PORE PRESSURE

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Pore Pressure
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Pore pressure is defined as the pressure acting on the fluids in the pore spaces of the rock.
This is the scientific meaning of what is generally referred to as formation (pore) pressure.

Depending on the magnitude of pore pressure, it can be described as being either normal,
abnormal or subnormal. A definition of each follows.

3.1 NORMAL PORE PRESSURE

Normal pore pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of a column of formation fluid
extending from the surface to the subsurface formation being considered In other words, if
the formation was opened up and allowed to fill a column whose length is equal to the depth
of the formation then the pressure at the bottom of the column will be equal to the formation
pressure and the pressure at surface is equal to zero.

Normal pore pressure is not a constant. The magnitude of normal pore pressure varies with
the concentration of dissolved salts, type of fluid, gases present and temperature gradient.
For example, as the concentration of dissolved salts increases the magnitude of normal pore
pressure increases.

3.2 ABNORMAL PORE PRESSURE

Abnormal pore pressure is defined as any pore pressure that is greater than the hydrostatic
pressure of the formation water occupying the pore space. Abnormal pressure is sometimes
called overpressure or geopressure. Abnormal pressure can be thought of as being made up
of a normal hydrostatic component plus an extra amount of pressure. This excess pressure is
the reason why surface control equipment (e.g. BOPs) are required when drilling oil and gas
wells.

Abnormal pore pressure can occur at any depth ranging from only a few hundred feet to
depths exceeding 25,000 ft. The cause of abnormal pore pressure is attributed to a
combination of various geological, geochemical, geothermal and mechanical changes.
However for any abnormal pressure to develop there has to be an interruption to or
disturbance of the normal compaction and de-watering process as will be outlined later in
this chapter.

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1 Subnormal Pore Pressure
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3.3 SUBNORMAL PORE PRESSURE

Subnormal pore pressure is defined as any formation pressure that is less than the
corresponding fluid hydrostatic pressure at a given depth.

Subnormal pore pressures are encountered less frequently than abnormal pore pressures and
are often developed long after the formation is deposited. Subnormal pressures may have
natural causes related to the stratigraphic, tectonic and geochemical history of an area, or
may have been caused artificially by the production of reservoir fluids. The Rough field in
the Southern North Sea is an example of a depleted reservoir with a subnormal pressure.

4.0
. . . . . . C. . AUSES
. . . . . . .O. .F. .A. BNORMAL
. . . . . . . . . . . P. .ORE
. . . . .P.RESSURE
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Abnormal pore pressure is developed as a result of a combination of geological,
geochemical, geophysical and mechanical process as will be discussed in the following
paragraphs. These causes may be summarised under:
• Depositional Effects
• Diagenetic Processes
• Tectonic Effects
• Structural Causes; and
• Thermodynamic Effects

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Figure 1.2 Pore Pressure Development Due to Undercompaction

4.1 DEPOSITIONAL EFFECTS

4.1.1 UNDERCOMPACTION OF SHALES

Normal compaction of sediments occurs as follows:

1. The volume of a sediment is reduced as the grains are squeezed together due to the
weight of the overlying sediments.

2. The weight of the overlying sediments causes a reorganization of the grains of the
volume of sediments below and the expulsion of intergranular fluid.

3. The porosity of the volume sediment is reduced.

4. The degree of compaction is controlled by original porosity, the amount of pore

fluid and shape and degree of sorting of rock grains.

5. Normal compaction usually leaves the pore fluid in the sediment at hydrostatic or
normal pressure.

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Undercompaction of sediments is the process whereby abnormal pore pressure is developed

as a result of a disruption of the balance between rate of sedimentation of clays and the rate
of expulsion of the pore fluids as the clays compact with burial.

Water-wet sediments are usually carried by rivers and deposited in seas. A good example of
a current deposition situation is the Nile Delta in Egypt formed by sediments carried by the
Nile river into the Mediterranean sea. It should be noted that these sediments are mostly
clays with adsorbed water sandwiched between the solid clay particles.

When the first deposited layer undergoes compaction as a result of further sedimentation,
some of the interstitial water which is continuous with the overlying seawater will be
expelled to the sea. As the interstitial or pore fluid is in contact with the sea the pressure in
the pores (or pore pressure) is normal, see Figure 1.2. The value of this normal pressure at
say 1000 ft is approximately 450 psi assuming a sea water gradient of 0.45 psi/ft, as shown in
Figure 1.2.

As sedimentation continues, the clays are compacted further; the solid layers are squeezed
closer together and the pore water is expelled to the sea. The clay sediment has high
permeability and porosity (60-90%). In this initial state, as long as the rate of sedimentation
remains fairly slow, the pore fluid will continue to escape as compaction increases and
therefore the clay will continue to exhibit a normal pore pressure (see Figure 1.2)

If the equilibrium between compaction and expulsion of water is disrupted such that the pore
fluid cannot escape, abnormal pore pressure will result. This disruption can result from:
• an increase in the rate of sedimentation
• reduction in the rate of fluid expulsion caused by (i) a decrease in permeability
due to solids blocking the passages or (ii) the deposition of a permeability
barrier such as limestone or evaporite stringers.

When disruption to the normal compaction process occurs, three things happen:
1. the same volume of pore fluid remains in the rock

2. porosity of the rock is maintained at the new depth and fluids can not escape and
compaction of the rock is prevented

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3. the fluid begins to support the increasing weight of the overburden and
consequently its pressure increases and further compaction is inhibited.

Abnormal pore pressure resulting from this process will have a gradient no greater than the
overburden gradient, as the pressures are being produced by the excess overburden load
being supported by the trapped pore fluid. In Figure 1.2, at 6000 ft the formation pressure
would be greater than the normal pressure of 2700 psi, but would be less than the overburden
pressure of 6000 psi, assuming an overburden gradient of 1 psi/ft.

Such mechanisms of clay undercompaction and resulting abnormal pore pressure

development are common throughout the world, the Gulf of Mexico and Papua New Guinea
are largely attributed to this cause.High rates of sedimentation are proposed by many authors
as being the dominant cause of North Sea tertiary clay overpressures.

It should be noted that the majority of pressure detection techniques are based on
establishing a normal clay compaction trend and any deviation from this normal trend is an
indication of overpressure or less frequently underpressure.
Figure 1.3 OverPressure At Clay/ Sand Boundaries, After Ref 1

Hydrostatic Pore Pressure (dotted line)

Actual Formation Pressure

Very high local pressure
gradient adjacent to
permeable zones due to low
permeability of the clays
Overburden pressure - will follow
DEPTH

CLAY the formation pressure changes

SAND although magnitude of change
CLAY will be less.
SAND Variations in overburden
pressure
CLAY

SAND
Overpressured
CLAY
sandstone

SAND

PRESSURE

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If beds of permeable sandstones are present within a clay sequence and these permeable
sands possess a hydraulic conduit to a zone of a lower potential 1 then rapid de-watering of
the clay can occur at the clay/sand boundary as compaction increases. This rapid dewatering
of the clays and the increased overburden causes a decrease in the porosity and permeability
preventing further flow of water and eventually results in overpressure development (see
Figure 1.3). The reduced permeability impedes the flow of fluid from the clay causing the
entrapped fluid to carry a greater proportion of the overburden and in turn be overpressured.

These clay/sand sequences can exhibit marked pressure gradient differences between sand
and clay units as shown in Figure 1.3.

4.1.2 DEPOSITION OF EVAPORITES

The deposition of evaporites can create high abnormal pore pressures in the surrounding
zones with the pore pressure approaching the overburden gradient. Halite is an evaporitic
rock formed from the evaporation of sea waters; its thickness varies from a few feet to
thousands of feet. Halite is totally impermeable to fluids and behaves like a sponge (highly
viscous) absorbing the overburden stress from above and then exerting equal stresses in all
three directions. This is an extremely important property as it indicates that the horizontal
stress is equal to the overburden stress. As we shall see in Chapter 5, this stress system
requires casing set across salt section to have a very high collapse strength.

When salt is deposited, the pore fluids in the underlying formations cannot escape and
therefore become trapped and abnormally pressured.

Salt Diaparism

Diapirism is the piercement of a formation by a plastic, mobile, less dense underlying

formation, typically salt. Salt exhibits plastic behaviour at elevated temperatures and
pressures and due to its low density will move upwards to form salt domes in overlying
formations.

Salt has no porosity and no permeability and therefore can be a perfect seal.Indeed, the
Rotliegendes gas reservoirs in the Southern North Sea owe their existence to the perfect seal
provided by the Zechstein salt.

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Figure 1.4 Overpressure caused By Salt Diapairism

Possible overpressure due to sealing by salt (zone A) and by upward

movement (zones B & C)

The creation of the salt dome can lead to abnormal pressure development in surrounding
formations in two ways:
• Firstly, the movement of the salt creates additional tectonic stresses within the
overlying sediments whilst at the same time providing a lateral seal limiting
pore water expulsion. These tectonic stresses usually create folding and faulting
in the surrounding zones.
• Secondly the salt may encapsulate rafters of overlying formations (usually
limestones and dolomites) as it flows upwards, trapping pressures within the
rafters. In this instance the salt prohibits further de-watering of the rafter and
abnormal pressure will develop.

Examples of rafting resulting in extreme abnormal pressure can be seen in the Gotnia
formation in Kuwait, where abnormal pore pressures of 19.5 ppg are observed in limestone

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rafters. A typical distribution of abnormal pore pressure regimes around a salt dome is shown
in Figure 1.4.

Platten Dolomite rafters are usually encountered while drilling zechstein sequences in the
Southern North Sea. Saltwater pressures have been encountered with pressure gradients as
high as 19 ppg.

4.1.3 DIAGENETIC PROCESSES

With increasing pressure and temperature, sediments undergo a process of chemical and
physical changes collectively known as diagenesis. Diagenesis is the alteration of sediments
and their constituent minerals during post depositional compaction. Diagenetic processes
include the formation of new minerals, recrystallisation and lithification.

Diagenesis may result in volume changes and water generation which if occurring in a
seabed environment may lead to both abnormal or sub-normal pore pressure.

Clay Diagenesis (Conversion of Smectite to Illite) 1

The diagenetic changes which occur in shales are one of the most important mechanisms by
which abnormal pressure may be generated in a marine environment.

On initial burial, marine clays are composed of predominantly smectite clays of which
montmorillonite is by far the most common. Montmorillonite has a swelling lattice and
contains approximately 70-85% water during initial deposition. The water is held as
interlayer water between the clay platelets and also as free pore water. This environment is
usually alkaline in nature and is rich in calcium and magnesium ions but poor in potassium
ions. Clay structure is discussed in Chapter 7, Figure 7.1.

Upon further burial, compaction expels most of the free pore water and the water content is
thus reduced to approximately 30%. With further burial, there will be increases in both the
overburden load and temperature and these two effects cause all but the last layer of
structural water to be expelled to the pore space. This causes the clay lattice to collapse and
in the presence of potassium ions, montmorillonite diagenesis to illite 1 occurs.

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If the water released in this process cannot escape during compaction, then the pore fluid
will support an increased portion of the overburden and will thus be abnormally pressured.

The transition from montmorillonite to illite is dependent on depth, temperature and ionic
activity. In areas of high geothermal gradient, the alteration occurs at shallow depths than
those with low geothermal gradient. In the North Sea, the diagenesis process of clays is
thought to occur at temperatures of 90-100 deg C and at depths from 6500 – 9750 ft.

Diagenesis of Sulphate Formations

Anhydrite (CaSO4) is diagenetically formed from the dehydration of gypsum (CaSO4.

2H2O). During the process large volumes of water are released and this is accompanied by a
30-40% reduction in formation volume. However, with the liberated water, a net 1% volume
increase is observed 1.

The process is most commonly responsible for abnormal pressures in halite/anhydrite

sequences. As the diagenetic change takes place and water is produced, the halite acts as a
totally impermeable barrier. The water remains held at the halite/ anhydrite boundary and
supports very large portions of the overburden gradient. When drilled, high pressure
saltwater flows are common.

Diagenesis of Volcanic Ash

The diagenesis of volcanic ash results in three main products; clay minerals, methane and
carbon dioxide. Thus formations that contain large amounts of volcanic ash may become
overpressured due to the production of these gases. Overpressure encountered in the South
China Sea and NW Coastal USA is attributed to this cause.

4.1.4 TECTONIC EFFECTS

Tectonic activity can result in the development of abnormal pore pressure as a result of a
variety of mechanisms including: folding, faulting, uplift and salt diaparism.Salt diaparism
was discussed earlier.

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Folding

Folding is produced by the

Figure 1.5 Overpressure Due To Folding 1
tectonic compression of a
geological basin.The additional
horizontal tectonic stress created
by folding compacts the clays
laterally. For the formation to
remain normally pressured, the
increased compaction must be
balanced by pore water
expulsion. If the formation
water cannot escape, abnormal
pressure will result,Figure 1.5.

The magnitude of pressure

generated can exceed the overburden gradient due to the additional tectonic stress which
may be balanced by the pore pressure.Examples of abnormal pressure development
associated with folding are common, most notably Southern Iran (Qum and Aghar Jari
fields) where pressure gradients of 19 ppg are observed. The Tapungato field in Argentina is
another example.

Faulting

Faulting in sedimentary rocks is caused by tectonic activities. Sedimentary beds are broken
up, moved up and down or twisted.There are a variety of reasons why abnormal pressure
develop due to faulting:
1. The fault plane act as a seal against a permeable formation thereby preventing
further pore fluid expulsion with compaction. The permeable zone will become
overpressured.

2. If the fault is non sealing, it may transmit fluids from a deeper permeable formation
to a shallower zone, causing abnormal pressures in the shallow zone.

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3. A zone may move down the fault plane causing the zone to be subjected to a higher
overburden pressure and higher geothermal temperature. If the zone further
compacts and the pore fluids can not escape, abnormal pressure will result.

4. Rate of sedimentation usually increases on the downthrown block and this rapid
sedimentation can lead to undercompaction and development of overpressure.

Uplift

If a normally pressured formation is uplifted to a shallower depth then the formation will
appear to have an abnormal pressure due to the fact that the formation pressure has more
hydrostatic pressure than a corresponding normally pressured zone at the same depth. In
some cases, this abnormal pressure is further increased if uplifting was followed by a
corresponding erosion of the overburden. However, unless the formation remains totally
sealed, the increase in pressure due to uplifting is offset by a decrease in pressure due to
cooling effects caused by moving from greater depth to a shallower depth.

4.2 STRUCTURAL CAUSES

4.2.1 RESERVOIR STRUCTURE

Abnormal pore pressure can exist in both horizontal and non-horizontal reservoir structures
which contain pore fluids of differing densities i.e. water, oil and gas. Examples of structures
in which this may occur are lenticular reservoirs, dipping reservoirs and anticlinal reservoirs.

In dipping reservoirs, formation pressures which are normal in the deepest water zone of the
reservoir, will be transmitted to the updip part of the structure.

In large structures or gas reservoirs, the overpressure gradient contrast developed can be
quite significant. Therefore, careful drilling practices should be adopted in order to minimise

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the risks associated with high overbalance as the reservoir is drilled down through the water
zone.
Figure 1.6 Overpressure Due To Density Differences

Surface

Normal pressure in
formations to top of
gas zone

10500 ft TVD

12,000 ft Gas
Gas /
(0.15 psi/ft assumed)
TVD
Gas/water contact
Water Contact
Salt Water

Normal pressure

Figure 1.6 illustrates the development of abnormal pressure in an anticlinal reservoir. The
normal pressure in the area is assumed to be 9 ppg. The reader can verify that the pressure at
the top of the gas is in fact abnormal (= 5466 psi or 10 ppg) compared to adjacent formations
at the same depth by carrying out simple hydrostatic pressure calculations as shown in
Figure 1.6.

4.2.2 PIEZOMETRIC FLUID LEVEL

A Piezometric fluid level is an imaginary surface which defines the level to which ground
water will rise in a well. For example, the water table is a piezometric fluid level. The depth
of water table below surface is dependent on the topography in the area and the degree of
erosion.

Aquifer systems can exhibit abnormal pore pressure dependent upon the structure of the
aquifer and the relative elevation of the wellsite to the water table elevation. Abnormal pore
pressure will be experienced if the water table in the aquifer is higher than the wellsite

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elevation. Conversely subnormal pressures may be experienced if the elevation of the
wellsite is greater than the elevation of the water table in the aquifer.

The influence of piezometrics is most noticeable in onshore wells in arid areas and in near
shore wells affected by the sea and flowing rivers.

4.3 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

Thermodynamic processes may be considered as additional contributory factors in most of

the causes of abnormal pore pressures discussed earlier. The various thermodynamic
processes which may cause abnormal pore pressure formation are discussed below.

4.3.1 ORGANIC MATTER TRANSFORMATION (THERMAL CRACKING)

At high temperatures and pressures associated with deep burial, complex hydrocarbon
molecules (kerogen) will break down into simpler compounds. Kerogen alters to
hydrocarbon at 90 deg C. This thermal cracking of the compound can result in 2 to 3 fold
increases in the volume of the hydrocarbon. If this occurs in a sealed environment, high pore
pressures could result. The pressures will be substantially increased if the hydrocarbon
system becomes gas generative. This happens when oil is cracked to gas.

This cause has been postulated as a possible cause of the high (17 ppg) pore pressures
recorded in the high pressure/high temperature (HP/HT) reservoirs in the deep Jurassic
claystones and sandstones of the central North Sea. In some areas of the central North Sea,
the pore pressure of the gas is almost equal to the fracture gradient making the drilling and
control of these wells extremely difficult. The cost of drilling and completing one such deep,
well in the central North Sea was £55 million in the year 2000.

4.3.2 AQUATHERMAL EFFECTS

The earth temperature normally increases linearly with depth. As formations are buried deep
into the earth, their temperature will also increase. If the formations are totally sealed
preventing escape of fluid then abnormal pressure will develop as described before.

Abnormally pressured formations typically exhibit a higher than normal porosity and
therefore a higher than normal pore fluid content. Due to the high fluid content and the clay

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acting as an insulator of the earth’s heat, the increased temperature causes thermal expansion
of pore fluids (pressure cooker effect) resulting in increased pore pressure.

Any rock which is lowered in the geothermal gradient could develop abnormal pressure due
to the expansion of fluids with increasing temperature. However, the earth movement
required to increase the temperature significantly typically occurs at such a slow rate that any
fluid expansion should be compensated by fluid expulsion1. Therefore it is obvious that for
the aquathermal pressuring to have any effect on the pore pressure gradient, the formation
would have to be totally sealed without loss of any fluid. If fluid leaked by even the smallest
amount, then pressure increase due to thermal effects would be minimal 1.

4.3.3 OSMOSIS

Osmosis is defined as the spontaneous flow of fluid from a more dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution across a semi-permeable membrane.

The osmotic pressure across the membrane is proportional to the concentration differential.
For a given concentration, the differential osmatic pressure is also found to increase with
temperature.

Relating this process to the wellbore, it can be shown that a relatively clean clay can act as a
semi-permeable membrane. Therefore if salinity variations exist between claystone beds,
osmotic flow can occur from the formation with less concentrated pore fluid to the more
concentrated formation. If the flow is towards an isolated formation then a pressure build up
can occur. In addition the osmotic potential existing across a formation may inhibit the
normal de-watering process and thus lead to abnormal pore pressure development.

4.3.4 PERMAFROST

In Alaska and Siberia, drilling and production operations may result in extensive thawing of
the permafrost around the wellbore. If the thawed permafrost re-freezes later in winter, then
‘freeze-back’ pressures will result. In Alaska, ‘freeze-back’ pressures of the order of 0.66
psi/ft to as high as 1.44 psi/ft have been recorded.Damage to surface casing may result from
these pressures.

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Abnormal Pore Pressure Evaluation
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The following subsections will briefly discuss and illustrate the numerous techniques to
detect and in some cases quantify abnormal pore pressure whilst drilling. Pre-drilling
methods from seismic operations will not be discussed here.

There are basically three methods for detecting and measuring pore pressure:
1. Mud logging methods: includes measurements of drilling parameters and
evaluation of drill cuttings and gas levels at surface

2. Measurement While Drilling, logging while drilling and wireline logging methods

3. Direct methods: DST, production tests and RFT

All available data should be used in evaluating pore pressure regimes. Any one parameter
taken in isolation can lead to misleading and possibly incorrect conclusions.

6.0
......M . . . L. .OGGING
. . .UD . . . . . . . . .M. .ETHODS
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Mud logging is carried out in a specially instrumented unit designed to:
1. Measure Drilling parameters (ROP,WOB, RPM, flow rate)

2. Measure properties of drill cuttings from samples collected at the shale shaker

3. Measure gas levels from well

4. Produce a lithological column as well is drilled

5. Determine where to drill to and when to stop

6. Give warnings of increasing pressures

7. Help determine accurately the depth of casing seats

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