Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal

Professional football clubs and corporate social responsibility

Jens Blumrodt, Michel Desbordes, Dominique Bodin,
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Professional
Professional football clubs and football clubs
corporate social responsibility and CSR
Jens Blumrodt
ESC Rennes School of Business, Rennes Cedex, France
205
Michel Desbordes
ISC Paris School of management, Paris, France, and
Dominique Bodin
Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Abstract
Purpose – The subject of CSR is nowadays widely discussed, as is its relevance to the sport
entertainment industry. The objective of this research was to investigate corporate social
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responsibility (CSR) actions in the professional European football league and its impact on clubs’
brand image.
Design/methodology/approach – The first part of this research discusses some particular points of
the world’s biggest sport entertainment, which is soccer. Then a definition of the meaning of CSR for
this particular sector will be outlined. The CSR values adopted by sport clubs are observed in first
division football in France. This approach has been combined with brand theories.
Findings – The specific research protocol evaluates consumers’ perceptions. The method which is
developed measures and analyses the impact of CSR commitment on spectators’ brand perception.
In linking CSR to brand image, two managerial viewpoints are discussed. CSR is synonymous with
a company’s social and ethical commitment. Brand theories outline the nature of brand equity. The
authors apply these two complementary considerations to professional football clubs and argue that
Keller’s model of customer-based brand equity has to be reconsidered for football clubs.
Practical implications – This research highlights that CSR has to become part of management
strategies.
Originality/value – The authors draw attention to the argument that the professional sport
entertainment industry requires a specific CSR management strategy which goes beyond the local
level or the operational level of one single club. These clubs have to perform well in competition. But,
as in no other industry, they have also to be “good” brands.
Keywords Professional football clubs, CSR, Brand image, Strategic brand management,
Sport entertainment, Customer-based brand equity, Football, Social responsibility
Paper type Research paper

1. The sport entertainment industry

Big “business” and how it can go wrong
The sport entertainment industry has, as its highly renowned flagship, soccer
(football). Media exposure has given a high degree of notoriety to football clubs, so a
good reputation and a positively perceived brand image have become increasingly key
issues for these businesses. The critics of the sport industry target certain actors as
well as at its many sponsors. Their primary concern is the marketing strategies
employed, but they have also been concerned with the objectives of the sport
entertainment business (cf. Katz-Bénichou, 2004; Tribou and Augé, 2006). Sport, in
particular football, has not been spared from scandals such as fraud (Jessel and Sport, Business and Management: An
Mendelewitsch, 2007). It is considered that judicial punishment is lenient in such cases International Journal
Vol. 3 No. 3, 2013
and spectators seem to forgive the sport entertainment industry for its unscrupulous pp. 205-225
r Emerald Group Publishing Limited
behaviour. Fans seem to differentiate between the intrinsic values of sport and those 2042-678X
which are practised by the industry itself (Bourg and Gouguet, 2007). DOI 10.1108/SBM-04-2011-0050
 SBM Football remains the most popular sport entertainment activity in Europe, with a
3,3 high potential for future development (Sport þ Markt, 2007; Sportfive, 2007). However,
recent studies have demonstrated that positive values linked to sport in general
and to professional sport in particular have been replaced by words as “cheating” or
“doping”. Professional sport has become associated with a negatively perceived image
(CSA, 2002, 2007). These findings have shown that the management in professional
206 sport is actually not perceived as practising the basic principles of responsibility. The
scandals surrounding the French national football team during the Soccer World Cup
in South Africa 2010 have had a significant impact on the image of football, even at the
amateur level. In 2010 for the first time in the French Football League’s (FFF) history
sport’s club membership fell. Sport spectators’ attendance in FFF matches went down
for the second season in 2011. Hope for improving French football’s image lies in the
UEFA Euro 2016 cup.
The commitment of sport’s clubs facing their responsibilities as corporate entities
is also named corporate social responsibility (CSR). This responsibility might be
observed on various levels, including environmental issues, legal aspects, social
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commitment and other business relevant concerns. From this broad framework, the
research objectives have been formulated, i.e. investigating the degree to which CSR
activities are perceived by the public, especially by the sport spectators attending the
games. We also wish to consider whether the understanding of CSR for this specific
industry has to be reconsidered. Our research question was:
“Do specific elements exist in the spectators’ collective consciousness that are related
to CSR?”

2. The relevance of CSR to the sport entertainment industry

Corporate responsibilities
The term responsibility has taken on a philosophical meaning that detaches it from
fault so as to become synonymous with obligation or commitment (cf. Jonas, 1990). The
principle of responsibility is to act so that actions are not destructive. Responsibility
itself becomes a form of action, i.e. acting responsibly means thinking about the
consequences of ones actions for oneself and especially for others (Ewald, 1997).
In international discussions on corporate responsibility, confusion stems from
the fact that responsibility may be experienced as the result of an obligation, or, on the
other hand, recognized as a commitment. The Anglo-Saxon tradition tends to
understand CSR as a voluntary commitment, while the continental traditions interpret
it rather as a binding obligation. In the former tradition the concept is based on
voluntary approaches, in the latter, it requires government regulation. The European
Commission has adopted a definition of CSR that leans towards the Anglo-Saxon,
while trying not to offend the continental countries. The European Commission
defines CSR as “A concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental
concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders
on a voluntary basis” (European Commission, 2011). This definition is quite close to the
academics’ definition in which CSR is popularly defined “as the responsibility
of an organisation to be ethical and accountable to the needs of their society as well
as to their stakeholders” (Bradish and Cronin, 2009, p. 692). The definitions are
upheld by theories and supporting concepts, whereby responsibility is at the centre
of observations. Words such as social, ethical, stakeholders and society border
this semantic field. Literature tends to define responsibilities, into three mainstream
categories.
 Carroll (1979) presented the first consistent model of CSR. Carroll’s framework Professional
(Carroll, 1979, 2004; Carroll and Buchholtz, 2006) distinguishes four levels of corporate football clubs
responsibility. First, there is the basic economic imperative (to be profitable, i.e. to do
what is required by capitalist economics). Second, there is a legal responsibility (i.e. to and CSR
act as required by stakeholders). It was acknowledged by him/her that economic
profitability is a fundamental social responsibility. On the other hand managers have
also an obligation to confirm to ethical roles of business in their environment. There are 207
ethical considerations (i.e. to do what is expected by global stakeholders). Finally,
and at the top of the pyramid, there is a philanthropic responsibility (to be good, i.e. to
do what is desired by stakeholders).
For Freeman (1984) the firm has to be attentive to groups it affected or groups that
could affect it. According this approach, businesses should be particularly attentive
with regards to their stakeholders. We base our meaning of “stakeholder” on Freeman’s
definition: a stakeholder is “any group or individual who can affect, or who is affected
by the achievement of the firm’s objectives” (Freeman, 1984, p. 25). Stakeholder
management can be derived from Freeman’s pragmatic approach or be seen as a moral
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obligation (Wood and Logsdon, 2002; Waddock, 2001). From a pragmatic point of view
managers might prioritize stakeholders as regards their importance to the firm, such
as shareholders, investors, customers, suppliers or media (Agle et al., 1999).
The effectiveness with which firms are dealing with stakeholders is a measurement
of corporate social responsiveness whereas the intentions, objectives and commitments
of social engagement are called corporate social performance (Wood, 1991).
These three mainstream principles in CSR can be implemented in various business
practices and initiatives such as financial aspects, marketing concerns or brand
management aspects.

CSR and sport

In order to recognize the link between CSR and sport brands, and more specifically the
potential impact of CSR on brand image, we shall attempt to make the distinction
between the two apparently paradoxical perceptions regarding the business of sport
and CSR. The importance of CSR and its’ impact on sport brands has become clear
with the example of the sport manufacturer Nike and “if the global brand had a good
CSR image, it could avoid adverse publicity, boycotts, and media exposés that would
negatively impact sales” (Lim and Phillips, 2008, p. 149). The negative impact of
organizations’ behaviour has been measured in the context of the manufacturing
industry or, for example, the sport entertainment industry (Blumrodt and Roloff,
2009a). Brunk’s (2010) study provides a consumer perspective of corporate ethics
and introduces the construct of consumer-perceived ethicality (CPE) of such a brand in
the sport entertainment industry such as NBA.
The majority of CSR research in the sport environment related to CSR addressed
“cause-related” sport marketing. Therefore partnerships between sport organizations
(leagues, clubs) and charitable causes have been examined, from an organization
and a consumer perspective (cf. McGlone and Martin, 2006; Roy and Graeff, 2003).
Various authors have pointed out the need for further research on CPE (Brunk, 2010;
Cohn, 2010; Shea, 2010). Empirical studies assessing CSR or corporate ethics and
the impact on customers’ overall perception of a sport brand are included in the scope
of this research.
Some football clubs have a brand image which can be compared to a mega brand,
such as Nike. These businesses are observed, analyzed and judged. The sport
 SBM entertainment industry must satisfy local as well as international requirements and,
3,3 as mentioned, they must also meet expectations from different stakeholders. Clubs,
however, are seemingly blinded by the sole criterion of the quality of their primary
product, the competition on the playing field. They exclude CSR issues, considering
that by doing well in CSR, the main business of the sport entertainment industry
might be impaired, i.e. the entertainment based on athletic performance. On the
208 other hand, professional sport clubs are like few other businesses involved in
the community, they are part of citizens’ daily life. The guiding concept proposed by
Capron and Quairel-Lanoizelée (2007), a sociological conceptual framework of
CSR, is perhaps a more adapted framework when taking into account the social values
which prevail in the industry’s activities. These values underline the importance
of symbolic and cognitive categories and integrate the conflicting expectations of the
different stakeholders. Top management implements strategies of fighting and
imagery and uses effective symbols in accordance with these values in order to assure
the company’s legitimacy (Capron and Quairel-Lanoizelée, 2007). The legitimacy of a
business appears as a result of the institutionalized environment leading to social and
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cultural expectations that constrain businesses to play a predetermined role and to

respect certain appearances.
The sport spectacle is just entertainment and the homogenous brand image
must be based on positive recognized values. In general, corporations try to generate
a brand image that corresponds to their desired image (Meffert and Burmann,
1996, 2002).

The importance of brand image

Professional football clubs can be considered as brands. The idiosyncrasies of sport
and sport brands require a specific sport brand management approach (Bouchet
and Hillairet, 2009). In no other sector does the theme of identity, image and reputation
play a role as central as in the sport arena (Parent and Foreman, 2007). Brand image is
a predominant concern for all European soccer teams (Richelieu et al., 2008). In relation
to our research objective, the classic theoretical framework of CSR seems only partially
applicable since shareholders expectations are different from those compared to
businesses in general. The sport industry appears immune to traditional expectations.
For the average consumer, it is sufficient to glance in the daily or specialized press
in order to understand the range of issues which are contrary to stakeholders’
expectations. Sport entertainment follows its own rules. These firms are not managed
respecting basic principles of business. They find themselves deeply in debt through
the purchase of their employees, the players and they do nothing to change this
position (Bayle and Franc¸ois, 2009). Clubs do not respond to society’s legal framework.
Basic security rules are not consistently applied in order to avoid offences and acts of
violence. It is not necessary to make an exhaustive list here of the shortcomings
and responsibilities linked to sports, sport organizations and sport clubs which
deliver sport entertainment. An overview of the state of sport ethics has been carried
out by Bayle and Mercier (2008). Clubs act according to different principles and
to the different levels of the responsibility of the firm itself. Can these brands act
against customers’ expectations on CSR? Are sporting results the centre of spectators’
interest in football? Does the end justify the means?
When Aaker (1991) developed his concept of brand management, CSR had not been
mentioned as a category entering into consumers’ perceptions. Further studies
suggested that there was no measurable impact of CSR on the brand image of sport
 manufacturers (Chen, 2001). Since that time, the public’s opinion has grown more Professional
sensitive to CSR issues. It is recognized as being part of consumers’ brand football clubs
perception and having an impact on brand image and customer-based brand equity
(Keller, 2008). and CSR
Responsibility for corporate, more specifically CSR, issues could be an element
which is present in the spectators’ consciousness. Previous studies have shown that
there are different elements building the clubs’ brand image. The authors described, 209
defined and measured a certain number of factors. Their specific content depends
on the brand and its environment (cf. Beccarini and Ferrand, 2006; Gladden and Funk,
2002; Ross, 2006; Ross et al., 2006). Keller (1993) classified brand associations in three
major categories, attributes, benefits and attitudes.
Attributes. These are descriptive features linked to the product: they are product
related or non-product related.
Even if attributes can be looked at in various ways, we follow Keller’s
categorization. Product-related attributes are ingredients necessary for performing
the product or service function for consumers. Non-product-related attributes
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are the external aspects of the product or service that relate to its purchase
or consumption.
Customers’ benefits. There is a personal value the consumer attaches to the product
or service attributes – that is, what consumers think the product or service can do
for them.
Brand attitudes. They are often the basis of consumer behaviour, and are the overall
evaluation of a brand.
Sport is an important social institution (Giulianotti, 2005) and its’ values are taken
as a fixture of social life and are present at the most important social functions
(Pociello, 1997). Sport by itself becomes part of the fabric of social values and this will
be reflected in sport consumers’ perceptions. We assume that there are three categories,
the product and non-product-related attributes, the benefits and the last category,
spectators’ CSR-ethical perceptions.

Hypothesis
The first hypothesis aims to determine all relevant brand image factors. Therefore we
inventory brand image perceptions.

H1. The sport clubs’ brand image is based on sport spectators’ brand associations,
i.e. the attributes, benefits and CSR-ethical perceptions.

As in other research we aimed to detect and measure sport spectators’ perceptions. The
framework provided includes CSR, which might have an impact on brand image, as we
have seen for other industries (John et al., 2006).

H2. CSR is an integral category of clubs’ brand image.

If the second hypothesis is accepted, the research question can be answered. We will
know that there is a specific category in sport spectators’ collective consciousness that
is related to CSR. In measuring these perceptions, we wanted to gain an understanding
of the external brand image of the club. The impact of sport spectators’ brand
associations on sport spectator-based brand equity is essential, and adds to or detracts
from the value of the brand (Ross et al., 2007).
 SBM 3. Methods
3,3 For the research-selected clubs
The European football system is an open system. Performance decides on each club’s
competitive level (first and second professional league, and/or amateur level). Our
sampling has been based on two French football clubs, both placed in the first professional
football league (League 1) and both based in the region of Brittany, France. Both clubs are
210 representative of hundreds of professional UEFA soccer clubs which do not figure in
Forbes’ top sport brands, such as Manchester United or Olympique Lyonnais (Forbes,
2011). All clubs have one point in common, they are medium-sized companies. The final
criterion of choice for these clubs was that they were at a different stage of development in
their business. This provided potential variability in their commitment to CSR.
The Stade Rennais Football Club (SRFC) is a club with a history going back to 1901,
initially with the legal statute of a non-profit making association. In the beginning, the
association offered soccer and other athletics activities to its members. From 1904
onwards the colours of the club became its distinctive red and black. Franc¸ois Pinault
became the principal shareholder in 1998. The legal form of the club is now Société
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Anonyme Sportive Professionnelle (SASP), a profit making status similar to a limited

liability company (Ltd). The club soon succeeded in achieving top ranking for several
weeks in League 1. The media and spectators have followed the club as it has
progressed steadily upwards. It is also holding its own on the international scene.
However, the summit of League 1 is still out of their reach.
The choice of the neighbouring Football Club of Lorient (FCL), the second sports club
studied during this research, is due to its fundamentally different characteristics. The
club has only played a short time in League 1, and it is only since 2006/2007 that it is
playing at the highest level of professional football. Since the club’s change in statute into
a SASP many of the association’s volunteers were brought on-board as employees. It’s
useful to emphasize two essential aspects of the club’s management. First, the paternal
management style of the former president, Alain Le Roch – principal shareholder of the
club up until 2009 – contrasts with the hands-off style of Franc¸ois Pinault of the SRFC.
Second, the exceptional performance of the coach, Christian Gourcuff, whose personality
and style has made a positive impression on the club over the last 20 years.
The stadium and the offices of the employees are less convivial than those of their
Rennes neighbours. The Lorient club has one of the smallest budgets in League 1
(Ligue de Football Professionnel (LFP), 2009). Since 2005, the two clubs have posted
positive financial results, and in 2006, the SRFC was able for the second consecutive
time to pay dividends to its shareholders. In Lorient, the marketing communication
focuses both on its players and the capacities of its management. Prior to each match,
the city is flooded with the game-day posters (3  4 m). They display the players
engaged in acts of direct confrontation. It is a message and a communication strategy
that the management in Rennes have fervently avoided. The SRFC marketing
communication strategy focuses upon a message centred on its tradition, its regional
commitments and the attractiveness of the stadium.
In both clubs, top management defines the marketing communication strategy.
Other clubs outsource them to specialized agencies (i.e. Sportfive).

Research design
The research started with a literature review which includes also an overview of
existing measurement methods of evaluating brand image in the sport entertainment
industry. It was similar to previous research.
 Semi-guided interviews with spectators were conducted. These interviews have Professional
been recorded and transcribed during the 24 hours following the interviews football clubs
(cf. Brunk, 2010).
This initial qualitative approach and relevant issues from literature on this subject and CSR
were used to design the questionnaire. Results gathered from both interviews and the
literature review provided the fundamental data for determining the brand
associations which reflect the brand image in customers’ perceptions (Aaker, 1991). 211
If the associations are assessed, different elements appear corresponding to categories.
They are named factors. The factors are described by items figuring as intelligible
questions in the questionnaire.
The brand image has been assessed with a principal component analysis (CPA)
and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) (cf. Gladden and Funk, 2002; Ross, 2006;
Ross et al., 2007). The number of factors has been limited (cf. Bauer et al., 2008, p. 211).
The factor identification process for our research has been summarized (cf. Table I).
Knowing that the clubs are different but have common traits, the literature provides
the questionnaire framework. Previous studies identify various specific items
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(cf. columns I-III in Table I). One product-related attribute is for football clubs the
match on the field. Factors reflecting this specific core product are linked to players,
team success and the management of the club. The interviews deliver variations and
the factors have been adapted (cf. column IV in Table I).
Our research takes these findings into account. It was expected that the items would
form groups during factorial analysis and reflect significant factors. These factors
explain brands’ key traits. Cooper and Schindler (2006) and Malhotra (2007) had argued
that only a small number of factors can determine key traits. The categories (cf. column
IV: D1-4) contain the different factors (cf. column IV: FA1-8) of sport spectators’ brand
perceptions (cf. column IV: items). While former studies focused on D1-3 category 4
needs some further comment, and the items focusing on the responsibility of a sport
club, have to be explained. The items have been generated by a literature review
(cf. Bauer et al., 2008; Brunk, 2010) and by interviews with sport spectators. We define
the fourth category Brand attitudes as consumers’ overall evaluation of the brand
(Wilkie, 1986). Attitudes are a function of the associated attributes and benefits that are
salient for the brand. They serve the consumer by reflecting her/himself in the brand,
their self-concept (Keller, 1993).

Category number 1/D1: core services (or product-related attributes)

FA1: game-team, success, and players (Items: team and quality of the game, team
success, team loyalty, quality of players); and
FA2: management (items: quality of coach, management of the club, shareholder’s
involvement).

Category number 2/D2: other attributes (or non-product-related attributes)

FA3: stadium (items: modernity of the stadium, atmosphere and personality of the
stadium, location of the stadium);
FA4: history and tradition (items: club has a long history, the clubs history is a
success story);
FA5: entertainment (items: a giant screen contributes to entertainment, pompom
girls, speaker, P.A. system); and
FA6: other services (items: friendliness of the service staffs, services efficiency,
quality of the catering).
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3,3

212

factors
SBM

Table I.
Assessing the relevant
I. II. III. IV.

FA Gladden and Ross et al. (2007) Bauer et al. (2008) Recognition of relevant factors
Funk (2001, 2002)
1 Success 1 Team success 1 Product related D1 – product-related attributes
attributes (5 items) FA1: game-team, success, and players:
Items: team and quality of the game, team success, team
loyalty, quality of players
2 STAR player – – FA2: management:
Items: quality of coach, management of the club,
shareholder’s involvement
3 Head coach 2 Non-player personal
4 Management 3 Organizational
attributes
5 Logo design 4 Brand mark
6 Stadium 5 Stadium community 2 Non-product related D2 – non-product related attributes:
attributes (4 items) FA3: stadium
Items: modernity of the stadium, atmosphere and personality
of the stadium, localisation of the stadium
7 Product delivery 6 Team play 1 FA4 history and tradition
Items: club has a long history, clubs history is a success story
8 Tradition 7 Team history 1 FA5 entertainment:
Items: the giant screen contributes to entertainment,
pompom girls, speaker, P.A. system
– 8 Concessions FA6 Other services:
Items: friendliness of the service staff, service efficiency,
quality of the catering
– 9 Rivalry cf. FA 1

(continued)
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I. II. III. IV.

9 Escape 10 Social interaction 1 3 Brand benefits D3 – Brand benefits:

(7 items) D3 ¼ FA7: brand benefits:
Items: escape, emotion linked to the game, peer group
acceptance
10 Pride in place –
11 Fan identification –
12 Peer group Social interaction 2
acceptance
13 Nostalgia 11 Team history 2 cf. FA 4
– – 4 Brand attitude D4 – CSR:
(4 items) D4 ¼ FA8: CSR:
Items: commitment within the region, club’s transparency
and honesty, social responsibility and commitment,
instruction of young players, security
14 Importance 12 Team success cf. FA1
15 Knowledge – 5 Brand loyalty
(2  2 items)
16 Affect 13 Commitment
14 Team play 2
Professional
football clubs
and CSR

213

Table I.
 SBM Category number 3/D3: customers’ benefits (benefits)
3,3 FA7: brand benefits (items: escape, emotion linked to the game, peer group acceptance).

Category number 4/D4: CSR-ethical perceptions (or Keller’s brand attitudes)

FA8: CSR (items: commitment within the region, club’s transparency and honesty,
social responsibility and engagement, instruction of young players, security).
214
Final questionnaire
The pre-testing questionnaires phase determined the final number of relevant items for
each club. Participants of pre-testing groups were allowed to formulate their
suggestions or other comments, which were then taken into account in developing the
final questionnaire. We began with 36 items focusing on brand association, 30 of which
were integrated into the final questionnaire. The sport spectator brand associations
were measured using items in a questionnaire. We obtained three-seven items per
factor and used the items on a six-point Likert scale.
The questionnaire items were developed taking into account the marketing
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communication strategies and perceptions of the club management. The top

management team of the SRFC and of FCL were interviewed during several separate
individual interviews. These interviews were useful in comparing sport brand
associations and club’s brand management.
The final questionnaire was divided in three parts. The first part focused on
spectators’ behaviour (match attendance, status – season ticket holder, VIP, fan as a
member of a fan association, or occasional spectator – purchase of merchandising
products and sponsor perceptions). The second was linked to the brand image
measurement. The third part of the questionnaire was linked to spectator profile (sex,
origin and socio-professional category).

Sampling
The time available for the face-to-face interview between the interviewer and the
interviewee at the time of a game was an important constraint. The questionnaires
were administrated by face-to-face interviews before the game and during the
half-time (10-12 minutes per questionnaire). Totally, 500 questionnaires were filled in
for the football club in Lorient and 496 questionnaires for the club in Rennes. The
questionnaires, administered in the stadium at different access points to the tribunes,
were completed by one-on-one interviews between the spectator and the interviewer.
They were all usable.

Brand image measurement

The fifth step contains different approaches and results. The method starts with
descriptive statistics and continues with an analysis of the principal factors. The
analysis was carried out using SPSS 17. The variables were tested for reliability using
the a Cronbach test. The variables retained have been utilized for the CFA (cf. factor
analysis with varimax rotation).

4. Results
We compared our sampling – the SRFC spectator profile – with statistics known by the
club (age, social situation, origin, occasional spectator, regular or season ticket holders,
frequency of visits to the stadium). The club’s statistics are based on the three
following observation tools. First, the customer track using CRM software, which was
 put in place in 2005. Then, the benchmark offered by the TNS Sofres institute Professional
(specialized in the fields of marketing research and polls). And, finally, the data football clubs
obtained from of purchase of tickets online (e-ticket service). The Lorient club did not
in fact have any of this data available. and CSR
In all, 73 per cent of the spectators of SRFC are between the ages of 30 and 59, while
at Lorient the public is older (62 per cent of the spectators are older than 40 years
and 18 per cent were older than 60). The two clubs have a high percentage of liberal 215
professions or employees among their fans. The public of SRFC and of FCL is
diversified and shows that nowadays soccer has a following among a wider spectrum
of the population than before.
Different factors can be observed after CFA with varimax rotation. They are
essential for all sport brands and these results correspond to those developed in
previous research. In all, eight different factors are observed (FA1-8). They are linked
to product-related and non-product-related attributes (D1 and D2), brand benefits (D3),
as well as CSR (D4). The different items are indicated (e.g. FA (1) items 1-4) with their
average/mean (Likert 1-6). The first item “team and quality of the game” obtains
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for both clubs (FCL and SRFC) 4.1 out of 6. The overall performance on FA1 is
nevertheless better perceived ( þ ) for FCL than for SRFC (o). All the values (means)
are perceived positively (except SRFC: (FA 6) other services; FCL and SRFC: (FA 5)
entertainment).
After these descriptive statistics the Cronbach (a) test (cf. Figure 1: a) indicates the
separate reliability analyses in order to determine their usefulness as scales. After the
Scree-test, eight factors explained the total variance (cf. Figure 1: FA 1-8 AVE) of FCL’s
84.2 per cent brand image and for SRFC (total AVE: 68.4 per cent). The differing
scores reflect two distinct brand images. D1 (product-related brand attributes) explains
31.39 per cent of FCL brand image and constitutes the most important category. For
SRFC, it only has third place. D2 (non-product-related brand attributes) represents the
biggest AVE for SRFC (29.34 per cent) and an important part of the AVE for FCL (27.27
per cent). D4 (CSR) is for both clubs an important part of the customer perceived brand
image (SRFC: 18.20 per cent and FCL: 16.02 per cent).
The results supported the view that spectators expect and desire more. Their sport
team has to present its best performance and the sport brand has to be “good”. The
CSR items are reflected in category 4. This category explains the club’s CSR
involvement and its perception by spectators. The items design an integral factor.
The results are consistent. We confirmed H1:
The sport clubs’ brand image is based on sport spectators’ brand associations, i.e. the
attributes, benefits, and CSR-ethical perceptions.
We also confirmed H2:
CSR is an integral category of clubs’ brand image.
In other words, and in answer to our research question, there are specific elements in
the spectators’ collective consciousness that are related to CSR.

5. Discussion
Our research involved two clubs/brands which perform differently in terms of brand
image. The SRFC has a specific brand image which is perceived as mostly positive to
spectators. The marketing communication department has put communication
strategies in place focusing on the stadium (FA 3), tradition (FA 4) and family attraction
 SBM I.
Gladden and
II. III. IV.
Bauer, Stokburger-
3,3 FA
Funk
(2001 and
Ross, Hyejin and
Seungum (2007)
Sauer and Exler, Recognition of relevant factors
(2008)
2002)
D1 - Product related attributes:
Product related FA1: Game-team, success, and players:
1 Success 1 Team Success 1 Items: Team and quality of the game, Team
attributes (5 items)
success, Team loyalty, Quality of players
216 2 STAR Player – –
Non-Player FA2: Management: Items: Quality of coach,
3 Head Coach 2
Personal Management of the club, Shareholder’s
Organizational involvement
4 Management 3
attributes
5 Logo design 4 Brand Mark
D2 -Non product related attributes:
Stadium Non product related FA3: Stadium: Items: Modernity of the
6 Stadium 5 2 stadium, Atmosphere and personality of the
community attributes (4 items)
stadium, Localisation of the stadium
FA4 History and tradition
Product
7 6 Team Play 1 Items: Club has a long history, Clubs history
delivery
is a success story
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FA5 Entertainment: Items: The giant screen

8 Tradition 7 Team history 1 contributes to entertainment, pompom girls,
Speaker, P.A. system
FA6 Other services: Items: Friendliness of
– 8 Concessions the service staff, service efficiency, Quality of
the catering
– 9 Rivalry cf.FA1
Social Brand benefits
9 Escape 10 3
Interaction 1 (7 items)
D3 –Brand benefits:
10 Pride in place – D3=FA7: Brand benefits: Items: Escape,
Fan Emotion linked to the game, Peer group
11 –
identification acceptance
Peer group Social
12
acceptance Interaction 2
13 Nostalgia 11 Team history 2 cf.FA4
D4 -CSR:
D4=FA8: CSR: Items: Commitment within
Brand attitude the region, Club’s transparency and honesty,
– – 4
(4 items) Social responsibility and commitment,
Instruction of young players, Security

14 Importance 12 Team success

Brand loyalty
Figure 1. 15 Knowledge – 5
(2x2 items) cf. FA1
Items, means of items, and 16 Affect 13 Commitment
reliability of constructs
14 Team Play 2

(FA 7). For those who have put a marketing communication strategy in place the items’
mean corresponds with those expected by the club.
FCL did not have a clearly established strategy. Variables of the association stay
nevertheless equally positive for the club and a large part of the total variance of brand
image is explained. This might be explained by facts such as historical evolution as
well as the stability of the coach, management by the president (majority shareholder),
and a specific public.
One factor contains two variables of a rather weak average. It is a non-product-
related attribute, entertainment. Spectators are dissatisfied with the level of the
entertainment and the Bretons (habitants of the region) expect more real entertainment
like a real show similar to the NBA. Former studies pointed this problem out (Besson,
2008; Ipsos, 2008).
 The most important aspect still remains the product-related attributes for FCL and Professional
non-product-related attributes for SRFC. Sport entertainment is based on the stadium football clubs
experience.
The factors reflecting corporate responsibility can clearly be distinguished in sport and CSR
spectators’ brand associations (D4: SRFC/18.198 per cent; FCL/16.020 per cent), five
different items indicated CSR for SRFC and four items reflected FCL’s CSR
involvement. 217
Instruction of young players
French clubs are obliged to train their young players aged 15-22 years both in
soccer and in the classroom. This variable was not maintained for FCL. The creation
of a training centre has not yet been approved by the League. The public knows it
and the pre-test led us to remove the variable. The study with SRFC also showed
that the players who grew up within the club are the spectators’ favourite players;
three young players are originally from the club’s training centre and figured
among five star players mentioned spontaneously. The fans expect a real involvement
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by the club.

Security
In Rennes, the acts of violence or other forms of anti-social behaviour, attributed to
supporters are rare and hooliganism is non-existent. The security of the stadium and of
its surroundings is the responsibility of the club’s management. The security staff
check spectators before entering the stadiums (physical check and electronic check –
similar to airports); and following the new security rules fans are searched. We noted a
strong correlation between security and a family outing.
The CSR factor constitutes an integral category for SRFC along with security and
young players’ education.

Commitment within the region, club’ transparency, social responsibility

The spectators are aware of clubs’ commitment in the region. One explanation is found
in the club’s behaviour as a corporation. SRFC represent values that go beyond
economic and legal requirements. They add to the category of ethical values. These
variables are part of brand attitudes, which is, according to Keller (1993), the basis of
consumer perception of the brand. They are perceived as “honest” and FCL has
obtained for the fifth time the League’s trophy for fair play. The clubs appear to be
doing their job well as corporations. Both clubs have a direct relationship with regional
amateur clubs. Their members are regularly invited to attend games. SRFC also
organizes games with humanitarian and health objectives for an association named
European Leukodystrophy Association (ELA). Zinédine Zidane, a former football
player in the French national team, is an ambassador of this association (European
Leukodystrophy Association (ELA), 2011).
Since the 1980s, the theme of social responsibility has suggested that the
permanence of a business depends not only on its purely economic capacities, but also
on its mastery of the sociological contingencies and surrounding politics (Martinet,
1983). The corporations of sport entertainment – especially soccer – are observed very
closely by many audiences. These businesses have obtained visibility thanks to the
media, which assures the presence of sport spectators in front of the screen and in
the stadium (Merten, 2003; Riedl, 2006). The issues of CSR have made their entrance
into the stadiums of professional football leagues.
 SBM The measurements of this present research go beyond reporting the spectator’s
3,3 perceptions. This empirical study can be considered as the pursuit of existing research
into the consumer perspective of corporate ethics and CPE. We have put forward
evidence of characteristics in the industrial sector of sport entertainment, and we have
underlined the point that the actors compete and collaborate together. This is one
of the characteristics of the sport product (Mason, 1999). The level of competition
218 goes beyond a simple local or regional context and clubs such as SRFC and FCL which
are less well known than Lyon, Bayern de Munich and Manchester United,
nevertheless find themselves confronted with this European competition level
(Boniface, 2006). They are representative of a lot of the European football clubs.
A more critical review of the assessed items shows that they have to be adapted for
the selected brand. The research protocol only considered those items mentioned
by spectators in the questionnaire. The items specifically focused on the brand image
of the two clubs.

6. Conclusions, recommendations and perspectives

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The entertainment part of the sport industry is primarily an interesting show on the
field, which includes high team performance. Our research has shown that spectators
nevertheless expect other accomplishments from the club. One of these is reflected in
CSR commitment. Specific factors exist in the spectators’ collective consciousness and
they are related to CSR. We underline some essential elements of professional sport
clubs’ brand image. What makes a successful and “good” brand?
Entertainment (SRFC/FCL) and the stadium’s quality (FCL) have been negatively
perceived by spectators. The visit to the stadium is a central part of the brand
experience. French stadiums are actually not competitive working tools and equipment
is often in poor condition, as different government reports have shown (Besson, 2008;
Commission Euro, 2008). The conviviality of stadiums and their perceived quality may
be subject to discussion. These facilities have to be an attractive place for sport
competition at the highest level and also for entertainment in general. The buildings
have to permit spectators to spend their leisure time before and after matches around
the stadium, to become an integrated part of the customer amusement experience
(Desbordes and Hamelin, 2010). Nowadays, they must also reach Energy Star
Standards (high environmental quality standards). There is a significant correlation
between spectators’ stadium attendance and the quality and size of the stadium (Ipsos,
2008). Football does not hold the same importance for Germans, British and French
sport spectators (Sportfive, 2007). Since the last soccer World Cup, German stadiums
have been renovated and are more attractive. Even the German second football league
attracts more and more spectators, reaching nearly the number of the French League 1
(Blumrodt, 2011). The various projects for new stadiums in France are facing European
competition standards. They will contribute to the survival of the greatest sport
entertainment in France.
The second aspect is linked to international competitiveness. Organizations which
expose their art at the highest athletic level need an excellent quality of game to
guarantee the quality of their entertainment. The purchasing of top players makes
it more probable that a better level will be achieved in international competition.
In 2006-2007, the value of these transactions increased dramatically, drawing on and
draining the majority of clubs’ budgets. League 1 in France is at the top of the list of
European clubs for the purchases and sales of players (Fenton, 2008). Players’ transfer
periods broke records in 2009, achieving levels which have never been seen before.
 After Kaka, Real Madrid bought Cristiano Ronaldo for 93 million euros at a moment Professional
when football is facing dangerous financial challenges and President of UEFA is football clubs
reiterating the issues of financial fair play. These clubs follow the attractiveness of
broadcasting rights and their shareholders inject money which is lacking. French and CSR
clubs do not operate the same way. They have to face a different legal environment.
Clean and positive accounts are a sign of a well-managed business; it’s one of the
basics of business and this has been perceived by spectators. Whilst researchers 219
(i.e. Desbordes, 2006), sport journals (i.e. L’Equipe, 2008) or the UEFA (President
Platini) are asking for positive accounts in France, they are also demanding the same
base requirements for all European clubs. Some managers dream of and plead for a
total liberalization of the market. During the interviews fans were clear that their club
should do as well as possible in this “unequal” European competition. Other, foreign
clubs are cheating and deep in debt, although their club is well managed. Their
homegrown players, their favourite players, leave the club after a few years and the
best French players develop in other international clubs. They contribute greatly to the
better field performance of foreign clubs. French clubs do not perform as expected in
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international competitions.
However, as for other obligations imposed on the sport industry, e.g. the regulation
of the level of doping, where the World Anti-Doping Agency acts as an independent
organization, the sport entertainment industry should have international rules and
mechanisms. Such rules would target the banning of cheating (Blumrodt and Roloff,
2009b). Financial aspects are part of regular driven businesses. The UEFA principles of
financial fair play are also meeting French spectators’ expectations.
Our last recommendation is closely linked to the first, and concerns the clubs’
involvement in communities’ daily functioning. Our research results have shown
the importance of corporate involvement in its environment. These businesses
have a duty to face up to the expectations of social commitment (Hamil et al., 2004).
The clubs presented provide different efforts in terms of social commitment.
Therefore they have to develop a real CSR strategy and have to communicate these
efforts to the public. Sport brands have to perform well by respecting rules and
community engagement. Clubs have to integrate social and environmental
concerns in their business operations. It is expected by their stakeholders. We have
shown that consumers perceive the ethical nature of a brand. It becomes an
integral element of clubs’ brand evaluation. In other words, CSR contributes to
customer-based brand equity. We adapted therefore Keller’s model for the sport
entertainment industry.
Textbooks explain that social responsibility is omnipresent at all levels and
functions inherent in businesses (De George, 2006). Sport organizations are subject to
different constraints from media, fan clubs and other political pressures. Stakeholders
do expect that these brands perform well in all business areas. They also have to face
real customer expectations in CSR. However, the managers of our two clubs seem to
underrate the importance of CSR. The evaluation from sport spectators’ CSR ranking
and top managers self-assessment of brand image values obtained during interviews
showed a real gap. From the viewpoint of managers, CSR is considered as important,
but not estimated as a relevant communication issue and, what is more disconcerting,
as a real management strategy. The CSR category is present in spectators’ brand
image. These findings require managerial applications as demanded by Janet and
Quarterman (2003). The impact of CSR on sport spectator-based brand equity is
essential. It adds value to the brand.
 SBM Future work
3,3 Our observation protocol could be enlarged. The model has to be confirmed. The
impact of CSR perceptions on consumers’ purchase behaviour, such as buying entry
tickets or merchandising products, has to be tested. We encourage future work in
applying the same research protocol at other clubs, notably outside of France.

220
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(The Appendix follow over leaf.)

 SBM Appendix
3,3 D1: 
FCL SRFC
D1: AVE
D1: Produt-related brand attributes FCL SRFC
0.912 0.788
31.39% 13.40%

Mean
FA (1): Game-team; FL (>0.50)
success; players FCL.+ SRFC O
4.1 4.1 FA (1):  FA (1): AVE FCL: FA1 SRFC:FA4
1 Team and quality of
the game 4.3 3.8 FCL SRFC FCL SRFC 0.924 0.937
2 Team success 4.4 3.7 0.912 0.788 25.85% 7.96% 0.906 0.845
224 3 Team lovalty
4 Quality of players
4.3
4.1
3.8
4.0
0.730
0.936
0.665
0.777

Mean: FL (>0.50)
FA (2): Management FCL. + SRFC+ FA (2):  FA (2): AVE
1 Quality of coach FCL: FA6 SRFC: FA7
4.7 4.1 FCL SRFC FCL SRFC 0.865 0.554
2 Management of the club 4.4 4.3
4.0 0.912 0.788 5.55% 5.44% 0.787 0.754
3 Shareholder’s/Presidents 4.2
0.740 0.708
involvement

D2:  D2: AVE

D2: Non-product-related brand attributes FCL SRFC FCL SRFC
0.806 0.812 27.27% 29.34%

FA (3): Stadium Mean:

FCL O SRFC++ FA (3):  FA (3): AVE FL (>0.50)
Modemity of the stadium 3.5 5.3
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Atmosphere and personality FCL SRFC FCL SRFC FCL: FA5 SRFC: FA2
4.1 5.0 712 0.649 0.827 0.684
of the stadium 5.80% 8.93% 0.827
3.9 5.0 0.793
Localisation of the stadium 0.644 0.842

Mean:
FA (4): History and tradition FCL + SRFC + FA (4):  FA (4): AVE FL (>0.50)
– 4.8 FCL SRFC SRFC: FA8
Club has a long history 4.4 3.8 FCL SRFC
FCL:-
– 0.634 0.987
Clubs history is a success story – 4.55% 0.768

FA (5): Entertainment Mean:

The giant screen contribute FCL - SRFC- FA (5):  FA (5): AVE FL (>0.50)
to entertainment – 2.6 FCL SRFC FCL SRFC FCL: FA7 SRFC: FA5
Pompom girls 2.8 – 0.623 0.744 – 0.784
3.5 3.9 4.44% 7.50% 0.766
Speaker –
3.3 3.2 0.876 0.576
PA. system 0.825 0.625

Mean:
FCL + SRFC-
FA (6): Other services 4.5 2.2 FA (6):  FA (6): AVE FL (>0.50)
Friendliness of the servers 4.2 2.3 FCL SRFC FCL SRFC FCL: FA2 SRFC: FA3
4.2 2.5 0.911 0.768 0.871 0.902
Services efficiency 17.03% 8.36%
0.846 0.914
Quality of catering 0.625 0.924

D1: AVE
D3: 
D3: Brand benefits FCL SRFC FCL SRFC
0.644 0.647 9.59% 7.45%

Mean:
D3=FA (7): Brand benefits FCL + SRFC + FL (>0.50)
Escape 4.5 5.0 FCL: FA4 SRFC: FA6
Emotion linked to the game 4.6 4.8 0.878 0.733
4.6 4.8 0.834 0.781
Peer group acceptance
0.719 0.887

D4: AVE
D4: 
D4: CSR FCL SRFC
FCL SRFC
0.912 0.789 16.02% 18.20%

D4=FA (8): CSR

Mean:
Engagement within the region FL (>0.50)
FCL + SRFC++
Club’s transparency 4.8 4.4
and honesty 4.4 4.2 FCL:FA3 SRFC:FA1
4.6 4.5 0.961 0.825
Social responsibility and – 5.6 0.913 0.765
Figure A1. engagement
Instruction of young players
4.8 5.2 0.896 0.787
– 0.755
Security 0.936 0.723

About the authors

Jens Blumrodt is Assistant Professor at the Department of Management and Organization at the
ESC Rennes School of Business in Brittany (France). He teaches in the area of sport and tourism.
He studied sport sciences at the University in Bielefeld (Germany) and holds a Doctorate in
 Sociology from the University of Rennes 2 Brittany (France). He is the programme manager of Professional
the MSc in Sports, Leisure and Tourism Management. His recent research is linked to strategic
brand management and CSR issues. He is a researcher at the ESC Research Centre “Centre of
football clubs
Responsible Business”. He is acting as a consultant for companies in the sport and tourism area. and CSR
Jens Blumrodt is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
Michel Desbordes is Full Professor at the University of Paris South 11, Paris (France). He
holds a PhD in Management Sciences from the University Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg (France), 225
1998, and then completed a Habilitation, Management Sciences, at University of Paris-Assas
Panthéon-Sorbonne, France. He is a specialist in sport marketing (sponsorship, management of
sport events, public policies and sport, methodology and surveys) and is currently both an
academic and a consultant. Michel holds professorships at both the University of Ottawa
(Canada) as an Auxiliary Professor and as a Full Professor at the University of Paris South 11,
Paris (France). He is also the Editor of the International Journal of Sports Marketing &
Sponsorship.
Dominique Bodin is Full Professor at the European University of Brittany (Rennes 2 –
France). He also currently occupies an International Chair in the University Polytechnic of
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Madrid (Spain) and manages the laboratory of investigation VIP&S (Violence Policy Identities &
Sports). He is Director of three Masters: Master of Sport Management; Master of Security; and
International Master “Sports and Humanities in Europe” organized jointly with the Universities
of Lausanne, Madrid and Rennes 2. His teaching area is sociology of sport. His research focuses
on the relationship between sports and violence.

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