolved in water)
The neutral atoms /molecules form the products of electrolysis at the anode. This
is called discharge at anode
10. During electrolysis, free cations are attracted to the cathode where they gain
/accept/acquire electrons to form neutral atoms/molecules.
X+ (aq) + 2e -> X(s) (for cations from electrolytes in aqueous state / solution /
dissolved in water)
2X+ (l) + 2e -> X (l) (for cations from molten electrolytes)

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 721

The neutral atoms /molecules form the products of electrolysis at the cathode. This
is called discharge at cathode.
11. The below set up shows an electrolytic cell.

Simple set up of electrolytic cell

Gaseous product at cathode Gaseous product at anode

Electrolyte

Cathode(-) Anode(+)

Battery

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 722

12. For a compound /salt containing only two ion/binary salt the products of
electrolysis in an electrolytic cell can be determined as in the below examples:

a)To determine the products of electrolysis of molten Lead(II)chloride

(i)Decomposition of electrolyte into free ions;
PbCl2 (l) -> Pb 2+(l) + 2Cl-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)
(ii)At the cathode/negative electrode(-);
Pb 2+(l) + 2e -> Pb (l)
(Cation / Pb 2+ gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)
(iii)At the anode/positive electrode(+);
2Cl-(l) -> Cl2 (g) + 2e
(Anion / Cl- donate/lose electrons to form free atom then a gas molecule)
(iv)Products of electrolysis therefore are;
I.At the cathode grey beads /solid lead metal.
II.At the anode pale green chlorine gas.
b)To determine the products of electrolysis of molten Zinc bromide
(i)Decomposition of electrolyte into free ions;
ZnBr2 (l) -> Zn 2+(l) + 2Br-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)

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 723

(ii)At the cathode/negative electrode(-);

Zn 2+(l) + 2e -> Zn(l)
(Cation / Zn2+ gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)
(iii)At the anode/positive electrode(+);
2Br-(l) -> Br2 (g) + 2e
(Anion / Br- donate/lose electrons to form free atom then a liquid molecule which
change to gas on heating)
(iv)Products of electrolysis therefore are;
I.At the cathode grey beads /solid Zinc metal.
II.At the anode red bromine liquid / red/brown bromine gas.

c)To determine the products of electrolysis of molten sodium chloride

(i)Decomposition of electrolyte into free ions;
NaCl (l) -> Na +(l) + Cl-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)
(ii)At the cathode/negative electrode(-);
2Na+(l) + 2e -> Na (l)
(Cation / Na+ gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)
(iii)At the anode/positive electrode(+);
2Cl-(l) -> Cl2 (g) + 2e
(Anion / Cl- donate/lose electrons to form free atom then a gas molecule)
(iv)Products of electrolysis therefore are;
I.At the cathode grey beads /solid sodium metal.
II.At the anode pale green chlorine gas.
d)To determine the products of electrolysis of molten Aluminium (III)oxide
(i)Decomposition of electrolyte into free ions;
Al2O3 (l) -> 2Al 3+(l) + 3O2-(l)
(Compound decomposed into free cation and anion in liquid state)
(ii)At the cathode/negative electrode(-);
4Al 3+ (l) + 12e -> 4Al (l)
(Cation / Al 3+ gains / accepts / acquires electrons to form free atom)
(iii)At the anode/positive electrode(+);
6O2-(l) -> 3O2 (g) + 12e
(Anion /6O2- donate/lose 12 electrons to form free atom then three gas molecule)
(iv)Products of electrolysis therefore are;
I.At the cathode grey beads /solid aluminium metal.
II.At the anode colourless gas that relights/rekindles glowing splint.

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 724

13. For a compound /salt mixture containing many ions in an electrolytic cell, the
discharge of ions in the cell depend on the following factors:
a) Position of cations and anions in the electrochemical series
1. Most electropositive cations require more energy to reduce (gain electrons) and
thus not readily discharged. The higher elements /metals in the electrochemical
series the less easily/readily it is discharged at the cathode in the electrolytic cell.
Table I showing the relative ease of discharge of cations in an electrolytic
cell
K+(aq) + e -> K(s) (least readily/easily discharged)
Na+(aq) + e -> Na(s)
Ca2+(aq) + 2e -> Ca(s)
Mg2+(aq) + 2e -> Mg(s)
Al3+(aq) + 3e -> Al(s)
Zn2+(aq) + 2e -> Zn(s)
Fe2+(aq) + 2e -> Fe(s)
2+
Pb (aq) + 2e -> Pb(s)
2H+(aq) + 2e -> H2(g) (hydrogen is usually “metallic”)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)
Hg2+(aq) + 2e -> Hg(s)
Ag+(aq) + e -> Ag(s) (most readily/easily discharged)
2.The OH- ion is the most readily/easily discharged anion . All the other anionic
radicals(SO42- ,SO32- ,CO32- ,HSO4- ,HCO3- ,NO3- ,PO43-)are not/never discharged.
The ease of discharge of halogen ions increase down the group.
Table II showing the relative ease of discharge of anions in an electrolytic
cell
4OH- (aq) -> 2H2O(l) + O2 (g) + 4e (most readily/easily discharged)
2 I-(aq) -> I2(aq) + 2e
-
2 Br (aq) -> Br2(aq) + 2e
2 Cl-(aq) -> Cl2(aq) + 2e
2 F-(aq) -> F2(aq) + 2e
SO42- ,SO32- ,CO32- ,HSO4- ,HCO3- ,NO3- ,PO43- not/never/rarely discharged.
3.(a)When two or more cations are attracted to the cathode, the ion lower in the
electrochemical series is discharged instead of that which is higher as per the table
I above. This is called selective/preferential discharge at cathode.
(b)When two or more anions are attracted to the anode, the ion higher in the
electrochemical series is discharged instead of that which is lower as per the table I
above. This is called selective/preferential discharge at anode.

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 725

4.The following experiments shows the influence /effect of selective/preferential

discharge on the products of electrolysis:
(i)Electrolysis of acidified water/dilute sulphuric(VI) acid
Fill the Hoffmann voltameter with dilute sulphuric(VI) acid. Connect the Hoffmann
voltameter to a d.c. electric supply. Note the observations at each electrode.
Electrolytic cell set up during electrolysis of acidified water/dilute sulphuric(VI)
acid

Simple set up of electrolytic cell

Gaseous product at cathode Gaseous product at anode

Electrolyte

Cathode(-) Anode(+)

Battery

Answer the following questions:

I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolytes during the
electrolytic process.
H2O(l) -> OH- (aq) + H+(aq)
H2 SO4(aq) -> SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq)
II. Name the ions in acidified water that are attracted/move to:
Cathode- H+(aq) from either sulphuric(VI) acid (H2 SO4) or water (H2O)
Anode- SO42-(aq) from sulphuric (VI) acid (H2 SO4) and OH- (aq) from water
(H2O)
III. Write the equation for the reaction during the electrolytic process at the:
Cathode 4H+(aq) + 4e -> 2H2(g)
Anode 4OH- (aq) -> 2H2O(l) + O2 (g) + 4e
(4OH- ions selectively discharged instead of SO42- ions at the anode)
IV. Name the products of electrolysis of acidified water.
Cathode-Hydrogen gas (colourless gas that extinguishes burning splint with
explosion/ “pop” sound
Anode-Oxygen gas (colourless gas that relights /rekindles glowing splint)

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 726

V. Explain the difference in volume of products at the cathode and anode.

The four(4) electrons donated/lost by OH- ions to form 1 molecule/1volume/1mole
of oxygen (O2)gas at the anode are gained/acquired/accepted by the four H+(aq)
ions to form 2 molecule/2volume/2mole of Hydrogen (H2)gas at the cathode.
The volume of Oxygen gas at the anode is thus a half the volume of Hydrogen
produced at the cathode/ The volume of Hydrogen gas at the cathode is thus a
twice the volume of Oxygen produced at the anode.
VI. Why is electrolysis of dilute sulphuric(VI) acid called “electrolysis of
(acidified) water”?
The ratio of H2 (g): O2 (g) is 2:1 as they are combined in water. This implies/means
that water in the electrolyte is being decomposed into hydrogen and Oxygen gases.
The electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid is therefore called “electrolysis of acidified
water.”
VI. Explain the changes in concentration of the electrolyte during electrolysis
of acidified water”
The concentration of dilute sulphuric (VI) acid increases. Water in the electrolyte
is decomposed into Hydrogen and Oxygen gases that escape. The concentration
/mole of acid present in a given volume of solution thus continue increasing/rising.
(ii)Electrolysis of Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution
Fill the Hoffmann voltameter with dilute sulphuric(VI) acid. Connect the Hoffmann
voltameter to a d.c. electric supply. Note the observations at each electrode.
Answer the following questions:
I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolytes during the
electrolytic process.
H2O(l) -> OH- (aq) + H+(aq)
Mg SO4(aq) -> SO42-(aq) + Mg2+(aq)
II. Name the ions in Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution that are attracted/move
to:
Cathode- Mg2+(aq) from Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution (Mg SO4) and H+(aq)
from water (H2O)
Anode- SO42-(aq) from Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution (Mg SO4) and OH- (aq)
from water (H2O)
III. Write the equation for the reaction during the electrolytic process at the:
Cathode 4H+(aq) + 4e -> 2H2(g)
H+ ions selectively discharged instead of Mg2+ ions at the cathode)

Anode 4OH- (aq) -> 2H2O(l) + O2 (g) + 4e

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 727

(4OH- ions selectively discharged instead of SO42- ions at the anode)

IV. Name the products of electrolysis of Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution
Cathode-Hydrogen gas (colourless gas that extinguishes burning splint with
explosion/ “pop” sound
Anode-Oxygen gas (colourless gas that relights /rekindles glowing splint)
V. Explain the difference in volume of products at the cathode and anode.
The four(4) electrons donated/lost by OH- ions to form 1 molecule/1volume/1mole
of oxygen (O2)gas at the anode are gained/acquired/accepted by the four H+(aq)
ions to form 2 molecule/2volume/2mole of Hydrogen (H2)gas at the cathode.
The volume of Oxygen gas at the anode is thus a half the volume of Hydrogen
produced at the cathode/ The volume of Hydrogen gas at the cathode is thus a
twice the volume of Oxygen produced at the anode.
VI. Explain the changes in concentration of the electrolyte during electrolysis
of Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution
The concentration of dilute Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution increases.
The ratio of H2 (g): O2 (g) is 2:1 as they are combined in water.
Water in the electrolyte is decomposed into Hydrogen and Oxygen gases that
escape as products.
The concentration /mole of acid present in a given volume of Magnesium
sulphate(VI) solution thus continue increasing/rising.
The set – up below was used during the electrolysis of aqueous magnesium
sulphate using inert electrodes.

Name a suitable pair of electrodes for this experiment

Identify the ions and cations in the solution
On the diagram label the cathode
Write ionic equations for the reactions that took place at the anode.
Explain the change that occurred to the concentration of magnesium sulphate
solution during the experience.

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 728

During the electrolysis a current of 2 amperes was passed through the solution for 4
hours. Calculate the volume of the gas produced at the anode.(1 faraday 96500
coulombs and volume of a gas at room temperature is 24000cm3)
One of the uses of electrolysis is electroplating
What is meant by electroplating?
Give tow reasons why electroplating is necessary.
b) Concentration of the electrolytes
1.High concentrations of cations and/or anions at the electrodes block the ion/s that
is likely to be discharged at the electrode. This is called over voltage. A
concentrated solution therefore produces different products of electrolysis from a
dilute one.
2. The following experiments show the influence/effect of concentration of
electrolyte on the products of electrolysis.
(i)Electrolysis of dilute and concentrated(brine)sodium chloride solution
I. Dissolve about 0.5 g of pure sodium chloride crystals in 100cm3 of water. Place
the solution in an electrolytic cell. Note the observations at each electrode for 10
minutes. Transfer the set up into a fume chamber/open and continue to make
observations for a further 10 minute.
Answer the following questions:
I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolytes during the
electrolytic process.
H2O(l) -> OH- (aq) + H+(aq)
NaCl(aq) -> Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq)
II. Name the ions in sodium chloride solution that are attracted/move to:
Cathode- Na+(aq) from Sodium chloride solution (NaCl) and H+(aq) from water
(H2O)
Anode- Cl-(aq) from sodiumchloride solution (NaCl) and OH- (aq) from water
(H2O)
III. Write the equation for the reaction during the electrolytic process at the:
Cathode 4H+(aq) + 4e -> 2H2(g)
H+ ions selectively discharged instead of Na+ ions at the cathode)
Anode 4OH- (aq) -> 2H2O(l) + O2 (g) + 4e
(4OH ions selectively discharged instead of Cl- ions at the anode)
-

IV. Name the products of electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution

Cathode-Hydrogen gas (colourless gas that extinguishes burning splint with
explosion/ “pop” sound
Anode-Oxygen gas (colourless gas that relights /rekindles glowing splint)

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 729

V. Explain the difference in volume of products at the cathode and anode.

Four(4) electrons donated/lost by OH- ions to form 1 molecule/1volume/1mole of
oxygen (O2)gas at the anode are gained/acquired/accepted by four H+(aq) ions to
form 2 molecule/2volume/2mole of Hydrogen (H2)gas at the cathode.
The volume of Oxygen gas at the anode is half the volume of Hydrogen produced
at the cathode/ The volume of Hydrogen gas at the cathode is twice the volume of
Oxygen produced at the anode.
VI. Explain the changes in concentration of the electrolyte during electrolysis
of sodium chloride solution
The concentration of dilute sodium chloride solution increases.
The ratio of H2 (g): O2 (g) is 2:1 as they are combined in water. Water in the
electrolyte is decomposed into Hydrogen and Oxygen gases that escape as
products. The concentration /moles of salt present in a given volume of sodium
chloride solution continue increasing/rising.
II. Dissolve about 20 g of pure sodium chloride crystals in 100cm3 of water. Place
the solution in an electrolytic cell. Note the observations continuously at each
electrode for 30 minutes in a fume chamber/open.
Answer the following questions:
I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolytes during the
electrolytic process.
H2O(l) -> OH- (aq) + H+(aq)
NaCl(aq) -> Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq)

II. Name the ions in sodium chloride solution that are attracted/move to:
Cathode- Na+(aq) from Sodium chloride solution (NaCl) and H+(aq) from water
(H2O)
Anode- Cl-(aq) from sodium chloride solution (NaCl) and OH- (aq) from water
(H2O)
III. Write the equation for the reaction during the electrolytic process at the:
Cathode 2H+(aq) + 2e -> H2(g)
H+ ions selectively discharged instead of Na+ ions at the cathode)
Anode 2Cl- (aq) -> Cl2(g) + 4e
(Cl ions with a higher concentration block the discharge of OH- ions at the anode)
-

IV. Name the products of electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride

solution/brine
Cathode-Hydrogen gas (colourless gas that extinguishes burning splint with
explosion/ “pop” sound

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 730

Anode-Chlorine gas(pale green gas that bleaches damp/moist/wet litmus papers)

V. Explain the difference in volume of products at the cathode and anode.
Two (2) electrons donated/lost by Cl- ions to form 1 molecule/1volume/1mole of
Chlorine (Cl2)gas at the anode are gained/acquired/accepted by two H+(aq) ions to
form 1 molecule/1volume/1mole of Hydrogen (H2)gas at the cathode.
The volume of Chlorine gas at the anode is equal to the volume of Hydrogen
produced at the cathode/ The volume of Hydrogen gas at the cathode is equal to
the volume of Chlorine produced at the anode.
VI. Explain the changes in concentration of the electrolyte during electrolysis
of concentrated sodium chloride solution/brine
The concentration of concentrated sodium chloride solution/brine increases.
The ratio of Cl2 (g): H2 (g) is 1:1 as they are combined in water.
Water in the electrolyte is decomposed into only Hydrogen gas that escapes as
products at cathode.
The concentration /moles of OH- (aq) and Na+ ion (as NaOH) present in a given
volume of electrolyte continue increasing/rising.
This makes the electrolyte strongly alkaline with high pH.
As the electrolysis of brine continues the concentration of Cl- ions decrease and
oxygen gas start being liberated at anode.
The electrolyte pH is thus lowered and the concentration of brine starts again
increasing.
(ii)Electrolysis of dilute and concentrated Hydrochloric acid solution
I. Prepare about 50cm3 of 0.05 M of dilute Hydrochloric acid in 100cm3 solution.
Place the solution in an electrolytic cell. Note the observations at each electrode for
10 minutes.
Answer the following questions:
I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolytes during the
electrolytic process.
H2O(l) -> OH- (aq) + H+(aq)
HCl(aq) -> Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)
II. Name the ions in dilute Hydrochloric acid solution that are attracted/move
to:
Cathode- H+(aq) from dilute Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and H+(aq) from water
(H2O)
Anode- Cl-(aq) from dilute Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and OH- (aq) from water
(H2O)
III. Write the equation for the reaction during the electrolytic process at the:

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 731

Cathode 4H+(aq) + 4e -> 2H2(g)

H ions selectively discharged instead of Na+ ions at the cathode)
+

Anode 4OH- (aq) -> H2O(l) +O2+ 4e

(4OH ions selectively discharged instead of Cl- ions at the anode)
-

IV. Name the products of electrolysis of dilute Hydrochloric acid

Cathode-Hydrogen gas (colourless gas that extinguishes burning splint with
explosion/ “pop” sound
Anode-Oxygen gas (colourless gas that relights /rekindles glowing splint)
V. Explain the difference in volume of products at the cathode and anode.
Four(4) electrons donated/lost by OH- ions to form 1 molecule/1volume/1mole of
oxygen (O2)gas at the anode are gained/acquired/accepted by four H+(aq) ions to
form 2 molecule/2volume/2mole of Hydrogen (H2)gas at the cathode.
The volume of Oxygen gas at the anode is half the volume of Hydrogen produced
at the cathode/ The volume of Hydrogen gas at the cathode is twice the volume of
Oxygen produced at the anode.
VI. Explain the changes in concentration of the electrolyte during electrolysis
of dilute Hydrochloric acid
The concentration of dilute Hydrochloric acid increases.
The ratio of H2 (g): O2 (g) is 2:1 as they are combined in water. Water in the
electrolyte is decomposed into Hydrogen and Oxygen gases that escape as
products. The concentration /moles of HCl present in a given volume of dilute
Hydrochloric acid continue increasing/rising.
II. Prepare about 50cm3 of 2M of Hydrochloric acid in 100cm3 solution. Place the
solution in an electrolytic cell. Note the observations at each electrode for 30
minutes
CautionThis experiment should be done in the open/fume chamber.
Answer the following questions:
I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolytes during the
electrolytic process.
H2O(l) -> OH- (aq) + H+(aq)
HCl(aq) -> Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)

II. Name the ions in 2M Hydrochloric acid solution that are attracted/move to:
Cathode- H+(aq) from dilute Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and H+(aq) from water
(H2O)
Anode- Cl-(aq) from dilute Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and OH- (aq) from water
(H2O)

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 732

III. Write the equation for the reaction during the electrolytic process at the:
Cathode 4H+(aq) + 4e -> 2H2(g)
H+ ions selectively discharged instead of Na+ ions at the cathode)
Anode 2Cl- (aq) -> Cl2+ 2e
(OH ions concentration is low.Cl- ions concentration is higher at the anode thus
-

cause over voltage/block discharge of OH- ions)

IV. Name the products of electrolysis of 2M Hydrochloric acid
Cathode-Hydrogen gas (colourless gas that extinguishes burning splint with
explosion/ “pop” sound
Anode-Chlorine gas (Pale green gas that bleaches blue/red moist/wet/damp litmus
papers)
V. Explain the difference in volume of products at the cathode and anode.
Two(2) electrons donated/lost by Cl- ions to form 1 molecule/1volume/1mole of
Chlorine (Cl2)gas at the anode are gained/acquired/accepted by two H+(aq) ions to
form 1 molecule/1volume/1mole of Hydrogen (H2)gas at the cathode.
The volume of Chlorine gas at the anode is equal to the volume of Hydrogen
produced at the cathode/ The volume of Hydrogen gas at the cathode is twice the
volume of Chlorine produced at the anode.
VI. Explain the changes in concentration of the electrolyte during electrolysis
of 2M Hydrochloric acid
The concentration of Hydrochloric acid decreases.
The ratio of H2 (g): Cl2 (g) is 1:1 as they are combined in Hydrochloric acid.
Water in the electrolyte is decomposed only into Hydrogen gas that escapes as
products at the cathode.
There is a net accumulation of excess OH- (aq) ions in solution.
This makes the electrolyte strongly alkaline with high pH.
c) Nature of electrodes used in the electrolytic cell
Inert electrodes (carbon-graphite and platinum) do not alter the expected products
of electrolysis in an electrolytic cell. If another/different electrode is used in the
electrolytic cell it alters/influences/changes the expected products of electrolysis.
The examples below illustrate the influence of the nature of electrode on the
products of electrolysis:
(i)Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution
I. Using carbon-graphite electrodes
Weigh Carbon -graphite electrodes. Record the masses of the electrodes in table I
below. Place the electrodes in 1M copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution in a beaker. Set
up an electrolytic cell.

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 733

Close the switch and pass current for about 20 minutes. Observe each electrode and
any changes in electrolyte. Remove the electrodes from the electrolyte. Wash with
acetone/propanone and allow them to dry. Reweigh each electrode.
Sample results
Mass of cathode 23.4 g Mass of anode before 22.4 g
before electrolysis electrolysis
Mass of cathode after 25.4 g Mass of anode after 22.4 g
electrolysis electrolysis
Brown solid deposit at - Bubbles of colourless -
the cathode after gas that relight splint
electrolysis
Blue colour of - Blue colour of -
electrolyte electrolyte fades
fades/become less blue /become less blue
Answer the following questions:
I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolytes during the
electrolytic process.
H2O(l) -> OH- (aq) + H+(aq)
CuSO4(aq) -> SO42-(aq) + Cu2+(aq)
II. Name the ions in 1M copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution that are
attracted/move to:
Cathode- Cu2+ (aq) from copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution and H+(aq) from water
(H2O)
Anode- SO42-(aq) from copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution and OH- (aq) from water
(H2O)
III. Write the equation for the reaction during the electrolytic process at the:
Cathode 2Cu2+ (aq) + 4e -> 2Cu(g)
Cu2+ ions are lower than H+ ions in the electrochemical series therefore selectively
discharged at the cathode.)
Anode 4OH- (aq) -> H2O(l) + O2+ 4e
(OH ions ions are higher than SO42- ions in the electrochemical series therefore
-

selectively discharged at the cathode.))

IV. Name the products of electrolysis of 1M copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution
Cathode-2 moles of copper metal as brown solid coat
Anode-Oxygen gas (Colourless gas that relights /rekindles glowing splint)
V. Explain the changes that take place at the cathode and anode.

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 734

Four(4) electrons donated/lost by OH- ions to form 1 molecule/1volume/1mole of

Oxygen (O2)gas at the anode are gained/acquired/accepted by two Cu2+(aq) ions
to form 2 moles of brown copper solid that deposit itself at the cathode.
The moles of oxygen gas at the anode is equal to the moles of copper produced at
the cathode
VI. Explain the changes in electrolyte during electrolysis of 1M copper (II)
sulphate(VI) solution.
(i)The pH of copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution lowers/decreases. The salt becomes
more acidic. Water in the electrolyte is decomposed only into Oxygen gas (from
the OH- ions) that escapes as products at the anode. There is a net accumulation of
excess H+ (aq) ions in solution. This makes the electrolyte strongly acidic with low
pH.
(ii) Cu2+ (aq) ions are responsible for the blue colour of the electrolyte/ copper(II)
sulphate (VI) solution. As electrolysis continues, blue Cu2+ (aq) ions gain electrons
to form brown Copper. The blue colour of electrolyte therefore fades/become less
blue.
(iii)Copper is deposited at the cathode. This increases the mass of the cathode.OH-
ions that produce Oxygen gas at anode come from water. Oxygen escapes out/away
without increasing the mass of anode.
II. Using copper electrodes
Weigh clean copper plates electrodes. Record the masses of the electrodes in table
I below. Place the electrodes in 1M copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution in a beaker.
Set up an electrolytic cell.
Close the switch and pass current for about 20 minutes. Observe each electrode and
any changes in electrolyte. Remove the electrodes from the electrolyte. Wash with
acetone/propanone and allow them to dry. Reweigh each electrode.
Sample results
Mass of cathode 23.4 g Mass of anode before 22.4 g
before electrolysis electrolysis
Mass of cathode after 25.4 g Mass of anode after 20.4 g
electrolysis electrolysis
Brown solid deposit at - Anode decrease -
the cathode after insize/erodes/wear off
electrolysis
Blue colour of - Blue colour of -
electrolyte remain blue electrolyte remain blue
Answer the following questions:

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 735

I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolytes during the
electrolytic process.
H2O(l) -> OH- (aq) + H+(aq)
CuSO4(aq) -> SO42-(aq) + Cu2+(aq)

II. Name the ions in 1M copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution that are

attracted/move to:
Cathode- Cu2+ (aq) from copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution and H+(aq) from water
(H2O)
Anode- SO42-(aq) from copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution and OH- (aq) from water
(H2O)
III. Write the equation for the reaction during the electrolytic process at the:
Cathode Cu2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)
Cu2+ ions are lower than H+ ions in the electrochemical series therefore selectively
discharged at the cathode.)
Anode Cu (s) -> Cu2+(aq) + 2e
(Both OH- ions and SO42- ions move to the anode but none is discharged. The
copper anode itself ionizes/dissolves/dissociate because less energy is used to
remove an electron/ionize /dissociate copper atoms than OH- ions.
IV. Name the products of electrolysis of 1M copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution
using copper electrodes.
Cathode-1 moles of copper metal as brown solid coat (Cathode increase/deposits)
Anode-Anode erodes/decrease in size
V. Explain the changes that take place during the electrolytic process
(i)Cathode
-Cu2+ ions are lower than H+ ions in the electrochemical series therefore
selectively discharged at the cathode. Cu2+ ions have greater tendency to
accept/gain/acquire electrons to form brown copper atoms/solid that deposit itself
and increase the mass/size of the cathode.The copper deposited at the cathode is
pure
-H+ ions accumulate around the cathode. Electrolyte thus becomes strongly acidic
around the cathode.
-Cu2+ ions in solution are responsible for the blue colour of electrolyte. Blue colour
of electrolyte fade around the cathode.
(ii)Anode

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 736

Copper atom at the anode easily ionizes to release electrons. The anode therefore
keeps decreasing in mass/eroding. The amount of copper that dissolve/erode is
equal to the mass of copper deposited. This is called electrode ionization.
Electrode ionization is where the anode erodes/decrease and the cathode
deposits/increase during electrolysis. The overall concentration of the electrolyte
remains constant
14.In industries electrolysis has the following uses/applications:
(a)Extraction of reactive metals from their ores.
Potassium, sodium ,magnesium, and aluminium are extracted from their ores using
electrolytic methods.
(b)Purifying copper after exraction from copper pyrites ores.
Copper obtained from copper pyrites ores is not pure. After extraction, the copper
is refined by electrolysing copper(II)sulphate(VI) solution using the impure copper
as anode and a thin strip of pure copper as cathode. Electrode ionization take
place there:
(i)At the cathode; Cu2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s) (Pure copper deposits on the strip
(ii)At the anode; Cu(s) ->Cu2+ (aq) + 2e (impure copper erodes/dissolves)
(c)Electroplating
The label EPNS(Electro Plated Nickel Silver) on some steel/metallic utensils mean
they are plated/coated with silver and/or Nickel to improve their appearance(add
their aesthetic value)and prevent/slow corrosion(rusting of iron). Electroplating
is the process of coating a metal with another metal using an electric current.
During electroplating,the cathode is made of the metal to be coated/impure.
Example:
During the electroplating of a spoon with silver
(i)the spoon/impure is placed as the cathode(negative terminal of battery)
(ii)the pure silver is placed as the anode(positive terminal of battery)
(iii)the pure silver erodes/ionizes/dissociates to release electrons:
Ag(s) ->Ag+ (aq) + e (impure silver erodes/dissolves)
+
(iv) silver (Ag )ions from electrolyte gain electrons to form pure silver
deposits / coat /cover the spoon/impure
Ag+ (aq) + e ->Ag(s) (pure silver deposits /coat/cover on spoon)

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 737

15.The quantitative amount of products of electrolysis can be determined by

applying Faradays 1st law of electrolysis.
Faradays 1st law of electrolysis states that “the mass/amount of substance
liberated/produced/used during electrolysis is directly proportional to the
quantity of of electricity passed/used.”
(a)The SI unit of quantity of electricity is the coulomb(C). The coulomb may be
defined as the quantity of electricity passed/used when a current of one ampere
flow for one second.i.e;
1Coulomb = 1 Ampere x 1Second
The Ampere is the SI unit of current(I)
The Second is the SI unit of time(t) therefore;
Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)
Practice examples
1. A current of 2 amperes was passed through an electrolytic cell for 20
minutes. Calculate the quantity of electric charge produced.
Working:
Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)
Substituting /converting time to second = 2 x (20 x 60)
= 2400 C

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 738

2. A current of 2 amperes was passed through an electrolytic.96500 coulombs

of charge were produced. Calculate the time taken.
Working:
Time(t) in seconds = Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs)
Current(I) in amperes
Substituting = 96500
2
= 48250 seconds
3. 96500 coulombs of charge were produced after 10 minutes in an electrolytic
cell . Calculate the amount of current used.
Working:
Current(I) in amperes = Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs)
Time(t) in seconds
Substituting/converting time to second= 96500
10 x 60
= 160.8333 Amperes
(b)The quantity of electricity required for one mole of electrons at the
anode/cathode is called the Faraday constant(F). It is about 96500 Coulombs.i.e
The number of Faradays used /required is equal to the number of electrons used at
cathode/anode during the electrolytic process. e.g.
Cu2+ require to gain 2 moles of electrons=2 Faradays =2 x 96500 coulombs of
electricity at the cathode.
Al3+ require to gain 3 moles of electrons=3 Faradays =3 x 96500 coulombs of
electricity at the cathode
Na+ require to gain 1 moles of electrons=1 Faradays =1 x 96500 coulombs of
electricity at the cathode
2H+ require to gain 2 moles of electrons=2 Faradays =2 x 96500 coulombs of
electricity at the cathode to form 1molecule of hydrogen gas
2O2- require to lose/donate 4 moles of electrons=4 Faradays =4 x 96500 coulombs
of electricity at the anode to form 1molecule of Oxygen O2 gas.
4OH- require to lose/donate 4 moles of electrons=4 Faradays =4 x 96500 coulombs
of electricity at the anode to form 1molecule of Oxygen gas and 2 molecules of
water.
(c)The mass/amount of products at the cathode/anode is related to the molar mass
of the substance and/or the volume of gases at standard/room temperature and
pressure as in the below examples:
Practice examples

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 739

1.Calculate the mass of copper deposited at the cathode when a steady current
of 4.0 amperes is passed through copper(II)sulphate(VI) for 30 minutes in an
electrolytic cell. (Cu=63.5, 1F = 96500C)
Working:
Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)
Substituting /converting time to second = 4 x (30 x 60)
= 7200 C
2+
Equation at the cathode: Cu (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)
2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C produce a mass =molar mass of
copper thus;
2 x 96500C -> 63.5 g
72000C -> 7200 x 63.5 = 2.3689 g of copper
2 x 96500
2.a)If 3.2 g of Lead were deposited when a current of 2.5 amperes was passed
through an electrolytic cell of molten Lead(II)bromide for 20 minutes,
determine the Faraday constant.(Pb = 207)
Working:
Quantity of electricity (in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)
Substituting /converting time to second = 2.5 x (20 x 60)
= 3000 C
If 3.2g of Lead -> 3000C
Then 207 g of Lead -> 207 x 3000 = 194062.5 C
3.2
Equation at the cathode: Pb2+ (l) + 2e -> Pb(l)
From the equation: 2 moles of electrons = 2 Faradays = 194062.5 C
1mole of electrons = 1 Faraday => 194062.5 = 97031.25 C
2

b)What is the volume of bromine vapour produced at the anode at room

temperature(1mole of gas at room temperature and pressure = 24000cm3)
Method 1
Equation at the anode: Br- (l) -> Br2(g) + 2e
From the equation: 2 moles of electrons = 2 Faradays = 194062.5 C -> 24000cm3
3000 C -> 3000 x 24000
194062.5
=371.0145cm3
Method 2

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 740

Equation at the anode: Br- (l) -> Br2(g) + 2e

Mole ratio of products at Cathode: anode = 1:1
Moles of Lead at cathode = 3.2 = 0.0155moles = moles of Bromine
207
1 moles of bromine vapour -> 24000cm3
0.0155moles of Bromine -> 0.0155 x 24000 = 372 cm3
Method 3
Equation at the anode: Br- (l) -> Br2(g) + 2e
Ratio of Faradays used to form products at Cathode: anode = 2:2
=> 2 x 97031.25 C produce 24000cm3 of bromine vapour
Then: 3000 C -> 3000 x 24000cm3 = 371.0145cm3
2 x 97031.25
3.What mass of copper remain from 2.0 at the anode if a solution of
copper(II)sulphate(VI) is electrolysed using a current of 1 ampere flowing
through an electrolytic cell for 20 minutes.(Cu= 63.5, 1Faraday = 96487
coulombs)
Working:
Quantity of electricity (in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)
Substituting /converting time to second = 1 x (20 x 60)
= 1200 C
Equation at the cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)

2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C erode/dissolve a mass =molar mass

of copper thus;
2 x 96500C -> 63.5 g
1200C -> 1200 x 63.5 = 0.3948g of copper deposited
2 x 96500
Mass of copper remaining = Original mass – mass dissolved/eroded
=> 2.0 -0.3948 = 1.6052 g of copper remain

4. Calculate the current passed if a mass of 0.234 g of copper is deposited in 4

minutes during electrolysis of a solution of copper (II)sulphate(VI).
(Cu= 63.5 ,1F = 96500C)
Working:
Equation at the cathode: Cu(s) -> Cu2+ (aq) + 2e
2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C produce a mass =molar mass of
copper thus;

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 741

63.5 g -> 2 x 96500C

0.234 g -> 0.234 x 2 x 96500 = 711.2126 C
63.5
Current(I) in amperes = Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs)
Time(t) in seconds
Substituting/converting time to second= 711.2126 C
4x 60
= 2.9634 Amperes
5. (a)What quantity of electricity will deposit a mass of 2.43 g of Zinc during
electrolysis of a solution of Zinc (II)sulphate(VI).
(Zn= 65 ,1F = 96500C)
Working:
Equation at the cathode: Zn2+ (aq) + 2e -> Zn(s)

2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C erode/dissolve a mass =molar mass

of Zinc thus;
65 g -> 2 x 96500
2.43 g -> 2.43 x 2 x 96500 = 7215.2308 C
65
(b)Calculate the time (in minutes) it would take during electrolysis of the
solution of Zinc (II)sulphate(VI) above if a current of 4.0 Amperes is used.
Time(t) in seconds = Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs)
Current(I) in amperes
Substituting = 7215.2308 = 1803.8077 seconds = 30.0635 minutes
4 60
6.When a current of 1.5 amperes was passed through a cell containing M3+
ions of metal M for 15 minutes, the mass at cathode increased by 0.26
g.(Faraday constant = 96500C
a) Calculate the quantity of electricity used.
Quantity of electricity (in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)
Substituting /converting time to second = 1.5 x (15 x 60)
= 1350 C
b) Determine the relative atomic mass of metal M
Equation at the cathode: M3+ (aq) + 3e -> M(s)
1350 C of electricity -> 0.26 g of metal M
3 mole of electrons = 3 Faradays = 3 x 96500 C produce a mass =molar mass of M
thus;

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 742

RAM of M = 0.26 g x 3 x 96500 = 55.7556(No units)

1350
7.An element “P” has a relative atomic mass 88.When a current of 0.5
amperes was passed through fused chloride of “P” for 32 minutes and
10seconds ,0.44 g of “P” was deposited at the cathode. Determine the charge
on an ion of “P”(Faraday constant = 96500C)
Working:
Quantity of electricity (in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)
Substituting /converting time to second = 0.5 x ((32 x 60) + 10)
= 965C
0.44 g of metal “P” are deposited by 965C
88g of of metal “P” are deposited by: 88 x 965= 193000 C
0.44
96500 C = 1 mole of electrons = 1 Faradays = single charge
193000 C -> 193000 = 2 moles/Faradays/charges => symbol of ion = P2+
96500
8. During purification of copper by electrolysis 1.48 g of copper was deposited
when a current was passed through aqueous copper (II)sulphate(VI) for 2 ½
hours. Calculate the amount of current that was passed. (Cu= 63.5
,1F = 96500C)
Working:
Equation at the cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-> Cu(s)
2 mole of electrons = 2 Faradays = 2 x 96500 C produce a mass =molar mass of
copper thus;
63.5 g -> 2 x 96500C
1.48 g -> 1.48 x 2 x 96500 = 4255.1181 C
63.5
Current(I) in amperes = Quantity of electricity(in Coulombs)
Time(t) in seconds
Substituting/converting time to second= 4255.1181C
(( 2 x 60) + 30) x60
= 0.4728 Amperes
17. Practically Faraday 1st law of electrolysis can be verified as below.
Verifying Faraday 1st law of electrolysis
Procedure.

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 743

Weigh clean copper plates electrodes. Record the masses of the electrodes in table I
below. Place the electrodes in 1M copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution in a beaker. Set
up an electrolytic cell.
Close the switch and pass a steady current of 2 amperes by adjusting the rheostat
for exactly 20 minutes.Remove the electrodes from the electrolyte. Wash with
acetone/ propanone and allow them to dry. Reweigh each electrode.
Sample results
Mass of cathode 7.00 g Mass of anode before 7.75 g
before electrolysis electrolysis
Mass of cathode after 8.25 g Mass of anode after 6.50 g
electrolysis electrolysis
Change in mass at 1.25 g Change in mass at 1.25
cathode after anode after electrolysis g
electrolysis
Answer the following questions:
I. Write the equation for the decomposition of the electrolytes during the
electrolytic process.
H2O(l) -> OH- (aq) + H+(aq)
CuSO4(aq) -> SO42-(aq) + Cu2+(aq)
II. Name the ions in 1M copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution that are
attracted/move to:
Cathode- Cu2+ (aq) from copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution and H+(aq) from water
(H2O)
Anode- SO42-(aq) from copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution and OH- (aq) from water
(H2O)
III. Write the equation for the reaction during the electrolytic process at the:
Cathode Cu2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)
Cu2+ ions are lower than H+ ions in the electrochemical series therefore selectively
discharged at the cathode.)
Anode Cu (s) -> Cu2+(aq) + 2e
(Both OH ions and SO42- ions move to the anode but none is discharged. The
-

copper anode itself ionizes/dissolves/dissociate as less energy is used to remove an

electron/ionize /dissociate copper atoms than OH- ions.
IV. Name the products of electrolysis of 1M copper(II) sulphate(VI) solution
using copper electrodes.
Cathode-1.25 g of copper metal as brown solid coat/deposits
Anode-1.25 g of copper metal erodes/decrease in size

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 744

V. (i)How many moles of electrons are used to deposit/erode one mole of

copper metal at the cathode/anode?
From the equation at anode/cathode= 2 moles
(ii)How many Faradays are used to deposit/erode one mole of copper metal at
the cathode/anode?
From the equation at anode/cathode : 2 moles = 2 Faradays

(iii)Calculate the quantity of electric charge used

Working:
Quantity of electricity (in Coulombs) = Current(I) x time(t)
Substituting /converting time to second = 2 x 20 x 60
= 2400C
VI. (i) Calculate the quantity of electricity required to deposit/erode one mole
of copper at the cathode/anode(Cu=63.5)
Since 1.25 g of copper -> 2400C
Then 63.5 g (1mole of copper) -> 63.5 x 2400 = 121920 C
1.25
(ii)Determine the Faraday constant from the results in V(i) above
From the equation at;
Cathode Cu2+ (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s)
Anode Cu (s) -> Cu2+(aq) + 2e
2 moles = 2 Faradays -> 121920 C
1 moles = 1 Faradays -> 121920 = 60960 C
2
(iii) The faraday constant obtained above is far lower than theoretical.Explain
-high resistance of the wires used.
-temperatures at 25oC were not kept constant
-plates/electrodes used were not made of pure copper
-plates/electrodes used were not thoroughly clean copper
Further practice
1.An element P has a relative atomic mass of 88. When a current of 0.5
amperes was passed through the fused chloride of P for 32 minutes and 10
seconds, 0.44g of P were deposited at the cathode. Determine the charge on an
ion of P. (1 faraday = 96500 Coulombs).
2.During electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulphate, 144750 coulombs of
electricity were used. Calculate the mass of copper metal that was obtained
(Cu = 64 ;1 Faraday = 96500 coulombs) ( 3 mks)

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 745

3.A nitrate of a metal M was electrolysed .1.18 g of metal was deposited when
a current of 4 ampheres flow for 16 minutes.Determine the formula of the
sulphate(VI)salt of the metal.
(Faraday constant = 96500 , RAM of X = 59.0)
Working
Q = It =>( 4 x 16 x 60) = 3840 C
1.18 g of X => 3840 C
59.0 g => 59.0 x 3840 = 192000 C
1.18
96500 C = 1Faraday
192000 C= 192000 C x1 = 2F thus charge of M = M2+
96500 C
Valency of M is 2 thus formula of sulphate(VI)salt MSO4
4. Below is the results obtained when a current of 2.0ampheres is passed
through copper(II)sulphate(VI)solution for 15 minutes during electrolysis using
copper electrode.
Initial mass of cathode = 1.0 g
Final mass of cathode = 1.6 g
Change in mass of cathode = 0.60 g
(i)Determine the change in mass at the anode. Explain your answer.
Mass decrease = 0.6g.
Electrode ionization take place where the cathode increase in mass form the
erosion of the anode
(ii)Calculate the quantity of electricity required to deposit one mole of
copper.(Cu =63.5)
Q =It => 2 x 15 x 60 = 1800 coulombs
Method 1
0.60 g of copper ->1800 coulombs
63.5 g -> 63.5 x 1800 = 190500 Coulombs
0.60
Method 2
Moles of Copper = Mass => 0.60 = 9.4488 x10 -3 moles
Molar mass 63.5
9.4488 x10 -3 moles -> 1800 coulombs
1 Mole -> 1 x 1800 coulombs = 190500.381
coulombs
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 746

9.4488 x10 -3 moles

(iii)Determine the oxidation number of copper produced at the cathode and
hence the formula of its nitrate (V)salt (1 Faraday = 96500 Coulombs)
96500 Coulombs -> 1 Faraday
190500.381 coulombs -> 190500.381 coulombs x 1
96500 Coulombs
= 1.9741 Faradays => 2F(whole number)
Charge of copper = 2+ = Oxidation number
=> Valency of copper = 2 hence chemical formula of nitrate (V)salt = Cu (NO3)2

RADIOACTIVITY

A: INTRODUCTION / CAUSES OF RADIOCTIVITY

Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration/decay of an unstable nuclide.
A nuclide is an atom with defined mass number (number of protons and neutrons),
atomic number and definite energy.
Radioactivity takes place in the nucleus of an atom unlike chemical reactions that
take place in the energy levels involving electrons.
A nuclide is said to be stable if its neutron: proton ratio is equal to one (n/p = 1)
All nuclide therefore try to attain n/p = 1 by undergoing radioactivity.
Examples
(i)Oxygen nuclide with 168 O has 8 neutrons and 8 protons in the nucleus therefore
an n/p = 1 thus stable and do not decay/disintegrate.
(ii)Chlorine nuclide with 3517 Cl has 18 neutrons and 17 protons in the nucleus
therefore an n/p = 1.0588 thus unstable and decays/disintegrates to try to attain
n/p = 1.
(ii)Uranium nuclide with 23792 U has 206 neutrons and 92 protons in the nucleus
therefore an n/p = 2.2391 thus more unstable than 23592 U and thus more readily
decays / disintegrates to try to attain n/p = 1.
(iii) Chlorine nuclide with 3717 Cl has 20 neutrons and 17 protons in the nucleus
therefore an n/p = 1.1765 thus more unstable than 3517 Cl and thus more readily
decays / disintegrates to try to attain n/p = 1.

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 747

(iv)Uranium nuclide with 23592 U has 143 neutrons and 92 protons in the nucleus
therefore an n/p = 1.5543 thus more stable than 237 92U but also readily decays /
disintegrates to try to attain n/p = 1.
All unstable nuclides naturally try to attain nuclear stability with the production
of:
(i)alpha(α) particle decay
The alpha (α) particle has the following main characteristic:
i)is positively charged(like protons)
ii) has mass number 4 and atomic number 2 therefore equal to a charged Helium
atom ( 42He2+)
iii) have very low penetrating power and thus can be stopped /blocked/shielded by
a thin sheet of paper.
iv) have high ionizing power thus cause a lot of damage to living cells.
v) a nuclide undergoing α-decay has its mass number reduced by 4 and its atomic
number reduced by 2
Examples of alpha decay
210 x 4 2+
84 Pb -> 82 Pb + 2He
210 206 4 2+
84 Pb -> 82 Pb + 2He

226 222 4 2+
88 Ra -> y Rn + 2He
226 222 4 2+
88 Ra -> 86 Rn + 2He
x 234 4 2+
yU -> 90 Th + 2He
238 234 4 2+
92 U -> 90 Th + 2He
x 230
yU -> 88 Ra + 2 2He 2+
4
238 230
92 U -> 88 Ra + 2 42He 2+
210
84 U -> x
yW + 10 α
210
84 U -> 170
64 W + 10 α
210
92U -> x
yW + 6α
210
92 U -> 186
80 W + 6 α
(ii)Beta (β) particle decay
The Beta (β) particle has the following main characteristic:
i)is negatively charged(like electrons)
ii)has no mass number and atomic number negative one(-1) therefore equal to a
fast moving electron (0 -1e)
iii) have medium penetrating power and thus can be stopped /blocked/shielded by
a thin sheet of aluminium foil.

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 748

iv) have medium ionizing power thus cause less damage to living cells than the α
particle.
v) a nuclide undergoing β -decay has its mass number remain the same and its
atomic number increase by 1
Examples of beta (β) decay
1.23 x Na -> 23
12Mg + 0
-1e
23 23 0
11 Na -> 12 Mg + -1e
234 y 0
2. x Th -> 91 Pa + -1e
234 y 0
90 Th -> 91 Pa + -1e
3. 20770Y -> x y Pb + 30 -1e
207 207
70Y -> 73Pb + 30 -1e
14 0
4. x y C -> 7N + -1e
14 0
14 6 C -> 7N + -1e
5. 1 x n -> y
1H + 0
-1e
1 1 0
0n -> 1 H + -1e
4 1 0
6. 2He -> 4 1H + x -1e
4
2He -> 411H + 2 0 -1e
228
7. 88Ra -> 228
90Th + xβ
228
88Ra -> 228
92Th + 4β
8. 23290Th -> 21282Pb + 2β + xα
232
90 Th -> 212
82 Pb + 2 β + 5 α
9. 23892U -> 22688 Ra + xβ + 3α
238
92 U -> 226
88 Ra + 2 β + 3α
10. 21884Po -> 20682Pb + xβ + 3α
218
84Po -> 20682Pb + 4β + 3α
(iii)Gamma (y) particle decay
The gamma (y) particle has the following main characteristic:
i)is neither negatively charged(like electrons/beta) nor positively charged(like
protons/alpha) therefore neutral.
ii)has no mass number and atomic number therefore equal to electromagnetic
waves.
iii) have very high penetrating power and thus can be stopped /blocked/shielded by
a thick block of lead..
iv) have very low ionizing power thus cause less damage to living cells unless on
prolonged exposure..
v) a nuclide undergoing y -decay has its mass number and its atomic number
remain the same.

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 749

Examples of gamma (y) decay

• 3717Cl -> 37
17Cl + y
• 146C -> 14
6C + y
The sketch diagram below shows the penetrating power of the radiations from a
radioactive nuclide.
radioactive nuclide sheet of paper aluminium foil thick block of lead
(radiation source) (block α-rays) (block β-rays) block y-rays)

α-rays β-rays y-rays

The sketch diagram below illustrates the effect of electric /magnetic field on the
three radiations from a radioactive nuclide

Radioactive disintegration/decay naturally produces the stable 20682Pb nuclide

/isotope of lead.Below is the 238 92 U natural decay series. Identify the particle
emitted in each case

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 750

Write the nuclear equation for the disintegration from :

(i)238 92 U to 234
90 T
238 234 4 2+
92 U -> 90 T + 2 He
238
92 U -> 234
90 T + α
(ii)238 92 U to 222 84 Rn
238 222
92 U -> 84 Rn + 4 4 2 He 2+
238 222
92 U -> 84 Rn + 4α
86 Rn. Find the number of α particles emitted.
230 222
90 Th undergoes alpha decay to
Write the nuclear equation for the disintegration.
Working
230
90 Th -> 222
86 Rn + x 4 2 He
Method 1
Using mass numbers
230 = 222 + 4 x => 4 x = 230 - 222 = 8
x=8/4 =2α
Using atomic numbers
90 = 86 + 2 x => 2 x = 90 - 86 = 4
x=4/2 =2α
Nuclear equation
230 222
90 Th -> 86 Rn + 2 4 2 He
84 Rn. Find the number of β particles emitted.
214 214
82 Pb undergoes beta decay to
Write the nuclear equation for the disintegration.
Working

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 751

214
82 Pb -> 214
84 Rn + x 0 -1 e
Using atomic numbers only
82 = 84 - x => -x = 82 - 84 = -2
x =2β
Nuclear equation
214
82 Pb -> 214
84 Rn + 2 0 -1 e
82 Pb. Find the number of β and α
238 206
92 U undergoes beta and alpha decay to
particles emitted. Write the nuclear equation for the disintegration.
Working
238
92 U -> 206
82 Pb + x 0 -1 e + y 4 2 He
Using Mass numbers only
238 = 206 + 4y => 4y = 238 - 206 = 32
y = 32 = 8 α
4
Using atomic numbers only and substituting the 8 α(above)
238 206
92 U -> 82 Pb + 8 4 2 He + x 0 -1 e
92 = 82 + 16 + -x
=> 92 – (82 + 16) = - x
x =6 β
Nuclear equation
238
92 U -> 206
82 Pb + 6 0 -1 e + 8 4 2 He
83 Bi. Find the number of α and β
298 214
92 U undergoes alpha and beta decay to
particles emitted. Write the nuclear equation for the disintegration.
Working
298
92 U -> 210 83 Bi + x 4 2 He + y 0 -1 e
Using Mass numbers only
298 = 214 + 4x => 4x = 298 - 214 = 84
y = 84 = 21 α
4
Using atomic numbers only and substituting the 21 α (above)
238 214
92 U -> 83Bi + 21 4 2 He + y 0 -1 e
92 = 83 + 42 + -y
=> 92 – (83 + 42) = - x
x = 33 β
Nuclear equation
298 210
92 U -> 83 Bi + 21 4 2 He + 33 0 -1 e

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 752

B:NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSION

Radioactive disintegration/decay can be initiated in an industrial laboratory through
two chemical methods:
a) nuclear fission
b) nuclear fusion.
a)Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the process which a fast moving neutron bombards /hits /knocks
a heavy unstable nuclide releasing lighter nuclide, three daughter neutrons and a
large quantity of energy.
Nuclear fission is the basic chemistry behind nuclear bombs made in the nuclear
reactors.
The three daughter neutrons becomes again fast moving neutron bombarding /
hitting /knocking a heavy unstable nuclide releasing lighter nuclides, three more
daughter neutrons each and a larger quantity of energy setting of a chain reaction
Examples of nuclear equations showing nuclear fission
1 235 90 c 1
0n + b U -> 38 Sr + 54Xe + 3 0 n + a

1 27 28
0n + 13 Al -> 13 Al + y + a
1 28 b 4
0n + a Al -> 11 Na + 2 He
a 14 14 1
0n + 7N -> bC + 1H

1
0n + 11 H -> 2
1H + a
1
0n + 235 92 U -> 95 42 Mo + 139 57 La + 210 n + 7 a
b) Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the process which smaller nuclides join together to form larger /
heavier nuclides and releasing a large quantity of energy.
Very high temperatures and pressure is required to overcome the repulsion
between the atoms.
Nuclear fusion is the basic chemistry behind solar/sun radiation.
Two daughter atoms/nuclides of Hydrogen fuse/join to form Helium atom/nuclide
on the surface of the sun releasing large quantity of energy in form of heat and
light.
2
1H + 21H -> abHe + 1
0n

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 753

2 3
1H + a -> 2He

2 2 1
1H + 1H -> a + 1H

1 4
4 1H -> 2He + a
14
7H + a -> 178O + 1
1H
1
C: HALF LIFE PERIOD (t /2)
The half-life period is the time taken for a radioactive nuclide to spontaneously
decay/ disintegrate to half its original mass/ amount.
It is usually denoted t 1/2.
The rate of radioactive nuclide disintegration/decay is constant for each nuclide.
The table below shows the half-life period of some elements.
Element/Nuclide Half-life period(t 1/2 )
238 9
U 4.5 x 10 years
92
14
5600 years
C
6
229
1620 years
Ra
88
35
14 days
P
15
210
0.0002 seconds
Po
84

The less the half life the more unstable the nuclide /element.
The half-life period is determined by using a Geiger-Muller counter (GM tube)
.A GM tube is connected to ratemeter that records the count-rates per unit time.
This is the rate of decay/ disintegration of the nuclide.
If the count-rates per unit time fall by half, then the time taken for this fall is the
half-life period.
Examples
a)A radioactive substance gave a count of 240 counts per minute but after 6
hours the count rate were 30 counts per minute. Calculate the half-life period
of the substance.
If t 1/2 = x
then 240 --x-->120 –x-->60 –x--->30

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 754

From 240 to 30 =3x =6 hours

=>x = t 1/2 = ( 6 / 3 )
= 2 hours
b) The count rate of a nuclide fell from 200 counts per second to 12.5 counts
per second in 120 minutes.
Calculate the half-life period of the nuclide.
If t 1/2 =x
then
200 --x-->100 –x-->50 –x--->25 –x--->12.5
From 200 to 12.5 =4x =120 minutes
=>x = t 1/2 = ( 120 / 4 )
= 30 minutes
c) After 6 hours the count rate of a nuclide fell from 240 counts per second to
15 counts per second on the GM tube. Calculate the half-life period of the
nuclide.
If t 1/2 = x
then 240 --x-->120 –x-->60 –x--->30 –x--->15
From 240 to 15 =4x =6 hours
=>x = t 1/2 = ( 6 / 4 )= 1.5 hours
d) Calculate the mass of nitrogen-13 that remain from 2 grams after 6 half-
lifes if the half-life period of nitrogen-13 is 10 minutes.
If t 1/2 = x then:
2 --x-->1 –2x-->0.5 –3x--->0.25 –4x-->0.125–5x--->0.0625–6x--->0.03125
After the 6th half life 0.03125 g of nitrogen-13 remain.
e) What fraction of a gas remains after 1hour if its half-life period is 20
minutes?
If t 1/2 = x then:
then 60 /20 = 3x
1 --x--> 1/2 –2x--> 1/4 –3x---> 1/8
After the 3rd half-life 1/8 of the gas remain
f) 348 grams of a nuclide A was reduced to 43.5 grams after
270days.Determine the half-life period of the nuclide.
If t 1/2 = x then:
348 --x-->174 –2x-->87 –3x--->43.5
From 348 to 43.5=3x =270days
=>x = t 1/2 = ( 270 / 3 )
= 90 days

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 755

g) How old is an Egyptian Pharaoh in a tomb with 2grams of 14C if the normal
14
C in a present tomb is 16grams.The half-life period of 14C is 5600years.
If t 1/2 = x = 5600 years then:
16 --x-->8 –2x-->4 –3x--->2
3x = ( 3 x 5600 )
= 16800years
h) 100 grams of a radioactive isotope was reduced 12.5 grams after
81days.Determine the half-life period of the isotope.
If t 1/2 = x then:
100 --x-->50 –2x-->25 –3x--->12.5
From 100 to 12.5=3x =81days
=>x = t 1/2
= ( 81 / 3 )
= 27 days
A graph of activity against time is called decay curve.
A decay curve can be used to determine the half-life period of an isotope since
activity decrease at equal time interval to half the original

(i)From the graph show and determine the half-life period of the isotope.
From the graph t 1/2 changes in activity from:
( 100 – 50 ) => ( 20 – 0 ) = 20 minutes
( 50 – 25 ) => ( 40 – 20 ) = 20 minutes
Thus t ½ = 20 minutes

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 756

(ii)Why does the graph tend to ‘O’?

Smaller particle/s will disintegrate /decay to half its original.
There can never be ‘O’/zero particles

D: CHEMICAL vs NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Nuclear and chemical reaction has the following similarities:
(i)-both involve the subatomic particles; electrons, protons and neutrons in
an atom
(ii)-both involve the subatomic particles trying to make the atom more
stable.
(iii)-Some for of energy transfer/release/absorb from/to the environment take
place.

Nuclear and chemical reaction has the following differences:

(i) Nuclear reactions mainly involve protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom.
Chemical reactions mainly involve outer electrons in the energy levels an
atom.
(ii) Nuclear reactions form a new element.
Chemical reactions do not form new elements
(iii) Nuclear reactions mainly involve evolution/production of large quantity
of heat/energy.
Chemical reactions produce or absorb small quantity of heat/energy.
(iv)Nuclear reactions are accompanied by a loss in mass/mass defect.Do not
obey the law of conservation of matter.
Chemical reactions are not accompanied by a loss in mass/ mass defect hence
obey the law of conservation of matter.
(v)The rate of decay/ disintegration of the nuclide is independent of
physical conditions (temperature/pressure /purityp/article size)
The rate of a chemical reaction is dependent on physical conditions
(temperature/pressure/purity/particle size/ surface area)
E: APPLICATION AND USES OF RADIOCTIVITY.
The following are some of the fields that apply and use radioisotopes;
a)Medicine: -Treatment of cancer to kill malignant tumors through
radiotherapy.
-Sterilizing hospital /surgical instruments /equipments by exposing them to
gamma radiation.

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 757

b) Agriculture:
If a plant or animal is fed with radioisotope, the metabolic processes of the
plant/animal is better understood by tracing the route of the radioisotope.
c) Food preservation:
X-rays are used to kill bacteria in tinned food to last for a long time.
d) Chemistry:
To study mechanisms of a chemical reaction, one reactant is replaced in its
structure by a radioisotope e.g.
During esterification the ‘O’ joining the ester was discovered comes from the
alkanol and not alkanoic acid.
During photosynthesis the ‘O’ released was discovered comes from water.
e) Dating rocks/fossils:
The quantity of 14C in living things (plants/animals) is constant.
When they die the fixed mass of 14C is trapped in the cells and continues to
decay/disintegrate.
The half-life period of 14C is 5600 years .
Comparing the mass of 14C in living and dead cells, the age of the dead can be
determined.
F: DANGERS OF RADIOCTIVITY.
All rays emitted by radioactive isotopes have ionizing effect of changing the
genetic make up of living cells.
Exposure to theses radiations causes chromosomal and /or genetic mutation in
living cells.
Living things should therefore not be exposed for a long time to radioactive
substances.
One of the main uses of radioactive isotopes is in generation of large cheap
electricity in nuclear reactors.
Those who work in these reactors must wear protective devises made of thick glass
or lead sheet.
Accidental leakages of radiations usually occur
In 1986 the Nuclear reactor at Chernobyl in Russia had a major explosion that
emitted poisonous nuclear material that caused immediate environmental disaster
In 2011, an earthquake in Japan caused a nuclear reactor to leak and release
poisonous radioactive waste into the Indian Ocean.
The immediate and long term effects of exposure to these poisonous radioactive
waste on human being is of major concern to all environmentalists.

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 758

G: SAMPLE REVISION QUESTIONS

The figure below shows the behaviour of emissions by a radioactive isotope x. Use
it to answer the question follow

(a) Explain why isotope X emits radiations. (1mk)

-is unstable //has n/p ratio greater/less than one
(b) Name the radiation labeled T (1mk)
alpha particle
(c) Arrange the radiations labeled P and T in the increasing order of ability to be
deflected by an electric filed. (1mk)
T -> P
a) Calculate the mass and atomic numbers of element B formed after 21280 X has
emitted three beta particles, one gamma ray and two alpha particles.
Mass number
= 212 – (0 beta+ o gamma + (2 x 4 ) alpha = 204
Atomic number

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 759

= 80 – (-1 x3) beta + 0 gamma + (2 x 2 )) alpha =79

b)Write a balanced nuclear equations for the decay of 21280 X to B using the
information in (a) above.
212
80 X -> 20479B + 242He + 3 0-1 e + y
Identify the type of radiation emitted from the following nuclear equations.
(i) 146 C -> 147N + ………
β - Beta
(ii) 11 H + 10 n -> 21H + ……
y -gamma
(iii) 23592 U -> 95
42Mo + 13957La + 10 n +……
7 β – seven beta particles
(iv) 23892 U -> 23490Th +……
α-alpha
(v) 146 C + 11 H -> 15
7N + ……
y-gamma
X grams of a radioactive isotope takes 100 days to disintegrate to 20 grams. If the
half-life period isotope is 25 days, calculate the initial mass X of the radio isotope.
Number of half-lifes = ( 100 / 25 ) = 4
20g -----> 40g ----> 80g-----> 160g -----> 320g
Original mass X = 320g
Radium has a half-life of 1620 years.
(i)What is half-life?
The half-life period is the time taken for a radioactive nuclide to
spontaneously decay/ disintegrate to half its original mass/ amount
b)If one milligram of radium contains 2.68 x 10 18 atoms ,how many atoms
disintegrate during 3240 years.
Number of half-lifes = ( 3240 / 1620 ) = 2
1 mg ---1620---> 0.5mg ---1620----> 0.25mg
If 1mg -> 2.68 x 1018 atoms
Then 0.25 mg -> ( 0.25 x 2.68 x 1018 ) = 6.7 x 1017
Number of atoms remaining = 6.7 x 1017
Number of atoms disintegrated =
(2.68 x 1018 - 6.7 x 1017 )
= 2.01 x 1018
The graph below shows the mass of a radioactive isotope plotted against time

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 760

Using the graph, determine the half – life of the isotope

From graph 10 g to 5 g takes 8 days
From graph 5 g to 2.5 g takes 16 – 8 = 8 days
Calculate the mass of the isotope dacayed after 32 days
Number of half lifes= 32/8 = 4
Original mass = 10g
10g—1st -->5g—2nd-->2.5—3rd –>1.25—4th -->0.625 g
Mass remaining = 0.625 g
Mass decayed after 32 days = 10g - 0.625 g = 9.375g
A radioactive isotope X2 decays by emitting two alpha (a) particles and one
beta (β) to form 214 83Bi
(a)Write the nuclear equation for the radioactive decay
212
86 X -> 214 83Bi + 242He + 0
-1 e
(b)What is the atomic number of X2?
86
(c) After 112 days, 1/16 of the mass of X2 remained. Determine the half life of
X2
1—x-> 1 /2 –x-> 1 /4 –x-> 1 /8–x-> 1 /16
Number of t 1 /2 in 112 days = 4
t 1 /2 = 112 = 28 days
4
1.Study the nuclear reaction given below and answer the questions that follow.
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 761

12
C --step 1-->127 N --step 2--> 1211Na
6
(a) 6 C and 146 C are isotopes. What does the term isotope mean?
12

Atoms of the same element with different mass number /number of neutrons.
(b)Write an equation for the nuclear reaction in step II
12 12 0
7 N -> 11Na + -1e
(c)Give one use of 146 C
Dating rocks/fossils:
Study of metabolic pathways/mechanisms on plants/animals
Study the graph of a radioactive decay series for isotope H below.

(a) Name the type of radiation emitted when isotope

(i) H changes to isotope J.
Alpha-Mass number decrease by 4 from 214 to 210(y-axis)
atomic number decrease by 2 from 83 to 81(x-axis)
(ii) J changes to isotope K
Beta-Mass number remains 210(y-axis)
atomic number increase by 1 from 81 to 82(x-axis).
(b) Write an equation for the nuclear reaction that occur when isotope
(i)J changes to isotope L
210 210
81 J -> 84L + 3 0 -1e
(i)H changes to isotope M
214 206
83 H -> 82M + 3 0 -1e + 2 4 2He
Identify a pair of isotope of an element in the decay series
K and M
Have same atomic number 82 but different mass number K-210 and M-206
a)A radioactive substance emits three different particles.
Identify the particle:

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 762

(i)with the highest mass.

Alpha/ α
(ii) almost equal to an electron
Beta/ β
1.a)State two differences between chemical and nuclear reactions(2mks)
(i) Nuclear reactions mainly involve protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.Chemical reactions mainly involve outer electrons in the energy levels an
atom.
(ii) Nuclear reactions form a new element. Chemical reactions do not form new
elements
(iii) Nuclear reactions mainly involve evolution/production of large quantity of
heat/energy.Chemical reactions produce or absorb smaller quantity of
heat/energy.
(iv)Nuclear reactions are accompanied by a loss in mass /mass defect.
Chemical reactions are not accompanied by a loss in mass.
(v)Rate of decay/ disintegration of nuclide is independent of physical
conditionsThe rate of a chemical reaction is dependent on physical conditions of
temperature/pressure/purity/particle size/ surface area
b)Below is a radioactive decay series starting from 21483 Bi and ending at 20682
Pb. Study it and answer the question that follows.

Identify the particles emitted in steps I and III (2mks)

I - α-particle
III - β-ray
ii)Write the nuclear equation for the reaction which takes place in (a) step I
214 210
83Bi -> 81Bi + 4 2 He
(b) step 1 to 3
214 210
83Bi -> 81Bi + 4 2 He + 2 0 -1 e
(c) step 3 to 5
210
82Pb -> 20682Pb + 4 2 He + 2 0 -1 e
(c) step 1 to 5
214 206
83Bi -> 82Pb + 2 4 2 He + 3 0 -1 e

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 763

The table below give the percentages of a radioactive isotope of Bismuth that
remains after decaying at different times.
Time (min) 0 6 12 22 38 62 100
Percentage of Bismuth 100 81 65 46 29 12 3
i)On the grid below , plot a graph of the percentage of Bismuth remaining(Vertical
axis) against time.
ii)Using the graph, determine the:
I. Half – life of the Bismuth isotope
II. Original mass of the Bismuth isotope given that the mass that remained
after 70 minutes was 0.16g (2mks)
d) Give one use of radioactive isotopes in medicine (1mk)
14.a)Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. (2mks)
Describe how solid wastes containing radioactive substances should be disposed of.
(1mk)
b)(i)Find the values of Z1 and Z2 in the nuclear equation below
Z1 1 94 140 1
U + n -> Sr + Xe + 2 n
92 0 38 Z2 0

iii)What type of nuclear reaction is represented in b (i) above?

A radioactive cobalt 6128Co undergoes decay by emitting a beta particle and
forming Nickel atom,
Write a balanced decay equation for the above change
1 mark
If a sample of the cobalt has an activity of 1000 counts per minute, determine the
time it would take for its activity to decrease to 62.50 if the half-life of the element
is 30years 2 marks
Define the term half-life.

The diagram below shows the rays emitted by a radioactive sample

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 764

a) Identify the rays S,R and Q

S- Beta ( β )particle/ray
R- Alpha (α )particle/ray
Q- Gamma (y )particle/ray
b) State what would happen if an aluminium plate is placed in the path of ray
R,S and Q:
R-is blocked/stopped/do not pass through
Q-is not blocked/pass through
S-is blocked/stopped/do not pass through
(c)The diagram bellow is the radioactive decay series of nuclide A which is
241
94Pu.Use it to answer the questions that follow. The letters are not the actual
symbols of the elements.

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 765

(a)Which letter represent the : Explain.

(i)shortest lived nuclide
L-has the shortest half life
(ii)longest lived nuclide
P-Is stable
(iii) nuclide with highest n/p ratio
L-has the shortest half life thus most unstable thus easily/quickly
decay/disintegrate
(iv) nuclide with lowest n/p ratio
P-is stable thus do not decay/disintegrate
(b)How long would it take for the following:
(i)Nuclide A to change to B
10 years (half life of A)
(ii) Nuclide D to change to H
27days +162000years+70000years+16days
232000 years and 43 days
(iii) Nuclide A to change to P
27days +162000years+70000years+16days
232000 years and 43 days

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 766

Study
A.THE RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION
(CHEMICAL KINETICS)
1.Introduction
The rate of a chemical reaction is the time taken for a given mass/amount of
products to be formed. The rate of a chemical reaction is also the time taken for a
given mass/amount of reactant to be consumed /used up.
Some reactions are too slow to be determined. e.g rusting ,decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide and weathering.
Some reactions are too fast and instantaneous e.g. neutralization of acid and
bases/alkalis in aqueous solution and double decomposition/precipitation.
Other reactions are explosive and very risky to carry out safely e.g. reaction of
potassium with water and sodium with dilute acids.
The study of the rate of chemical reaction is useful in knowing the factors that
influence the reaction so that efficiency and profitability is maximized in industries.
Theories of rates of reaction.
The rate of a chemical reaction is defined as the rate of change of
concentration/amount of reactants in unit time. It is also the rate of formation of
given concentration of products in unit time. i.e.
Rate of reaction = Change in concentration/amount of reactants
Time taken for the change to occur

Rate of reaction = Change in concentration/amount of products formed

Time taken for the products to form
For the above, therefore the rate of a chemical reaction is rate of decreasing
reactants to form an increasing product.
The SI unit of time is second(s) but minutes and hours are also used.
(a)The collision theory
The collision theory is an application of the Kinetic Theory of matter which
assumes matter is made up of small/tiny/minute particles like ions atoms and
molecules.
The collision theory proposes that
(i)for a reaction to occur, reacting particles must collide.
(ii)not all collisions between reacting particles are successful in a reaction.
Collisions that initiate a chemical reaction are called successful / fruitful/ effective
collisions
(iii)the speed at which particles collide is called collision frequency.

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 767

The higher the collision frequency the higher the chances of successful / fruitful/
effective collisions to form products.
(iv)the higher the chances of successful collisions, the faster the reaction.
(v)the average distance between solid particles from one another is too big for them
to meet and collide successfully.
(vi)dissolving substances in a solvent ,make the solvent a medium for the reaction
to take place.
The solute particle distance is reduced as the particle ions are free to move in the
solvent medium.
(vii)successful collisions take place if the particles colliding have the required
energy and right orientation which increases their vibration and intensity of
successful / fruitful/ effective collisions to form products.
(b)The Activation Energy(Ea) theory
The Enthalpy of activation(∆Ha) /Activation Energy(Ea) is the minimum
amount of energy which the reactants must overcome before they react. Activation
Energy(Ea) is usually required /needed in bond breaking of the reacting particles.
Bond breaking is an endothermic process that require an energy input.
The higher the bond energy the slower the reaction to start of.
Activation energy does not influence whether a reaction is exothermic or
endothermic.
The energy level diagrams below shows the activation energy for exothermic and
endothermic processes/reactions.
Energy level diagram showing the activation energy for exothermic processes
/reactions.
Activated complex
A B

A B
Energy
Ea
kJ
A-A B-B

A-B A-B

Reaction path/coordinate/path
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 768

Energy level diagram showing the activation energy for endothermic processes
/reactions.

Activated complex
A B
A B
Energy
Ea
kJ A-B A-B

∆Hr
A-A B-B

Reaction path/coordinate/path

The activated complex is a mixture of many intermediate possible products

which may not exist under normal physical conditions ,but can theoretically exist.
Exothermic reaction proceeds without further heating /external energy because it
generates its own energy/heat to overcome activation energy.
Endothermic reaction cannot proceed without further heating /external energy
because it does not generates its own energy/heat to overcome activation energy. It
generally therefore requires continuous supply of more energy/heat to sustain it to
completion.
3. Measuring the rate of a chemical reaction.
The rate of a chemical reaction can be measure as:
(i)Volume of a gas in unit time;
- if reaction is producing a gas as one of the products.
- if reaction is using a gas as one reactants
(ii)Change in mass of reactants/products for solid products/reactants in unit
time.
(iii)formation of a given mass of precipitate in unit time
(iv)a certain mass of reactants to completely form products/diminish.
Reactants may be homogenous or heterogenous.

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 769

-Homogenous reactions involve reactants in the same phase/state e.g. solid-

solid,gas-gas,liquid-liquid.
-Heterogenous reactions involve reactants in the different phase/state e.g.
solid-liquid,gas-liquid,solid-gas.
4. Factors influencing/altering/affecting/determining rate of reaction
The following factors alter/influence/affect/determine the rate of a chemical
reaction:
(a)Concentration
(b)Pressure
(c) Temperature
(d)Surface area
(e)Catalyst
a) Influence of concentration on rate of reaction
The higher the concentration, the higher the rate of a chemical reaction. An
increase in concentration of the reactants reduces the distance between the reacting
particles increasing their collision frequency to form products.
Practically an increase in concentration reduces the time taken for the reaction to
take place.
Practical determination of effect of concentration on reaction rate
Method 1(a)
Reaction of sodium thisulphate with dilute hydrochloric acid
Procedure:
Measure 20cm3 of 0.05M sodium thisulphate into a 50cm3 glass beaker. Place the
beaker on a white piece of filter paper with ink mark ‘X’ on it. Measure 20cm3 of
0.1M hydrochloric acid solution using a 50cm3 measuring cylinder. Put the acid
into the beaker containing sodium thisulphate. Immediately start off the stop
watch/clock. Determine the time taken for the ink mark ‘X’ to become invisible
/obscured when viewed from above. Repeat the procedure by measuring different
volumes of the acid and adding the volumes of the distilled water to complete table
1. Sample
results:Table 1.

Volume Volume of Volume of Time taken for mark ‘X’ Reciproc

of water(cm sodium to be al of time
acid(cm3 3) thiosulphate(cm invisible/obscured(secon 1
) 3) ds) t
20.0 0.0 20.0 20.0 5.0 x 10-2

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 770

18.0 2.0 20.0 23.0 4.35 x 10-

2

16.0 4.0 20.0 27.0 3.7 x 10-2

14.0 6.0 20.0 32.0 3.13 x 10-
2

12.0 8.0 20.0 42.0 2.38 x 10-

2

10.0 10.0 20.0 56.0 1.78 x 10-

2

For most examining bodies/councils/boards the above results score for:

(a) complete table as evidence for all the practical work done and completed.
(b) (i)Consistent use of a decimal point on time as evidence of
understanding/knowledge of the degree of accuracy of stop watches/clock.
(ii)Consistent use of a minimum of four decimal points on inverse/reciprocal
of time as evidence of understanding/knowledge of the degree of accuracy of
scientific calculator.
(c) accuracy against a school value based on candidate’s teachers-results
submitted.
(d) correct trend (time increase as more water is added/acid is diluted) in
conformity with expected theoretical results.
Sample questions

1. On separate graph papers plot a graph of:

(i)volume of acid used(x-axis) against time. Label this graph I
(ii) volume of acid used(x-axis) against 1/t. Label this graph II
2. Explain the shape of graph I
Diluting/adding water is causes a decrease in concentration.
Decrease in concentration reduces the rate of reaction by increasing the time taken
for reacting particle to collide to form products.

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 771

Sketch sample Graph I

Time

(seconds)

Volume of acid(cm3)

Sketch sample Graph II

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 772

1/t

Sec-1 x 10-2

3.From graph II ,determine the time taken for the cross to be

obscured/invisible when the volume of the acid is:
(i) 13cm3
From a correctly plotted graph
-2
2.75 xof 10
1/t at 13cm3 on the graph =>Volume acid(cm3)
-2
t = 1 / 2.75 x 10 = 36.3636 seconds
(ii) 15cm3
From a correctly plotted graph
1/t at 15cm3 on the graph => 3.35 x 10-2
t = 1 / 3.35 x 10-2 = 29.8507 seconds
Volume of acid (cm3)
(iii) 15cm3
From a correctly plotted graph
1/t at 17cm3 on the graph => 4.0 x 10-2
t = 1 / 4.0 x 10-2 = 25.0 seconds
(iv) 19cm3
From a correctly plotted graph
1/t at 19cm3 on the graph => 4.65 x 10-2
t = 1 / 4.65 x 10-2 = 21.5054 seconds
4.From graph II ,determine the volume of the acid used if the time taken for the
cross to be obscured/invisible is:
(i)25 seconds
1/t => 1/25 = 4.0 x 10-2
Reading from a correctly plotted graph;
4.0 x 10-2 correspond to 17.0 cm3
(ii)30 seconds
1/t => 1/30 = 3.33 x 10-2
Reading from a correctly plotted graph;
3.33 x 10-2 correspond to 14.7 cm3
(iii)40 seconds
1/t => 1/40 = 2.5 x 10-2

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 773

Reading from a correctly plotted graph;

2.5 x 10-2 correspond to 12.3 cm3
4. Write the equation for the reaction taking place
Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2NaCl (aq)+ SO2 (g) + S(s) + H2O(l)
Ionically:
S2O32- (aq) + 2H+ (aq) -> SO2 (g) + S(s) + H2O(l)
5.Name the yellow precipitate
Colloidal sulphur
Method 1(b)
Reaction of sodium thisulphate with dilute hydrochloric acid
You are provided with
2.0M Hydrochloric acid
0.4M sodium thiosulphate solution
Procedure:
Measure 10cm3 of sodium thisulphate into a 50cm3 glass beaker. Place the beaker
on a white piece of filter paper with ink mark ‘X’ on it.
Add 5.0cm3 of hydrochloric acid solution using a 10cm3 measuring cylinder into
the beaker containing sodium thisulphate.
Immediately start off the stop watch/clock. Determine the time taken for the ink
mark ‘X’ to become invisible /obscured when viewed from above.
Repeat the procedure by measuring different volumes of the thiosulphate and
adding the volumes of the distilled water to complete table 1.

Sample results:Table 1.

Volume Volume Volume of Concentatio Time(T) taken T-1

of of water sodium n of sodium for mark ‘X’ to
acid(cm3 (cm3) thiosulphate thisulphate be invisible/
) (cm3) in molesdm-3 obscured(secon
ds)
5.0 0.0 25.0 0.4 20.0 5.0 x 10-2
5.0 5.0 20.0 0.32 23.0 4.35 x 10-2
5.0 10.0 15.0 0.24 27.0 3.7 x 10-2
5.0 15.0 10.0 0.16 32.0 3.13 x 10-2
Note concentration of diluted solution is got:
C1V1=C2V2 => 0.4 x 25 = C2x 25 =0.4M
C1V1=C2V2 => 0.4 x 20 = C2x 25 =0.32M

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 774

C1V1=C2V2 => 0.4 x 15 = C2x 25 =0.24M

C1V1=C2V2 => 0.4 x 10 = C2x 25 =0.16M
Sample questions

1. On separate graph papers plot a graph of:

(i)Concentration of sodium thiosulphate against time. Label this graph I
(ii)Concentration of sodium thiosulphate against against T-1.Label this graph
II
2. Explain the shape of graph I
Diluting/adding water causes a decrease in concentration.
Decrease in concentration reduces the rate of reaction by increasing the time taken
for reacting particle to collide to form products.
From graph II
Determine the time taken if
(i)12cm3 of sodium thisulphate is diluted with 13cm3 of water.
At 12cm3 concentration of sodium thisulphate
= C1V1=C2V2 => 0.4 x 1 2 = C2x 25 =0.192M
From correct graph at concentration 0.192M => 2.4 x10-2
I/t = 2.4 x10-2 t = 41.6667seconds
(ii)22cm3 of sodium thisulphate is diluted with 3cm3 of water.
At 22cm3 concentration of sodium thisulphate
= C1V1=C2V2 => 0.4 x 22 = C2x 25 =0.352M
From correct graph at concentration 0.352M => 3.6 x10-2
I/t = 3.6 x10-2 t = 27.7778seconds
Determine the volume of water and sodium thiosulphate if T-1 is 3.0 x10-1
From correct graph at T-1 = 3.0 x10-1 => concentration = 0.65 M
= C1V1=C2V2 => 0.4 x 25 = 0.65 M x V2 = 15.3846cm3
Volume of water = 25 - 15.3846cm3 = 9.6154cm3
Determine the concentration of hydrochloric acid if 12cm3 of sodium thiosulphate
and 13cm3 of water was used.
At 12cm3 concentration of sodium thisulphate
= C1V1=C2V2 => 0.4 x 1 2 = C2x 25 =0.192M
Mole ratio Na2S2 O3 :HCl =1:2

Moles of Na2S2 O3 = 0.192M x 12 => 2.304 x 10-3 moles

1000
Mole ratio HCl =2.304 x 10-1 moles = 1.152 x 10-3 moles

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 775

2
Molarity o f HCl = 1.152 x 10-3 moles x 1000 = 0.2304M
5.0
Method 2
Reaction of Magnesium with dilute hydrochloric acid
Procedure
Scub 10centimeter length of magnesium ribbon with sand paper/steel wool.
Measure 40cm3 of 0.5M dilute hydrochloric acid into a flask .Fill a graduated gas
jar with water and invert it into a trough. Stopper the flask and set up the apparatus
to collect the gas produced as in the set up below:

Hydrochloric acid

Hydrogen gas
Graduated gas jar

Magnesium ribbon

Carefully remove the stopper, carefully put the magnesium ribbon into the flask .
cork tightly. Add the acid into the flask. Connect the delivery tube into the gas jar.
Immediately start off the stop watch and determine the volume of the gas produced
after every 30 seconds to complete table II below.
Sample results: Table II
Time(seconds) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Volume of gas 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 90.0 95.0 96.0 96.0
produced(cm3)
Sample practice questions
1.Plot a graph of volume of gas produced (y-axis) against time

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 776

2.Explain the shape of the graph.

The rate of reaction is faster when the concentration of the acid is high .
As time goes on, the concentration of the acid decreases and therefore less gas is
produced.
When all the acid has reacted, no more gas is produced after 210 seconds and the
graph flattens.
3.Calculate the rate of reaction at 120 seconds
From a tangent at 120 seconds rate of reaction = Change in volume of gas
Change in time
=> From the tangent at 120seconds V2 - V1 = 96-84 = 12 = 0.2cm3sec-1
T2 - T1 150-90 60
4. Write an ionic equation for the reaction taking place.
Mg2+(s) + 2H+(aq) -> Mg2+(aq) + H2 (g)
5. On the same axis sketch then explain the curve that would be obtained if:
(i) 0.1 M hydrochloric acid is used –Label this curve I
(ii)1.0 M hydrochloric acid is used –Label this curve II
Observation:
Curve I is to the right
Curve II is to the left
Explanation
A decrease in concentration shift the rate of reaction graph to the right as more time
is taken for completion of the reaction.

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 777

An increase in concentration shift the rate of reaction graph to the left as less time
is taken for completion of the reaction.
Both graphs flatten after some time indicating the completion of the reaction.
b)Influence of pressure on rate of reaction
Pressure affects only gaseous reactants.
An increase in pressure reduces the volume(Boyles law) in which the particles are
contained.
Decrease in volume of the container bring the reacting particles closer to each
other which increases their chances of effective/successful/fruitful collision to form
products.
An increase in pressure therefore increases the rate of reaction by reducing the time
for reacting particles of gases to react.
At industrial level, the following are some reactions that are affected by pressure:
(a)Haber process for manufacture of ammonia
N2(g) + 3H2(g) -> 2NH3(g)
(b)Contact process for manufacture of sulphuric(VI)acid
2SO2(g) + O2(g) -> 2SO3(g)
(c)Ostwalds process for the manufacture of nitric(V)acid
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) -> 4NO (g) + 6H2O (l)
The influence of pressure on reaction rate is not felt in solids and liquids.
This is because the solid and liquid particles have fixed positions in their strong
bonds and therefore no degree of freedom (Kinetic Theory of matter)
c)Influence of temperature on rate of reaction
An increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the reacting particles by
increasing their collision frequency.
Increase in temperature increases the particles which can overcome the activation
energy (Ea).
A 10oC rise in temperature doubles the rate of reaction by reducing the time taken
for the reaction to complete by a half.
Practical determination of effect of Temperature on reaction rate
Method 1
Reaction of sodium thisulphate with dilute hydrochloric acid
Procedure:
Measure 20cm3 of 0.05M sodium thisulphate into a 50cm3 glass beaker.
Place the beaker on a white piece of filter paper with ink mark ‘X’ on it.
Determine and record its temperature as room temperature in table 2 below.

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 778

Measure 20cm3 of 0.1M hydrochloric acid solution using a 50cm3 measuring

cylinder.
Put the acid into the beaker containing sodium thisulphate.
Immediately start off the stop watch/clock.
Determine the time taken for the ink mark ‘X’ to become invisible /obscured when
viewed from above.
Measure another 20cm3 separate portion of the thisulphate into a beaker, heat the
solution to 30oC.
Add the acid into the beaker and repeat the procedure above. Complete table 2
below using different temperatures of the thiosulphate.
Sample results:Table 2.
Temperature of Na2S2O3 Room temperature 30 40 50 60
Time taken for mark X to 50.0 40.0 20.0 15.0 10.0
be obscured /invisible
(seconds)
Reciprocal of time(1/t) 0.02 0.025 0.05 0.0667 0.1
Sample practice questions
1. Plot a graph of temperature(x-axis) against 1/t

2(a)From your graph determine the temperature at which:

(i)1/t is ;
I. 0.03
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph = 32.25 oC
II. 0.07
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph = 48.0 oC
(ii) t is;

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 779

I. 30 seconds
30 seconds => 1/t =1/30 =0.033
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph 0.033 => 33.5 oC
II. 45 seconds
45 seconds => 1/t =1/45 =0.022
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph 0.022 => 29.0 oC
III. 25 seconds
25 seconds => 1/t =1/25 =0.04
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph 0.04 => 36.0 oC
(b) From your graph determine the time taken for the cross to become
invisible at:
(i) 57.5 oC
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph at 57.5 oC= 0.094
=>1/t = 0.094
t= 1/0.094 => 10.6383 seconds
(ii) 45 oC
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph at 45 oC = 0.062
=>1/t = 0.062
t= 1/0.094 => 16.1290 seconds
(iii) 35 oC
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph at 35 oC = 0.047
=>1/t = 0.047
t= 1/0.047 => 21.2766 seconds
Method 2
Reaction of Magnesium with dilute hydrochloric acid
Procedure
Scub 5centimeter length of magnesium ribbon with sand paper/steel wool.
Cut the piece into five equal one centimeter smaller pieces.
Measure 20cm3 of 1.0M dilute hydrochloric acid into a glass beaker .
Put one piece of the magnesium ribbon into the acid, swirl.
Immediately start off the stop watch/clock.
Determine the time taken for the effervescence/fizzing/bubbling to stop when
viewed from above.
Record the time in table 2 at room temperature.
Measure another 20cm3 portions of 1.0M dilute hydrochloric acid into a clean
beaker.

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 780

Heat separately one portion to 30oC, 40oC , 50oC and 60oC and adding 1cm length
of the ribbon and determine the time taken for effervescence /fizzing /bubbling to
stop when viewed from above .
Record each time to complete table 2 below using different temperatures of the
acid.

Sample results:Table 1.
Temperature of acid(oC) Room temperature 30 40 50 60
Time taken effervescence to 80.0 50.0 21.0 13.5 10.0
stop (seconds)
Reciprocal of time(1/t) 0.0125 0.02 0.0476 0.0741 0.1
Sample practice questions
1. Plot a graph of temperature(x-axis) against 1/t

1/t

Temperature(oC)
2.(a)Calculate the number of moles of magnesium used given that 1cm of
magnesium has a mass of 1g.(Mg= 24.0)
Moles = Mass of magnesium => 1.0 = 4.167 x 10 -2 moles
Molar mass of Mg 24
(b)Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid used
Moles of acid = molarity x volume of acid
1000
=> 1.0 x 20 = 2.0 x 10 -2 moles
1000
(c)Calculate the mass of magnesium that remain unreacted

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 781

Mole ratio Mg: HCl = 1:2

Moles Mg = ½ moles HCl
=> ½ x 2.0 x 10 -2 moles = 1.0 x 10 -2 moles
Mass of reacted Mg = moles x molar mass
=> 1.0 x 10 -2 moles x 24 = 0.24 g
Mass of unreacted Mg = Original total mass - Mass of reacted Mg
=> 1.0 g – 0.24 = 0.76 g
(b)Calculate the total volume of hydrogen gas produced during the
above reactions.
Mole ratio Mg : H2 = 1:1
Moles of Mg that reacted per experiment = moles H2 =1.0 x 10 -2 moles
Volume of Hydrogen at s.t.p produced per experiment = moles x 24 dm3
=> 1.0 x 10 -2 moles x 24 dm3 = 0.24dm3
Volume of Hydrogen at s.t.p produced in 5 experiments =0.24 dm3 x 5
= 1.2 dm3
3.(a)At what temperature was the time taken for magnesium to react equal to:
(i)70seconds
70 seconds => 1/t =1/70 =0.01429
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph 0.01429 => 28.0 oC
(ii)40seconds
40 seconds => 1/t =1/40 =0.025
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph 0.025 => 32.0 oC
(b)What is the time taken for magnesium to react if the reaction was done
at:
(i) 55.0 oC
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph at 55.0 oC=> 1/t = 8.0 x 10-2
=> t = 1/8.0 x 10-2 = 12.5 seconds
(ii) 47.0 oC
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph at 47.0 oC=> 1/t = 6.0 x 10-2
=> t = 1/6.0 x 10-2 = 16.6667 seconds
(iii) 33.0 oC
Reading directly from a correctly plotted graph at 33.0 oC=> 1/t = 2.7 x 10-2
=> t = 1/2.7 x 10-2 = 37.037 seconds
4. Explain the shape of the graph.
Increase in temperature increases the rate of reaction as particles gain kinetic
energy increasing their frequency and intensity of collision to form products.
d)Influence of surface area on rate of reaction

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 782

Surface area is the area of contact. An increase in surface area is a decrease in

particle size. Practically an increase in surface area involves chopping /cutting solid
lumps into smaller pieces/chips then crushing the chips into powder. Chips thus
have a higher surface area than solid lumps but powder has a highest surface area.
An increase in surface area of solids increases the area of contact with a liquid
solution increasing the chances of successful/effective/fruitful collision to form
products. The influence of surface area on rate of reaction is mainly in
heterogeneous reactions.
Reaction of chalk/calcium carbonate on dilute hydrochloric acid
Procedure
Measure 20cm3 of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid into three separate conical flasks
labeled C1 C2 and C3 .
Using a watch glass weigh three separate 2.5g a piece of white chalk. Place the
conical flask C1 on an electronic balance.
Reset the balance scale to 0.0.
Put one weighed sample of the chalk into the acid in the conical flask. Determine
the scale reading and record it at time =0.0.
Simultaneously start of the stop watch.
Determine and record the scale reading after every 30 seconds to complete Table I
.Repeat all the above procedure separately with C2 and C3 to complete Table II and
Table III by cutting the chalk into small pieces/chips for C2 and crushing the chalk
to powder for C3
Sample results:Table 1.
Time(seconds) 0.0 30.0 60.0 90.0 120.0 150.0 180.0 210.0 240.0
Mass of CaCO3 2.5 2.0 1.8 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.5
Loss in mass 0.0 0.5 0.7 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.0
Sample results:Table 1I.
Time(seconds) 0.0 30.0 60.0 90.0 120.0 150.0 180.0 210.0 240.0
Mass of 2.5 1.9 1.5 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5
CaCO3
Loss in mass 0.0 0.6 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.0 2.0
Sample results:Table III.
Time(seconds) 0.0 30.0 60.0 90.0 120.0 150.0 180.0 210.0 240.0
Mass of 2.5 1.8 1.4 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
CaCO3
Loss in mass 0.0 0.7 1.1 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Sample questions:

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 783

1.Calculate the loss in mass made at the end of each time from the original to
complete table I,II and III
2.On the same axes plot a graph of total loss in mass against time (x-axes) and
label them curve I, II, and III from Table I, II, and III.
3.Explain why there is a loss in mass in all experiments.
Calcium carbonate react with the acid to form carbon(IV)oxide gas that escape to
the atmosphere.
4.Write an ionic equation for the reaction that take place
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) -> Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
5.Sulphuric(VI)acid cannot be used in the above reaction. On the same axes
sketch the curve which would be obtained if the reaction was attempted by
reacting a piece of a lump of chalk with 0.5M sulphuric(VI)acid. Label it curve
IV. Explain the shape of curve IV.
Calcium carbonate would react with dilute 0.5M sulphuric(VI)acid to form
insoluble calcium sulphate(VI) that coat /cover unreacted Calcium carbonate
stopping the reaction from reaching completion.

6.Calculate the volume of carbon(IV)oxide evolved(molar gas volume at room

temperature = 24 dm3, C= 12.0, O= 16.O Ca=40.0)
Method I
Mole ratio CaCO3(s) : CO2(g) = 1:1
Moles CaCO3(s) used = Mass CaCO3(s) = 0.025 moles
Molar mass CaCO3(s)
Moles CO2(g) = 0.025 moles
Volume of CO2(g) = moles x molar gas volume
=>0.025 moles x 24 dm3 = 0.600 dm3/600cm3
Method II
Molar mass of CaCO3(s) = 100g produce 24 dm3 of CO2(g)
Mass of CaCO3(s) =2.5 g produce 2.5 x 24 = 0.600dm3
100
7.From curve I ,determine the rate of reaction (loss in mass per second)at time
180 seconds on the curve.
From tangent at 180 seconds on curve I
Rate = M2-M1 => 2.08 – 1.375 = 0.625 = 0.006944g sec-1
T2- T1 222-132 90
8.What is the effect of particle size on the rate of reaction?

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 784

A larger surface area is a reduction in particle size which increases the area of
contact between reacting particles increasing their collision frequency.
Theoretical examples
1. Excess marble chips were put in a beaker containing 100cm3 of 0.2M
hydrochloric acid. The beaker was then placed on a balance and total loss in
mass recorded after every two minutes as in the table below.
Time(minutes) 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
Loss in mass(g) 0.0 1.80 2.45 2.95 3.20 3.25 3.25
(a)Why was there a loss in mass?
Carbon (IV) oxide gas was produced that escape to the surrounding
(b)Calculate the average rate of loss in mass between:
(i) 0 to 2 minutes
Average rate =M2-M1 => 1.80 – 0.0 = 1.8 = 9.00g min-1
T2- T1 2.0 – 0.0 2
(i) 6 to 8 minutes
Average rate =M2-M1 => 3.20 – 2.95 = 0.25 = 0.125g min-1
T2- T1 8.0 – 6.0 2
(iii) Explain the difference between the average rates of reaction in (i)
and(ii) above.
Between 0 and 2 minutes , the concentration of marble chips and
hydrochloric acid is high therefore there is a higher collision frequency
between the reacting particles leading to high successful rate of formation of
products.
Between 6 and 8 minutes , the concentration of marble chips and
hydrochloric acid is low therefore there is low collision frequency between
the reacting particles leading to less successful rate of formation of products.
(c)Write the equation for the reaction that takes place.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(d)State and explain three ways in which the rate of reaction could be
increased.
(i)Heating the acid- increasing the temperature of the reacting particles
increases their kinetic energy and thus collision frequency.
(ii)Increasing the concentration of the acid-increasing in concentration
reduces the distances between the reacting particles increasing their chances of
effective/fruitful/successful collision to form products faster.
(iii)Crushing the marble chips to powder-this reduces the particle
size/increase surface area increasing the area of contact between reacting particles.
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 785

(e)If the solution in the beaker was evaporated to dryness then left overnight
in the open, explain what would happen.
It becomes wet because calcium (II) chloride absorbs water from the atmosphere
and form solution/is deliquescent.
(f)When sodium sulphate (VI) was added to a portion of the contents in the
beaker after the reaction , a white precipitate was formed .
(i)Name the white precipitate.
Calcium(II)sulphate(VI)
(ii)Write an ionic equation for the formation of the white precipitate
Ca2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)->CaSO4(s)
(iii)State one use of the white precipitate
-Making plaster for building
-Manufacture of plaster of Paris
-Making sulphuric(VI)acid
(g)(i) Plot a graph of total loss in mass(y-axes) against time
(ii)From the graph, determine the rate of reaction at time 2 minutes.
From a tangent/slope at 2 minutes;
Rate of reaction = Average rate =M2-M1 => 2.25 – 1.30 = 0.95 = 0.3958g min-1
T2- T1 3.20 – 0.8 2.4
(iii)Sketch on the same axes the graph that would be obtained if 0.02M
hydrochloric acid was used. Label it curve II

e) Influence of catalyst on rate of reaction

Catalyst is a substance that alter the rate /speed of a chemical reaction but remain
chemically unchanged at the end of a reaction. Biological catalysts are called
enzymes. A catalyst does not alter the amount of products formed but itself may be
altered physically e.g. from solid to powder to fine powder. Like biological
enzymes, a catalyst only catalyse specific type of reactions
Most industrial catalysts are transition metals or their compounds. Catalyst works
by lowering the Enthalpy of activation(∆Ha)/activation energy (Ea) of the reactants
.The catalyst lowers the Enthalpy of activation(∆Ha)/activation energy (Ea) by:
(i) forming short lived intermediate compounds called activated complex that
break up to form the final product/s
(ii) being absorbed by the reactants thus providing the surface area on which
reaction occurs.

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 786

A catalyst has no effect on the enthalpy of reaction ∆Hr but only lowers the
Enthalpy of activation(∆Ha)/activation energy (Ea)It thus do not affect/influence
whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic as shown in the energy level
diagrams below.
Energy level diagram showing the activation energy for exothermic processes
/reactions.
Activated complex
A B

A B
Energy
Ea uncatalysed
kJ
A-A B-B
Ea Catalysed
A-B A-B

Reaction path/coordinate/path

Energy level diagram showing the activation energy for endothermic processes
/reactions.

Activated complex
A B

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 787

A B
Energy
Ea
kJ A-B A-B

∆Hr
A-A B-B

Reaction path/coordinate/path

The following are some catalysed reaction processes.

(a)The contact process
Vanadium(V) Oxide(V2O5) or platinum(Pt) catalyses the oxidation of
sulphur(IV)oxide during the manufacture of sulphuric(VI) acid from contact
process.
SO2(g) + O2(g) ----V2O5--> SO3(g)
To reduce industrial cost of manufacture of sulphuric (VI) acid from contact
process Vanadium(V) Oxide(V2O5) is used because it is cheaper though it is
easily poisoned by impurities.
(b)Ostwalds process
Platinum promoted with Rhodium catalyses the oxidation of ammonia to
nitrogen(II)oxide and water during the manufacture of nitric(V)acid
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) ----Pt/Rh--> 4NO (g) + 6H2O(l)
(c)Haber process
Platinum or iron catalyses the combination of nitrogen and hydrogen to form
ammonia gas
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ---Pt or Fe---> 2NH3(g)
(d)Hydrogenation/Hardening of oil to fat
Nickel (Ni) catalyses the hydrogenation of unsaturated compound containing
- C=C- or –C=C- to saturated compounds without double or triple bond
This process is used is used in hardening oil to fat.
(e)Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
Manganese(IV)oxide speeds up the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to
water and oxygen gas.

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 788

This process/reaction is used in the school laboratory preparation of Oxygen.

2H2O2 (g) ----MnO2--> O2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(f)Reaction of metals with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid
Copper(II)sulphate(VI) speeds up the rate of production of hydrogen gas from the
reaction of Zinc and dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.
This process/reaction is used in the school laboratory preparation of Hydrogen.
H2 SO4 (aq) + Zn(s) ----CuSO4--> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
(g) Substitution reactions
When placed in bright sunlight or U.V /ultraviolet light , a mixture of a halogen
and an alkane undergo substitution reactions explosively to form halogenoalkanes.
When paced in diffused sunlight the reaction is very slow.
e.g. CH4(g) + Cl2(g) ---u.v. light--> CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
(h)Photosynthesis
Plants convert carbon(IV)oxide gas from the atmosphere and water from the soil to
form glucose and oxygen as a byproduct using sunlight / ultraviolet light.
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) ---u.v. light--> C6H12O6(g) + O2(g)
(i)Photography
Photographic film contains silver bromide emulsion which decomposes to silver
and bromine on exposure to sunlight.
2AgBr(s) ---u.v/sun light--> 2Ag(s) + Br2(l)
When developed, the silver deposits give the picture of the object whose
photograph was taken depending on intensity of light. A picture photographed in
diffused light is therefore blurred.
Practical determination of effect of catalyst on decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide
Measure 5cm3 of 20 volume hydrogen peroxide and then dilute to make 40cm3 in
a measuring cylinder by adding distilled water.
Divide it into two equal portions.
(i)Transfer one 20cm3volume hydrogen peroxide into a conical/round
bottomed/flat bottomed flask. Cork and swirl for 2 minutes. Remove the cork. Test
the gas produced using a glowing splint. Clean the conical/round bottomed/flat
bottomed flask.
(ii)Put 2.0g of Manganese (IV) oxide into the clean conical/round bottomed/flat
bottomed flask. Stopper the flask.
Transfer the second portion of the 20cm3volume hydrogen peroxide into a
conical/round bottomed/flat bottomed flask through the dropping/thistle funnel.
Connect the delivery tube to a calibrated/graduated gas jar as in the set up below.

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 789

Start off the stop watch and determine the volume of gas in the calibrated/graduated
gas jar after every 30 seconds to complete Table 1.
(iii)Weigh a filter paper .Use the filter paper to filter the contents of the conical
conical/round bottomed/flat bottomed flask. Put the residue on a sand bath to dry.
Weigh the dry filter paper again .Determine the new mass Manganese (IV) oxide.

Time(seconds) 0.0 30.0 60.0 90.0 120.0 150.0 180.0 210.0 240.0 270.0
Volume of gas 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 90.0 95.0 96.0 96.0 96.0
(cm3)

Mass of MnO2 before reaction(g) Mass of MnO2 after reaction(g)

2.0 2.0
Plot a graph of volume of gas produced against time(x-axes)

Catalysed reaction

Uncatalysed reaction

b) On the same axes, plot a graph of the uncatalysed reaction.

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 790

(c) Explain the changes in mass of manganese(IV)oxide before and after the
reaction.
The mass of MnO2 before and after the reaction is the same but a more fine powder
after the experiment. A catalyst therefore remains unchanged chemically but may
physically change.

B.EQUILIBRIA (CHEMICAL CYBERNETICS)

Equilibrium is a state of balance.
Chemical equilibrium is state of balance between the reactants and products.
As reactants form products, some products form back the reactants.
Reactions in which the reactants form products to completion are said to be
reversible i.e.
A + B -> C + D
Reactions in which the reactants form products and the products can reform the
reactants are said to be reversible.
A + B C + D
Reversible reactions may be:
(a)Reversible physical changes
(b)Reversible chemical changes
(c)Dynamic equilibrium
(a)Reversible physical changes
Reversible physical change is one which involves:
(i) change of state/phase from solid, liquid, gas or aqueous solutions. States
of matter are interconvertible and a reaction involving a change from one
state/phase can be reversed back to the original.
(ii) colour changes. Some substances/compounds change their colours
without change in chemical substance.
Examples of reversible physical changes
(i) colour change on heating and cooling:
I. Zinc(II)Oxide changes from white when cool/cold to yellow when
hot/heated and back.
ZnO(s) ZnO(s)
(white when cold) (yellow when hot)
II. Lead(II)Oxide changes from yellow when cold/cool to brown when
hot/heated and back.

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 791

PbO(s) PbO(s)
(brown when hot) (yellow when cold)
(ii)Sublimation
I. Iodine sublimes from a grey crystalline solid on heating to purple vapour.
Purple vapour undergoes deposition back to the grey crystalline solid.
I2(s) I2(g)
(grey crystalline solid (purple vapour
undergo sublimation) undergo deposition)
II. Carbon (IV)oxide gas undergoes deposition from a colourless gas to a
white solid at very high pressures in a cylinder. It sublimes back to the colourless
gas if pressure is reduced
CO2(s) CO2(g)
(white powdery solid (colourless/odourless gas
undergo sublimation) undergo deposition)
(iii)Melting/ freezing and boiling/condensation
Ice on heating undergo melting to form a liquid/water. Liquid/water on further
heating boil/vaporizes to form gas/water vapour. Gas/water vapour on cooling,
condenses/liquidifies to water/liquid. On further cooling, liquid water freezes to
ice/solid.
Melting boiling
H2O(s) Freezing H2O(l) condensing H2O(s)
(iv)Dissolving/ crystallization/distillation
Solid crystals of soluble substances (solutes) dissolve in water /solvents to form a
uniform mixture of the solute and solvent/solution. On crystallization /distillation
/evaporation the solvent evaporate leaving a solute back. e.g.
NaCl(s) + aq NaCl(aq)
(b)Reversible chemical changes
These are reactions that involve a chemical change of the reactants which can be
reversed back by recombining the new substance formed/products.
Examples of Reversible chemical changes
(i)Heating Hydrated salts/adding water to anhydrous salts.
When hydrated salts are heated they lose some/all their water of crystallization
and become anhydrous.Heating an unknown substance /compound that forms a
colourless liquid droplets on the cooler parts of a dry test/boiling tube is in fact a
confirmation inference that the substance/compound being heated is hydrated.
When anhydrous salts are added (back) some water they form hydrated
compound/salts.

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 792

Heating Copper(II)sulphate(VI)pentahydrate and cobalt(II)chloride hexahydrate

(i)Heat about 5.0g of Copper(II)sulphate(VI) pentahydrate in a clean dry test
tube until there is no further colour change on a small Bunsen flame. Observe any
changes on the side of the test/boiling tube. Allow the boiling tube to cool.Add
about 10 drops of distilled water. Observe any changes.
(ii)Dip a filter paper in a solution of cobalt(II)chloride hexahydrate. Pass one
end the filter paper to a small Bunsen flame repeatedly. Observe any changes on
the filter paper. Dip the paper in a beaker containing distilled water. Observe any
changes.
Sample observations
Hydrated Observation Observation after heating Observation on
compound before heating adding water
Copper(II)sulpha Blue (i)colour changes from (i)colour changes
te crystalline blue to white. from white to blue
(VI) pentahydrate solid (ii)colourless liquid forms (ii)boiling tube
on the cooler parts of becomes warm
boiling / test tube /hot.
Cobalt(II)chlorid Pink (i)colour changes from (i)colour changes
e hexahydrate crystalline pink to blue. from blue to pink
solid/solution (ii) colourless liquid forms (ii)boiling tube
on the cooler parts of becomes warm/hot.
boiling / test tube (if crystal
are used)

When blue Copper(II)sulphate (VI) pentahydrate is heated, it loses the five

molecules of water of crystallization to form white anhydrous Copper(II)sulphate
(VI).Water of crystallization form and condenses as colourless droplets on the
cooler parts of a dry boiling/test tube.
This is a chemical change that produces a new substance. On adding drops of water
to an anhydrous white copper(II)sulphate(VI) the hydrated compound is formed
back. The change from hydrated to anhydrous and back is therefore reversible
chemical change.Both anhydrous white copper(II)sulphate(VI) and blue
cobalt(II)chloride hexahydrate are therefore used to test for the presence of water
when they turn to blue and pink respectively.
CuSO4(s) + 5H2 O(l) CuSO4.5H2 O(s/aq)
(white/anhydrous) (blue/hydrated)
CoCl2(s) + 6H2 O(l) CoCl2.6H2 O(s/aq)

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 793

(blue/anhydrous) (pink/hydrated)
(ii)Chemical sublimation
Some compounds sublime from solid to gas by dissociating into new different
compounds. e.g.
Heating ammonium chloride
(i)Dip a glass rod containing concentrated hydrochloric acid. Bring it near the
mouth of a bottle containing concentrated ammonia solution. Explain the
observations made.
When a glass rod containing hydrogen chloride gas is placed near ammonia gas,
they react to form ammonium chloride solid that appear as white fumes.
This experiment is used interchangeably to test for the presence of hydrogen
chloride gas (and hence Cl- ions) and ammonia gas (and hence NH4+ ions)
(ii)Put 2.0 g of ammonium chloride in a long dry boiling tube. Place wet / moist
/damp blue and red litmus papers separately on the sides of the mouth of the boiling
tube. Heat the boiling tube gently then strongly. Explain the observations made.
When ammonium chloride is heated it dissociates into ammonia and hydrogen
chloride gases. Since ammonia is less dense, it diffuses faster to turn both litmus
papers blue before hydrogen chloride turn red because it is denser. The heating and
cooling of ammonium chloride is therefore a reversible chemical change.
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
(Turns moist (Turns moist (forms white fumes)
litmus paper blue) litmus paper red)
(c)Dynamic equilibria
For reversible reactions in a closed system:
(i) at the beginning;
-the reactants are decreasing in concentration with time
-the products are increasing in concentration with time
(ii) after some time a point is reached when as the reactants are forming products
the products are forming reactants. This is called equilibrium.
Sketch showing the changes in concentration of reactants and products in a closed
system
Reactants concentration
decreases to form
products Equilibrium established /rate of formation
of products equal to rate of formation of
reactants.

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 794

Concentration

Mole dm-3
Products concentration
increases from time=0.0

Reaction progress/path/coordinate
For a system in equilibrium:
(i) a reaction from left to right (reactants to products) is called forward
reaction.
(ii) a reaction from right to left (products to reactants) is called backward
reaction.
(iii)a reaction in which the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of
backward reaction is called a dynamic equilibrium.
A dynamic equilibrium is therefore a balance of the rate of formation of products
and reactants. This balance continues until the reactants or products are
disturbed/changed/ altered.
The influence of different factors on a dynamic equilibrium was first investigated
from 1850-1936 by the French Chemist Louis Henry Le Chatellier. His findings
were called Le Chatelliers Principle which states that:
“if a stress/change is applied to a system in dynamic equilibrium, the system
readjust/shift/move/behave so as to remove/ reduce/ counteract/ oppose the
stress/change”

Le Chatelliers Principle is applied in determining the effect/influence of several

factors on systems in dynamic equilibrium. The following are the main factors that
influence /alter/ affect systems in dynamic equilibrium:
(a)Concentration
(b)Pressure
(c)Temperature
(d)Catalyst
(a)Influence of concentration on dynamic equilibrium
An increase/decrease in concentration of reactants/products at equilibrium is a
stress. From Le Chatelliers principle the system redjust so as to remove/add the
excessreduced concentration.
Examples of influence of concentration on dynamic equilibrium

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 795

(i)Chromate(VI)/CrO42- ions in solution are yellow. Dichromate(VI)/Cr2O72- ions

in solution are orange. The two solutions exist in equilibrium as in the equation:
2H+ (aq) + 2CrO42- (aq) Cr2O72- (aq) + H2O(l)
(Yellow) (Orange)
+
I. If an acid is/H (aq) is added to the equilibrium mixture a stress is created
on the reactant side where there is already H+ ions. The equilibrium shift
forward to the right to remove/reduce the excess H+ ions added. Solution
mixture becomes More Cr2O72- ions formed in the solution mixture make it to
be more orange in colour.
II. If a base/OH- (aq) is added to the equilibrium mixture a stress is created
on the reactant side on the H+ ions. H+ ions react with OH- (aq) to form water.
H+ (aq) +OH- (aq) -> H2O(l)

The equilibrium shift backward to the left to add/replace the H+ ions that
have reacted with the OH- (aq) ions . More of the CrO42- ions formed in the
solution mixture makes it to be more yellow in colour.

2OH- (aq) + 2Cr2O72- (aq) CrO42- (aq) + H2O(l)

(Orange) (Yellow)

I. If an acid/ H+ (aq) is added to the equilibrium mixture a stress is

created on the reactant side on the OH- (aq). H+ ions react with OH- (aq) to
form water.
H+ (aq) +OH- (aq) -> H2O(l)

The equilibrium shift backward to the left to add/replace the 2OH- (aq) that
have reacted with the H+ (aq) ions . More Cr2O72- (aq)ions formed in the
solution mixture makes it to be more Orange in colour.

II. If a base /OH- (aq) is added to the equilibrium mixture a stress is created
on the reactant side where there is already OH- (aq) ions. The equilibrium
shift forward to the right to remove/reduce the excess OH- (aq) ions added.
More of the Cr2O72- ions are formed in the solution mixture making it to be
more orange in colour.
(i)Practical determination of the influence of alkali/acid on Cr2O72- / CrO42-
equilibrium mixture

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 796

Measure about 2 cm3 of Potassium dichromate (VI) solution into a test tube.
Note that the solution mixture is orange.
Add three drops of 2M sulphuric(VI) acid. Shake the mixture carefully.
Note that the solution mixture is remains orange.
Add about six drops of 2M sodium hydroxide solution. Shake carefully.
Note that the solution mixture is turns yellow.
Explanation
The above observations can be explained from the fact that both the
dichromate(VI)and chromate(VI) exist in equilibrium. Dichromate(VI) ions
are stable in acidic solutions while chromate(VI)ions are stable in basic
solutions. An equilibrium exist thus:
OH-
Cr2O72- CrO42-
H+
When an acid is added, the equilibrium shift forward to the right and the
mixture become more orange as more Cr2O72- ions exist.
When a base is added, the equilibrium shift backward to the left and the
mixture become more yellow as more CrO42- ions exist.
(ii)Practical determination of the influence of alkali/acid on bromine water in
an equilibrium mixture
Measure 2cm3 of bromine water into a boiling tube. Note its colour.
Bromine water is yellow
Add three drops of 2M sulphuric(VI)acid. Note any colour change
Colour becomes more yellow
Add seven drops of 2M sodium hydroxide solution. Note any colour change.
Solution mixture becomes colourless/Bromine water is decolourized.
Explanation
When added distilled water,an equilibrium exist between bromine liquid
(Br2(aq)) and the bromide ion(Br-), hydrobromite ion(OBr-) and hydrogen
ion(H+) as in the equation:

H2O(l) + Br2(aq) OBr- (aq) + H+ (aq) + Br- (aq)

If an acid (H+)ions is added to the equilibrium mixture, it increases the
concentration of the ions on the product side which shift backwards to the left to
remove the excess H+ ions on the product side making the colour of the solution
mixture more yellow.
If a base/alkali OH- is added to the equilibrium mixture, it reacts with H+ ions
on the product side to form water.

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 797

H+ (aq)+ OH-(aq) -> H2O(l)

This decreases the concentration of the H+ ions on the product side which shift the
equilibrium forward to the right to replace H+ ions making the solution mixture
colourless/less yellow (Bromine water is decolorized)
(iii)Practical determination of the influence of alkali/acid on common acid-
base indicators.
Place 2cm3 of phenolphthalein ,methyl orange and litmus solutions each in three
separate test tubes.
To each test tube add two drops of water. Record your observations in Table 1
below.
To the same test tubes, add three drops of 2M sulphuric(VI)acid. Record your
observations in Table 1 below.
To the same test tubes, add seven drops of 2M sodium hydroxide solution. Record
your observations in Table 1 below.
To the same test Colour of indicator in
tubes, repeat Water Acid(2M sulphuric Base(2M sodium
adding four drops (VI) acid) hydroxide)
of 2M
sulphuric(VI)acid.
Table 1Indicator
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink
Methyl orange Yellow Red Orange
Litmus solution Colourless Red Blue
Explanation
An indicator is a substance which shows whether another substance is an acid ,
base or neutral.
Most indicators can be regarded as very weak acids that are partially dissociated
into ions.An equilibrium exist between the undissociated molecules and the
dissociated anions. Both the molecules and anions are coloured. i.e.

HIn(aq) H+ (aq) + In- (aq)

(undissociated indicator (dissociated indicator
molecule(coloured)) molecule(coloured))
+ +
When an acid H is added to an indicator, the H ions increase and equilibrium shift
backward to remove excess H+ ions and therefore the colour of the undissociated
(HIn) molecule shows/appears.

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 798

When a base/alkali OH- is added to the indicator, the OH- reacts with H+ ions from
the dissociated indicator to form water.
H+ (aq) + OH-(aq) -> H2O(l)
(from indicator) (from alkali/base)
The equilibrium shift forward to the right to replace the H+ ion and therefore the
colour of dissociated (In-) molecule shows/appears.
The following examples illustrate the above.
(i)Phenolphthalein indicator exist as:
HPh H+ (aq) + Ph-(aq)
(colourless molecule) (Pink anion)
On adding an acid ,equilibrium shift backward to the left to remove excess H+ ions
and the solution mixture is therefore colourless.
When a base/alkali OH- is added to the indicator, the OH- reacts with H+ ions from
the dissociated indicator to form water.
H+ (aq) + OH-(aq) -> H2O(l)
(from indicator) (from alkali/base)
The equilibrium shift forward to the right to replace the removed/reduced H+ ions.
The pink colour of dissociated (Ph-) molecule shows/appears.
(ii)Methyl Orange indicator exists as:
HMe H+ (aq) + Me-(aq)
(Red molecule) (Yellow/Orange anion)
On adding an acid ,equilibrium shift backward to the left to remove excess H+ ions
and the solution mixture is therefore red.
When a base/alkali OH- is added to the indicator, the OH- reacts with H+ ions from
the dissociated indicator to form water.
H+ (aq) + OH-(aq) -> H2O(l)
(from indicator) (from alkali/base)
The equilibrium shift forward to the right to replace the removed/reduced H+ ions.
The Orange colour of dissociated (Me-) molecule shows/appears.
(b)Influence of Pressure on dynamic equilibrium
Pressure affects gaseous reactants/products. Increase in pressure shift/favours the
equilibrium towards the side with less volume/molecules. Decrease in pressure
shift the equilibrium towards the side with more volume/molecules. More yield of
products is obtained if high pressures produce less molecules / volume of products
are formed.
If the products and reactants have equal volume/molecules then pressure has no
effect on the position of equilibrium

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 799

The following examples show the influence of pressure on dynamic equilibrium:

(i)Nitrogen(IV)oxide /Dinitrogen tetroxide mixture
Nitrogen(IV)oxide and dinitrogen tetraoxide can exist in dynamic equilibrium in a
closed test tube. Nitrogen(IV)oxide is a brown gas. Dinitrogen tetraoxide is a
yellow gas.
Chemical equation : 2NO2(g) ===== N2 O4 (g)
Gay Lussacs law 2Volume 1Volume
Avogadros law 2molecule 1molecule
2 volumes/molecules of Nitrogen(IV)oxide form 1 volumes/molecules of
dinitrogen tetraoxide
Increase in pressure shift the equilibrium forward to the left where there is less
volume/molecules.The equilibrium mixture become more yellow.
Decrease in pressure shift the equilibrium backward to the right where there is
more volume/molecules. The equilibrium mixture become more brown.
(ii)Iodine vapour-Hydrogen gas/Hydrogen Iodide mixture.
Pure hydrogen gas reacts with Iodine vapour to form Hydrogen Iodide gas.
Chemical equation : I2(g) + H2(g) ===== 2HI (g)
Gay Lussacs law 1Volume 1Volume 2Volume
Avogadros law 1molecule 1molecule 2molecule
(1+1) 2 volumes/molecules of Iodine and Hydrogen gasform 2 volumes/molecules
of Hydrogen Iodide gas.
Change in pressure thus has no effect on position of equilibrium.
(iii)Haber process.
Increase in pressure of the Nitrogen/Hydrogen mixture favours the formation of
more molecules of Ammonia gas in Haber process.
The yield of ammonia is thus favoured by high pressures
Chemical equation : N2(g) + 3H2 (g) -> 2NH3 (g)
Gay Lussacs law 1Volume 3Volume 2Volume
Avogadros law 1molecule 3molecule 2molecule
(1 + 3) 4 volumes/molecules of Nitrogen and Hydrogen react to form 2
volumes/molecules of ammonia.
Increase in pressure shift the equilibrium forward to the left where there is less
volume/molecules.
The yield of ammonia increase.
Decrease in pressure shift the equilibrium backward to the right where there is
more volume/molecules.
The yield of ammonia decrease.

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 800

(iv)Contact process.
Increase in pressure of the Sulphur(IV)oxide/Oxygen mixture favours the
formation of more molecules of Sulphur(VI)oxide gas in Contact process. The
yield of Sulphur(VI)oxide gas is thus favoured by high pressures.

Chemical equation : 2SO2(g) + O2 (g) -> 2SO3 (g)

Gay Lussacs law 2Volume 1Volume 2Volume
Avogadros law 2molecule 1molecule 2molecule
(2 + 1) 3 volumes/molecules of Sulphur(IV)oxide/Oxygen mixture react to form 2
volumes/molecules of Sulphur(VI)oxide gas.
Increase in pressure shift the equilibrium forward to the left where there is less
volume/molecules. The yield of Sulphur(VI)oxide gas increase.
Decrease in pressure shift the equilibrium backward to the right where there is
more volume/molecules. The yield of Sulphur(VI)oxide gas decrease.
(v)Ostwalds process.
Increase in pressure of the Ammonia/Oxygen mixture favours the formation of
more molecules of Nitrogen(II)oxide gas and water vapour in Ostwalds process.
The yield of Nitrogen(II)oxide gas and water vapour is thus favoured by low
pressures.
Chemical equation : 4NH3(g) + 5O2 (g) -> 4NO(g) + 6H2O (g)
Gay Lussacs law 4Volume 5Volume 4Volume 6Volume
Avogadros law 4molecule 5molecule 4molecule 6Molecule
(4 + 5) 9 volumes/molecules of Ammonia/Oxygen mixture react to form 10
volumes/molecules of Nitrogen(II)oxide gas and water vapour.
Increase in pressure shift the equilibrium backward to the left where there is less
volume/molecules. The yield of Nitrogen(II)oxide gas and water vapour decrease.
Decrease in pressure shift the equilibrium forward to the right where there is more
volume/molecules. The yield of Nitrogen(II)oxide gas and water vapour increase.
Note
If the water vapour is condensed on cooling, then:
Chemical equation : 4NH3(g) + 5O2 (g) -> 4NO(g) + 6H2O (l)
Gay Lussacs law 4Volume 5Volume 4Volume 0Volume
Avogadros law 4molecule 5molecule 4molecule 0Molecule
(4 + 5) 9 volumes/molecules of Ammonia/Oxygen mixture react to form 4
volumes/molecules of Nitrogen(II)oxide gas and no vapour.
Increase in pressure shift the equilibrium forward to the right where there is less
volume/molecules. The yield of Nitrogen(II)oxide gas increase.

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 801

Decrease in pressure shift the equilibrium backward to the left where there is more
volume/molecules. The yield of Nitrogen(II)oxide gas decrease.
(c)Influence of Temperature on dynamic equilibrium
A decrease in temperature favours the reaction that liberate/generate more heat
thus exothermic reaction(-∆H).
An increase in temperature favours the reaction that do not liberate /generate more
heat thus endothermic reaction(+∆H).
Endothermic reaction are thus favoured by high temperature/heating
Exothermic reaction are favoured by low temperature/cooling.
If a reaction/equilibrium mixture is neither exothermic or endothermic, then a
change in temperature/cooling/heating has no effect on the equilibrium position.
(i)Nitrogen(IV)oxide /Dinitrogen tetroxide mixture
Nitrogen(IV)oxide and dinitrogen tetraoxide can exist in dynamic equilibrium in a
closed test tube. Nitrogen(IV)oxide is a brown gas. Dinitrogen tetraoxide is a
yellow gas.
Chemical equation : 2NO2(g) ===== N2 O4 (g)
On heating /increasing temperature, the mixture becomes more brown. On cooling
the mixture become more yellow.
This show that
(i)the forward reaction to the right is exothermic(-∆H).
On heating an exothermic process the equilibrium shifts to the side that
generate /liberate less heat.
(ii)the backward reaction to the right is endothermic(+∆H).
On cooling an endothermic process the equilibrium shifts to the side that do
not generate /liberate heat.
(c)Influence of Catalyst on dynamic equilibrium
A catalyst has no effect on the position of equilibrium. It only speeds up the rate of
attainment. e.g.
Esterification of alkanols and alkanoic acids naturally take place in fruits.In the
laboratory concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid catalyse the reaction.The equilibrium
mixture forms the ester faster but the yield does not increase.
CH3CH2OH(l)+CH3COOH(l) ==Conc.H2SO4== CH3COOCH2CH3(aq) + H2O(l)
(d)Influence of rate of reaction and dynamic equilibrium (Optimum
conditions) on industrial processes
Industrial processes are commercial profit oriented. All industrial processes take
place in closed systems and thus in dynamic equilibrium.

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 802

For manufacturers, obtaining the highest yield at minimum cost and shortest time is
paramount.
The conditions required to obtain the highest yield of products within the shortest
time at minimum cost are called optimum conditions
Optimum condition thus require understanding the effect of various factors on:
(i)rate of reaction(Chemical kinetics)
(ii)dynamic equilibrium(Chemical cybernetics)
1.Optimum condition in Haber process
Chemical equation
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ===Fe/Pt=== 2NH3 (g) ∆H = -92kJ
Equilibrium/Reaction rate considerations
(i)Removing ammonia gas once formed shift the equilibrium forward to the right
to replace the ammonia. More/higher yield of ammonia is attained.
(ii)Increase in pressure shift the equilibrium forward to the right where there is
less volume/molecules . More/higher yield of ammonia is attained. Very high
pressures raises the cost of production because they are expensive to produce and
maintain. An optimum pressure of about 500atmospheres is normally used.
(iii)Increase in temperature shift the equilibrium backward to the left because the
reaction is exothermic(∆H = -92kJ) . Ammonia formed decomposes back to
Nitrogen and Hydrogen to remove excess heat therefore a less yield of ammonia is
attained. Very low temperature decrease the collision frequency of Nitrogen and
Hydrogen and thus the rate of reaction too slow and uneconomical.
An optimum temperature of about 450oC is normally used.
(iv)Iron and platinum can be used as catalyst. Platinum is a better catalyst but
more expensive and easily poisoned by impurities than Iron. Iron is promoted
/impregnated with AluminiumOxide(Al2O3) to increase its surface area/area of
contact with reactants and thus efficiency.The catalyst does not increase the yield
of ammonia but it speed up its rate of formation.
2.Optimum condition in Contact process
Chemical equation
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ===V2O5/Pt=== 2SO3 (g) ∆H = -197kJ
Equilibrium/Reaction rate considerations
(i)Removing sulphur(VI)oxide gas once formed shift the equilibrium forward to
the right to replace the sulphur(VI)oxide. More/higher yield of sulphur(VI) oxide
is attained.

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 803

(ii)Increase in pressure shift the equilibrium forward to the right where there is
less volume/molecules . More/higher yield of sulphur(VI)oxide is attained. Very
high pressures raises the cost of production because they are expensive to produce
and maintain. An optimum pressure of about 1-2 atmospheres is normally used to
attain about 96% yield of SO3.
(iii)Increase in temperature shift the equilibrium backward to the left because the
reaction is exothermic(∆H = -197kJ) . Sulphur(VI)oxide formed decomposes back
to Sulphur(IV)oxide and Oxygen to remove excess heat therefore a less yield of
Sulphur(VI)oxide is attained. Very low temperature decrease the collision
frequency of Sulphur(IV)oxide and Oxygen and thus the rate of reaction too slow
and uneconomical.
An optimum temperature of about 450oC is normally used.
(iv)Vanadium(V)Oxide and platinum can be used as catalyst. Platinum is a better
catalyst and less easily poisoned by impurities but more expensive.
Vanadium(V)Oxide is very cheap even if it is easily poisoned by impurities. The
catalyst does not increase the yield of Sulphur (VI)Oxide but it speed up its rate of
formation.
3.Optimum condition in Ostwalds process

Chemical equation
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) ===Pt/Rh=== 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g) ∆H = -950kJ
Equilibrium/Reaction rate considerations
(i)Removing Nitrogen(II)oxide gas once formed shift the equilibrium forward to
the right to replace the Nitrogen(II)oxide. More/higher yield of Nitrogen(II) oxide
is attained.
(ii)Increase in pressure shift the equilibrium backward to the left where there is
less volume/molecules . Less/lower yield of Nitrogen(II)oxide is attained. Very
low pressures increases the distance between reacting NH3and O2 molecules.
An optimum pressure of about 9 atmospheres is normally used.
(iii)Increase in temperature shift the equilibrium backward to the left because the
reaction is exothermic(∆H = -950kJ) . Nitrogen(II)oxide and water vapour formed
decomposes back to Ammonia and Oxygen to remove excess heat therefore a less
yield of Nitrogen(II)oxide is attained. Very low temperature decrease the collision
frequency of Ammonia and Oxygen and thus the rate of reaction too slow and
uneconomical.
An optimum temperature of about 900oC is normally used.
(iv)Platinum can be used as catalyst. Platinum is very expensive.It is:

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 804

-promoted with Rhodium to increase the surface area/area of contact.

-added/coated on the surface of asbestos to form platinized –asbestos to
reduce the amount/quantity used.
The catalyst does not increase the yield of Nitrogen (II)Oxide but it speed up its
rate of formation.

C.SAMPLE REVISION QUESTIONS

1.State two distinctive features of a dynamic equilibrium.

(i)the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of forward reaction
(ii)at equilibrium the concentrations of reactants and products do not change.
2. Explain the effect of increase in pressure on the following:
(i) N2(g) + O2(g) ===== 2NO(g)
Gay Lussacs law 1Volume 1Volume 2 Volume
Avogadros law 1 molecule 1 molecule 2 molecule
2 volume on reactant side produce 2 volume on product side.
Increase in pressure thus have no effect on position of equilibrium.
(ii) 2H2(g) + CO(g) ===== CH3OH (g)
Gay Lussacs law 2Volume 1Volume 1 Volume
Avogadros law 2 molecule 1 molecule 1 molecule
3 volume on reactant side produce 1 volume on product side.
Increase in pressure shift the equilibrium forward to the left. More yield of CH3OH
is formed.
4. Explain the effect of increasing temperature on the following:
2SO2(g) + O2 (g) ===== 2SO3 (g) ∆H = -189kJ Forward
reaction is exothermic. Increase in temperature shift the equilibrium backward to
reduce the excess heat.
5.120g of brass an alloy of copper and Zinc was put it a flask containing dilute
hydrochloric acid. The flask was placed on an electric balance. The readings
on the balance were recorded as in the table below
Time(Seconds) Mass of flask(grams) Loss in mass(grams)
0 600
20 599.50
40 599.12
60 598.84
80 598.66

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 805

100 598.54
120 598.50
140 598.50
160 598.50
(a)Complete the table by calculating the loss in mass
(b)What does the “600” gram reading on the balance represent
The initial mass of brass and the acid before any reaction take place.
(c)Plot a graph of Time (x-axes) against loss in mass.
(d)Explain the shape of your graph
The reaction produce hydrogen gas as one of the products that escape to the
atmosphere. This decreases the mass of flask.After 120 seconds,the react is
complete. No more hydrogen is evolved.The mass of flask remain constant.
(d)At what time was the loss in mass equal to:
(i)1.20g
Reading from a correctly plotted graph =
(ii)1.30g
Readng from a correctly plotted graph =
(iii)1.40g
Reading from a correctly plotted graph =
(e)What was the loss in mass at:
(i)50oC
Reading from a correctly plotted graph =
(ii) 70oC
Reading from a correctly plotted graph =

(iii) 90oC g
Reading from a correctly plotted graph =

THERMOCHEMISTRY

1.Introduction to Energy changes

Energy is the capacity to do work. There are many/various forms of energy like
heat, electric, mechanical, and/ or chemical energy.There are two types of energy:
(i)Kinetic Energy(KE) ;the energy in motion.
(ii)Potential Energy(PE); the stored/internal energy.

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 806

Energy like matter , is neither created nor destroyed but can be transformed
/changed from one form to the other/ is interconvertible. This is the principle of
conservation of energy. e.g. Electrical energy into heat through a filament in bulb.
Chemical and physical processes take place with absorption or
evolution/production of energy mainly in form of heat
The study of energy changes that accompany physical/chemical reaction/changes is
called Thermochemistry. Physical/chemical reaction/changes that involve energy
changes are called thermochemical reactions. The SI unit of energy is the
Joule(J).Kilo Joules(kJ)and megaJoules(MJ) are also used. The Joule(J) is defined
as the:
(i) quantity of energy transferred when a force of one newton acts through a
distance of one metre.
(ii) quantity of energy transferred when one coulomb of electric charge is
passed through a potential difference of one volt.
All thermochemical reactions should be carried out at standard conditions of:
(i) 298K /25oC temperature
(ii)101300Pa/101300N/m2 /760mmHg/1 atmosphere pressure.
2.Exothermic and endothermic processes/reactions
Some reactions / processes take place with evolution/production of energy. They
are said to be exothermic while others take place with absorption of energy. They
are said to be endothermic.
Practically exothermic reactions / processes cause a rise in temperature (by a rise in
thermometer reading/mercury or alcohol level rise)
Practically endothermic reactions / processes cause a fall in temperature (by a fall
in thermometer reading/mercury or alcohol level decrease)
To demonstrate/illustrate exothermic and endothermic processes/reactions
a) Dissolving Potassium nitrate(V)/ammonium chloride crystals
Procedure:
Measure 20cm3 of water in a beaker. Determine and record its temperature T1.Put
about 1.0g of Potassium nitrate(V) crystals into the beaker. Stir the mixture
carefully and note the highest temperature rise /fall T2.Repeat the whole procedure
by using ammonium chloride in place of Potassium nitrate (V) crystals.
Sample results
Temperture (oC) Using Potassium Using
nitrate(V) crystals Ammonium
chloride crystals
T2(Final temperature) 21.0 23.0

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 807

T1 (Initial temperature) 25.0 26.0

Change in temperature(T2 – 4.0 3.0
T1)
Note:
(i)Initial(T1) temperature of dissolution of both potassium nitrate(V) crystals and
ammonium chloride crystals is higher than the final temperature(T2)
(ii) Change in temperature(T2 –T1) is not a mathematical “-4.0” or “-3.0”.
(iii)Dissolution of both potassium nitrate(V) and ammonium chloride crystals is an
endothermic process because initial(T1) temperature is higher than the final
temperature(T2) thus causes a fall/drop in temperature.
b) Dissolving concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid/sodium hydroxide crystals
Procedure:
Measure 20cm3 of water in a beaker. Determine and record its temperature
T1.Carefully put about 1.0g/four pellets of sodium hydroxide crystals into the
beaker. Stir the mixture carefully and note the highest temperature rise /fall
T2.Repeat the whole procedure by using 2cm3 of concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid in
place of sodium hydroxide crystals.
CAUTION:
(i)Sodium hydroxide crystals are caustic and cause painful blisters on contact with
skin.
(ii) Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is corrosive and cause painful wounds on
contact with skin.
Sample results
Temperture (oC) Using Sodium Using Concentrated
hydroxide pellets sulphuric(VI) acid
T2(Final temperature) 30.0 32.0
T1 (Initial temperature) 24.0 25.0
Change in temperature(T2 – 6.0 7.0
T1)

Note:
(i)Initial (T1) temperature of dissolution of both concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid
and sodium hydroxide pellets is lower than the final temperature (T2).
(ii)Dissolution of both Sodium hydroxide pellets and concentrated sulphuric (VI)
acid is an exothermic process because final (T2) temperature is higher than the
initial temperature (T1) thus causes a rise in temperature.

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 808

The above reactions show heat loss to and heat gain from the surrounding as
illustrated by a rise and fall in temperature/thermometer readings.
Dissolving both potassium nitrate(V) and ammonium chloride crystals causes heat
gain from the surrounding that causes fall in thermometer reading.
Dissolving both Sodium hydroxide pellets and concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid
causes heat loss to the surrounding that causes rise in thermometer reading.
At the same temperature and pressure ,heat absorbed and released is called
enthalpy/ heat content denoted H.
Energy change is measured from the heat content/enthalpy of the final and initial
products. It is denoted ∆H(delta H).i.e.
Enthalpy/energy/ change in heat content ∆H = Hfinal – Hinitial
For chemical reactions:
∆H = Hproducts – Hreactants
For exothermic reactions, the heat contents of the reactants is more than/higher
than the heat contents of products, therefore the ∆H is negative (-∆H)
For endothermic reactions, the heat contents of the reactants is less than/lower
than the heat contents of products, therefore the ∆H is negative (+∆H)
Graphically, in a sketch energy level diagram:
(i)For endothermic reactions the heat content of the reactants should be
relatively/slightly lower than the heat content of the products
(ii)For exothermic reactions the heat content of the reactants should be
relatively/slightly higher than the heat content of the products
Sketch energy level diagrams for endothermic dissolution

Energy
(kJ) H2 KNO3(aq)

+∆H = H2 – H1

H1 KNO3(s)

Reaction path/coordinate/progress

Energy
(kJ) H2 NH4Cl (aq)

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 809

+∆H = H2 – H1

H1 NH4Cl (s)

Reaction path/coordinate/progress
Sketch energy level diagrams for exothermic dissolution

H2 NaOH (s)

Energy(kJ)
-∆H = H2 – H1

H1 NaOH (aq)

Reaction path/coordinate/progress

H2 H2SO4 (l)
Energy
(kJ)
-∆H = H2 – H1

H1 H2SO4 (aq)

Reaction path/coordinate/progress
3.Energy changes in physical processes
Melting/freezing/fusion/solidification and boiling/vaporization/evaporation are
the two physical processes. Melting /freezing point of pure substances is fixed
/constant. The boiling point of pure substance depend on external atmospheric
pressure.

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 810

Melting/fusion is the physical change of a solid to liquid. Freezing is the physical

change of a liquid to solid.
Melting/freezing/fusion/solidification are therefore two opposite but same
reversible physical processes. i.e
A (s) ========A(l)
Boiling/vaporization/evaporation is the physical change of a liquid to gas/vapour.
Condensation/liquidification is the physical change of gas/vapour to liquid.
Boiling/vaporization/evaporation and condensation/liquidification are therefore two
opposite but same reversible physical processes. i.e
B (l) ========B(g)
Practically
(i) Melting/liquidification/fusion involves heating a solid to weaken the strong
bonds holding the solid particles together. Solids are made up of very strong bonds
holding the particles very close to each other (Kinetic Theory of matter).On
heating these particles gain energy/heat from the surrounding heat source to form a
liquid with weaker bonds holding the particles close together but with some degree
of freedom. Melting/freezing/fusion is an endothermic (+∆H)process that
require/absorb energy from the surrounding.
(ii)Freezing/fusion/solidification involves cooling a a liquid to reform /rejoin the
very strong bonds to hold the particles very close to each other as solid and thus
lose their degree of freedom (Kinetic Theory of matter). Freezing /fusion /
solidification is an exothermic (-∆H)process that require particles holding the
liquid together to lose energy to the surrounding.
(iii)Boiling/vaporization/evaporation involves heating a liquid to completely
break/free the bonds holding the liquid particles together. Gaseous particles have
high degree of freedom (Kinetic Theory of matter). Boiling /vaporization /
evaporation is an endothermic (+∆H) process that require/absorb energy from the
surrounding.
(iv)Condensation/liquidification is reverse process of boiling /vaporization /
evaporation.It involves gaseous particles losing energy to the surrounding to form a
liquid.It is an exothermic(+∆H) process.
The quantity of energy required to change one mole of a solid to liquid or to form
one mole of a solid from liquid at constant temperature is called molar
enthalpy/latent heat of fusion. e.g.
H2O(s) -> H2O(l) ∆H = +6.0kJ mole-1 (endothermic process)
H2O(l) -> H2O(s) ∆H = -6.0kJ mole-1 (exothermic process)

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 811

The quantity of energy required to change one mole of a liquid to gas/vapour or to

form one mole of a liquid from gas/vapour at constant temperature is called molar
enthalpy/latent heat of vapourization. e.g.

H2O(l) -> H2O(g) ∆H = +44.0kJ mole-1 (endothermic process)

H2O(g) -> H2O(l) ∆H = -44.0kJ mole-1 (exothermic process)

The following experiments illustrate/demonstrate practical determination of

melting and boiling
a) To determine the boiling point of water
Procedure:
Measure 20cm3 of tap water into a 50cm3 glass beaker. Determine and record its
temperature.Heat the water on a strong Bunsen burner flame and record its
temperature after every thirty seconds for four minutes.
Sample results
Time(seconds) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Temperature(oC) 25.0 45.0 85.0 95.0 96.0 96.0 96.0 97.0 98.0
Questions
1.Plot a graph of temperature against time(y-axis)
Sketch graph of temperature against time

boiling point
o
96 C

Temperature(0C)

25oC

time(seconds)
2.From the graph show and determine the boiling point of water
Note:
Water boils at 100oC at sea level/one atmosphere pressure/101300Pa but
boils at below 100oC at higher altitudes. The sample results above are from Kiriari
Girls High School-Embu County on the slopes of Mt Kenya in Kenya. Water here
boils at 96oC.
3.Calculate the molar heat of vaporization of water.(H= 1.0,O= 16.O)

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 812

Working:
Mass of water = density x volume => (20 x 1) /1000 = 0.02kg
Quantity of heat produced
= mass of water x specific heat capacity of water x temperature change
=>0.02kg x 4.2 x ( 96 – 25 ) = 5.964kJ
Heat of vaporization of one mole H2O = Quantity of heat
Molar mass of H2O
=>5.964kJ = 0.3313 kJ mole -1
18

To determine the melting point of candle wax

Procedure
Weigh exactly 5.0 g of candle wax into a boiling tube. Heat it on a strongly Bunsen
burner flame until it completely melts. Insert a thermometer and remove the boiling
tube from the flame. Stir continuously. Determine and record the temperature after
every 30seconds for four minutes.
Sample results
Time(seconds) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Temperature(oC) 93.0 85.0 78.0 70.0 69.0 69.0 69.0 67.0 65.0
Questions
1.Plot a graph of temperature against time(y-axis)
Sketch graph of temperature against time

93 oC

Temperature(0C) melting point

69oC

time(seconds)
2.From the graph show and determine the melting point of the candle wax
4.Energy changes in chemical processes

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 813

Thermochemical reactions measured at standard conditions of 298K(25oC) and

101300Pa/101300Nm2/ 1 atmospheres/760mmHg/76cmHg produce standard
enthalpies denoted ∆Hᶿ.
Thermochemical reactions are named from the type of reaction producing the
energy change. Below are some thermochemical reactions:
(a) Standard enthalpy/heat of reaction ∆Hᶿr
(b) Standard enthalpy/heat of combustion ∆Hᶿc
(c) Standard enthalpy/heat of displacement ∆Hᶿd
(d) Standard enthalpy/heat of neutralization ∆Hᶿn
(e) Standard enthalpy/heat of solution/dissolution ∆Hᶿs
(f) Standard enthalpy/heat of formation ∆Hᶿf
(a)Standard enthalpy/heat of reaction ∆Hᶿr
The molar standard enthalpy/heat of reaction may be defined as the energy/heat
change when one mole of products is formed at standard conditions
A chemical reaction involves the reactants forming products. For the reaction to
take place the bonds holding the reactants must be broken so that new bonds of the
products are formed. i.e.
A-B + C-D -> A-C + B-D
Old Bonds broken A-B and C-D on reactants
New Bonds formed A-C and B-D on products
The energy required to break one mole of a (covalent) bond is called bond
dissociation energy. The SI unit of bond dissociation energy is kJmole-1
The higher the bond dissociation energy the stronger the (covalent)bond
Bond dissociation energies of some (covalent)bonds
Bond Bond dissociation energy Bond dissociation
(kJmole-1) energy (kJmole-1)
H-H 431 I-I 151
C-C 436 C-H 413
C=C 612 O-H 463
C=C 836 C-O 358
N = N 945 H-Cl 428
N-H 391 H-Br 366
F-F 158 C-Cl 346
Cl-Cl 239 C-Br 276
Br-Br 193 C-I 338
H-I 299 O=O 497
Si-Si 226 C-F 494

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 814

The molar enthalpy of reaction can be calculated from the bond dissociation energy
by:
(i)adding the total bond dissociation energy of the reactants(endothermic
process/+∆H) and total bond dissociation energy of the products(exothermic
process/-∆H).
(ii)subtracting total bond dissociation energy of the reactants from the total
bond dissociation energy of the products(exothermic process/-∆H less/minus
endothermic process/+∆H).
Practice examples/Calculating ∆Hr
1.Calculate ∆Hr from the following reaction:
a) H2(g) + Cl2(g) -> 2HCl(g)
Working
Old bonds broken (endothermic process/+∆H )
= (H-H + Cl-Cl) => (+431 + (+ 239)) = + 670kJ
New bonds broken (exothermic process/-∆H )
= (2(H-Cl ) => (- 428 x 2)) = -856kJ
∆Hr =( + 670kJ + -856kJ) = 186 kJ = -93kJ mole-1
2
The above reaction has negative -∆H enthalpy change and is therefore practically
exothermic.
The thermochemical reaction is thus:
½ H2(g) + ½ Cl2(g) -> HCl(g) ∆Hr = -93kJ

b) CH4(g) + Cl2(g) -> CH3Cl + HCl(g)

Working
Old bonds broken (endothermic process/+∆H )
= (4(C-H) + Cl-Cl)
=> ((4 x +413) + (+ 239)) = + 1891kJ
New bonds broken (exothermic process/-∆H )
= (3(C-H + H-Cl + C-Cl)
=> (( 3 x - 413) + 428 + 346) = -2013 kJ
∆Hr =( + 1891kJ + -2013 kJ) = -122 kJ mole-1

The above reaction has negative -∆H enthalpy change and is therefore practically
exothermic.
The thermochemical reaction is thus:
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) -> CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g) ∆H = -122 kJ

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 815

c) CH2CH2(g) + Cl2(g) -> CH3Cl CH3Cl (g)

Working
Old bonds broken (endothermic process/+∆H )
= (4(C-H) + Cl-Cl + C=C)
=> ((4 x +413) + (+ 239) +(612)) = + 2503kJ
New bonds broken (exothermic process/-∆H )
= (4(C-H + C-C + 2(C-Cl) )
=> (( 3 x - 413) + -436 +2 x 346 = -2367 kJ
∆Hr =( + 2503kJ + -2367 kJ) = +136 kJ mole-1
The above reaction has negative +∆H enthalpy change and is therefore practically
endothermic.
The thermochemical reaction is thus:
CH2CH2(g) + Cl2(g) -> CH3Cl CH3Cl (g) ∆H = +136 kJ
Note that:
(i)a reaction is exothermic if the bond dissociation energy of reactants is
more than bond dissociation energy of products.
(ii)a reaction is endothermic if the bond dissociation energy of reactants is
less than bond dissociation energy of products.

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 816

(b)Standard enthalpy/heat of combustion ∆Hᶿc

The molar standard enthalpy/heat of combustion(∆Hᶿc) is defined as the
energy/heat change when one mole of a substance is burnt in oxygen/excess air at
standard conditions.
Burning is the reaction of a substance with oxygen/air. It is an exothermic process
producing a lot of energy in form of heat.
A substance that undergoes burning is called a fuel. A fuel is defined as the
combustible substance which burns in air to give heat energy for domestic or
industrial use. A fuel may be solid (e.g coal, wood, charcoal) liquid (e.g petrol,
paraffin, ethanol, kerosene) or gas (e.g liquefied petroleum gas/LPG, Water gas-
CO2/H2, biogas-methane, Natural gas-mixture of hydrocarbons)
To determine the molar standard enthalpy/heat of combustion(∆Hᶿc) of ethanol
Procedure

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 817

Put 20cm3 of distilled water into a 50cm3 beaker. Clamp the beaker. Determine the
temperature of the water T1.Weigh an empty burner(empty tin with wick).
Record its mass M1.Put some ethanol into the burner. Weigh again the burner with
the ethanol and record its mass M2. Ignite the burner and place it below the
clamped 50cm3 beaker. Heat the water in the beaker for about one minute. Put off
the burner. Record the highest temperature rise of the water, T2. Weigh the burner
again and record its mass M3
Sample results:
Volume of water used 20cm3
Temperature of the water before heating T1
25.0oC
Temperature of the water after heating T2
35.0oC
Mass of empty burner M1 28.3g
Mass of empty burner + ethanol before igniting 29.1g
M2
Mass of empty burner + ethanol after igniting M3 28.7g
Sample calculations:
1.Calculate:
(a) ∆T the change in temperature
∆T = T2 – T1 => (35.0oC – 25.0oC) = 10.0oC
(b) the mass of ethanol used in burning
mass of ethanol used = M2 – M1 => 29.1g – 28.7g = 0.4g
(c) the number of moles of ethanol used in burning
moles of ethanol = mass used => 0.4 = 0.0087 /8.7 x 10-3
moles
molar mass of ethanol 46

2. Given that the specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 kJ-1kg-1K-1,determine the
heat produced during the burning.
Heat produced ∆H = mass of water(m) x specific heat capacity (c)x ∆T
=> 20 x 4.2 x 10 = 840 Joules = 0.84 kJ
1000
3.Calculate the molar heat of combustion of ethanol
Molar heat of combustion ∆Hc = Heat produced ∆H
Number of moles of fuel
=> 0.84 kJ = 96.5517 kJmole-1

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 818

0.0087 /8.7 x 10-3 moles

4.List two sources of error in the above experiment.
(i)Heat loss to the surrounding lowers the practical value of the molar heat of
combustion of ethanol.
A draught shield tries to minimize the loss by protecting wind from wobbling the
flame.
(ii) Heat gain by reaction vessels/beaker lowers ∆T and hence ∆Hc
5.Calculate the heating value of the fuel.
Heating value = molar heat of combustion => 96.5517 kJmole-1 = 2.0989 kJg-1
Molar mass of fuel 46 g
Heating value is the enrgy produced when a unit mass/gram of a fuel is
completely burnt
6.Explain other factors used to determine the choice of fuel for domestic and
industrial use.
(i) availability and affordability-some fuels are more available cheaply in
rural than in urban areas at a lower cost.
(ii)cost of storage and transmission-a fuel should be easy to transport and
store safely. e.g LPG is very convenient to store and use. Charcoal and wood are
bulky.
(iii)environmental effects –Most fuels after burning produce carbon(IV)
oxide gas as a byproduct. Carbon(IV) oxide gas is green house gas that causes
global warming. Some other fuel produce acidic gases like sulphur(IV) oxide ,and
nitrogen(IV) oxide. These gases cause acid rain. Internal combustion engines
exhaust produce lead vapour from leaded petrol and diesel. Lead is carcinogenic.
(iv)ignition point-The temperature at which a fuel must be heated before it
burns in air is the ignition point. Fuels like petrol have very low ignition point,
making it highly flammable. Charcoal and wood have very high ignition point.
7.Explain the methods used to reduce pollution from common fuels.
(i)Planting trees-Plants absorb excess carbon(IV)oxide for photosynthesis
and release oxygen gas to the atmosphere.
(ii)using catalytic converters in internal combustion engines that convert
harmful/toxic/poisonous gases like carbon(II)oxide and nitrogen(IV)oxide to
harmless non-poisonous carbon(IV)oxide, water and nitrogen gas by using
platinum-rhodium catalyst along the engine exhaust pipes.

Further practice calculations

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 819

1.Calculate the heating value of methanol CH3OH given that 0.87g of the fuel
burn in air to raise the temperature of 500g of water from 20oC to 27oC.(C-
12.0,H=1.0 O=16.0).
Moles of methanol used = Mass of methanol used => 0.87 g = 0.02718 moles
Molar mass of methanol 32
Heat produced ∆H = mass of water(m) x specific heat capacity (c)x ∆T
=> 500 x 4.2 x 7 = 14700 Joules = 14.7 kJ
1000
Molar heat of combustion ∆Hc = Heat produced ∆H
Number of moles of fuel
=> 14.7 kJ = 540.8389 kJmole-1
0.02718 moles
Heating value = molar heat of combustion => 540.8389 kJmole-1 = 16.9012 kJg-1
Molar mass of fuel 32 g
2. 1.0 g of carbon burn in excess air to raise the temperature of 400g of water
by 18oC.Determine the molar heat of combustion and hence the heating value
of carbon(C-12.0,).
Moles of carbon used = Mass of carbon used => 1.0 g = 0.0833 moles
Molar mass of carbon 12
Heat produced ∆H = mass of water(m) x specific heat capacity (c)x ∆T
=> 400 x 4.2 x 18 = 30240 Joules = 30.24 kJ
1000
Molar heat of combustion ∆Hc = Heat produced ∆H
Number of moles of fuel
=> 30.24 kJ = 363.0252 kJmole-1
0.0833 moles
Heating value = molar heat of combustion => 363.0252 kJmole-1= 30.2521 kJg-1
Molar mass of fuel 12 g
(c)Standard enthalpy/heat of displacement ∆Hᶿd
The molar standard enthalpy/heat of displacement ∆Hᶿd is defined as the
energy/heat change when one mole of a substance is displaced from its solution.
A displacement reaction takes place when a more reactive element/with less
electrode potential Eᶿ / negative Eᶿ /higher in the reactivity/electrochemical
series remove/displace another with less reactive element/with higher electrode
potential Eᶿ / positive Eᶿ /lower in the reactivity/electrochemical series from its
solution.e.g.
(i)Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) -> Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)

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 820

Ionically: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) -> Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq)

(ii)Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) -> Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq)
Ionically: Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) -> Cu(s) + Fe2+ (aq)
(iii)Pb(s) + CuSO4(aq) -> Cu(s) + PbSO4(s)
This reaction stops after some time as insoluble PbSO4(s) coat/cover unreacted
lead.
(iv)Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) -> Br2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq)
Ionically: Cl2(g)+ 2Br- (aq) -> Br2(aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
Practically, a displacement reaction takes place when a known amount /volume of a
solution is added excess of a more reactive metal.
To determine the molar standard enthalpy/heat of displacement(∆Hᶿd) of copper
Procedure
Place 20cm3 of 0.2M copper(II)sulphate(VI)solution into a 50cm3 plastic
beaker/calorimeter. Determine and record the temperature of the solution T1.Put all
the Zinc powder provided into the plastic beaker. Stir the mixture using the
thermometer. Determine and record the highest temperature change to the nearest
0.5oC- T2 . Repeat the experiment to complete table 1 below
Table 1

Experiment I II
Final temperature of solution(T2) 30.0 C 31.0oC
o

Final temperature of solution(T1) 25.0oC 24.0oC

Change in temperature(∆T) 5.0 6.0
Questions
1.(a) Calculate:
(i)average ∆T
Average∆T = change in temperature in experiment I and II
=>5.0 + 6.0 = 5.5oC
2
(ii)the number of moles of solution used
Moles used = molarity x volume of solution = 0.2 x 20 = 0.004 moles
1000 1000
(iii)the enthalpy change ∆H for the reaction
Heat produced ∆H = mass of solution(m) x specific heat capacity (c)x ∆T
=> 20 x 4.2 x 5.5 = 462 Joules = 0.462 kJ
1000
(iv)State two assumptions made in the above calculations.

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 821

Density of solution = density of water = 1gcm-3

Specific heat capacity of solution=Specific heat capacity of solution=4.2 kJ-1kg-1K
This is because the solution is assumed to be infinite dilute.
2. Calculate the enthalpy change for one mole of displacement of Cu2+ (aq)
ions.
Molar heat of displacement ∆Hd = Heat produced ∆H
Number of moles of fuel
=> 0.462 kJ = 115.5 kJmole-1
0.004
3.Write an ionic equation for the reaction taking place.
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) -> Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)
4.State the observation made during the reaction.
Blue colour of copper(II)sulphate(VI) fades/becomes less blue/colourless.
Brown solid deposits are formed at the bottom of reaction vessel/ beaker.
5.Illustrate the above reaction using an energy level diagram.

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)

Energy ∆H = -115.5 kJmole-1

(kJ)
Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)

Reaction progress/path/coordinates
6. Iron is less reactive than Zinc. Explain the effect of using iron instead of
Zinc on the standard molar heat of displacement ∆Hd of copper(II)sulphate
(VI) solution.
No effect. Cu2+ (aq) are displaced from their solution.The element used to displace
it does not matter.The reaction however faster if a more reactive metal is used.
7.(a)If the standard molar heat of displacement ∆Hd of copper(II)sulphate (VI)
solution is 209kJmole-1 calculate the temperature change if 50cm3 of 0.2M
solution was displaced by excess magnesium.
Moles used = molarity x volume of solution = 0.2 x 50 = 0.01 moles
1000 1000
Heat produced ∆H = Molar heat of displacement ∆Hd x Number of moles
=>209kJmole-1x 0.01 moles = 2.09 kJ
∆T (change in temperature) = Heat produced ∆H
Molar heat of displacement ∆Hd x Number of moles

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 822

=>2.09 kJ = 9.9524Kelvin
0.01 moles
(b)Draw an energy level diagram to show the above energy changes

Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq)

Energy ∆H = -209 kJmole-1

(kJ)
Cu(s) + Mg2+(aq)

Reaction progress/path/coordinates
8. The enthalpy of displacement ∆Hd of copper(II)sulphate (VI) solution is
12k6kJmole-1.Calculate the molarity of the solution given that 40cm3 of this
solution produces 2.204kJ of energy during a displacement reaction with
excess iron filings.
Number of moles = Heat produced ∆H
Molar heat of displacement ∆Hd
=>2.204 kJ = 0.0206moles
126 moles
Molarity of the solution = moles x 1000
Volume of solution used
= 0.0206moles x 1000 = 0.5167 M
40
9. If the molar heat of displacement of Zinc(II)nitrate(V)by magnesium
powder is 25.05kJmole-1 ,calculate the volume of solution which must be added
0.5 moles solution if there was a 3.0K rise in temperature.
Heat produced ∆H = Molar heat of displacement ∆Hd x Number of moles
=>25.08kJmole-1x 0.5 moles = 1.254 kJ x 1000 =1254J
Mass of solution (m) = Heat produced ∆H
specific heat capacity (c)x ∆T
=> 1254J = 99.5238 g
4.2 x 3
Volume = mass x density = 99.5238 g x 1 = 99.5238cm3

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 823

Note: The solution assumes to be too dilute /infinite dilute such that the density and
specific heat capacity is assumed to be that of water.
Graphical determination of the molar enthalpy of displacement of copper
Procedure:
Place 20cm3 of 0.2M copper(II)sulphate (VI) solution into a calorimeter/50cm3 of
plastic beaker wrapped in cotton wool/tissue paper.
Record its temperature at time T= 0.
Stir the solution with the thermometer carefully and continue recording the
temperature after every 30 seconds .
Place all the (1.5g) Zinc powder provided.
Stir the solution with the thermometer carefully and continue recording the
temperature after every 30 seconds for five minutes.
Determine the highest temperature change to the nearest 0.5oC.
Sample results
Time oC 0.0 30.0 60.0 90.0 120.0 150.0 180.0 210.0 240.0 270.0
Temperature 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 xxx 36.0 35.5 35.0 34.5
Sketch graph of temperature against time

36.5
Extrapolation
Temperature point ∆T
o
C

130 Time(seconds)
Questions
1. Show and determine the change in temperature ∆T
From a well constructed graph ∆T= T2 –T1 at 150 second by extrapolation
∆T = 36.5 – 25.0 = 11.5oC
2.Calculate the number of moles of copper(II) sulphate(VI)used given the
molar heat of displacement of Cu2+ (aq)ions is 125kJmole-1
Heat produced ∆H = mass of solution(m) x specific heat capacity (c)x ∆T
=> 20 x 4.2 x 11.5 = 966 Joules = 0.966 kJ
1000
Number of moles = Heat produced ∆H
Molar heat of displacement ∆Hd
=>.966 kJ = 0.007728moles
125 moles 7.728 x 10-3moles

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 824

2. What was the concentration of copper(II)sulphate(VI) in moles per litre.

Molarity = moles x 1000 => 7.728 x 10-3moles x 1000 = 0.3864M
Volume used 20
4.The actual concentration of copper(II)sulphate(VI) solution was
0.4M.Explain the differences between the two.
Practical value is lower than theoretical. Heat/energy loss to the surrounding
and that absorbed by the reaction vessel decreases ∆T hence lowering the
practical number of moles and molarity against the theoretical value
5.a) In an experiment to determine the molar heat of reaction when magnesium
displaces copper ,0.15g of magnesium powder were added to 25.0cm3 of 2.0M
copper (II) chloride solution. The temperature of copper (II) chloride solution was
25oC.While that of the mixture was 43oC.
i)Other than increase in temperature, state and explain the observations which were
made during the reaction.(3mks)

ii)Calculate the heat change during the reaction (specific heat capacity of the
solution = 4.2jg-1k-1and the density of the solution = 1g/cm3(2mks)
iii)Determine the molar heat of displacement of copper by magnesium.(Mg=24.0).
iv)Write the ionic equation for the reaction.(1mk)
v)Sketch an energy level diagram for the reaction.(2mks)
(c)Standard enthalpy/heat of neutralization ∆Hᶿn
The molar standard enthalpy/heat of neutralization ∆Hᶿn is defined as the
energy/heat change when one mole of a H+ (H3O+)ions react completely with one
mole of OH- ions to form one mole of H2O/water.
Neutralization is thus a reaction of an acid /H+ (H3O+)ions with a base/alkali/ OH-
ions to form salt and water only.
Strong acids/bases/alkalis are completely dissociated to many free ions(H+ /H3O+
and OH- ions).
Weak acids/bases/alkalis are partially dissociated to few free ions(H+ (H3O+ and
OH- ions) and exist more as molecules.
Neutralization is an exothermic(-∆H) process.The enrgy produced during
neutralization depend on the amount of free ions (H+ H3O+ and OH-)ions existing
in the acid/base/alkali reactant:
(i)for weak acid-base/alkali neutralization,some of the energy is used to
dissociate /ionize the molecule into free H+ H3O+ and OH- ions therefore the overall
energy evolved is comparatively lower/lesser/smaller than strong acid / base/
alkali neutralizations.

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 825

(ii) (i)for strong acid/base/alkali neutralization, no energy is used to

dissociate /ionize since molecule is wholly/fully dissociated/ionized into free H+
H3O+ and OH- ions.The overall energy evolved is comparatively higher/more than
weak acid-base/ alkali neutralizations. For strong acid-base/alkali neutralization,
the enthalpy of neutralization is constant at about 57.3kJmole-1 irrespective of the
acid-base used. This is because ionically:
OH-(aq)+ H+(aq) -> H2O(l) for any wholly dissociated acid/base/alkali
Practically ∆Hᶿn can be determined as in the examples below:
To determine the molar enthalpy of neutralization ∆Hn of Hydrochloric acid
Procedure
Place 50cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid into a calorimeter/200cm3 plastic beaker
wrapped in cotton wool/tissue paper. Record its temperature T1.Using a clean
measuring cylinder, measure another 50cm3 of 2M sodium hydroxide. Rinse the
bulb of the thermometer in distilled water. Determine the temperature of the
sodium hydroxide T2.Average T2 andT1 to get the initial temperature of the mixture
T3.
Carefully add all the alkali into the calorimeter/200cm3 plastic beaker wrapped in
cotton wool/tissue paper containing the acid. Stir vigorously the mixture with the
thermometer.
Determine the highest temperature change to the nearest 0.5oC T4 as the final
temperature of the mixture. Repeat the experiment to complete table 1.
Table I . Sample results

Experiment I II
Temperature of acid T1 (oC) 22.5 22.5
Temperature of base T2 (oC) 22.0 23.0
Final temperature of solution 35.5 36.0
T4(oC)
Initial temperature of solution 22.25 22.75
T3(oC)
Temperature change( T5) 13.25 13.75
(a)Calculate T6 the average temperature change
T6 = 13.25 +13.75 = 13.5 oC
2
(b)Why should the apparatus be very clean?
Impurities present in the apparatus reacts with acid /base lowering the overall
temperature change and hence ∆Hᶿn.

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 826

(c)Calculate the:
(i)number of moles of the acid used
number of moles = molarity x volume => 2 x 50 = 0.1moles
1000 1000
(ii)enthalpy change ∆H of neutralization.
∆H = (m)mass of solution(acid+base) x (c)specific heat capacity of solution x
∆T(T6) => (50 +50) x 4.2 x 13.5 = 5670Joules = 5.67kJ
(iii) the molar heat of neutralization the acid.
∆Hn = Enthalpy change ∆H => 5.67kJ = 56.7kJ mole-1
Number of moles 0.1moles
(c)Write the ionic equation for the reaction that takes place
OH-(aq)+ H+(aq) -> H2O(l)
(d)The theoretical enthalpy change is 57.4kJ. Explain the difference with the
results above.
The theoretical value is higher
Heat/energy loss to the surrounding/environment lowers ∆T/T6 and thus ∆Hn
Heat/energy is absorbed by the reaction vessel/calorimeter/plastic cup lowers
∆T and hence ∆Hn
(e)Compare the ∆Hn of the experiment above with similar experiment repeated
with neutralization of a solution of:

(i) potassium hydroxide with nitric(V) acid

The results would be the same/similar.
Both are neutralization reactions of strong acids and bases/alkalis that are fully
/wholly dissociated into many free H+ / H3O+ and OH- ions.
(ii) ammonia with ethanoic acid
The results would be lower/∆Hn would be less.
Both are neutralization reactions of weak acids and bases/alkalis that are partially
/partly dissociated into few free H+ / H3O+ and OH- ions. Some energy is used to
ionize the molecule.
(f)Draw an energy level diagram to illustrate the energy changes

H2 H+ (aq)+OH- (aq)
Energy
(kJ)
∆H = -56.7kJ

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 827

H1 H2O (l)

Reaction path/coordinate/progress
Theoretical examples
1.The molar enthalpy of neutralization was experimentary shown to be 51.5kJ
per mole of 0.5M hydrochloric acid and 0.5M sodium hydroxide. If the volume
of sodium hydroxide was 20cm3, what was the volume of hydrochloric acid
used if the reaction produced a 5.0oC rise in temperature?
Working:
Moles of sodium hydroxide = molarity x volume => 0.5 M x 20cm3 = 0.01 moles
1000 1000
Enthalpy change ∆H = ∆Hn => 51.5 = 0.515kJ
Moles sodium hydroxide 0.01 moles
Mass of base + acid = Enthalpy change ∆H in Joules
Specific heat capacity x ∆T
=> 0.515kJ x 1000 = 24.5238g
4.2 x 5
Mass/volume of HCl = Total volume – volume of NaOH
=>24.5238 - 20.0 = 4.5238 cm3
3. ∆Hn of potassium hydroxide was practically determined to be
56.7kJmole-1.Calculate the molarity of 50.0 cm3 potassium hydroxide
used to neutralize 25.0cm3 of dilute sulphuric(VI) acid raising the
temperature of the solution from 10.0oC to 16.5oC.
∆H = (m)mass of solution(acid+base) x (c)specific heat capacity of solution x ∆T
=> (50 +25) x 4.2 x 6.5 = 2047.5Joules
Moles potassium hydroxide =Enthalpy change ∆H
∆Hn
2047.5Joules = 0.0361 moles
56700Joules
Molarity of KOH = moles x 1000 => 0.0361 moles x 1000 = 0.722M
Volume used 50cm3
3.Determine the specific heat capacity of a solution of a solution mixture of
50.0cm3 of 2M potassium hydroxide neutralizing 50.0cm3 of 2M nitric(V) acid
if a 13.25oC rise in temperature is recorded.(1mole of potassium hydroxide
produce 55.4kJ of energy)
Moles of potassium hydroxide = molarity KOH x volume
1000

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 828

=> 2 M x 50cm3 = 0.1 moles

1000
Enthalpy change ∆H = ∆Hn x Moles potassium hydroxide
=> 55.4kJ x 0.1 moles = 5.54kJ x 1000=5540Joules
Specific heat capacity = Enthalpy change ∆H in Joules
Mass of base + acid x ∆T
=> 5540 = 4.1811J-1g-1K-1
(50+50) x 13.25
Graphically ∆Hn can be determined as in the example below:
Procedure
Place 8 test tubes in a test tube rack .Put 5cm3 of 2M sodium hydroxide solution
into each test tube.
Measure 25cm3 of 1M hydrochloric acid into 100cm3 plastic beaker.
Record its initial temperature at volume of base =0. Put one portion of the base
into the beaker containing the acid.
Stir carefully with the thermometer and record the highest temperature change to
the nearest 0.5oC.
Repeat the procedure above with other portions of the base to complete table 1
below
Table 1:Sample results.
olume of acid(cm3) 25. 25.0 25. 25. 25. 25. 25. 25. 25.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Volume of alkali(cm3) 0 5.0 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Final temperature(oC) 22. 24.0 26. 28. 28. 27. 26. 25. 24.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o
Initial temperature( C) 22. 22.0 22. 22. 22. 22. 22. 22. 22.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Change in temperature 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0

(a)Complete the table to determine the change in temperature.

(b)Plot a graph of volume of sodium hydroxide against temperature change.

6.7=T2

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Volume of sodium hydroxide(cm3)

 829

∆T (oC)

0 =T1

From the graph show and determine :

(i)the highest temperature change ∆T
∆T =T2-T1 => highest temperature-T2 (from extrapolating a correctly plotted
graph) less lowest temperature at volume of base=0 :T1
=>∆T = 6.7 – 0.0 = 6.70C
(ii)the volume of sodium hydroxide used for complete neutralization
From a correctly plotted graph – 16.75cm3
(c)Calculate the number of moles of the alkali used
Moles NaOH = molarity x volume =>2M x 16.75cm3 = 0.0335 moles
1000 1000
(d)Calculate ∆H for the reaction
∆H = mass of solution(acid+base) x c x ∆T
=>(25.0 + 16.75) x 4.2 x 6.7 = 1174.845 J = 1.174845kJ
1000
(e)Calculate the molar enthalpy of neutralization of the alkali.
∆Hn = ∆Hn = 1.174845kJ = 35.0701kJ
Number of moles 0.0335
(d)Standard enthalpy/heat of solution ∆Hᶿs
The standard enthalpy of solution ∆Hᶿsis defined as the energy change when one
mole of a substance is dissolve in excess distilled water to form an infinite dilute
solution. An infinite dilute solution is one which is too dilute to be diluted further.
Dissolving a solid involves two processes:
(i) breaking the crystal of the solid into free ions(cations and anion).This
process is the opposite of the formation of the crystal itself. The energy required
to form one mole of a crystal structure from its gaseous ions is called Lattice
energy/heat/enthalpy of lattice (∆Hl). Lattice energy /heat/enthalpy of lattice (∆Hl)
is an endothermic process (+∆Hl).

The table below shows some ∆Hl in kJ for the process MX(s) -> M+ (g) + X- (g)

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 830

Li Na K Ca Mg
F +1022 +900 +800 +760 +631
Cl +846 +771 +690 +2237 +2493
Br +800 +733 +670 +2173 +2226
(ii)surrounding the free ions by polar water molecules. This process is
called hydration. The energy produced when one mole of ions are completely
hydrated is called hydration energy/ heat/enthalpy of hydration(∆Hh).Hydration
energy /enthalpy of hydration(∆Hh) is an exothermic process(∆Hh).
The table below shows some ∆Hh in kJ for some ions;
ion Li+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+ F- Cl- Br-
∆Hh -1091 -406 -322 -1920 -1650 -506 -364 -335
The sum of the lattice energy +∆Hl (endothermic) and hydration energy -∆Hh
(exothermic) gives the heat of solution-∆Hs
∆Hs = ∆Hl +∆Hh
Note
Since ∆Hl is an endothermic process and ∆Hh is an exothermic process then ∆Hs is:
(i)exothermic if ∆Hl is less than ∆Hh and hence a solid dissolve easily in
water.
(ii)endothermic if ∆Hl is more than ∆Hh and hence a solid does not dissolve
easily in water.
(a)Dissolving sodium chloride crystal/s:
(i) NaCl ----breaking the crystal into free ions---> Na +(g)+ Cl-(g) ∆Hl =+771 kJ
(ii) Hydrating the ions;
Na +(g) + aq -> Na(aq) ∆Hh = - 406 kJ
Cl-(g) + aq -> Cl-(aq) ∆Hh = - 364 kJ
∆Hs =∆Hh +∆Hs -> (- 406 kJ + - 364 kJ) + +771 kJ = + 1.0 kJmole-1
NaCl does not dissolve easily in water because overall ∆Hs is endothermic
Solubility of NaCl therefore increases with increase in temperature.
Increase in temperature increases the energy to break the crystal lattice of NaCl to
free Na +(g)+ Cl-(g)
(b)Dissolving magnesium chloride crystal/s// MgCl2 (s) ->MgCl2 (aq)
(i) MgCl2 --breaking the crystal into free ions-->Mg 2+(g)+ 2Cl-(g) ∆Hl =+2493 kJ
(ii) Hydrating the ions;
Mg 2+(g) + aq -> Mg 2+(g) (aq) ∆Hh = - 1920 kJ
2Cl-(g) + aq -> 2Cl-(aq) ∆Hh = (- 364 x 2) kJ
∆Hs =∆Hh +∆Hs -> (- 1920 kJ + (- 364 x 2 kJ)) + +2493 kJ = -155.0 kJmole-1
MgCl2 (s) dissolve easily in water because overall ∆Hs is exothermic .

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 831

Solubility of MgCl2 (s) therefore decreases with increase in temperature.

(c)Dissolving Calcium floride crystal/s// CaF2 (s) -> CaF2 (aq)

(i) CaF2 -->Ca 2+(g)+ 2F-(g) ∆Hl =+760 kJ
(ii) Hydrating the ions;
Ca 2+(g) + aq -> Ca 2+(g) (aq) ∆Hh = - 1650 kJ
2F-(g) + aq -> 2F-(aq) ∆Hh = (- 506 x 2) kJ
∆Hs =∆Hh +∆Hs -> (- 1650 kJ + (- 506 x 2 kJ)) + +760 kJ = -1902.0 kJmole-1
CaF2 (s) dissolve easily in water because overall ∆Hs is exothermic .
Solubility of CaF2 (s) therefore decreases with increase in temperature.
(d)Dissolving magnesium bromide crystal/s// MgBr2 (s) ->MgBr2 (aq)
(i) MgCl2 --breaking the crystal into free ions-->Mg 2+(g)+ 2Br-(g) ∆Hl =+2226 kJ
(ii) Hydrating the ions;
Mg 2+(g) + aq -> Mg 2+(g) (aq) ∆Hh = - 1920 kJ
2Br-(g) + aq -> 2Br-(aq) ∆Hh = (- 335x 2) kJ
∆Hs =∆Hh +∆Hs -> (- 1920 kJ + (- 335 x 2 kJ)) + +2226 kJ = -364.0 kJmole-1
MgBr2 (s) dissolve easily in water because overall ∆Hs is exothermic .
Solubility of MgBr2(s) therefore decreases with increase in temperature.
Practically the heat of solution can be determined from dissolving known amount
/mass/volume of solute in known mass /volume of water/solvent.
From the temperature of solvent before and after dissolving the change in
temperature(∆T) during dissolution is determined.
To determine the ∆Hs ammonium nitrate
Place 100cm3 of distilled water into a plastic beaker/calorimeter. Determine its
temperature and record it at time =0 in table I below.
Put all the 5.0g of ammonium nitrate (potassium nitrate/ammonium chloride can
also be used)provided into the plastic beaker/calorimeter, stir using a thermometer
and record the highest temperature change to the nearest 0.5oCafter every ½ minute
to complete table I.
Continue stirring the mixture throughout the experiment.
Sample results: Table I
Time (minutes) 0.0 ½ 1 1½ 2 2½ 3 3½
o
Temperature() C 22.0 21.0 20.0 19.0 19.0 19.5 20.0 20.5
(a)Plot a graph of temperature against time(x-axis)

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 832

22.0=T1

temperature(oC)
∆T

o
18.7. C T1

Time (minutes)
(b)From the graph show and determine the highest temperature change ∆T
∆T =T2-T1 => lowest temperature-T2 (from extrapolating a correctly plotted
graph) less highest temperature at volume of base=0 :T1
=>∆T =18.7 – 22.0 = 3.30C
(c)Calculate the number of moles of ammonium nitrate(V) used
Moles NH4NO3 = mass used => 5.0 = 0.0625 moles
Molar mass 80
(d)Calculate ∆H for the reaction
∆H = mass of water x c x ∆T
->100 x 4.2 x 3.3 = +1386 J = +1.386kJ
1000
(e)Calculate the molar enthalpy of dissolution of ammonium nitrate(V).
∆Hs = ∆H = +1.386kJ = + 22.176kJ mole-1
Number of moles 0.0625 moles
(f)What would happen if the distilled water was heated before the experiment
was performed.
The ammonium nitrate(V)would take less time to dissolves. Increase in temperature
reduces lattice energy causing endothermic dissolution to be faster
(g)Illustrate the process above in an energy level diagram

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 833

NH4+ (g) + NO3-(g)

+∆H
NH4+ (aq)+NO3-(aq) Energy(kJ)

+∆H ∆H = -22.176kJ

NH4NO3-(s)

Reaction path /progress/coordinate

(h) 100cm3 of distilled water at 25oC was added carefully 3cm3 concentrated
sulphuric(VI)acid of density 1.84gcm-3.The temperature of the mixture rose
from 250C to 38oC.Calculate the molar heat of solution of sulphuric(VI)acid
(S=32.0,H=1.0,0=16.0)
Working
Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98g
Mass of H2SO4= Density x volume => 1.84gcm-3 x 3cm3 = 5.52 g
Mass of H2O = Density x volume => 1.00gcm-3 x 100cm3 = 100 g
Moles of H2SO4= mass => 5.52 g = 0.0563 moles
Molar mass of H2SO4 98g
Enthalpy change ∆H= (mass of acid + water) x specific heat capacity of water x ∆T
=> (100 +5.52 g) x 4.2 x 13oC = 5761.392 J = 5.761392 kJ
1000
∆Hs of H2SO4= ∆H => 5.761392 kJ = -102.33378kJmoles-1
Moles of H2SO4 0.0563 moles

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 834

(e)Standard enthalpy/heat of formation ∆Hᶿf

The molar enthalpy of formation ∆Hᶿf is defined as the energy change when one
mole of a compound is formed from its elements at 298K(25oC) and 101325Pa(one
atmosphere)pressure. ∆Hᶿf is practically difficult to determine in a school
laboratory.
It is determined normally determined by applying Hess’ law of constant heat
summation.
Hess’ law of constant heat summation states that “the total enthalpy/heat/energy
change of a reaction is the same regardless of the route taken from reactants
to products at the same temperature and pressure”.
Hess’ law of constant heat summation is as a result of a series of experiments done
by the German Scientist Henri Hess(1802-1850).
He found that the total energy change from the reactants to products was the same
irrespective of the intermediate products between. i.e.

A(s) --∆H1-->C(s) = A(s) --∆H2-->B(s)--∆H3-->C(s)

Applying Hess’ law of constant heat summation then:

A(s) ∆H2 B(s)

∆H1 ∆H3

C(s)
The above is called an energy cycle diagram. It can be used to calculate any of the
missing energy changes since:
(i) ∆H1 =∆H2 + ∆H3
(ii) ∆H2 =∆H1 + -∆H3
(iii) ∆H3 = - ∆H1 + ∆H2
Examples of applying Hess’ law of constant heat summation
1.Calculate the molar enthalpy of formation of methane (CH4) given that
∆Hᶿc of carbon-graphite is -393.5kJmole-1,Hydrogen is -285.7 kJmole-1 and
that of methane is 890 kJmole-1
Working
Carbon-graphite ,hydrogen and oxygen can react to first form methane.
Methane will then burn in the oxygen present to form carbon(IV)oxide and water.
Carbon-graphite can burn in the oxygen to form carbon(IV)oxide.

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 835

Hydrogen can burn in the oxygen to form water.

C(s)+ 2H2 (g)+2O2 (g) --∆H1--> CH4(g) +2O2(g) --∆H2--> CO2(g)+2H2O(l)
C(s)+ 2H2 (g)+2O2 (g) --∆H3--> CO2(g)+2H2O(l)
Energy cycle diagram
C(s) + 2H2 (g) + 2O2(g) ∆H1=∆Hᶿc =-890.4kJ CH4(g)+2O2(g)

∆H3=∆Hᶿc =-393.5kJ ∆H3=∆Hᶿc =-285.7kJ x 2 ∆H2= ∆Hᶿf= x

CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Substituting:
∆H3 = ∆H1 + ∆H2
-393.5 + (-285.7 x 2) = -890.4kJ + x
x = -74.5 kJ
Heat of formation ∆Hᶿf CH4 = -74.5 kJmole-1

2. Calculate the molar enthalpy of formation of ethyne (C2H2) given : ∆Hᶿc of

carbon-graphite = -394kJmole-1,Hydrogen = -286 kJmole-1 , (C2H2) = -1300
kJmole-1
Working
Carbon-graphite ,hydrogen and oxygen can react to first form ethyne.
Ethyne will then burn in the oxygen present to form carbon(IV)oxide and water.
Carbon-graphite can burn in the oxygen to form carbon(IV)oxide.
Hydrogen can burn in the oxygen to form water.
2C(s)+ H2 (g)+2 ½ O2 (g) --∆H1--> C2 H2 (g) +2 ½ O2(g) --∆H2--> CO2(g)+H2O(l)
2C(s)+ H2 (g)+ 2 ½ O2 (g) --∆H3--> 2CO2(g)+H2O(l)
Energy cycle diagram
2C(s) + H2 (g) +2½O2(g) ∆H1=∆Hᶿf =x C2
H2+2½O2(g)

∆H3=∆Hᶿc =-394kJx 2 ∆H3=∆Hᶿc =-286kJ ∆H2= ∆Hᶿc= -1300kJ

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 836

2CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Substituting:
∆H3 = ∆H1 + ∆H2
( -394 x 2) + -286 = -1300kJ + x
x = +244 kJ
Heat of formation ∆Hᶿf CH4 = +244 kJmole-1
3. Calculate the molar enthalpy of formation of carbon(II)oxide (CO) given :
∆Hᶿc of carbon-graphite = -393.5kJmole-1, ∆Hᶿc of carbon(II)oxide (CO)= -
283 kJmole-1
Working
Carbon-graphite reacts with oxygen first to form carbon (II)oxide (CO).
Carbon(II)oxide (CO) then burn in the excess oxygen to form carbon(IV)oxide.
Carbon-graphite can burn in excess oxygen to form carbon (IV) oxide.
C(s)+ ½O2 (g) --∆H1--> CO (g) + ½ O2(g) --∆H2--> CO2(g)
C(s)+ O2 (g) --∆H3--> CO2(g)

Energy cycle diagram

C(s) + ½O2(g) ∆H1=∆Hᶿf =x CO+½O2(g)

∆H3=∆Hᶿc =-393.5kJ ∆H2= ∆Hᶿc= -283kJ

CO2(g)
Substituting:
∆H3 = ∆H1 + ∆H2
-393.5kJ = -283kJ + x
x = -110 kJ
Heat of formation ∆Hᶿf CO = -110 kJmole-1
4.Study the information below:

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 837

H2(g) + ½ O2(g) -> H2O(l) ∆H1=-286 kJmole-1

C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) ∆H2=-393 kJmole-1
2C(s) + H2(g) + ½ O2(g) ->C2H5OH(l) ∆H3=-277 kJmole-1
Use the information to calculate the molar enthalpy of combustion ∆H4 of
ethanol
Energy cycle diagram
2C(s) + 3H2 (g) +3½O2(g) ∆H3=∆Hᶿf =-227kJ C2 H5OH +3O2(g)

∆H2=∆Hᶿc =-394kJx 2 ∆H1=∆Hᶿc =-286kJx 3 ∆H4= ∆Hᶿc= x

2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
Substituting:
∆H1 + ∆H2 = ∆H3 + ∆H4
( -394 x 2) + -286 x 3 = -277 + x
∆H4 = -1369 kJ
Heat of combustion ∆Hᶿc C2H5OH = -1369 kJmole-1
5.Given the following information below:
CuSO4(s) + (aq) -> CuSO4(aq) ∆H=-66.1 kJmole-1
CuSO4(s) + (aq) + 5H2O(l)-> CuSO4 .5H2O (aq) ∆H=-77.4 kJmole-1
Calculate ∆H for the reaction;
CuSO4(aq) + 5H2O-> CuSO4 .5H2O (aq) ∆H=-77.4 kJmole-1
Working
CuSO4(s) + (aq) + 5H2O(l)-> CuSO4(aq)+ 5H2O(l)-> CuSO4 .5H2O (aq)
CuSO4(s) + (aq) + 5H2O(l)-> CuSO4 .5H2O (aq)
Energy cycle diagram
CuSO4(s) + (aq) + 5H2O(l) ∆H1=+66.1kJ CuSO4(aq)+
5H2O(l)

∆H3= =-77.4kJ ∆H2= x

CuSO4 .5H2O (aq)

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Substituting:
∆H3 = ∆H2 + ∆H1
( -77.4kJ = x + +66.1kJ
∆H4 = -10.9 kJ
Heat of dissolution of CuSO4 = -10.9kJmole-1
Practically, Hess’ law can be applied practically as in the following examples
a)Practical example 1
Determination of the enthalpy of formation of CuSO4.5H2O
Experiment I
Weigh accurately 12.5 g of copper(II)sulphate(VI)pentahydrate. Measure 100cm3
of distilled water into a beaker. Determine its temperature T1 .Put all the crystals of
the copper(II)sulphate(VI)pentahydrate carefully into the beaker. Stir using a
thermometer and determine the highest temperature change T2 Repeat the
procedure again to complete table 1.
Table 1:Sample results
Experiment I II
Highest /lowest temperature T2 27.0 29.0
Initial temperature T1 24.0 25.0
Change in temperature ∆T 3.0 4.0
Experiment II
Weigh accurately 8.0g of anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI). Measure 100cm3 of
distilled water into a beaker. Determine its temperature T1 .Put all the crystals of
the copper(II)sulphate(VI)pentahydrate carefully into the beaker. Stir using a
thermometer and determine the highest temperature change T2 Repeat the
procedure again to complete table II.

Table II :Sample results

Experiment I II
Highest /lowest temperature T2 26.0 27.0
Initial temperature T1 25.0 25.0
Change in temperature ∆T 1.0 2.0
Questions
(a)Calculate the average ∆T in

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(i)Table I
∆T= T2 -T1 => 3.0 +4.0 = 3.5 oC
2
(ii)Table II
∆T= T2 -T1 => 1.0 +2.0 = 1.5 oC
2
(b)Calculate the number of moles of solid used in:
(i)Experiment I
Moles of CuSO4.5H2O = Mass => 12.5 = 0.05 moles
Molar mass 250
(ii)Experiment II
Moles of CuSO4 = Mass => 8.0 = 0.05 moles
Molar mass 160
(c)Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction in:
(i)Experiment I
Enthalpy change of CuSO4.5H2O= mass of Water(m) x c x ∆T
=>100cm3 x 4.2 x 3.5 oC = -1.47kJ
1000
(ii)Experiment II
Enthalpy change of CuSO4 = mass of water(m) x c x ∆T
=>100cm3 x 4.2 x 1.5 oC = -0.63kJ
1000
(c)Calculate the molar enthalpy of solution CuSO4 .5H2O (s) form the results
in (i)experiment I.
∆Hs = CuSO4.5H2O= ∆H => -1.47kJ = 29.4kJ
Number of Moles 0.05 moles
(ii)experiment II.
∆Hs = CuSO4= ∆H => -0.63kJ = 12.6kJ
Number of Moles 0.05 moles
(d) Using an energy level diagram, calculate the molar enthalpy change for the
reaction:
CuSO4 .5H2O (s) -> CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)

Energy cycle diagram

CuSO4(s) + (aq) + 5H2O(l) ∆H1=x CuSO4. 5H2O (s)+ (aq)

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∆H3= =-29.4kJ ∆H2= -12.6kJ

CuSO4 .5H2O (aq)

∆H3 = ∆H1 +∆H2
=>-29.4kJ = -12.6kJ + x
=>-29.4kJ - (+12.6kJ) = x
x = 16.8kJ
b)Practical example II
Determination of enthalpy of solution of ammonium chloride
Theoretical information.
Ammonium chloride dissolves in water to form ammonium chloride solution.
Aqueous ammonia can react with excess dilute hydrochloric acid to form
ammonium chloride solution. The heat change taking place can be calculated from
the heat of reactions:
(i) NH3(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NH4Cl(s)
(ii) NH4Cl(s) + (aq) -> NH4Cl(aq)
(iii) NH3(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NH4Cl(aq)
Experiment procedure I
Measure 50cm3 of water into a 100cm3 beaker. Record its temperature T1 as initial
temperature to the nearest 0.5oC in table I. Add exactly 5.0g of ammonium chloride
crystals weighed carefully into the water. Stir and record the highest temperature
change T2 as the final temperature change. Repeat the above procedure to complete
table I.
Sample results TableI

Experiment I II
final temperature(oC) 19.0 20.0
initial temperature(oC) 22.0 22.0
temperature change 3.0 2.0
∆T(oC)
Experiment procedure II

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 841

Measure 25cm3 of 2M aqueous ammonia into a 100cm3 beaker. Record its

temperature T1 as initial temperature to the nearest 0.5oC in table II. Measure
25cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid solution. Add the acid into the beaker containing
aqueous ammonia. Stir and record the highest temperature change T2 as the final
temperature change. Repeat the above procedure to complete table II.
Sample results:Table II
Experiment I II
o
final temperature( C) 29.0 29.0
initial temperature(oC) 22.0 22.0
temperature change 7.0 7.0
∆T(oC)
Sample Calculations:
(a)Calculate the average ∆T in
(i)Table I
∆T= T2 -T1 => -3.0 +-2.0 = 2.5 oC
2
(ii)Table II
∆T= T2 -T1 => 7.0 +7.0 = 7.0 oC
2
(b)Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction in:
(i)Experiment I
Enthalpy change ∆H = mass of Water(m) x c x ∆T
=>50cm3 x 4.2 x 2.5 oC = +0.525kJ
1000
(ii)Experiment II
Enthalpy change of CuSO4 = mass of water(m) x c x ∆T
=>25+25cm3 x 4.2 x 7 oC = +1.47kJ
1000
(c)Write the equation for the reaction taking place in:
(i)Experiment I
NH4Cl(s) + (aq) -> NH4Cl(aq)
(ii)Experiment I
NH3(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NH4Cl(aq)
(d)Calculate the enthalpy change ∆H for the reaction:
NH3(g) + HCl(g) -> NH4Cl(s) given that:
(i) NH3(g) + (aq) -> NH3(aq) ∆H= -40.3kJ
(ii) (aq) + HCl(g) -> HCl(aq) ∆H= -16.45kJ

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(e)Applying Hess’ Law of constant heat summation:

Energy level diagram

N2(g) + 1½ H2(g) + ½ Cl2 ∆Hf NH4Cl(s) + aq

+0.525kJ=∆H4

(aq) (aq)
- 40.3kJ=∆H1 -16.43kJ=∆H2

NH3 (aq) + HCl(aq) -1.47kJ=∆H3 NH4Cl(s)

∆H1 + ∆H2 + ∆H3 = ∆H4 + ∆Hf
- 40.3kJ + -16.43kJ + -1.47kJ = +0.525kJ + ∆Hf
=>∆Hf = -58.865kJ.
Practice theoretical examples:
1. Using an energy level diagram calculate the ∆Hs of ammonium chloride
crystals given that.
∆Hf of NH3 (aq) = -80.54kJ mole-1
∆Hf of HCl (aq) = -164.46kJ mole-1
∆Hf of NH4Cl (aq) = -261.7483kJ mole-1
∆Hs of NH4Cl (aq) = -16.8517kJ mole-1
N2(g) + 1½ H2(g) + ½ Cl2 ∆Hf=-261.7483kJ NH4Cl(s) + aq

x=∆Hs

(aq) (aq)
- 80.54kJ=∆H1 -164.46kJ=∆H2

NH3 (aq) + HCl(aq) 16.8517kJ=∆H3 NH4Cl(s)

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∆H1 + ∆H2 + ∆H3 = ∆H4 + ∆Hf

- 80.54kJ + -164.46kJ + -16.8517kJ = -261.7483kJ + ∆Hf
=>∆Hf = -33.6kJmole-1.
Study the energy cycle diagram below and use it to:

(a)Identify the energy changes ∆H1 ∆H2 ∆H3 ∆H4 ∆H5 ∆H6

∆H1 - enthalpy/heat of formation of sodium chloride (∆Hf)

∆H2 -enthalpy/heat of atomization of sodium (∆Hat)
∆H3 -enthalpy/heat of ionization/ionization energy of sodium (∆H i)
∆H4 -enthalpy/heat of atomization of chlorine (∆Hat)
∆H5 -enthalpy/heat of electron affinity of chlorine (∆He)
∆H6 enthalpy/heat of lattice/Lattice energy of sodium chloride(∆H l)
(b) Calculate ∆H1 given that ∆H2 =+108kJ , ∆H3=+500kJ, ∆H4 =+121kJ ,∆H5
=-364kJ and ∆H6 =-766kJ
Working:
∆H1 =∆H2 +∆H3 +∆H4 +∆H5 +∆H6
Substituting:
∆H1= +108kJ + +500kJ + +121kJ +-364kJ + -766kJ
∆H1= -401kJmole-1
(c) Given the that:
(i) Ionization energy of sodium = + 500kJmole-1
(ii)∆Hat of sodium = + 110kJmole-1
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 844

(iii) Electron affinity of chlorine = - 363kJmole-1

(iv)∆Hat of chlorine = + 120kJmole-1
(v) ∆Hf of sodium chloride = -411kJ , calculate the lattice energy of sodium
chloride using an energy cycle diagram.

Working:
Applying Hess law then:
∆Hf =∆Ha +∆Hi +∆Ha +∆He +∆Hl
Substituting:
-411= +108kJ + +500kJ + +121kJ +-364kJ + x
-411 + -108kJ + -500kJ + -121kJ + +364kJ = x
x= -776kJmole-1

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