Outline

15.1 Internal Resistance

15.2
E. ELECTRICITY 15.3 Potential Divider
AND MAGNETISM 15.4 Potentiometer & Wheatstone Bridge

Chapter 15
Direct Current Circuits

AUTHOR LIEW SAU POH

EDITOR SHERRY TAN
1 2

Objectives
(a) explain the effects of internal resistance on the
terminal potential difference of a battery in a circuit
(b) state and apply
(c) explain a potential divider as a source of variable 15.1 Internal
voltage
(d) explain the uses of shunts and multipliers
Resistance of Sources
(e) explain the working principles of a potentiometer, and
its uses
(f) explain the working principles of a Wheatstone
bridge, and its uses
(g) solve problems involving potentiometer and
Wheatstone bridge
3 4

Electric Current Electromotive Force (EMF)

A battery that is disconnected from any circuit EMF = the voltage between two ends of a
has an electric potential difference between its
circuit when no current is flowing in the circuit
terminals that is called the electromotive force or
emf: An emf (electromotive force) is the work per
unit charge done by the source of emf in
moving the charge around a closed loop
Remember despite its name, the emf is an
electric potential, not a force.

Wn e
q
5 6

Electromotive Force (EMF) Electromotive Force (EMF)

The energy needed to run electrical devices Because of the positive and negative charges
comes from batteries. on the battery terminals, an electric potential
difference exists between them. The maximum
Within a battery, a chemical reaction occurs
potential difference is called the electromotive
that transfers electrons from one terminal force* (emf) of the battery.
(leaving it positively charged) to another
The electric potential difference is also known
terminal (leaving it negatively charged). as the voltage, V.
The SI unit for voltage is the volt, after
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) who invented the
electric battery. 1 volt = 1 J/C.

7 8
Electromotive Force (EMF) Electromotive Force (EMF)
Electromotive force (emf) is the potential difference A source of emf will maintain a potential difference
that appear between the terminals of a battery when and supply current to an external circuit .Example:
no current is present. batteries, solar cells, generators etc.
If the emf of a battery is zero, there is no current
when a wire is connected across its terminals. In this
A source of emf is a device that converts chemical, case there is no potential difference to drive the
mechanical or other forms of energy into the electric charge.
energy necessary to maintain a continuous flow of But if the emf in nonzero, a current is present when
electric charge. the terminals are connected.
The greater the emf, the greater the current in the
In electric circuit, source of emf is usually represented circuit.
by and it is measured involts.

9 10

Sources of EMF Sources of EMF

The source that maintains the current in a closed 1. Electric cells-convert chemical energy to
circuit is called a source of emf electrical energy
Any devices that increase the potential energy of Consists of 2 different metals (the electrodes)
charges circulating in circuits are sources of emf immersed in a substance called an
Examples include batteries and generators electrolyte.
SI units are Volts A battery consists of a no. of cells connected
The emf is the work done per unit charge together (a car battery = 6 2V cells in series)

Primary cell
Battery of
cells
11 12

Sources of EMF: Simple Cell

The electro motive force is the maximum potential
difference between the two electrodes of the cell when Cu plate and Zn Plate in a beaker of
no current is drawn from the cell. Comparison of EMF andP.D: dilute sulphuric acid
EMF Potential Difference The plates react with
1 EMF is the maximum potential P.D is the difference of potentials
Cu Zn the acid Zn plate
difference between the two between any two points in a becomes neg. charged,
electrodes of the cell when no closed circuit. Dilute
current is drawn from the cell i.e. Cu +. Thus a potential
when the circuit is open. sulphuric
acid difference exists so
2 It is independent of the resistance It is proportional to the resistance
of the circuit. between the given points. electrons can flow
3 It is measured between any two
from -ve to +veplate
source of emf. points of the circuit.

4 It is greater than the potential However, p.d. is greater than emf

difference between any twopoints when the cell is being charged.
in a circuit. 13 14

Primary and Secondary Cells

Example
When you press one of the buttons on a pocket
Primary cell = cell which cannot be calculator, the battery provides a current of 300 µA
recharged-once the chemicals are used for 10 ms.
How much charge flows during that time?
up it must be discarded (e.g. dry
How many electrons flow in that time?
battery)
Secondary cell = cell which can be
q I t 300 A 10ms 3.00 C
recharged (usually by pushing current
totalcharge in 10ms
through it in the wrong direction) (e.g. Number of electrons
charge on 1 electron
car battery)
3.0 C
1.90 1013
1.60 10 19 C
15 16
EMF and Internal Resistance More About Internal Resistance
A real battery has some The schematic shows
internal resistance the internal resistance, r
Therefore, the terminal The terminal voltage is
voltage is not equal to the b-Va
emf Ir

IR + Ir

17 18

Internal Resistance and EMF, cont Internal Resistance and EMF, final
When R >> r, r can be ignored
current is zero Generally assumed in problems
Also called the open-circuit voltage Power relationship
R is called the load resistance I = I2 R + I2 r
The current depends on both the resistance When R >> r, most of the power
external to the battery and the internal delivered by the battery is transferred to
resistance the load resistor

19 20

R
Internal Resistance Internal Resistance of a Cell:
r
+ -
The opposition offered by the electrolyte of the
In reality, batteries and generators also add
cell to the flow of electric current through it is
some resistance to a circuit. This resistance is called the internal resistance of the cell.
called the internal resistance of the battery. Factors affecting Internal Resistance of a cell:
When an external resistance R is connected to Larger the separation between the electrodes
of the cell, more the length of the electrolyte
the battery, the resistance is connected in through which current has to flow and
series with the internal resistance. This internal consequently a higher value of internal
resistance causes the voltage between the resistance.
terminals to drop below the emf. Greater the conductivity of the electrolyte,
lesser is the internal resistance of the cell. i.e.
internal resistance depends on the nature of
the electrolyte.
21 22

Internal Resistance of a Cell in Terms

Internal Resistance of a Cell:
of E,V and R:
The internal resistance of a cell is inversely
E r
proportional to the common area of the electrodes E = V +v
dipping in the electrolyte. = V + Ir v
I I
The internal resistance of a cell depends on the Ir = E - V
R
nature of the electrodes.
Dividing by IR = V, V
E = V +v E
r
= IR + Ir Ir E V E
v
= I (R + r) = r =( - 1) R
I I
IR V V
I = E / (R + r) R

This relation is called circuit

equation.
V
23 24
Internal Resistance of a Cell in Terms
of E,V and R: Internal Resistance in a Battery
Battery is a device that maintain a fixed electrical
Determination of Internal Resistance of a cell by
potential difference between two points.
voltmeter method:
V V
However, when a real battery is used to provide
+ +
electrical energy, the external voltage across the
r r terminals is less than the emf.
I I This reduction in voltage is due to the potential drop
R.B (R) R.B (R) occurring across the internal resistance of the battery
K K itself.
Open circuit (No current Closed circuit (Current is
is drawn) drawn)
EMF (E) is measured Potential Difference (V) is
measured
25 26

Internal Resistance of a Battery Internal Resistance of a Battery

As more current is drawn from a battery, a greater
voltage drop occurs across its external resistance. The current through the circuit depends on the
This effect is most easily visualized by considering a emf and the total resistance.
real battery to consists of an ideal emf in series with a
resistance. I
The resistance, r is the internal resistance of the R r
battery. The potential difference across the terminals of
If the current is connected to an external resistance, the battery is called the terminal potential
R (load resistance), the circuit can be drawn as difference (TPD).
shown in the given figure. It is the emf reduced by the voltage drop across
the internal resistance.

27 28

EMF and Terminal Voltage

Internal Resistance of a Battery
r R R All sources of emf have what is known as INTERNAL
TPD has a value of TPD Ir RESISTANCE (r) to the flow of electric current. The internal
r Rr resistance of a fresh battery is usually small but increases with
According to this equation, when the load resistance use. Thus the voltage across the terminals of a battery is less
R is small, the terminal voltace is applicably less than than the emf of the battery.
the emf. The TERMINALVOLTAGE (V) is given by the equation V
= - Ir, where represents the emf of the source of
When the resistance is larger than the internal
resistance, the terminal voltage is approximately potential in volts, I the current leaving the source of emf in
amperes and r the internal resistance in ohms.
equals the emf.
The internal resistance of the source of emf is always
R t erminal voltage emf considered to be in a series with the external resistance present
in the electric circuit.
R terminal votage emf
29 30

Example
A transistor radio battery has an emf of 12.0 V. A
current of 4.0 A passes through a wire which is
connected directly across the battery terminals. What
is the internal resistance of the battery ? What is the
TPD across a 10 load?

12.0V
r 3.0
I 4.0A
R 10
TPD 12.0 9.23V
R r 10 3

31 32
Gustav Kirchhoff
1824 1887 There are ways in which resistors can be
Invented spectroscopy connected so that the circuits formed cannot be
with Robert Bunsen reduced to a single equivalent resistor
Formulated rules about
radiation
instead

33 34

More About the Junction Rule

Junction Rule I1 = I2 + I3
The sum of the currents entering any junction must From Conservation of
equal the sum of the currents leaving that junction Charge
A statement of Conservation of Charge Diagram b shows a
Loop Rule mechanical analog
The sum of the potential differences across all the
elements around any closed circuit loop must be
zero
A statement of Conservation of Energy

35 36

More About the Loop Rule

Assign symbols and directions to the currents in all
branches of the circuit
Traveling around the loop from
If a direction is chosen incorrectly, the resulting
a to b
answer will be negative, but the magnitude will be
In a, the resistor is transversed
correct in the direction of the current,
When applying the loop rule, choose a direction for the potential across the
transversing the loop resistor is IR
In b, the resistor is transversed
Record voltage drops and rises as they occur
in the direction opposite of the
current, the potential across
the resistor is +IR

37 38

Loop Rule, final

Rules
In c, the source of emf is Use the junction rule as often as needed, so long as,
transversed in the direction each time you write an equation, you include in it a
of the emf (from to +), the current that has not been used in a previous junction
change in the electric rule equation
In general, the number of times the junction rule
In d, the source of emf is can be used is one fewer than the number of
transversed in the direction
junction points in the circuit
opposite of the emf (from +
to -), the change in the
electric potential is -

39 40
 Problem-Solving Strategy
Rules
The loop rule can be used as often as needed Draw the circuit diagram and assign labels and
so long as a new circuit element (resistor or symbols to all known and unknown quantities
battery) or a new current appears in each new Assign directions to the currents.
equation Apply the junction rule to any junction in the circuit
Apply the loop rule to as many loops as are needed
You need as many independent equations as to solve for the unknowns
you have unknowns Solve the equations simultaneously for the unknown
quantities
Check your answers

41 42

The sum of the currents entering a junction =

sum of the currents leaving the junction
conservation of charge: I 0
junction rule, valid at any junction
Junction (Node) Rule: At any junction point, the
sum of all currents entering the junction must
The emf across the circuit equal the sum of the currents leaving the
= sum of the emfs across the individual parts of junction.
the circuit
conservation of energy: V 0
loop rule, valid for any loop
Loop Rule: The some of the changes in
potential around any closed path of a circuit
must be zero.
43 44

junction
Rules
A junction is a point in a circuit where a number Some circuits cannot be broken down into
of wires are connected together. series and parallel connections.

Junction rule: The total current directed into a

junction must equal the total current directed
out of the junction.
Loop rule: Around any closed circuit loop, the
sum of potential drops equals the sum of the
potential rises.

45 46

Loop rule: The sum of the

Junction rule: The sum of currents entering a changes in potential
junction equals the sum of the currents leaving it. around a closed loop is
I1 I1 zero.
Loop rule: This is
equivalent to
I1
conservation of energy.
I3 I1 I 2
I3
I2

I3 I1 I2
47 48
Analogy Voltage and GPE
Label each current.
Identify unknowns.
Apply junction and loop rules; you will need as
many independent equations as there are
unknowns.
Solve the equations, being careful with signs.

Pump

50
49

Series Circuit Parallel Circuits

I
I1 I2 I3
Apply the +
Apply the Loop Rule Vac Vab Vbc 0 Junction Rule
V

+
Vac V V V 1 1 1 V
I I1 I2 I3 V
Vac Vab Vbc IR1 IR 2 I R1 R 2 IReq R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R eq

1 1 1 1
R eq R1 R 2 ..... ....
Req R1 R2 R3
51 52

Rule Set Problem Solving Strategy Loop Rule

A resistor transversed in the direction of assumed Traveling around the loop
current is a negative voltage (potential drop) from a to b
A resistors transversed in the opposite direction of In (a), the resistor is traversed
assumed current is a positive voltage (potential rise) in the direction of the current,
A battery transversed from to + is a positive voltage. the potential across the
resistor is IR
A battery transversed from + to - is a negative voltage.
In (b), the resistor is traversed
in the direction opposite of the
Both the loop rule and junction rule are normally current, the potential across
required to solve problems. the resistor is is + IR

53 54

Loop Rule Example Problem 1

In (c), the source of emf is
traversed in the direction
of the emf (from to +), Given:
and the change in the
electric potential is + R1 1690
In (d), the source of emf is
traversed in the direction R 3 1000
opposite of the emf (from
+ to -), and the change in R4 3000
the electric potential is -
V = 3 Volts

Find: current in each resistor

55 56
Example Problem 2

Given: 5 10

15.3 Potential Divider

10V 20 20V

Find: current in the 20 resistor

57 58

Potential Divider Circuit Potential Divider Circuit

If two or more resistors are connected in series the Such a system of resistors is known as a
total potential difference is divided between the potential divider circuit-used when a smaller
resistors.
p.d. is required than the supply
The bigger the resistor the bigger the potential across
it (if one resistor is much bigger than the other
effectively all the p.d. is across the big resistor) The value of Vout
depends on R1
R1 V out and R2

R2

59 60

Potential Divider Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across

R1 is given by
A potential divider produces V R1
V1 V
an output voltage that is a V1 IR1 R1R2
fraction of the supply I I
Similarly, R2 R1
voltage V. This is done by R1 R2 V2 V
connecting two resistors in R2
series as shown. V1 V2 Resistance R1 and R2 can be replaced by a uniform
Since the current flowing homogeneous wire as shown.
through each resistor is the V
same, thus
V V
I and Reff R1 R2 I I I
Reff R1 R2 l1 l2
A C B

61 V1 V2 62

The total resistance, RAB in the wire is Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across
the wire with length l1 is given by
RAB RAC RCB and R
A V 1
1 2
V1 IR AC V1
RAB l1 l 2 A
A A A
RAB l1 l2 l1
A V1 V
l1 l2
Since the current flowing through the wire is the
same, thus V l2
I Similarly, V2 V
RAB l1 l2
V
I V IR I
l1 l2 A
A
V l
63 64
Example 21.16 : More Potential Divider : Variable Resistor
For the circuit below, used as a potential divider (potentiometer)
a. calculate the output voltage.
b. If a voltmeter of resistance 4000 is connected across circuit symbol
the output, determine the reading of the voltmeter.

8000
Vout 4.0 V
12 V
Vout 2.4 V
4000 Vout

65 66

Variable Potential Divider Circuit Potential Divider

Two resistors replaced by a variable Fixed Valued Potential Divider I I

resistor. The output voltage increases from R1 V1

Effective resistance = R1 + R2
O V when the contact is at A to the max V V
input voltage when the contact is at B Current through each resistor = R1 R2
R2
V2
A V
R1
Voltage across R 1, V =1 R I 1= R1 R2
Vout

B V
Voltage across R 2, V =2 R I 2= R2
R1 R2
67 68

Potential Divider Potential Divider

Variable Potential Divider (potentiometer)
+12V +12V

When the slider Y is at point Z Z R1

the voltmeter reads the I

voltage of the supply Y
P e nc il
V
E R V I
When the slider Y is at point X R2

the voltmeter reads the zero X 0V 0V

voltage

69 70

Potential Divider Potential Divider

Just like in our pencil the voltage

+12V V1
will distribute itself proportional
R1 R1
V2 = V1 * R2 / (R1+R2)
to the resistance.
I I (We can prove this from Ohms
E.G if R1 is twice R2 then 1/3 of
law)
V the voltage will be across R2. V2
I I I = V1/(R1+R2)
So V will be 4 volts.
R2 R2 I = V2/R2

0V 0V

71 72
Usage of Potential Divider Control the Temperature in an Incubator
Consider a potential divider which R
In reality, series circuits are used as potential dividers uses a fixed resistor in series with a
thermistor.
to control a device automatically. Remember that the resistance of the
thermistor falls with increasing
Eg.: to turn on an electric heater automatically in an temperature.
incubator. As the temperature of the incubator T
drops, the resistance of the
setting up the circuit with a component that is affected thermistor will increase. A larger
portion of the input voltage will then
by heat (thermistors) or light (LDRs). be used across it.
The total resistance of the circuit will depend on Place an electric heater across the
some environmental factor, and the way theinput thermistor.
The heater will come on when the
voltage is shared will also be affected. voltage to it is high enough, i.e when
the temperature has dropped
As a result, the output voltage will vary depending on sufficiently.
the environment. This can then control the device by Choosing different values for the fixed
switching it off (of the voltage to it is too low), or on. resistor will allow the heater to come Vout to
on at different temperatures.
73 heater 74

The Measurement of Current and Voltage

A dc galvanometer.
The coil of wire and
15.3.1 Shunt and pointer rotate when
there is a current in
Multiplier the wire.

75 76

The Measurement of Current and Voltage Shunt and Multiplier

An ammeter must be The galvanometer is a sensitive current-
inserted into a circuit so reading meter.
that the current passes High current may burn the wiring system of
directly through it. the moving-coil inside the galvanometer.
The galvanometer can be protected by using
shunt or multiplier.

77 78

Shunt and Multiplier Multi-range Voltmeter

A low resistance resistor connected in parallel Simplified Volt-Ohm
to the galvanometer to divert the current is Meter (VOM) voltmeter
called shunt. The actual balance point is schematic diagram. This
voltmeter uses one 50
determined when the shunt is removed.
µA, 5000 meter
A high resistance resistor connected in series movement, multiplier
with the galvanometer to reduce the total resistors, and one range
current is called multiplier. The actual balance switch
point is then determined when the multiplier is
short-circuited

79 80
Multi-Range Ammeter Galvanometer Sensitivity
Multi-range Current sensitivity may be
d mm
ammeter typical of defined as a ratio of the SI
I A
those found in deflection of the galvanometer to
d mm
the current producing this SV
many VOMs. The V mV
deflection
meter is a 50 µA d mm
Voltage sensitivity may be SR SI
full-scale, 5000 I A
defined as the ratio of the
movement galvanometer deflection to the d m mm
voltage producing this deflection SQ
Q C

81 82

Galvanometer Sensitivity DC Ammeters Shunt Resistor

d mm
Megohm sensitivity may be defined SI
I A
as the number of megohms required
in series with the (CDRX shunted) d mm +
SV Is Im
galvanometer to produce one scale V mV I
division deflection when 1 V is Rm
d mm Rs Movement
applied to the circuit SR SI
I A
Ballistic sensitivity and is defined as -
the ratio of the maximum deflection,
d m mm
dm, of a galvanometer to the quantity S Q I mR m
Q of electric charge in a single pulse Q C Rs
which produces this deflection. I Im
83 84

Ayrton Shunt +
DC Voltmeters
Rd
Multiplier
Schematic diagram
Ra Rb Rc Basic dc voltmeter +
Rs Im
of a simple circuit --
S
multirange ammeter V I m Rm V Rm
- Rs Rm v
-------- Im Im
-
1A
Rc Multirange V1
voltmeter ------- R1
Universal or Ayrton 5A Rb V2
+ Voltmeter
shunt -- R2 Im
10A Ra
sensitivity : V3
R3
1 +
- V4
S R4
I fsd V -
85 86

Voltmeter-Ammeter Method Voltmeter-Ammeter Method

I Ix
A popular type of
+ A Effect of the voltmeter
resistance
measurement position in a voltmeter-
V V Vx Rx Load ammeter
Effect of voltmeter
measurements
and ammeter - +
positions in 2
A
voltmeter-ammeter V
I Ix
measurements -- 1
+ A
-
V V Vx Rx Load
V Rx Load

-
87 88
Galvanometer/Applications Galvanometer used as Ammeter
Typical galvanometer have an internal resistance
of the order of 60 W - that could significantly
Device used in the disturb (reduce) a current measurement.
Scale
construction of ammeters Built to have full scale for small current ~ 1 mA or
and voltmeters. less.
Must therefore be mounted in parallel with a small
Current loop
or coil
resistor or shunt resistor.
Galvanometer
60
Magnet

R
p
Spring
89 90

Galvanometer
60
Galvanometer used as Voltmeter
Finite internal resistance of a galvanometer must
Rp
also addressed if one wishes to use it as voltmeter.
Must mounted a large resistor in series to limit the
current going though the voltmeter to 1 mA.
to an ammeter that can measure up to 2 A current. Must also have a large resistance to avoid disturbing
circuit when measured in parallel.
Rp must be selected such that when 2 A passes
through the ammeter, only 0.001 A goes through the
Rs Galvanometer
60
galvanometer. 0.001A 60 1.999A Rp
Rp 0.03002
Rp is rather small!
The equivalent resistance of the circuit is also
small! 91 92

Rs Galvanometer
60
Ammeter, Voltmeter and Ohmmeter?

DC Ammeter : The shunting resistor Rsh

movement form a current divider
DC Voltmeter : Series resistor Rs
form a voltage divider.
Maximum voltage across galvanometer: Ohmmeter : Measures the current to find the resistance
Vmax 0.001A 60 0.06V Rs

Suppose one wish to have a voltmeter that can Rsh

measure voltage difference up to 100 V:

100V 0.001A Rp 60
Rs

Rp 99940 Large resistance

93 94

DC Ammeter
Vm = Im Rm Vsh = IshRsh
m || shunt resistor,Rsh d'Arsonval movement Vsh= V m
Im + - IshRsh = Im Rm
coil by shunting some of it through Rsh Rm Rsh = Im Rm / Ish ( ) ----(a)
Rsh = resistance of the shunt Rsh I = Ish + Im Ish = I Im
Ish
d'Arsonval mo vemen t Rm = internal resistance of the Therefore, Rsh = Im Rm/(I Im )
Im + - meter movements (movable coil)
Purpose I >> n I m, n = multiplying factor
Rm
n=I/Im
Rsh Ish = shunt current I
Is h I = nIm ---(b)
Im = full scale deflection current of Ammeter terminal
Substitute b to a
the meter movement
I Rsh = Im Rm/(nIm Im)
Ammet er terminal
I = full-scale deflection current
for the ammeter Rsh= R /(n-1)
m -----(c)
| | = Parallel symbol
95 96
Example 1: DC Ammeter The Aryton Shunt
A 100uA meter movement with an internal Rm

- 100 mA Rsh

ammeter . Find the value of the required shunt Rc Rb Ra

resistance.
5A
Solution:
10 A 1A

n = I/Im = 100 mA / 100 µA = 1000

Most sensitive range
Thus, - +

Rsh = Rm / (n Used in multiple range ammeter R sh = R a + R b + R c

Eliminates the possibility of the R m

R ----(c)
moving coil to be in the circuit sh
n 1
without any shunt resistance
97 98

Im Im
At point B, (Rb+Rc)||(Ra+Rm) At point C, Rc||(R a+R
b m +R )
Rm Rm

Rsh
Rc Rb
B Ra
VR R VR R R sh
VRc VRaRb mR
b c a m Rc Rb Ra
C
I - Im

I2 (Rb + R c )(I2 -Im ) = Im (R a +R m ) I - Im

I2 (I3-I m)R =c I (R
m +R
a +R
b ) m
Since,
I3 I1 I3R c = Im (R a+Rb+R c+R m)
R a = R sh (Rb + Rc),
I3 I1
I3R c= (R +R
sh m )
yield,
I
+ - I2 (Rb + R c ) Im (R b+Rc) = Im [R sh (R b + R c ) + R m ]
Middle
I
-
Im (RshRm) ----(e)
sensitive
+ Rc
Im (Rsh Rm) I3
range RbR c ----(d)
I2
99 100

Example 2: The Aryton Shunt

Calculate the value for Ra, Rb and Rc as shown, given the
Substitute eqn (d) into eqn (e), yields value of internal resistance, Rm
the moving coil = 100 µA. The required range of current are:
I1 = 10 mA, I2 = 100 mA and I3 = 1A.

1 1 Im

Rb I m (Rsh Rm) ----(f) Rm

I2 I3 Rsh
R c R b R a

I - Im

Ra = Rsh (Rb+Rc) ----(g) I2

I3 I1

I
+ -
101 102

Ammeter Insertion Effect Example 3: Ammeter Insertion Effects

A current meter that has an internal resistance of 78
R1
X
R1
X is used to measure the current through resistor R1.
Ie Connect Im Determine the percentage of error of the reading due
Ammeter
E E Rm to ammeter insertion.

InsertionError
Ie Im
100% R1
Ie Y
E Y
E X
Ie Im
R1 R1 Rm 1k Im

Im R1 3V E Rm
Ie R1 Rm
Ie I m
InsertionError 100%
Ie Y
103 104
DC Voltmeter
DMM become VOLTMETER multiplier Rs in Rs Im
+
series with the meter movement.
Rm

To extend the
voltage range
PURPOSE

1 Unit derivation:
To limit current through the DMM to Sensitivity ( /V)
a maximum full-scale deflection I fs 1 1 ohms volt
Sensitivity
current Ifs= Im = full scale deflection current amperes volt ohms

Rs + Rm= (S x Vrange) It is desirable to make

R(voltmeter) >>R ( circuit)
105 106

Example 4: DC Voltmeter Multi-

Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance The multiplier resistors are
on the 50 V range of a dc voltmeter that used a connected in series, and each
junction is connected to one of
3V
the switch terminals. The range
10V
of this voltmeter can be also
30V calculated from the equation

A commercial
V Im(Rm R)
version of a Where the multiplier, R, now can be
R1 or (R1 + R2) or (R1 + R2 + R3)
multi-range (Note: the largest voltage range must be
voltmeter associated with the largest sum of the
multiplier resistance)
107 108

Example 5: Multi-Range Voltmeter Voltmeter Loading Effect

Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance for
the multiple range dc voltmeter circuit shown in
RA
Figure (a) and Figure (b), if Ifs = 50 and Rm =1k RT= Rs +Rm
Rs Im
E

VRB RB
Rm Req = RB//RT

3V
10V

Ifs= Im Rs R m
30V Vra n g e
S
Rs= (S x Vrange) - Rm
Total voltmeter resistance, RT
Figure (a) Figure (b)
Vrange = ( Rs + Rm) Im RT = Rs + Rm = S xVrange
109 110

Example 6: Voltmeter Loading Effect

Calculation:
1) RT = Rs + Rm = S x Vrange RA
RT = Rs +Rm
2) Req = RB // RT
Rs Im
E
RB
3) Without volt-meter VRB xE VRB RB
Rm Req = RB //RT
(expected value) RA RB

4) With volt-meter m R eq A volt meter (0-10V) that has an internal

V RB xE
(measured value) R eq RA resistance of 78 is used to measure the voltage
across resistor RB. Determine the percentage of
5) Insertion error V RB V RB
m
error of the reading due to voltmeter insertion. Let
x100%
VR B E = 4V, RA=RB = 1k , S = 1k /V
111 112
DC Ohmmeter
Basic Ohmmeter circuit Before measuring the Rx, the zero -
calibration
Fixed portion Definition zero = shorting the terminal x-y & adjust Rz
Rz to obtain the full-scale deflection on the meter
Ifs
Rm
movement.
0.1Rz 0.9Rz
E
I fs w/o Rx
Rz Rm
I < Ifs
Variable portion E
X Y

I E
with Rx
Rz Rm Rx
Rx

113 114

Example 7:DC Ohmmeter

Relationship between full-scale deflection to the A 1 mA full-scale deflection current meter movement is to be
used in an ohmmeter circuit. The meter movement has an
value of R x is : internal resistance, Rm, of 100 , and a 3 V battery will be used
in the circuit. If the measured resistor has resistance of 1k ,
mark off the meter face for the reading (20%, 40%, 50%, 75%
P I Rz Rm and 100%) .
I fs Rz Rm Rx

This equation is used for marking off the scale on

the meter face of the ohmmeter to indicate the
value of a resistor being measured

115 116

Solution Ex:7 Multiple-Range Ohmmeter

The previous section is not capable of measuring
Ohm resistance over wide range of values.
We need to extend our discussion of ohmmeters to
4.5k 3k
include multiple-range ohmmeters
Rz - fixed resistance &
50% 1k Ifs zeroing potentiometer
12k 40% Rm

75%
20% R1
R x1
0
0% 100% R x 10
R2
Full scale
percentage R x 100
R3

E
X Y

117 118

I
+
Potentiometer: V
E A
0 cm J 100

A 200

Principle: + 300
Rh B 400
V=IR
15.4.1 Potentiometer = I l/A K

If the constant current flows through the

potentiometer wire of uniform cross sectional
area (A) and uniform composition of material
( ), then
V = Kl or V l

119 120
Potentiometer: Potentiometer
V l The potentiometer has a better accuracy then a
V voltmeter.
V /l is a constant.
It is because the readings of the potentiometer are
measured from zero to 100 cm. A large scale gives a
The potential difference more accurate reading.
0 l
across any length of a Potentiometer can be used to
wire of uniform cross- measure emf of an unknown cell,
section and uniform measure the internal resistance of a cell,
measure current
composition is
measure thermoelectric emf
proportional to its length calibrate a voltmeter,
when a constant current compare resistances
flows through it.
121 123

Potentiometer
Potentiometer: E1
R.B
I + G
If the galvanometer shows defection in one direction The balance
only, it may be due to +
point is E2
The connections of the terminals of the cells are E A
obtained for 0 l2 J2
100
wrong. The positive terminal of the cell must be the cell when l1 J1
connected to the positive terminal of another cell. the potential at A 200
+
The emf of the unknown cell is more then the emf of a point on the Rh 300
B
the cell connected across the wire of the potentiometer
400

potentiometer, AB.
wire is equal K
The connections are not tight and the current does not and opposite l1 /A
E1 = VAJ 1= I
flow in certain part of the circuit.
to the emf of l2 /A
E2 = VAJ2 = I
the cell.
E1 / E2 = l1 /l2
124 125

Potentiometer:
Note:
The balance point will not be obtained on the
potentiometer wire if the fall of potential along
15.4.2 Wheatstone
the potentiometer wire is less than the emf of the Bridge
cell to be measured.
The working of the potentiometer is based on
null deflection method. So the resistance of the
wire becomes infinite. Thus potentiometer can
be regarded as an ideal voltmeter.
126 127

Wheatstone Bridge Wheatstone Bridge

How does it work? A simple form of Wheatstone bridge is a slide
If the galvanometer reading
is zero,
wire Bridge as shown below
VA = VC At the balance point, X l 1

VAB = VCB and VAD = V CD R l 2

P and R carry the same

and thus the unknown resistance, X can be
current, I1 and X and Q carry determined.
the same current I2.
I1P=I2Q and I1R = I2X
Dividing the equations,
Then

P Q
R X
128 129
 B

Wheatstone Bridge Wheatstone Bridge: P Q

I1 I1 - Ig
Ig
It can be used to measure Currents through the arms are
A G C
resistance.
Junction Rule.
S
To measure the unknown R
I - I1
resistance R, the variable I I - I1 +Ig I
D
resistance Rv is adjusted Loop ABDA:
until the galvanometer -I1.P - Ig.G + (I - I1 ).R = 0
I I
registers zero or null Loop BCDB:
E

current. - (I1 - Ig).Q + (I - I1 + Ig ).S + Ig.G = 0

IR I 1R1 Rv I R2 I1 When Ig = 0, the bridge is said to balanced.

R
R1
Rv By manipulating the above equations, we get P. R
R2
130 Q. S 131

Wheatstone Bridge Wheatstone Bridge

At this point, the potential at B =potential at D
(since no current flows)
A device for measuring
the value of an unknown B Thus p.d. between A and B = p.d. between A
resistance R1 R2 and D (VAB=VAD)
The values of the A C
resistances are varied Similarly V BC = V DC
until no current flows
through the galvanomete r D
R3 R4 I1R 1= I 2R3
I1R2 = I2R4

132 133

R.B (R) X
Wheatstone Bridge Metre Bridge:
Thus Metre Bridge is G
R1 / R 2 = R 3 / R 4 based on the
A B
Thus, if three of the resistors are known, you principle of cm J 100 - l cm
can calculate the value of the last. Wheatstone Bridge.
K
E
Experimentally a resistor is placed in series with When the galvanometer current is made zero by adjusting
the galvanometer to protect it from too much the jockey position on the metre-bridge wire for the given
current. This resistor is then removed when the values of known and unknown resistances,
aprox. balance point is found R RAJ R AJ R l (Since,
Resistance
X X JB X 100 - l length)
R JB

Therefore, X = R (100 l) l
134 135

Metre Bridge
This uses the same logic as the wheatstone
bridge, but two of the resistors are replaced by
R2
a length of wire. A sliding contact divides the R1

wire into two lengths, and so into 2 resistances. G

This makes it easier to adjust the resistance

Length of wire L2
L1

The position of the sliding contact varies L1

and L2

136 137
 We know from the wheatstone bridge Uses of wheatstone bridge circuits
circuit R1 / R2 = R3 / R4
Temperature control in this case the
In this case R3 and R4 are wires of wheatstone bridge starts balanced. If the
uniform cross section (A) and the same temperature of one of the resistors changes
material ( is the same) then its resistance will change, the bridge will
no longer be balanced and so current flows
Thus R3=constant L 1 through the galvanometer.
R4 = constant L2

R1 / R2 =L1 / L2

138 139

Uses of wheatstone bridge circuits Uses of wheatstone bridge circuits

The size and direction of the current indicate Fail-safe device if the pilot light in a gas boiler
the size and direction of the temperature goes out, you need the gas to shut off
change, and so can be used to control a heater automatically.
and bring the temp. back to its original value

140 141

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR

Uses of wheatstone bridge circuits RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
A thermistor placed near the flame is used as one Resistors R1, R2, and R3 are
resistor in a wheatstone bridge. If the flame goes out precision, variable resistors.
the resistance increases, unbalances the bridge and
The value of R xis an unknown
current flows in the galvanometer. This current can
be used to cut off the fuel value of resistance that mustbe
determined.
The galvanometer (an
instrument that measures small
amounts of current) is inserted
across terminals b and d to
indicate the condition of balance.

142 143

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR

RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
When the bridge is During balance state, I1 follows a-b-c path and
properly balanced, no I2 follows a-d-c- path. Thus,
difference in potential E1 E3
exists across
terminals b and d; I1R1 I2 R3
when switch S2 is
closed, the
galvanometer reading
is zero.

144 145
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR
RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Similarly Results

E2 Ex I1 R1 I2 R3
I1R2 I 2 Rx I1 R2 I 2 Rx

146 147

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR

RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Summary: Direct Current Circuits

Internal
Divide between these two E = I(R+r)
resistance
Junction Rule: I = 0
I1R1 I 2 R3 Law Loop Rule: (IR) = E
I1R2 I 2 Rx Potential
V = R1V0/(R1 + R2 )
Divider
Simplify Potentiometer VAB l

R1 R3 W heatstone
Bridge
R/S = P/Q

R2 Rx
148 149